Arab J Geosci (2014) 7:31093117

DOI 10.1007/s12517-013-0998-y

ORIGINAL PAPER

Combined ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and electrical

resistivity applications exploring groundwater potential zones
in granitic terrain
Sahebrao Sonkamble & V. Satishkumar & B. Amarender &
S. Sethurama

Received: 20 March 2013 / Accepted: 10 June 2013 / Published online: 25 June 2013
# Saudi Society for Geosciences 2013

Abstract Frequent failures of monsoons have forced to opt

the groundwater as the only source of irrigation in noncommand areas. Groundwater exploration in granitic terrain
of dry land agriculture has been a major concern for farmers
and water resource authorities. The hydrogeological complexities and lack of understanding of the aquifer systems
have resulted in the failure of a majority of the borehole
drillings in India. Hence, a combination of geophysical tools
comprising ground-penetrating radar (GPR), multielectrode
resistivity imaging (MERI), and vertical electrical sounding
(VES) has been employed for pinpointing the groundwater
potential zones in dry land agricultural of granitic terrain in
India. Results obtained and verified with each other led to the
detection of a saturated fracture within the environs. In GPR
scanning, a 40-MHz antenna is used with specifications of 5
dielectric constant, 600 scans/nS, and 40 m depth. The
anomalies acquired on GPR scans at various depths are
confirmed with low-resistivity ranges of 2750 m at 23
and 27 m depths obtained from the MERI. Further, drilling
with a down-the-hole hammer was carried out at two recommended sites down to 5070 m depth, which were complimentary of VES results. The integrated geophysical anomalies have good agreement with the drilling lithologs validating the MERI and GPR data. The yields of these bore wells
varied from 83 to 130 l/min. This approach is possible and
can be replicated by water resource authorities in thrust areas
of dry land environs of hard rock terrain around the world.
Keywords GPR . MERI . Granitic terrain . Saturated
fracture . Drilling . India
S. Sonkamble (*) : V. Satishkumar : B. Amarender :
S. Sethurama
CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute,
Hyderabad 500 007, India
e-mail: sahebrao.ngri@gmail.com

Introduction
Agricultural dependence on water has made the study and
exploitation of water-saturated zones inevitable. When occurring in the shallow domain in particular, an aquifers
greater likelihood of being replenished by meteoric waters
and increased recoverability of the trapped water add to their
global importance (Gleick et al. 2008). Fractured zones in
granitic terrain constitute some of the dominant watersaturated zones in semi-arid environments. The scarcity of
water, particularly in dry land environments, often reaches
such severity that interest in prospective sources of water is
profound.
In hard rock (granitic terrain), the hydrogeological setup
of rock and its characteristics have been described by various
researchers such as Davis and Turk (1964), Tardy (1971),
Eswaran and Bin (1978), Acworth (1987), Wright (1992),
Sharma and Rajamani (2000), Kuusela-Lahtinen et al.
(2003), Dewandel et al. (2006), and Sonkamble et al.
(2013a). In general, in this hard rock, aquifers that developed
due to weathering and fracturing of basement rock occupy
the few tens of meters below the ground surface. The
hydrogeological characteristics (e.g., hydraulic conductivity
and storage) of the covering weathered mantle (saprolite or
alterite) and the underlying bedrock are derived primarily
from the geomorphic deep weathering processes (Taylor and
Howard 2000). A research work on the hard rock lithological
setup (Wyns et al. 1999) depicts a weathering profile comprised of multilayers (i.e., sandy regolith, laminated, fissured
and fresh granite layers) having specific hydrodynamic properties individually. The multilayers all together (where and
when saturated with groundwater) constitute a composite
aquifer. The weathering of the mother rock results in the
formation of a fissured layer, generally characterized by
two sets of subhorizontal and subvertical fissures, where
density decreases with depth (Howard et al. 1992).

