2.

WEATHERING

A) WHAT I5 WEATHERING?

+ The decomposition ond disintegrqtion of rocks ond minerols in silu (temoin

oi the ploce or site of occurrence) ot the eorth's surfoce by mechonicol,
chemicql ond biologicol processes.

ql Ollier (1969) defined weothering os 'the breokdown ond slterotion of

moteriols neor the eorih's surfoce lo products thqi qre nore in equilibrium
with newly-imposed physico-chemicol conditions'.

"i" Weqthering brought obout by o rock's direci or indireci contoct with

elements of the weother, nomely, precipitotion, heot ond cold.

,s Weotherinq is o very slow process ocross time.

'{, Weothering does nof involve the removol of the weothered moteriol
(regolith) ond thus, it is not equivolent to erosion, which involves ihe rernovol
ond tnovement of rocks by ihe qction of ice, rivers or woves.

+ Weothering morks ihe beginning ol denudqtion. Denudotion includes the

disintegrotion of rock on the eqrfh's surfoce ond their removol by erosron
or moss movemenl, resulting in the lowering of the lond surfoce.

B) TYPE5 OF WEATHERINo PROCES5E5

i) Physiccl weothering processes

.* Physicol weoihering: the physicol disintegrqtion of rock inlo smoller pieces.

"l fnclude:

7. Fteeze-thow oclion
2. Sqlt crystolgrowth
3. fnsolotion Weothering / Thermol Frqcturing
4 Pressure F.eleose
1. Freeze-fhdtv Aclion / Frcst wedging,/ Frost Shdltering

Definition

'* The disiniegrotion of rock by repeded t?eezing ond thowing of ice

crystols in the joints ond crevices of rocks

Condiiions Conducive for Frost Action

+ Common in tempetate tegions ond high oltitudes (high mountqins)

It Most effective in oreos wherel

. doily temperotures flucfuqfes obove ond below 0"C
. vegelqtion cover is limiied
. qdequote supply of moisture from roin or melting of ice
. rock contoin loints (eg. Grcnite),bedding plqnes, crevices ond pore
spoc€s

Processes ond Resultqnt Lohdforms

'L During the doy, melted woter or roinfoll occunulotes in joints ond crevices
of rocks

{ At night, os temperqture folls below lreezing point, the woter freezes ond
exponds by obout 9% , exefting ptessute fhot widens the joints

n! fce con exer-f o moximum pressure of 2lQOkg/ cm2 at -22" C.

.l During the doy, ice lhows when the ternperqture rises obove lreezing Point
ond freezing occurs when ternperoture fqlls belbw O"C

* Repeoted fteezing ond thqwing qction breoks down lhe rocks into coonse,
ongulor frdgments known os scree or tolus

;L These coorse ond ongulor frogjments mqy occumulote ol the boses of steep
cliffs to form tolus slopes/cones or scree slope.

,{L Another feoture resulting frorn frost-shottering is the cosfelloted

oppeoronce of mounldin ridges ond tops where {rost hqs exaggeroted the
joinfing pdttern. Ane.g.isthe ftoliqn Dolomiles where such costellotion of
the limestone is rcflected in the grophic nomes given to the ridges - the Five
Finger Nqils.
il Glociol peoks ore commonly shorpened qnd become jogged due to frost
oction.

nl Areos of lorge pieces or blocks of frost-shottered rock scottered ocross

flotter uplonds ol tempetale regions or ocross londscopes ol highet
lolitudes cqn olso result -forning blockfields or felsenmeer.

1
_"*"[*ts The w.t€r fre€?es and
expands, putting
9re3sore on th€ rcck

Figure 4- Process of freeze-thow oction

Figure 5. Ftezze-thow oction

 Figure 6. Tolus (scree slope) beneoth frost shottered rocks tn the Picos de
Europo, Spoin.

2. Solt Crystal Glowth

'l The disintegrotion of rock due to fhe growth of solt crystols in the ioints
ond pore spoces of rocks

csnd'tions conducive fffi

+ Common in deserts ond serni-orid oreos where
. evoporotion rofes dre high
. soline groundwoter is drown io the rock surfoce by copillory oction under
dry conditions

+ Common in coostol oreos where there is o constoqt supply of sqlt from the
evoporotion of seqwdler
Processes ond Resultont Londforms

.{ In serni-orid ond qrid oreos, groundwoter is soline, contqining dissolved

solis such os sodium chloride ond sodiun sulphote.

.L 6roundwoter is drqwn into the joinfs ond pore spoces of rocks by copillciry
dction

copillory oction refers to lhe movement of woter 5etween pore spoces of

the rocks due to the forces of odhesion, cohesion ond surfqce fension.

