Memory

For other uses, see Memory (disambiguation).

Sensory memory holds sensory information for less than
In psychology, memory is the process in which infor- one second after an item is perceived. The ability to
look at an item and remember what it looked like with
just a split second of observation, or memorization, is
the example of sensory memory. It is out of cognitive
control and is an automatic response. With very short
presentations, participants often report that they seem to
see more than they can actually report. The rst experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were
conducted by George Sperling (1963)[1] using the partial report paradigm. Subjects were presented with a
grid of 12 letters, arranged into three rows of four. After a brief presentation, subjects were then played either
a high, medium or low tone, cuing them which of the
Overview of the forms and functions of memory in the sciences
rows to report. Based on these partial report experiments,
mation is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding al- Sperling was able to show that the capacity of sensory
lows information from the outside world to reach the ve memory was approximately 12 items, but that it degraded
senses in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli. In very quickly (within a few hundred milliseconds). Bethis rst stage the information must be changed so that cause this form of memory degrades so quickly, particit may be put into the encoding process. Storage is the ipants would see the display but be unable to report all
second memory stage or process. This entails that infor- of the items (12 in the whole report procedure) before
mation is maintained over periods of time. Finally the they decayed. This type of memory cannot be prolonged
third process is the retrieval of information that has been via rehearsal.
stored. Such information must be located and returned
to the consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to the type of information, and other attempts
to remember stored information may be more demanding
for various reasons.

Three types of sensory memories exist. Iconic memory

is a fast decaying store of visual information; a type of
sensory memory that briey stores an image which has
been perceived for a small duration. Echoic memory is a
fast decaying store of auditory information, another type
sounds that have
From an information processing perspective there are of sensory memory that briey stores
[2]
been
perceived
for
short
durations.
Haptic
memory is
three main stages in the formation and retrieval of mema
type
of
sensory
memory
that
represents
a
database
for
ory:
touch stimuli.
Encoding or registration: receiving, processing and
combining of received information

2 Short-term memory

Storage: creation of a permanent record of the encoded information

Main article: Short-term memory

Retrieval, recall or recollection: calling back the
stored information in response to some cue for use
Short-term memory allows recall for a period of several
in a process or activity
seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is
also very limited: George A. Miller (1956), when workThe loss of memory is described as forgetfulness or, as a
ing at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showing
medical disorder, amnesia.
that the store of short-term memory was 72 items (the
title of his famous paper, "The magical number 72").
Modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memory
1 Sensory memory
are lower, typically of the order of 45 items;[3] however, memory capacity can be increased through a proMain article: Sensory memory
cess called chunking.[4] For example, in recalling a tendigit telephone number, a person could chunk the digits
1

3 LONG-TERM MEMORY

into three groups: rst, the area code (such as 123), then
a three-digit chunk (456) and lastly a four-digit chunk
(7890). This method of remembering telephone numbers is far more eective than attempting to remember a
string of 10 digits; this is because we are able to chunk
the information into meaningful groups of numbers. This
may be reected in some countries in the tendency to display telephone numbers as several chunks of two to four
numbers.
Short-term memory is believed to rely mostly on an
acoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code. Conrad (1964)[5] found that test subjects had more diculty recalling collections of letters
that were acoustically similar (e.g. E, P, D). Confusion
with recalling acoustically similar letters rather than visually similar letters implies that the letters were encoded
acoustically. Conrads (1964) study, however, deals with
the encoding of written text; thus, while memory of written language may rely on acoustic components, generalisations to all forms of memory cannot be made.

Long-term memory

Main article: Long-term memory

The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory generally has a strictly limited capacity and duration,
which means that information is not retained indenitely.
By contrast, long-term memory can store much larger
quantities of information for potentially unlimited duration (sometimes a whole life span). Its capacity is immeasurably large. For example, given a random seven-digit
number we may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in our short-term
memory. On the other hand, we can remember telephone
numbers for many years through repetition; this information is said to be stored in long-term memory.
While short-term memory encodes information acoustically, long-term memory encodes it semantically: Baddeley (1966)[6] discovered that, after 20 minutes, test
subjects had the most diculty recalling a collection of
words that had similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great,
huge) long-term. Another part of long-term memory is
episodic memory, which attempts to capture information such as 'what', 'when' and 'where'".[7] With episodic
memory, individuals are able to recall specic events such
as birthday parties and weddings.

Olin Levi Warner, Memory (1896). Library of Congress

Thomas Jeerson Building, Washington, D.C.

to long-term memory, although it does not seem to store

information itself. Without the hippocampus, new memories are unable to be stored into long-term memory, as
learned from patient Henry Molaison after removal of
both his hippocampi,[8] and there will be a very short
attention span. Furthermore, it may be involved in changing neural connections for a period of three months or
more after the initial learning.

Short-term memory is supported by transient patterns of

neuronal communication, dependent on regions of the
frontal lobe (especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and
the parietal lobe. Long-term memory, on the other hand,
is maintained by more stable and permanent changes in
neural connections widely spread throughout the brain. Research has suggested that long-term memory storage
The hippocampus is essential (for learning new informa- in humans may be maintained by DNA methylation,[9] or
tion) to the consolidation of information from short-term prions.[10]

Models

Models of memory provide abstract representations of

how memory is believed to work. Below are several
models proposed over the years by various psychologists.
Controversy is involved as to whether several memory
structures exist.

4.1

AtkinsonShirin model

central
executive

phonological loop
phonological
store

visuo-spatial
sketchpad

articulatory
process

The working memory model

timodal episodic buer (Baddeleys model of working

memory).[12]
See also: Memory consolidation

The central executive essentially acts as an attention sensory store. It channels information to the three component processes: the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial
sketchpad, and the episodic buer.