3110

For mapping of these structures, ground-penetrating radar

(GPR) provides significant resolution and excellent sensitivity
to variations in pore fluid content and lithology, which often
accompany structures. GPR applications have included mapping bedrock beneath an alluvial cover (Cagnoli and Ulrych
2001; Dentith et al. 2010), karst evaluation (Beres and Haeni
1991; Holub and Dumitrescu 1994; Snchal et al. 2000;
McMechan et al. 2002; Hughes 2009), mapping faults and
fractures (Grasmueck 1996; Demanet et al. 2001; Rashed et al.
2003; Jeannin et al. 2006; Theune et al. 2006; McClymont
et al. 2008; Kovin 2011; Sonkamble et al. 2013b), LNAPL
and DNAPL contaminant studies (Brewster and Annan 1994;
Kim et al. 2000; Lopes de Castro and Castelo Branco 2003;
Jordan et al. 2004; Hwang et al. 2008), identifying pegmatite
sheets (Jeffrey et al. 2002), and estimating water content in
soils (Greaves et al. 1996; Van Overmeeren et al. 1997;
Huisman et al. 2001). However, GPRs two main weaknesses
such as (1) somewhat slow logistics and (2) significant signal
attenuation usually limit its use to smaller study areas characterized by low electrical conductivities. But it offers a significant, nondestructive solution to mapping the subsurface of
the earth and provides considerable resolution profiles of
depths up to 50 m (Holser et al. 1972; Benson et al. 1982;
Davis and Annan 1989; Osama and Giamou 1998; Rosemary
2001; Annan 2006). Its images provide a continuous picture
of shallow subsurface stratigraphy.
Nowadays, there are several geophysical methods for the
mapping of fractured rocks (Orellana 1972; Frohlich and
Kelly 1985; Daniels 1996; Busby and Merritt 1999; Lane
et al. 2001). The GPR and the electric resistivity methods are
the most commonly used in the world. These methods allow
the locating of fractures filled with water, but they do not
bring any information about the subsurface circulation itself,
since the fracture can be filled with clay and have low free
water content. It is foremost important to understand in detail
the geology in dry land agriculture environs to give a meaningful interpretation of the geophysical data for groundwater
exploration. Thus, the objective of this paper is (1) to address
the groundwater potential zones at pinpoint locations
employing integrated geophysical methods, (2) to compare
the fracture anomalies obtained on the GPR scans with the
MERI and VES results, and (3) further, to confirm with the
drilling lithologs.

Brief about the study area

Indian agriculture is predominantly a rain-fed agriculture under
which both dry farming and dry land agriculture are included.
Out of 143 million ha of total cultivated area in India, an area of
101 million ha (i.e., nearly 70 %) is rain fed. In dry land areas,
variations in amount and distribution of rainfall influence
the crop production as well as socioeconomic conditions of

Arab J Geosci (2014) 7:31093117

farmers. The dry land areas of this country contribute about

42 % of the total food grain production (Patnaik 2010). Most of
the coarse grains like sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, and
other millets are grown in dry lands only. Attention has been
paid in the country towards the development of dry land
farming. Efforts were made to improve crop yields in several
research projects. The Central Research Institute for Dry Land
Agriculture (CRIDA), established in 1970, has great contribution in research for developing the rain-fed crops in dry land
environs. The institute has a well laid-out research farm at
Hayatnagar, located at Hayatnagar village, Ranga Reddy district, Andhra Pradesh (India), along the Hyderabad-Vijayawada
National Highway-9 (see Fig. 1) about 15 km from Hyderabad
City, the capital of Andhra Pradesh State in India. The farm is
basically used for research in dry land farming. The total farm
area is about 280 ha, and the investigations were carried out in
a micro-watershed within the farm area which is a dry land
environ of hard rock terrain (Southern India). The farm sufficiently represents the predominant soils of the rain-fed regions
of this country. The study area falls under semi-arid climate
and receives an average annual rainfall of 746.87 mm measured since 1971. The minimum (376.5 mm) and maximum
(1,184.6 mm) rainfall from the year 19712009 were observed
in 1980 and 1975, respectively. Most of the rainfall occurs due
to the southwest monsoon during June to October.

Geological and hydrogeological characteristics

The chief rock type of the study area is gray to dark gray, pink,
medium-grained granite of Archean age with structural features like lineaments, quartz, pegmatite veins, saprolite, and
dolerite dykes (see Figs. 2ad), which traverse the granite,
playing a significant role in the storage and movement of
groundwater. Joints and fractures are often filled by secondary
calcareous material. Due to weathering and fracturing, these
crystalline rocks develop secondary porosity aiding groundwater movement and storage (Sonkamble et al. 2012). When
fractures are well connected and the intensity of fracturing is
more, these zones turn out to be potential aquifers. The conceptual model of weathered and hard rock aquifer systems is
done by Wyns et al. (2004) and Sankaran et al. (2010). The
existing lithologs indicate that soil cover (<1 m) is underlain
by highly weathered granite with kankar. Soils are red, shallow, and coarse in texture, contain little organic matter, and are
prone to severe erosion. Its infiltration, runoff, and sediment
yield from a shallow soil with varied stone cover and intensity
of rainfall have been reported using a small twin plot rainfall
simulator on a plot size of 1.5 m2. The slope of cultivated land
in this area varies between 1 and 4 %. The texture of soil in the
runoff plot is sandyclayloam (sand, 58.8 %; silt, 12.7 %;
and clay, 28.5 %). Bulk density is 1.54 g cm3 at a soil depth of
22 cm. Thickness of the weathered zone varies from 5 to about