In coostal oreos, soline seowoter con olso occunulqte in the joints ond
crevices of rocks-

When the solt-soturqted wqter evoporotes. tiny solt crystols begin to grow
in the pore spqces.

The growing solf crystdls exei gteot pressure on ihe pore spoces ond
joints. This couses widening of the spoces ond the Prising of the rock
constituents or flokes oport over time.

Hollows ond covities ore formed ond they moy be enloeged by prog.essive
floking of the interior surfoces ond gronulor disintegroiion. This explcins
the smoofh surfoce of fhe inner loyer of the hollows. Wind probobly removes
loosened noteriol from the covities.

+ This process contributes to the forrndfion of tofoni, niches, shqllow coves

ond rock orches.

"l' Tofoni ore smooth, rounded pifs with diometers, thot con extend to severol
metreS.

{ Where solt crystol growth is concentroied ot the bose of o cliff, o niche is

formed.

Figure 7. A niche oi the bose

of o clitf
3) fnsolotion Weothering / Themdl Flacfuring

Definition

iL The disintegrotion of rocks os o result of successive chonges in the rock

volume due to heoting ond cooling cycles

Condilions Conducive for Insolotion Weotherinq

+ occurs in low-lotitude, hot deserts where thete is o greot diurnol ronge of

temperoture (difference in the mdximum ond minimum doily temperoture)

Dork-coloured, fine groined rock con obsorb more rodiotion

Hetetogeneous rocks which comprise minerols with differing coefficients of

exponsion

Processes ond Resultonl Feolures

+ Process oppeors fo be more ellective in theory thqn in reality-

fn hot deserts, high dqytime femperaiures thot cqn rise qbove 5o"c ond low
night time tenperotures thoi con drop to O"C con leqd to repeoted heofing
ond cooling of the surfoce loyer of rocks, cousing the olternofe exponsion
ond coniroclion of the rock minerqls.

Such o process will evenfuolly weoken the rock ond possibly breok it down.

Since rock is o poor conductor of heot, the ideo of such rock breokdown
seems possible.

;l This meons thqt the heot of the doy is concentroted in the ouler surfoce of
the rock and this is the regidn whete nighttime rodiqtion most effectively
reduces tenperoture.

* However, the effecliveness of insololion weothering wos chollenged by some

loborotory experirnents where persistenl heoflng ond cooling of rock
frogments produced little weokening, even o'/er simuloted long periods of
tilne.
 still, redl wotld e\tidence for the process exists. In hot deserts, ii is
thought thot insolotion weothering leods to exfoliotion, which is the peeling
off of loyers from o rock becouse of its poor conduction of heat.It the rcck
comprises q mixture of dork ond light-coloured minerols, gronulor
disintegrotion then tokes ploce. This is becquse dork minerols obsorb heot
more ropidly ihon light coloured minerqls, resuhing in differcnt tates of
exponsion ond contrdction of minerols groins in the rock.

Such differentiol rotes of exponsion ond contrqction produce stresses

within ihe rock, eventuolly leoding to its weokening ond disintegrotion.

Contract.ion
Expansion ftakes cfaeks
mak€s.- r igh i-snqIe
ctacks to sur face
pa r; l1 Layers ui" rock
peel off as
SUII A expension
afLernales L', i th
cont raciion

Figure 8. Ihsolotion i{reotherihg

4) Pressure Peleose/ Unlooding / Dilatation

Definiiion

+ The disintegrqlion of rocks by the releose of confining pressure on

underlying rock os overlying r<icks ore being eroded

Conditiohs Conducive for Pressure Releose

d Presence of underlying groniiic rock mosses fo(ned by intrusive volconic

octivily

* Ropid roie of Surfqce erosion

Processes ond Resultoht Ldndforms

.! Rocks deep beneoth the eqrth's surfqce ore under immense pressure.

Tectonic forces moy push fhe rocks (for e.9.) o gronite body up.
'L
'g As the overlying rock groduolly erodes, pressure on the gronite decreoses,
the gtonite then exponds upwords ond outwords, cousing formqtion of crock
pqrollel to the surfoce colled sheei jointing.

i!' Sheefs mqy detqch themselves loyer by loyer in o process colled exfoliqtion
which is common in gronite, leoding to the formotion of exloliotion dones.

.! The loyers mqy in turn breok up into individuol boulders (block

dasintegrdtion).

Figure 9. Pressure releose

ii) Chemicol wecthering Processes

+ occurs when oir qnd woter chemicqlly ottock rock, cltering lhe minerol
composition, volume. sirengih ond coherence of the rock.