The multi-store model (also known as AtkinsonShirin

memory model) was rst described in 1968 by Atkinson The phonological loop stores auditory information by
silently rehearsing sounds or words in a continuous loop:
and Shirin.
the articulatory process (for example the repetition of a
The multi-store model has been criticised for being too
telephone number over and over again). A short list of
simplistic. For instance, long-term memory is believed
data is easier to remember.
to be actually made up of multiple subcomponents, such
as episodic and procedural memory. It also proposes that The visuospatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial inforrehearsal is the only mechanism by which information mation. It is engaged when performing spatial tasks (such
eventually reaches long-term storage, but evidence shows as judging distances) or visual ones (such as counting the
windows on a house or imagining images).
us capable of remembering things without rehearsal.
The model also shows all the memory stores as being a
single unit whereas research into this shows dierently.
For example, short-term memory can be broken up into
dierent units such as visual information and acoustic information. In a study by Zlonoga and Gerber (1986),
patient 'KF' demonstrated certain deviations from the
AtkinsonShirin model. Patient KF was brain damaged, displaying diculties regarding short-term memory. Recognition of sounds such as spoken numbers, letters, words and easily identiable noises (such as doorbells and cats meowing) were all impacted. Interestingly,
visual short-term memory was unaected, suggesting a
dichotomy between visual and audial memory.[11]

4.2

Working memory

The episodic buer is dedicated to linking information

across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial,
and verbal information and chronological ordering (e.g.,
the memory of a story or a movie scene). The episodic
buer is also assumed to have links to long-term memory
and semantical meaning.
The working memory model explains many practical observations, such as why it is easier to do two dierent
tasks (one verbal and one visual) than two similar tasks
(e.g., two visual), and the aforementioned word-length
eect. However, the concept of a central executive as
noted here has been criticised as inadequate and vague.
Working memory is also the premise for what allows us to
do everyday activities involving thought. It is the section
of memory where we carry out thought processes and use
them to learn and reason about topics.[12]

Main article: Working memory

In 1974 Baddeley and Hitch proposed a working memory model that replaced the general concept of shortterm memory with an active maintenance of information in the short-term storage. In this model, working
memory consists of three basic stores: the central executive, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. In 2000 this model was expanded with the mul-

5 Types of memory
Researchers distinguish between recognition and recall
memory. Recognition memory tasks require individuals to indicate whether they have encountered a stimulus (such as a picture or a word) before. Recall memory
tasks require participants to retrieve previously learned

TECHNIQUES USED TO STUDY MEMORY

information. For example, individuals might be asked to one does better in a given task due only to repetition produce a series of actions they have seen before or to say no new explicit memories have been formed, but one is
a list of words they have heard before.
unconsciously accessing aspects of those previous experiences. Procedural memory involved in motor learning
depends on the cerebellum and basal ganglia.

5.1

Classication by information type

Topographic memory involves the ability to orient oneself in space, to recognize and follow an itinerary, or
to recognize familiar places.[13] Getting lost when traveling alone is an example of the failure of topographic
memory.[14]
Flashbulb memories are clear episodic memories of
unique and highly emotional events.[15] People remembering where they were or what they were doing
when they rst heard the news of President Kennedys
assassination[16] or of 9/11 are examples of ashbulb
memories.
Anderson (1976)[17] divides long-term memory into
declarative (explicit) and procedural (implicit) memories.
5.1.1

Declarative memory

Main article: Declarative memory

Declarative memory requires conscious recall, in that
some conscious process must call back the information.
It is sometimes called explicit memory, since it consists of
information that is explicitly stored and retrieved.
Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into
semantic memory, concerning facts taken independent
of context; and episodic memory, concerning information specic to a particular context, such as a time and
place. Semantic memory allows the encoding of abstract
knowledge about the world, such as Paris is the capital of France. Episodic memory, on the other hand, is
used for more personal memories, such as the sensations,
emotions, and personal associations of a particular place
or time. Autobiographical memory - memory for particular events within ones own life - is generally viewed
as either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic memory.
Visual memory is part of memory preserving some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience.
One is able to place in memory information that resembles objects, places, animals or people in sort of a mental
image. Visual memory can result in priming and it is assumed some kind of perceptual representational system
underlies this phenomenon.
5.1.2

Procedural memory

A characteristic of procedural memory is that the things

remembered are automatically translated into actions, and
thus sometimes dicult to describe. Some examples of
procedural memory include the ability to ride a bike or
tie shoelaces.[18]

5.2 Classication by temporal direction

Another major way to distinguish dierent memory functions is whether the content to be remembered is in the
past, retrospective memory, or in the future, prospective
memory. Thus, retrospective memory as a category includes semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory.
In contrast, prospective memory is memory for future intentions, or remembering to remember (Winograd, 1988).
Prospective memory can be further broken down into
event- and time-based prospective remembering. Timebased prospective memories are triggered by a time-cue,
such as going to the doctor (action) at 4pm (cue). Eventbased prospective memories are intentions triggered by
cues, such as remembering to post a letter (action) after
seeing a mailbox (cue). Cues do not need to be related
to the action (as the mailbox/letter example), and lists,
sticky-notes, knotted handkerchiefs, or string around the
nger all exemplify cues that people use as strategies to
enhance prospective memory.

6 Techniques used to study memory

6.1 Techniques used to assess infants
memory
Infants do not have the language ability to report on
their memories and so verbal reports cannot be used to
assess very young childrens memory. Throughout the
years, however, researchers have adapted and developed
a number of measures for assessing both infants recognition memory and their recall memory. Habituation and
operant conditioning techniques have been used to assess
infants recognition memory and the deferred and elicited
imitation techniques have been used to assess infants recall memory.

Techniques used to assess infants recognition memory

In contrast, procedural memory (or implicit memory) is include the following:
not based on the conscious recall of information, but on
implicit learning. Procedural memory is primarily em Visual paired comparison procedure (relies on
ployed in learning motor skills and should be considhabituation): infants are rst presented with pairs
ered a subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when
of visual stimuli, such as two black-and-white pho-

5
tos of human faces, for a xed amount of time;
then, after being familiarized with the two photos,
they are presented with the familiar photo and a
new photo. The time spent looking at each photo
is recorded. Looking longer at the new photo indicates that they remember the familiar one. Studies
using this procedure have found that 5- to 6-montholds can retain information for as long as fourteen
days.[19]
Operant conditioning technique: infants are
placed in a crib and a ribbon that is connected to
a mobile overhead is tied to one of their feet. Infants notice that when they kick their foot the mobile
moves the rate of kicking increases dramatically
within minutes. Studies using this technique have
revealed that infants memory substantially improves
over the rst 18-months. Whereas 2- to 3-montholds can retain an operant response (such as activating the mobile by kicking their foot) for a week,
6-month-olds can retain it for two weeks, and 18month-olds can retain a similar operant response for
as long as 13 weeks.[20][21][22]

by retroactive interference (RI), which means the

longer the list, the greater the interference, and the
less likelihood that they are recalled. On the other
hand, items that have been presented lastly suer
little RI, but suer a great deal from proactive interference (PI), which means the longer the delay in
recall, the more likely that the items will be lost.[29]
Recognition - subjects are asked to remember a
list of words or pictures, after which point they are
asked to identify the previously presented words or
pictures from among a list of alternatives that were
not presented in the original list.[30]
Detection paradigm - Individuals are shown a
number of objects and color samples during a certain period of time. They are then tested on their
visual ability to remember as much as they can
by looking at testers and pointing out whether the
testers are similar to the sample, or if any change is
present.