Arab J Geosci (2014) 7:31093117

3111

Fig. 1 Location map and

geophysical investigations at
the study area, Hyderabad,
Southern India

18 m. The highly weathered granite is underlain by semiweathered pink granite and fractured granite. The depth of
Fig. 2 Photograph showing a
weathered quartz pegmatite
vein, b dyke extension, c quartz
vein intrusion, and d outcrops of
granite in Hayatnagar watershed

semi-weathered and fractured granite varies from 32 to 44 m

below ground level (bgl).

3112

Groundwater occurs both under unconfined and semiconfined conditions. In general, the depth-to-top aquifer varies
from 19 to 31 m (bgl). The thickness of semi-weathered and
fractured granite which forms the aquifer varies from less than
a meter to about 23 m.

Materials and replicability of the approach

The geophysical investigations are performed at places required by the agriculture scientist within the farm area
(280 ha) invariably considering geomorphological or geological features. A total of 22 GPR traces were conducted
with spreading of 2050 m. In order to examine potential
borehole sites on these GPR scans, two MERI using the
WennerSchlumberger configurations and three VES with
Schlumberger configuration were carried out at the plausible
fractured zones. The site-specific inferences afterward were
drawn for two recommended locations of bore wells. The
bore wells were drilled with a down-the-hole hammer.
GPR method
A GPR instrument (Geophysical Survey System Inc., USA
make) was used to carry out the present study. The GPR
method works based on the dielectric constant of the medium. Every medium has its own dielectric constant, thus
changing the reflection coefficient. The GPR method is a
rapid and firsthand informative geophysical method used to
proceed further in the process to resolve heterogeneity. A
detailed investigation using MERI has been carried out. The
operating frequency of a GPR system is usually given by
indicating the center frequency of its operating band. The
associated factor is the bandwidth or the frequency range
over which the radar has available power for use in sounding
the ground. The bandwidth and center frequency of a radar
system are determined by several components in the system,
the primary ones being the antennas. Any antenna (ranges,
11,000 MHz), supported by this instrument, could be attached and used to collect data.
Selection of the optimal operating frequency for a radar
survey is much important. There is a trade off between spatial
resolution, depth of penetration, and system portability. As a
rule, it is better to trade off resolution for penetration. There is
no use in having great resolution if the target cannot be
detected. There are three main issues which control frequency selection (Annan and Cosway 1994; Annan and Davis
1997); those are (1) spatial resolution desired, (2) clutter
limitations, and (3) exploration depth. It has been used successfully to study near-surface faulting in a wide variety of
settings around the world (Wyatt and Temples 1996; Cai et al.
1996; Camelbeeck and Meghraoui 1998; Yetton and Nobes
1998; Dehls et al. 2000). Thus, the antennas of 40 and

