IB Psychology Holiday Homework End Term 2, 2013

Paper 3 (M11/3/PSYCH/HP3/ENG/TZ0/XX)
1. Explain possible effects of participant expectations on the findings of this study [10 marks]

In each study thats conducted, including that by McVittie, Goodall and Barr (2009),
researchers must be aware that research is an active process, and therefore requires
reflection and interrogation of the data that is produced, the participant, and the research
context so that participant expectations are avoided.
Participant expectations can be explained as the participants ideas of the research and the
researcher, which can affect the trustworthiness of the data. If participants believe they
have to act in a particular way, this can negatively affect the value of the data.
In regards to McVittie, Goodall and Barr (2009), there are various factors that may
contribute to participant expectations coming into play, and affecting data collection and
interpretation.
Firstly, the nature of this research, which is concerned with social inclusion of young
people from minority backgrounds by establishing relationships between them and
members of a majority group, has great cultural and politically sensitive issues. This is due
to the involvement of ethnic and cultural minorities. Because of this, the risk of participant
expectations increases. In a Western society, such as Scotland, minorities are treated with
respect and recognized as being of value to the country as a social norm. therefore,
participants may be more likely to report more positive affect towards the befriending
program due to the social desirability effect. Through this, issues of credibility arise that
is, they findings dont represent a credible interpretation of the data drawn from
participants original data.
Further in support of this point, participants may interpret feelings of negativity positively
due to the large amount of time they had invested in established the relationships with the
befriendee. Realistically, there may have been disappointments in the process, however
the social desirability effect can counteract this.
Secondly, the interviewer is also capable of affecting participant responses through their
behaviour in the interview. Their expectation bias can be described as their beliefs that can
potentially bias the research process, and in turn, participant expectations can be affected.
Through nodding and smiling, or other gestural actions displayed when the participants
respond as expected, or alternatively, frowning when they dont, a bias in data collection is
created. This affects the credibility of the results, however training the interviewers to not
engage in this behaviour can amend this.

IB Psychology Holiday Homework End Term 2, 2013

2. Discuss the use of semi-structured interviews in this study. [10 marks]

The semi-structured interview is one of the most widely used methods of data collection in
qualitative research because it can be analysed using several theoretical approaches. It is
characterized by both closed and open questions, however predominately open questions
that engender free, open and non-directive responses.
This method involves the preparation of an interview guide that lists themes that should be
explored throughout the interview. This helps to ensure the same information is obtained
from all participants. Thus, when applied to the research conducted by McVittie, Goodall
and Barr (2009), this approach ensures that all participants/volunteers of the befriending
program have the opportunity to express their feelings on the program freely without
restriction, due to the large amount of flexibility allowed by unfixed questions.
ADVANTAGES
o Advantageously, this method of data collection, with the open ended questions
generates rich data, participants can direct the course of the interview, and
interviewers can pursue questions further in depth if required. The guide would
include various questions directed at gaining data on how the volunteers felt the
program benefitting them, and how it affected them, in order to discern what the
outcome of these befriending programs are.
o However possibly more importantly, its very effective in establishing a rapport
between the interviewer and the participant. Due to the culturally and politically
sensitive nature of the research conducted, its possible that through establishing a
greater rapport with the participant, theyre more likely to respond honestly, which
increases the credibility of the data.
o Further, the method is greatly focused on the aim of the study, and therefore
generates only data that is relevant. This contributes positively to the process of
inductive content analysis, whereby its easier to discern the themes, including
appreciation of other cultures, insight into the community based difficulties and
being welcomed into the families of the younger people.
Despite this however, there are several limitations of this method.
o Firstly, the process is quite time consuming and therefore expensive. For each of
the 10 participants, the interviewer is required to ask the same range of questions
and record sufficient data to undergo inductive content analysis to the point of data
saturation so that credible conclusions regarding the outcome of the befriending
programs form the perspective of the befrienders can be drawn.
o Secondly, there is a researcher bias present, in that the interviewer has prepared a
list of themes relevant to the case that must be addressed throughout. Further, their
possibly limited insight into the situation, that is, being a volunteer in the
befriending program with minority groups, harms the validity of the research.
o Lastly, the interviews were audio recorded so that all information can be accessed
as required. However, through this method, the body language of the participant
cannot be transcribed. Without this, the data set may not be complete. In various
situations, body language may either support or contradict the verbal information
presented, and therefore without this, certain information that is provided by
participants may be interpreted in a manner contrary to what they intended or truly
felt.

IB Psychology Holiday Homework End Term 2, 2013

3. Explain how researchers could use inductive content analysis on the transcripts of the semistructured interviews in this study. [10 marks]

Common practise in the analysis of qualitative data is the identification of key theems,
concepts and categories. Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) is a method of
ICA, which allows the researcher to gain an insiders view of how individual participants
make sense of the world. This is based on the principles of identifying themes, and
organizing them hierarchically. McVittie, Goodall and Barr (2009) wanted to investigate
the outcome of the befriending program from the perspectives of the befrienders. They
conducted semi-structured interviews, which were transcribed in order to gain data.
The process of IPA involves researchers working on the basis of text (mainly transcripts),
to extract relevant themes to the research question. In McVittie, Goodall and Barr (2009),
the semi-structured interviews were recorded and then transcribed, providing researchers
with the relevant textual material. This collection and analysis isnt based on existing
theories or assumptions. Instead, it involves an inductive approach, supporting that a
theory may emerge from the data.
The first step of the process is reading and rereading the transcripts to become familiar.
The researcher produces notes about their initial thoughts and observations. These can
include key phrases of the participants, preliminary interpretations, connections, language
use and summary statements.
Next, they identify emergent themes that characterize each section of the text, which are
assumed to capture something essential about it. They can also be known as raw data
themes, and in the context of this study, could be being welcomed into the homes of their
befriendees.
These emergent themes are then structured. All emergent themes and listed, and they
determine if they create to each other in clusters and hierarchies. Themes can then be
organized into higher-order themes and subordinate themes. For example, a higher order
theme may be gaining insight into the community-based difficulties, or appreciation of
different cultures.
The last step of this process is the presentation of a summary table of the structured themes
and relevant quotations that illustrate each of these themes. Through this support from the
original transcripts, the final interpretation of the data is more credible. Further, all the
data must reviewed, and ensured that its represented within the themes, as well as in the
final dimensions. This process is necessary, as it helps researchers reach data saturation,
whereby all the data is completely analysed. When looking at qualitative data, various
aspects can be disregarded unintentionally due to its complexity. Additionally, saturation
aids the identification of anomalous data. In regards to the stimulus material, its possible
that one of the participants wasnt happy with the program. Its important to identify these
anomalies, as it allows an important perspective on the program that can reveal its flaws.
From all this, the interpretations are then used to form the basis for the findings of the
research report.
In the stimulus study material, the researchers concluded that, based on the results of the
inductive content analysis, befrienders normally report positive experiences regarding the
program, and benefit from it.