7 Memory failures
Techniques used to assess infants recall memory include
the following:
Deferred imitation technique: an experimenter
shows infants a unique sequence of actions (such as
using a stick to push a button on a box) and then,
after a delay, asks the infants to imitate the actions.
Studies using deferred imitation have shown that 14month-olds memories for the sequence of actions
can last for as long as four months.[23]
Elicited imitation technique: is very similar to the
deferred imitation technique; the dierence is that
infants are allowed to imitate the actions before the
delay. Studies using the elicited imitation technique
have shown that 20-month-olds can recall the action
sequences twelve months later.[24][25]

Transience - memories degrade with the passing of

time. This occurs in the storage stage of memory,
after the information has been stored and before it
is retrieved. This can happen in sensory, short-term,
and long-term storage. It follows a general pattern
where the information is rapidly forgotten during the
rst couple of days or years, followed by small losses
in later days or years.
Absentmindedness - Memory failure due to the
lack of attention. Attention plays a key role in
storing information into long-term memory; without proper attention, the information might not be
stored, making it impossible to be retrieved later.

8 Physiology
6.2

Techniques used to assess older chilBrain areas involved in the neuroanatomy of memory
dren and adults memory

Researchers use a variety of tasks to assess older children

and adults memory. Some examples are:
Paired associate learning - when one learns to associate one specic word with another. For example
when given a word such as safe one must learn to
say another specic word, such as green. This is
stimulus and response.[26][27]
Free recall - during this task a subject would be
asked to study a list of words and then later they will
be asked to recall or write down as many words that
they can remember.[28] Earlier items are aected

such as the hippocampus, the amygdala, the striatum, or

the mammillary bodies are thought to be involved in specic types of memory. For example, the hippocampus is
believed to be involved in spatial learning and declarative
learning, while the amygdala is thought to be involved
in emotional memory.[31] Damage to certain areas in patients and animal models and subsequent memory decits
is a primary source of information. However, rather than
implicating a specic area, it could be that damage to adjacent areas, or to a pathway traveling through the area
is actually responsible for the observed decit. Further,
it is not sucient to describe memory, and its counterpart, learning, as solely dependent on specic brain regions. Learning and memory are attributed to changes in

10

GENETICS

neuronal synapses, thought to be mediated by long-term (Byrne 2007).

potentiation and long-term depression.
In general, the more emotionally charged an event or experience is, the better it is remembered; this phenomenon
is known as the memory enhancement eect. Patients
with amygdala damage, however, do not show a memory
enhancement eect.[32][33]
Hebb distinguished between short-term and long-term
memory. He postulated that any memory that stayed
in short-term storage for a long enough time would be
consolidated into a long-term memory. Later research
showed this to be false. Research has shown that direct injections of cortisol or epinephrine help the storage
of recent experiences. This is also true for stimulation
of the amygdala. This proves that excitement enhances
memory by the stimulation of hormones that aect the
amygdala. Excessive or prolonged stress (with prolonged
cortisol) may hurt memory storage. Patients with amygdalar damage are no more likely to remember emotionally
charged words than nonemotionally charged ones. The
hippocampus is important for explicit memory. The hippocampus is also important for memory consolidation.
The hippocampus receives input from dierent parts of
the cortex and sends its output out to dierent parts of the
brain also. The input comes from secondary and tertiary
sensory areas that have processed the information a lot
already. Hippocampal damage may also cause memory
loss and problems with memory storage.[34]

Cognitive neuroscience of memory

Cognitive neuroscientists consider memory as the retention, reactivation, and reconstruction of the experienceindependent internal representation. The term of internal representation implies that such denition of memory
contains two components: the expression of memory at
the behavioral or conscious level, and the underpinning
physical neural changes (Dudai 2007). The latter component is also called engram or memory traces (Semon
1904). Some neuroscientists and psychologists mistakenly equate the concept of engram and memory, broadly
conceiving all persisting after-eects of experiences as
memory; others argue against this notion that memory
does not exist until it is revealed in behavior or thought
(Moscovitch 2007).

Encoding. Encoding of working memory involves

the spiking of individual neurons induced by sensory input, which persists even after the sensory input disappears (Jensen and Lisman 2005; Fransen et
al. 2002). Encoding of episodic memory involves
persistent changes in molecular structures that alter
synaptic transmission between neurons. Examples
of such structural changes include long-term potentiation (LTP) or spike-timing-dependent plasticity
(STDP). The persistent spiking in working memory
can enhance the synaptic and cellular changes in the
encoding of episodic memory (Jensen and Lisman
2005).
Working memory. Recent functional imaging studies detected working memory signals in both medial
temporal lobe (MTL), a brain area strongly associated with long-term memory, and prefrontal cortex
(Ranganath et al. 2005), suggesting a strong relationship between working memory and long-term
memory. However, the substantially more working
memory signals seen in the prefrontal lobe suggest
that this area play a more important role in working
memory than MTL (Suzuki 2007).
Consolidation and reconsolidation.
Short-term
memory (STM) is temporary and subject to disruption, while long-term memory (LTM), once consolidated, is persistent and stable. Consolidation
of STM into LTM at the molecular level presumably involves two processes: synaptic consolidation
and system consolidation. The former involves a
protein synthesis process in the medial temporal
lobe (MTL), whereas the latter transforms the MTLdependent memory into an MTL-independent memory over months to years (Ledoux 2007). In recent
years, such traditional consolidation dogma has been
re-evaluated as a result of the studies on reconsolidation. These studies showed that prevention after retrieval aects subsequent retrieval of the memory (Sara 2000). New studies have shown that postretrieval treatment with protein synthesis inhibitors
and many other compounds can lead to an amnestic state (Nadel et al. 2000b; Alberini 2005; Dudai
2006). These ndings on reconsolidation t with the
behavioral evidence that retrieved memory is not a
carbon copy of the initial experiences, and memories are updated during retrieval.