Arab J Geosci (2014) 7:31093117

200 MHz frequencies were used in this study with various

objectives. A 40-MHz antenna was used for deeper applications to a depth of about 40 m and is used to locate subsurface
geological features, whereas a 200-MHz antenna was suited
for fairly shallow applications to a depth of about 7 m and was
used to locate shallow subsurface features.
In this present study, GPR surveys were conducted by
moving the 40-MHz antenna in the air over the ground with
a height 10 cm and pulling the 200-MHz antenna across the
ground surface at a normal walking pace. The recorder stores
the data as well as presents a picture of the recorded data on a
screen. A total of 22 GPR profiles were carried out of which
four profiles were using the 40-MHz antenna, with specifications 5 DIEL, 600 scans/nS (time mode), and 40 m depth,
whereas 18 profiles were using the 200-MHz antenna with
specifications 5 DIEL, 50 scans/m (distance mode), and depth
of 7 m. The purposes of applying low-frequency (40 MHz)
and high-frequency (200 MHz) antennae are different. The
200-MHz antenna is used to scan a shallow subsurface with
high resolution, and the 40-MHz antenna is applied for deeper
depth, whereas a shallow depth cannot be visualized clearly
with the 40-MHz antenna. Therefore, the obtained GPR images by the 40- and 200-MHz antennae appear to behave in
different ways. To obtain clear anomaly and to avoid target
position errors, the collected data were processed using
RADAN software by adjusting distance normalization and
horizontal and vertical scaling, along with high-pass filters,
low-pass filters, scans/unit, GAIN points, etc., are applied.
Electrical resistivity methods
Geophysical investigations such as MERI and VES surveys
were also used for deciphering subsurface geology and delineate structural features (Koefoed 1979; Griffiths et al.
1990; Griffiths and Barker 1993; Sankaran et al. 2012). A
detailed picture of the subsurface can be obtained by combining the sounding and profiling data to give 2D cross
sections (Owen et al. 2005). A resistivity meter SYSCAL
Pro Switch-48 (IRIS make, France) had been used in the
present case with 48 electrodes of 5-m spacing connected to
the meter through a multicore cable. A total of two MERI
with WennerSchlumberger array was carried out using
0.4 m length of stainless steel electrodes, which were planted
to a depth of 0.3 m. Each electrode was watered to ensure
good contact with the ground. This was done most effectively by withdrawing the electrode from the ground, filling the
hole with water, and replanting the electrode. The survey
lines varied in length from 120 to 240 m depending on the
availability of linear space.
The resistivity sounding technique (Compagnie Generaledi
Geophysique 1963; Orellana and Mooney 1966; Bhattacharya
and Patra 1968; Rijkswaterstaat 1969) was employed to confirm the fracture zones, using the Schlumberger configuration

Arab J Geosci (2014) 7:31093117

3113

Fig. 3 Comparison of
geophysical investigations for
GPR scanning a with 40 MHz
antenna and 600 scans/nS and b
with 200 MHz antenna and
50 scans/m, at existing bore well
in dry land environ

with the aid of the indigenous NGRI make resistivity meter,

Hyderabad. In this configuration, for every set of readings,
current electrodes (A and B) moved farther and farther away

from the center point (C). The potential electrodes (M and N)

remained at the same place. They were moved away from the
center point only when the potential measurement fell below a

Fig. 4 Comparison of geophysical investigations carried out at D1 a GPR 22 profile with 40 MHz antenna, 600 scans/m. b MERI 7 image. c VES
curve and geoelectrical section. d Drilling lithologs of D1 well

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Arab J Geosci (2014) 7:31093117

Fig. 5 Comparison of geophysical investigations carried out at D2 site a GPR 21 profile with 40 MHz antenna, 600 scans/nS. b MERI 8 image. c
Drilling lithologs section of D2 well

certain measurable value within the required accuracy. However,

the distance of MN/2 should never be more than one fifth of the
distance of AB/2. Generally, the recommended AB/2 spacings
are 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 8.0, 10.0, 12.0, 15.0, 20.0, 25.0
30.0, 40.0, 50.0, 60.0, 80.0, 100.0, and 120.0 m. For these
(AB/2) spacings, possible and convenient (MN/2) spacings used
were 0.5, 2.0, 5.0, and 10.0 m. Resistivity sounding was carried
out at three locations (see Fig. 1) in the study area with current
electrode separation varied from 50 to 100 m. The observed
field curves were matched with theoretical master curves to
get initial parameters, and finally, these were used as initial
inputs in the interpretation of resistivity data through software
namely RESIST (Vender Velpen 1988). To illustrate the correlation among three geophysical investigations (GPR, MERI,
and VES) and its match with borewell lithologs, all the sounding data are interpreted, but one VES is presented in this paper
for comparative study.