One question that is crucial in cognitive neuroscience is

how information and mental experiences are coded and
represented in the brain. Scientists have gained much
knowledge about the neuronal codes from the studies of
plasticity, but most of such research has been focused on 10 Genetics
simple learning in simple neuronal circuits; it is considerably less clear about the neuronal changes involved in Study of the genetics of human memory is in its infancy.
more complex examples of memory, particularly declar- A notable initial success was the association of APOE
ative memory that requires the storage of facts and events with memory dysfunction in Alzheimers Disease. The

7
search for genes associated with normally varying memory continues. One of the rst candidates for normal variation in memory is the gene KIBRA,[35] which appears to
be associated with the rate at which material is forgotten
over a delay period.

11

Memory in infancy

For the inability of adults to retrieve early memories, see

Childhood amnesia.
Up until the middle of the 1980s it was assumed
that infants could not encode, retain, and retrieve
information.[36] A growing body of research now indicates that infants as young as 6-months can recall information after a 24-hour delay.[37] Furthermore, research
has revealed that as infants grow older they can store information for longer periods of time; 6-month-olds can
recall information after a 24-hour period, 9-month-olds
after up to ve weeks, and 20-month-olds after as long
as twelve months.[38] In addition, studies have shown that
with age, infants can store information faster. Whereas
14-month-olds can recall a three-step sequence after being exposed to it once, 6-month-olds need approximately
six exposures in order to be able to remember it.[23][37]

that rely on frontal regions declines with age. Older adults

tend to exhibit decits on tasks that involve knowing
the temporal order in which they learned information;[43]
source memory tasks that require them to remember the
specic circumstances or context in which they learned
information;[44] and prospective memory tasks that involve remembering to perform an act at a future time.
Older adults can manage their problems with prospective
memory by using appointment books, for example.

13 Eects of physical exercise on

memory
Main article: Neurobiological eects of physical exercise
Long-term eects

Physical exercise, particularly continuous aerobic exercises such as running, cycling and swimming, has many
cognitive benets and eects on the brain. Inuences on
the brain include increases in neurotransmitter levels, improved oxygen and nutrient delivery, and increased neurogenesis in the hippocampus. The eects of exercise on
memory have important implications for improving childrens academic performance, maintaining mental abilities in old age, and the prevention and potential cure of
It should be noted that although 6-month-olds can reneurological diseases.
call information over the short-term, they have diculty
recalling the temporal order of information. It is only
by 9 months of age that infants can recall the actions
of a two-step sequence in the correct temporal order - 14 Disorders
that is, recalling step 1 and then step 2.[39][40] In other
words, when asked to imitate a two-step action sequence
(such as putting a toy car in the base and pushing in the Main article: Memory disorder
plunger to make the toy roll to the other end), 9-montholds tend to imitate the actions of the sequence in the Much of the current knowledge of memory has come
correct order (step 1 and then step 2). Younger infants from studying memory disorders, particularly amnesia.
(6-month-olds) can only recall one step of a two-step Loss of memory is known as amnesia. Amnesia can result
sequence.[37] Researchers have suggested that these age from extensive damage to: (a) the regions of the medial
dierences are probably due to the fact that the dentate temporal lobe, such as the hippocampus, dentate gyrus,
gyrus of the hippocampus and the frontal components of subiculum, amygdala, the parahippocampal, entorhinal,
the neural network are not fully developed at the age of and perirhinal cortices[45] or the (b) midline diencephalic
6-months.[24][41][42]
region, specically the dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus.[46]
There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying their
dierent forms, it has become possible to observe ap12 Memory and aging
parent defects in individual sub-systems of the brains
memory systems, and thus hypothesize their function in
Main article: Memory and aging
the normally working brain. Other neurological disorders
such as Alzheimers disease and Parkinsons disease [47]
One of the key concerns of older adults is the experi- can also aect memory and cognition. Hyperthymesia, or
ence of memory loss, especially as it is one of the hall- hyperthymesic syndrome, is a disorder that aects an inmark symptoms of Alzheimers disease. However, mem- dividuals autobiographical memory, essentially meaning
ory loss is qualitatively dierent in normal aging from that they cannot forget small details that otherwise would
the kind of memory loss associated with a diagnosis of not be stored.[48] Korsakos syndrome, also known as
Alzheimers (Budson & Price, 2005). Research has re- Korsakos psychosis, amnesic-confabulatory syndrome,
vealed that individuals performance on memory tasks is an organic brain disease that adversely aects memory.

16

MEMORY AND STRESS

While not a disorder, a common temporary failure of

word retrieval from memory is the tip-of-the-tongue
phenomenon. Suerers of Anomic aphasia (also called
Nominal aphasia or Anomia), however, do experience the
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon on an ongoing basis due to
damage to the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain.

reality to give PTSD suers a second chance. Once the

events that have caused the PTSD are identied, the process can begin. The surroundings of the events are recreated in a virtual reality helmet (for instance, in a combat
vehicle in the desert).[54] This would help to recall the target memories in a safe environment, and activate the neurons without activating the fear response from the amygdala. When the dicyclomine is in the patients system and
the same neurons are active that were active during the
15 Factors that inuence memory event, the patient can now have a chance to re-form neural
connections, with less chemicals present from the amygdala. This does not erase the memory, but rather lessens
15.1 Inuence of odors and emotions
the strength of it, giving some relief so that people sufIn March 2007 German researchers found they could use fering from PTSD can try to move on and live their lives.
odors to re-activate new memories in the brains of peo- Recall is linked with emotion. If pain, joy, excitement,
ple while they slept and the volunteers remembered better or any other strong emotion is present during an event,
later.[49] Emotion can have a powerful impact on mem- the neurons active during this event produce strong conory. Numerous studies have shown that the most vivid au- nections with each other. When this event is remembered
tobiographical memories tend to be of emotional events, or recalled in the future, the neurons will more easily and
which are likely to be recalled more often and with more speedily make the same connections. The strength and
clarity and detail than neutral events.
longevity of memories is directly related to the amount
[55]
The part of the brain that is critical in creating the feel- of emotion felt during the event of their creation.
ing of emotion is the amygdala, which allows for stress
hormones to strengthen neuron communication.[50] The
chemicals cortisone and adrenaline are released in the
brain when the amygdala is activated by positive or negative excitement. The most eective way to activate the
amygdala is fear, because fear is an instinctive, protective mechanism which comes on strong making it memorable. Sometimes the feeling can be overwhelming. This
is when a memory can be hazy yet vivid, or haunting
with perfect clarity. This discovery led to the development of a drug to help treat posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD).[51] When someone is in a heightened emotional
state, the events causing it to become strong and ground in
the memory, sometimes disrupting daily life for years.[52]

15.2 Interference from previous knowledge

At the Center for Cognitive Science at Ohio State
University, researchers have found that memory accuracy
of adults is hurt by the fact that they know more, and have
more experience than children, and tend to apply all this
knowledge when learning new information. The ndings
appeared in the August 2004 edition of the journal Psychological Science.
Interference can hamper memorization and retrieval.
There is retroactive interference, when learning new information makes it harder to recall old information[56] and
proactive interference, where prior learning disrupts recall of new information. Although interference can lead
to forgetting, it is important to keep in mind that there are
situations when old information can facilitate learning of
new information. Knowing Latin, for instance, can help
an individual learn a related language such as French
this phenomenon is known as positive transfer.[57]

An experiment done with rats helped create the drug for

treating this issue. Dr. Kerry Ressler at Emory University, used tones and shocks to test an existing drug called
cycloserine (an anti-tuberculosis drug). Rats would hear
a tone and receive a mild shock, training them to fear the
tone. Then the drug was given to one set of rats, and the
tests were done again. The rats that did not receive the
drug froze in fear. When the tone was heard, the rats
given the drug ignored the tone and continued on.[53] The
drug can eectively allow for new receptor connections
between neurons and relaxing of the amygdala when it 16 Memory and stress
comes to fear, allowing patients to have a chance of recovery from PTSD.
Stress has a signicant eect on memory formation and
Dr. Barbara Rothbaum at Emory University conducts learning. In response to stressful situations, the brain reexperimental treatments for PTSD using the knowledge leases hormones and neurotransmitters (ex. glucocortithat exactly the same neurons are active when remember- coids and catecholamines) which aect memory encoding an event as when it was created. Her administration ing processes in the hippocampus. Behavioural research
of the drug cycloserine is intended to help patients foster on animals shows that chronic stress produces adrenal
new connections between neurons, providing a window to hormones which impact the hippocampal structure in the
lessen former traumatic connections. Rothbaum decided brains of rats.[58] An experimental study by German cogto use the drug in a therapy session that utilizes virtual nitive psychologists L. Schwabe and O. Wolf demon-

9
strates how learning under stress also decreases memory
recall in humans.[59] In this study, 48 healthy female and
male university students participated in either a stress test
or a control group. Those randomly assigned to the stress
test group had a hand immersed in ice cold water (the reputable SECPT or Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Test)
for up to three minutes, while being monitored and videotaped. Both the stress and control groups were then presented with 32 words to memorize. Twenty-four hours
later, both groups were tested to see how many words
they could remember (free recall) as well as how many
they could recognize from a larger list of words (recognition performance). The results showed a clear impairment of memory performance in the stress test group,
who recalled 30% fewer words than the control group.
The researchers suggest that stress experienced during
learning distracts people by diverting their attention during the memory encoding process.
However, memory performance can be enhanced when
material is linked to the learning context, even when
learning occurs under stress. A separate study by cognitive psychologists Schwabe and Wolf shows that when
retention testing is done in a context similar to or congruent with the original learning task (i.e., in the same
room), memory impairment and the detrimental eects
of stress on learning can be attenuated.[60] Seventy-two
healthy female and male university students, randomly assigned to the SECPT stress test or to a control group, were
asked to remember the locations of 15 pairs of picture
cards a computerized version of the card game Concentration or Memory. The room in which the experiment took place was infused with the scent of vanilla,
as odour is a strong cue for memory. Retention testing
took place the following day, either in the same room
with the vanilla scent again present, or in a dierent room
without the fragrance. The memory performance of subjects who experienced stress during the object-location
task decreased signicantly when they were tested in an
unfamiliar room without the vanilla scent (an incongruent
context); however, the memory performance of stressed
subjects showed no impairment when they were tested in
the original room with the vanilla scent (a congruent context). All participants in the experiment, both stressed
and unstressed, performed faster when the learning and
retrieval contexts were similar.[61]
This research on the eects of stress on memory may
have practical implications for education, for eyewitness
testimony and for psychotherapy: students may perform
better when tested in their regular classroom rather than
an exam room, eyewitnesses may recall details better at
the scene of an event than in a courtroom, and persons
suering from post-traumatic stress may improve when
helped to situate their memories of a traumatic event in
an appropriate context.

17 Memory and Sleep

Making memories occurs through a three step process,
which can be enhanced by sleep. The three steps are as
follows:
1. Acquisition which is the process of storage and retrieval of new information in memory
2. Consolidation
3. Recall
Sleep does not aect acquisition or recall while one is
awake. Therefore, sleep has the greatest eect on memory consolidation. During sleep, the neural connections in
the brain are strengthened. This enhances the brains abilities to stabilize and retain memories. There have been
several studies which show that sleep improves the retention of memory, as memories are enhanced through
active consolidation. System consolidation takes place
during slow-wave sleep (SWS).[62] This process implicates that memories are reactivated during sleep, but that
the process doesnt enhance every memory. It also implicates that qualitative changes are made to the memories when they are transferred to long-term store during
sleep. When you are sleeping, the hippocampus replays
the events of the day for the neocortex. The neocortex
then reviews and processes memories, which moves them
into long-term memory. When you do not get enough
sleep it makes it more dicult to learn as these neural
connections are not as strong, resulting in a lower retention rate of memories. Sleep deprivation makes it
harder to focus, resulting in inecient learning.[62] Furthermore, some studies have shown that sleep deprivation
can lead to false memories as the memories are not properly transferred to long-term memory. Therefore, it is
important to get the proper amount of sleep so that memory can function at the highest level. One of the primary
functions of sleep is thought to be the improvement of
the consolidation of information, as several studies have
demonstrated that memory depends on getting sucient
sleep between training and test.[63] Additionally, data obtained from neuroimaging studies have shown activation
patterns in the sleeping brain that mirror those recorded
during the learning of tasks from the previous day,[63]
suggesting that new memories may be solidied through
such rehearsal.[64]