Results and discussion

The GPR 19 and 18 profiles were carried out over the same line
keeping the starting point common for both at the old existing

bore well (see Fig. 1) with 40- and 200-MHz antennas, respectively, for verification of fractures and lineaments. In GPR 19
profile, a large fracture anomaly was encountered between 15
and 25 m depth close to the existing bore well (shown in
Fig. 3a). As the GPR pulse could not propagate below this
fractured zone of 25 m depth, the fractured anomaly seems to
be continued in the section (GPR 19), but it is just a refraction
of the signal when it obstructed the fractured zone. Hence, it
looks as if the same anomaly continued underneath. While the
GPR 18 profile was carried out for shallow subsurface applications where the anomaly clearly indicated lineament between
2 and 24 m distances at 15 m depth (see Fig. 3b).
The GPR scan of 22 and 21 with 40-m profiles (see Fig. 1)
was carried out at D1 and D2 sites, respectively. On the GPR
22 profile image, anomalies were detected at 16-, 22-, 29-, 34-,
and 38-m distance at the depth between 15 and 25 m (see
Fig. 4a) reflecting fractures with pegmatite veins. This anomaly closely correlated with the MERI 7 image, carried out at
D1, where low-resistivity patches ranging from 24 to 48 m
were found up to 24 m depth (see Fig. 4b). The standard values
of resistivity range in granitic terrain (hard rock) for highly
weathered, semi-weathered, fractured, and massive granite are
2050, 50120, 120200, and >300 m, respectively

Arab J Geosci (2014) 7:31093117

(Chandra et al. 2010; Sonkamble et al. 2013a). The model

parameters obtained from VES 2 are well within the range of
standard values. The variations in the resolution of both the
images (see Fig. 4a, b) occur in targeting the particular zone of
interest or geological feature with respect to depth. But, both
the methods depict a common trend in images/sections. A bore
well was drilled at the D1 site up to 87 m depth, which turned
to be a potential aquifer with water striking at 27 m depth. The
drilling lithologs were collected at every 3-m section and
prepared actual geological cross section (see Fig. 4d) which
reflects the fracture zone (in gray granite) at 23 m satisfying on
the GPR 22 scan and MERI 7 electrical section. The drilled
lithologs were well correlated with VES 2 model parameters
(see Fig. 4c). Geoelectric layers of VES 2 show the top soil
(01 m) with resistivity of 86 m followed by highly weathered pink granite (112 m) with resistivity of 30 m followed
by semi-weathered gray granite and quartz (1231 m) with
resistivity of 169 m. Fractures zone with gray granite were
encountered at a depth of 3160 m with resistivity value of
43 m below which a massive granite was struck. The
cumulative groundwater yield was measured as 83 lpm. The
groundwater yield was measured using a 90 V notch
during drilling.
Similarly, a MERI 8 image was carried out at the D2 site
against the GPR 21 scan. The GPR 21 profile showed anomalies at a depth of about 20 m along the profile of 14 and
32 m distance (see Fig. 5a). Low-resistivity patches ranging
from 30 to 60 m were obtained up to 24 m depth (see
Fig. 5b) on the MERI 8 image, which may indicate a large
fracture zone in the study area. To confirm these GPR and
MERI anomalies, another bore well was also drilled up to
55 m depth. First, water was struck at 23 m depth with a yield
of 47 lpm, and the cumulative yields were observed at about
82 and 130 lpm at depths of 32 and 42 m, respectively. The
fracture anomalies in GPR 21 profile were confirmed by
drilling lithologs (see Fig. 5c) where pink fractured granite
was found at 23 m depth.

Conclusions
The present study is an integrated approach applied to granitic aquifer to identify fractures/water-bearing zones from
geophysical data. This study combined three different geophysical methods, in particular GPR, MERI, and VES, to
demarcate fractured zones in a dry land agricultural environ.
GPR was employed initially to demarcate the fractures with
the specifications of 5 dielectric constant, 600 scans/nS, and
40 m depth, and MERI and VES were carried out at the
marked GPR profiles to identify pin point for drilling. The
identified fractures with low-resistivity ranges of 2750 m
at 23 and 27 m depths, respectively, were determined, and
groundwater yield varied from 83 to 130 lpm in the drilled

3115

bore wells. The successful bore wells at D1 and D2 can

supply adequate water needed for crop in off season.
From a geophysical point of view, this result gives a fairly
good idea for exploring groundwater potential zones in dry
land agricultural environs of hard rock terrain. Thus,
extracting useful information from the GPR scans has helped
in the detection of fractures which turned out to be potential
aquifers in dry land environs.
Acknowledgments The officials of the Central Research Institute for
Dryland Agriculture (ICAR Lab) are greatly acknowledged for their
constant support during field investigations and for providing rainfall
data. The director of NGRI, Hyderabad, cooperated and encouraged
throughout the study. The authors are thankful to them. The authors
would like to acknowledge the two anonymous reviewers for their
constructive comments to improve the quality of the paper.

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