18 Memory construction for general manipulation?

Although people often think that memory operates like
recording equipment, it is not the case. The molecular mechanisms underlying the induction and maintenance of memory are very dynamic and comprise distinct

10
phases covering a time window from seconds to even a
lifetime.[65] In fact, research has revealed that our memories are constructed. People can construct their memories when they encode them and/or when they recall them.
To illustrate, consider a classic study conducted by Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer (1974) [66] in which people
were instructed to watch a lm of a trac accident and
then asked about what they saw. The researchers found
that the people who were asked, How fast were the cars
going when they smashed into each other?" gave higher
estimates than those who were asked, How fast were
the cars going when they hit each other?" Furthermore,
when asked a week later whether they have seen broken
glass in the lm, those who had been asked the question
with smashed were twice more likely to report that they
have seen broken glass than those who had been asked
the question with hit. There was no broken glass depicted
in the lm. Thus, the wording of the questions distorted
viewers memories of the event. Importantly, the wording
of the question led people to construct dierent memories of the event those who were asked the question with
smashed recalled a more serious car accident than they
had actually seen. The ndings of this experiment were
replicated around the world, and researchers consistently
demonstrated that when people were provided with misleading information they tended to misremember, a phenomenon known as the misinformation eect.[67]
Interestingly, research has revealed that asking individuals to repeatedly imagine actions that they have never performed or events that they have never experienced could
result in false memories. For instance, Go and Roediger [68] (1998) asked participants to imagine that they
performed an act (e.g., break a toothpick) and then later
asked them whether they had done such a thing. Findings
revealed that those participants who repeatedly imagined
performing such an act were more likely to think that they
had actually performed that act during the rst session
of the experiment. Similarly, Garry and her colleagues
(1996) [69] asked college students to report how certain
they were that they experienced a number of events as
children (e.g., broke a window with their hand) and then
two weeks later asked them to imagine four of those
events. The researchers found that one-fourth of the students asked to imagine the four events reported that they
had actually experienced such events as children. That is,
when asked to imagine the events they were more condent that they experienced the events.
Research reported in 2013 revealed that it is possible to
articially stimulate prior memories and articially implant false memories in mice. Using optogenetics, a team
of RIKEN-MIT scientists caused the mice to incorrectly
associate a benign environment with a prior unpleasant
experience from dierent surroundings. Some scientists
believe that the study may have implications in studying
false memory formation in humans, and in treating PTSD
and schizophrenia.[70]

19

IMPROVING MEMORY

19 Improving memory
Main article: Improving memory
A UCLA research study published in the June 2006 issue
of the American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry found
that people can improve cognitive function and brain efciency through simple lifestyle changes such as incorporating memory exercises, healthy eating, physical tness
and stress reduction into their daily lives. This study examined 17 subjects, (average age 53) with normal memory performance. Eight subjects were asked to follow
a brain healthy diet, relaxation, physical, and mental
exercise (brain teasers and verbal memory training techniques). After 14 days, they showed greater word uency (not memory) compared to their baseline performance. No long term follow up was conducted, it is
therefore unclear if this intervention has lasting eects
on memory.[71]
There are a loosely associated group of mnemonic principles and techniques that can be used to vastly improve
memory known as the Art of memory.
The International Longevity Center released in 2001 a
report[72] which includes in pages 1416 recommendations for keeping the mind in good functionality until advanced age. Some of the recommendations are to stay
intellectually active through learning, training or reading,
to keep physically active so to promote blood circulation
to the brain, to socialize, to reduce stress, to keep sleep
time regular, to avoid depression or emotional instability
and to observe good nutrition.

19.1 Levels of processing

Main article: Levels-of-processing eect
Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that it is the method
and depth of processing that aects how an experience is
stored in memory, rather than rehearsal.
Organization - Mandler (1967) gave participants
a pack of word cards and asked them to sort them
into any number of piles using any system of categorisation they liked. When they were later asked
to recall as many of the words as they could, those
who used more categories remembered more words.
This study suggested that the organization of memory is one of its central aspects (Mandler, 2011).
Distinctiveness - Eysenck and Eysenck (1980)
asked participants to say words in a distinctive way,
e.g. spell the words out loud. Such participants recalled the words better than those who simply read
them o a list.
Eort - Tyler et al. (1979) had participants solve a
series of anagrams, some easy (FAHTER) and some

11
dicult (HREFAT). The participants recalled the
dicult anagrams better, presumably because they
put more eort into them.

[5] Conrad, R. (1964). Acoustic Confusions in Immediate Memory. British Journal of Psychology 55: 7584.
doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1964.tb00899.x.

Elaboration - Palmere et al. (1983) gave participants descriptive paragraphs of a ctitious African
nation. There were some short paragraphs and some
with extra sentences elaborating the main idea. Recall was higher for the ideas in the elaborated paragraphs.

[6] Baddeley, A. D. (1966). The inuence of acoustic and

semantic similarity on long-term memory for word sequences. Quart. J. Exp. Psychol 18 (4): 3029.
doi:10.1080/14640746608400047. PMID 5956072.

19.2

Methods to optimize memorization

[7] Clayton, N.S.; Dickinson, A. (September 1998).

Episodic-like memory during cache recovery by scrub
jays. Nature 395 (6699): 2724. doi:10.1038/26216.
PMID 9751053.
[8] Scoville W.B., Milner B. (1957).

Loss of Recent

Memorization is a method of learning that allows an inMemory After Bilateral Hippocampal Lesions. Journal of Nurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 20: 11
dividual to recall information verbatim. Rote learning is
21. doi:10.1136/jnnp.20.1.11. PMC 497229. PMID
the method most often used. Methods of memorizing
13406589.
things have been the subject of much discussion over the
years with some writers, such as Cosmos Rossellius using
[9] Miller C, Sweatt J (2007-03-15). Covalent modication
visual alphabets. The spacing eect shows that an indiof DNA regulates memory formation. Neuron 53 (6):
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857869. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2007.02.022. PMID
rehearsal is spaced over an extended period of time. In
17359920.
contrast to this is cramming: an intensive memorization
in a short period of time. Also relevant is the Zeigarnik [10] Papassotiropoulos, Andreas; Wollmer, M. Axel; Aguzzi,
Adriano; Hock, Christoph; Nitsch, Roger M.; de Quereect which states that people remember uncompleted
vain, Dominique J.-F. (2005). The prion gene is assoor interrupted tasks better than completed ones. The sociated with human long-term memory. Human Moleccalled Method of loci uses spatial memory to memorize
[73]
ular Genetics (Oxford Journals) 14 (15): 22412246.
non-spatial information.
doi:10.1093/hmg/ddi228. PMID 15987701.

20

See also

Adaptive memory
Intermediate-term memory
Method of loci
Mnemonic major system
Politics of memory

21

Notes

[1] Sperling, G (1963). A Model for Visual Memory Tasks.

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15
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23

External links

Memory entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Memory at PhilPapers
Memory at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project

Memory on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)

Memory-related resources from the National Institutes of Health.

16

24

24
24.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Memory Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory?oldid=651936215 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Dreamyshade, The Anome, Ap,

ErdemTuzun, Sjc, William Avery, AdamRetchless, Heron, Atlan, Jose Icaza, Stevertigo, Patrick, Vaughan, Owl, Lexor, Dante Alighieri,
Ixfd64, AlexR, Skysmith, 168..., Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Jebba, JWSchmidt, Julesd, Rossami, Nikai, IMSoP, SeeSchloss, RodC, Fuzheado,
Hgamboa, Zoicon5, Maximus Rex, Mowgli, Bevo, Bjarki S, Geraki, Bloodshedder, Johnleemk, Cvaneg, Shantavira, Robbot, Fredrik,
Moondyne, Nurg, Postdlf, Sverdrup, Texture, Jondel, Hadal, Mushroom, Ruakh, Diberri, David Gerard, Ancheta Wis, Kevin Sa, Giftlite,
Sj, Kenny sh, Lupin, Ferkelparade, Bnn, Everyking, Curps, Jfdwol, Cyberied, Xorx77, Jackol, LiDaobing, Quadell, Antandrus, Piotrus,
Tothebarricades.tk, CesarFelipe, Gscshoyru, JamesTeterenko, Lacrimosus, RobKohr, Corti, VanceXT, Mike Rosoft, Imaglang, Chris j
wood, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Qwerty1234, Vsmith, ArnoldReinhold, Pavel Vozenilek, Elwikipedista, Sfahey, El C, Shanes,
RoyBoy, Triona, 2005, Femto, Jpgordon, Bobo192, Spalding, Fir0002, Johnkarp, Sdaconsulting, Robotje, Smalljim, Viriditas, Maurreen,
Arcadian, MPerel, Polylerus, Jumbuck, Szczels, Alansohn, Gary, Etxrge, Eric Kvaalen, Sourcer66, Batmanand, Wtmitchell, Dschwen, Helixblue, Omphaloscope, Sciurin, Davidgauntlett, Versageek, Redvers, Ceyockey, Mahanga, Zntrip, The JPS, Woohookitty, RHaworth,
Dandv, APL, Kurzon, Kzollman, Before My Ken, JeremyA, Dolfrog, Wikiklrsc, Yasya, Prashanthns, Dysepsion, Magister Mathematicae, Limegreen, Phaedrus C, Rjwilmsi, Syndicate, 333348793523480742508746057438, ElKevbo, SeanMack, Yug, Reinis, Maurog,
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Dureo, Moe Epsilon, Misza13, Nicholas Perkins, JPMcGrath, Ervler, Gianluca91, Sarkar112, TransUtopian, 21655, K.Nevelsteen, Bhumiya, Stonyp, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, Arthur Rubin, Hurricanehink, Petri Krohn, Digfarenough, Croat Canuck, ArielGold, GrinBot,
DVD R W, Kf4bdy, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Elonka, Bobet, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydrogen Iodide, Bggoldie, McGeddon, DCDuring,
Blue520, Jacek Kendysz, Grey Shadow, Delldot, Gilliam, Algont, Ohnoitsjamie, Skizzik, Jcarroll, Kledsky, Frdrick Lacasse, Chris
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LestatdeLioncourt, Accurizer, IronGargoyle, Ckatz, Chrisch, AlmightyDoctor, JHunterJ, Stwalkerster, Ferhengvan, Emems, TastyPoutine,
Dhp1080, Dcyer, Zippo364, RichardF, Nabeth, PSUMark2006, Charlesfahringer, JMK, Xinyu, TwistOfCain, Peter M Dodge, Lenoxus,
Asulca593, Daniel5127, Curtmack, George100, AbsolutDan, Mpeoples, Cattec, Switchercat, Mgavr, JForget, Wolfdog, CmdrObot, Cogpsych, Ale jrb, Insanephantom, Scohoust, NTDOY Fanboy, Pmemory, WeggeBot, Moreschi, SuperMidget, Gregbard, Funnyfarmofdoom,
Abeg92, Michaelas10, Gogo Dodo, ST47, Chasingsol, Swakeman, Grinning Fool, Pascal.Tesson, Rajkiran g, Christian75, Euouae, Optimist on the run, Quantumparadigm, Ward3001, Mikewax, Nearfar, Ael 2, Krylonblue83, Mattisse, Epbr123, Thedarxide, Ante Aikio,
Ejmasi, Mojo Hand, Headbomb, Marek69, EdTweed, Tapir Terric, James086, Leon7, Dgies, Edhubbard, Enzomarra, Stannered, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Dbrodbeck, Emeraldcityserendipity, Yomangani, Julia Rossi, Jj137, Mackan79, JAnDbot, Gcm,
The Transhumanist, Tohru Honda13, Memorysuppliers, RubyQ, Andonic, Sroeben, Johnwaters, Secret Squrrel, Pedro, Bongwarrior,
VoABot II, Dekimasu, Kuyabribri, JNW, Dinosaur puppy, Alex dubas, Thernlund, Animum, Mtd2006, User86654, DerHexer, Memorymentor, WLU, Robin S, Jonomacdrones, So Smart s0 Dumb, SCoOl SuCkS, MartinBot, JCraw, Poeloq, Rettetast, Angelofanarky,
Hairchrm, Fur.ball, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Nev1, AstroHurricane001, MetinH, Uncle Dick, Meltro, Maurice Carbonaro,
Eliz81, Ludawest, Acalamari, Cgilbert76, Wisebeyondyears2, Anonywiki, Fishwristwatch, AntiSpamBot, Quarma, (jarbarf), Miley.yuna,
LittleHow, NewEnglandYankee, Sd31415, Shape 6, Shoessss, Buzz kirkwood, Josh Tumath, Treisijs, Gtg204y, Psykhosis, Bonadea, Xiahou, RJASE1, Idioma-bot, Speciate, Plonk2, Boijunk, Lights, Daoroad, Deor, VolkovBot, SERSeanCrane, Cabdirazzaq, Hersfold, Indubitably, Holme053, Orion99, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Zidonuke, Saigyo, Innitymmx3, SteveJanssen77, Guillaume2303, Anonymous Dissident, H3nning, Brett epic, Aholladay, James.Spudeman, Ed Psych, Anna Lincoln, Panda66, Cremepu222, Pishogue, Maxim,
Meggie-27, Eubulides, Feudonym, Y, Synthebot, Lova Falk, Falcon8765, VanishedUserABC, Grrrmmm, Tom Morton, Tvinh, Bakerstmd,
NHRHS2010, Itfcnut, Goldiemaz, Brassicaceae, Newbyguesses, Thw1309, EJF, SieBot, Juru, Eek2k, Andrew joker, Yintan, Megan.rw1,
Maakad, Bentogoa, Breawycker, Oda Mari, CutOTies, JSpung, Android Mouse Bot 3, JackSchmidt, The-G-Unit-Boss, Sanya3, RyanParis, Avogelt, Correogsk, Denisarona, Ricklaman, Loren.wilton, ClueBot, Mark9946, Ve4ernik, The Thing That Should Not Be, Pcblue,
Profbrumby, Kheblor, Herakles01, ResearchEditor, Mild Bill Hiccup, TheOldJacobite, CounterVandalismBot, Ezrascribe, Niceguyedc,
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Walshy018, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Sirkar183, Crazysane, Ronhjones, Jncraton, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluernutter, Noozgroop, WFPM, Looie496, MrOllie, Lihaas, Ld100, Favonian, 5 albert square, Fazeel Aslam, Ehrenkater, VASANTH S.N., I am bubbles,
Tide rolls, Lightbot, Rojypala, LuK3, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Sotruesaysme, Fraggle81, Clodhna-2, A Stop at Willoughby, LibrarianJessica,
Synchronism, Trevinci, AnomieBOT, Tryptosh, Noq, AlotToLearn, Jim1138, Aditya, Lorenjens, Kingpin13, Materialscientist, Limideen,
Citation bot, Techdoctor, 4clo4, Bob Burkhardt, Frankenpuppy, AleksandraV, Samotnik, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Dos, Lycurgus1920, Thorn
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bot 1, Amplitude101, Microphil, Pinethicket, Abductive, Jusses2, Jujutacular, Naveira, FadulJA, Thomas Stearnes, FoxBot, Trappist the
monk, Gmandler, Lotje, Vrenator, Jesse V., Saint Scholastica, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Adepurarelarticulo, Tinkba, RjwilmsiBot, DASHBot,
EmausBot, Twinmostech, The Kytan Apprentice, Racerx11, Psy3330 W10, Jimid111, Ebe123, Xxkuroxx, Tommy2010, Wiki.project procedural, Wikipelli, Syd122, ZroBot, Traxs7, A930913, SporkBot, Laurelenril, Newerahealth, Scythia, Coasterlover1994, L Kensington,
Bond2aman, Deutschgirl, Kathy usui, ChuispastonBot, Deen123muslim, Zaar Memory, Splangershow, Herk1955, TYelliot, Sven Manguard, Xanchester, ,, ClueBot NG, Bearhorse, Jack Greenmaven, MIKHEIL, Satellizer, Ariel4rockin, Ponsy67, Thegreat13, Ereep, Widr, Psyc3330 w11, Gavin.perch, Myah1977, North Atlanticist Usonian, Lappie75, Acerdolby, Strike Eagle, Sarangjano,
Kinaro, BG19bot, Jessie489, Robwf, Gyspy Rhodes, Wasbeer, TCN7JM, Dzforman, Sudhanshu bimt, Joydeep, Kaylaboring15, Mmarcus2,
Kokoa9, Cactushead1010, Thaki, Reyam.ali, Eugeneliu801, Harini274, Steerste, Lopezfjose, Ariskedne, SticklerofLaughter, Sunkeysun,
Naidoofr, ReseKay, EricEnfermero, Hlgilber, Mrt3366, Psyc3330w12gp07SNC, ChrisGualtieri, Nartb, LordKelvin10, RichardKPSun, Sae
Harshberger, Cwobeel, Wiki315, Cidician, Loveskating123, Mizzcmarie, Kernsters, MorrisRS, Shenwen1621, Kevin12xd, Corn cheese,
Humorideas, Epicgenius, Patelk01, Thatscherry, Anna Zoe, Wft09830210, Dbrooks11, Laditi93, Fastcharlie, Iztwoz, Narwhalmcbobbins, Nael AlHomsee, Sannybear, Evabrekke, Waleedmaraj, DavidLeighEllis, Majsupreme, Alberto198, Smbarreda, Mrm7171, Seppi333,

24.2

Images

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Lizia7, Param Mudgal, Maorwin1, AB Blake, DenisLedoux, Camdon03, Hawkfolkin54, Sqyv, Aaron Philipp-Muller, LUNG E.R.LG
SALVATORY, KH-1, Neurodavid2014, Rixtonlover09, Ababb20, K scheik, Jellybean89, Xx Dinosaur xX, ShaePony, Dongdingalong,
Petaroklobdzija and Anonymous: 1108

24.2

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File:Brainlobes.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Brainlobes.svg License: Public domain Contributors:

PNG on English Wikipedia Original artist: Original concept by w:User:Washington irving. Current shape by w:User:Mateuszica. Color
modied by w:User:Hdante. Text labels by w:User:SAE1962. SVG by User:King of Hearts.
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