+ Conditions conducive for chenicol weothering include obundont roinfoll, hi(1h

'temperotures, permeoble rocks ond rocks contcining less resistont minerols

i! The rote of chemicol weotheting depends on volume of woter Pqssing the

surfoce of o porticle ond solubility of solid being dissolved.

"$ Able to penettole more deeply into the rock thon physicol weqthering.

,+ In the humid tropics, where conditions ore fovourable for chemicol

weothering processes penetrote lo a gteal depth, the processes qre
collectively known os deep weothering.

1) Solution

{' fs corried out by soil moisture ond groundwqter.

+ Affects boih originol rock minerols like rock solt (holite) ond minerols which
hove olreody been weatheredby,fot e.g. corbonotion or hydrolysis.

2) Cdtbonotion

Definition

,it Reoction between carhondioxide in woter ond cat'onole rocks io produce

colciurn corbonote which is soluble in wqter

condit ions conducive f or corbonotion

'! Promoted by high temperoture, high precipitotion ond dense regetation

cover

Processes

+ Atmospheric corbon dioxide dissolves in rdinwoter, forms weok ocid colled

corbonic ocid which chemicolly ottqcks rocks such qs limestone.
 '[ CO, being olso obunddnt in soils mokes soil wqter ocidjc os well.

+ Corbonote rocks (colcite ond dolomite) ore most commonly ottocked in this

* CoCOs (calcite) + HrCO3 (corbonic ocid) <+ Co (colcium) +2HCO3 (colcium

bicorbonote) - reversible process

il Colcium bicorbonqte is highly soluble ond dissolves by solution

+ As the woter is rich in colcium bicorbonote.2 things con occuri

. The evoporotion of wqter increoses the concentrotion of colcium
bicorbonote until it becomes soturoted
. Re-precipitqtion of colcium corbonote to forrn cqve deposits occurs when
corbon dioxide escopes into the cove's oir, reversing the corbonotion
process.

,* Corbonotion of limestone results in korst topogrophy (features of karst

topography under weathering of ltmesfone)

C'l i nt

6.yke

Linestone

Figure lO.Corbonotion octing on limestone produces feolures such os

clints ond grykes

3. Hydtdlion

De finition
\
.l Physico-chetnicol process wherelry rock minerols hove the obilitY fo ddsorb
woier. This form of chemicol weothering is the toking uP of the whole woier
rnolecule (H2O) into the crystol struciure of the minerol-
Conditions Conducive f or Hydrotion

'l Most octive following successive periods of wet ond dry weother

Processes

nl Affects rock minerols lhot odsorb woter.

'i!, These minerols undergo increoses in volume or swellihg, setting up Physicql

sfresses within the rock. In some rocks such os shqle, it con swell os much os
60%_

+ As minerols odsorb wqter, besides swelling ond disintegroting physicolly, the

chemicol structure is dlfered.

$ For e.g. iron oxides ore converted to iron hydroxides.

+ Commonly couses surfoce floking of rocks.

;L The hydrotion of colciurn sulphote (onhydrite) forms gypsum.

4. Hydrolysis

Definition

'L Chemicol decomposition of rocks by the chenicol reoction of rock minerols

ond the hydrogen ions in woter.

Conditions Conducive f or Hydrolysis

;t The rote of hydrolysis depends upon the qmount of H'(hydrogen) ions

'l High temperoture dnd precipitotion fovours fhis process

r! Presence of joints ond weck minerols in rocks (especially igneous rocks)

Processes

+ Dominqht chemical weotherin g process which\ is responsib le lor lhe

formqtion of regolith to o greof depth in the humid tropics (deep
wedthering)
 i! Occurs when there is o chemicol reoclion \elween tock minerqls ond woter

* fgneous rocks ore porticulorly susceptible to hydrolysis os their silicote

minerols combine reodily wilh wofer.

"! Importont in the weqthering of potossium feldspdr (orthoclqse) in gronite.

+ Woter + feldspor - potossium hydroxide + cloy minerols (koolinite) * silico

* The potqssium hydroxide reqcis further wi.th corbonic ocid to become

polqssiun corbonote ond is removed in solution.

5- Oxidation

Definition

{L The chemicol reoction \etween rock ninerols (iron) ond oxygen in oir ond
moisture.

Conditions Conducive f or Oxidqtion

& Mote effective obove the woter ioble whete the rock con be penetroted vio
joint ond pores by otmospheric oxygen.

{' Rote of reoction influenced by climote ond rock type (presence of iron
rninerols)

Processes

& Occurs when rock minerqls combine with oxygen, usuolly dissolved in woter
to produce oxides of iron.

,tL Exomple: iron in q ferrous slote is chonged by the oddition of oxyqen into o
fettic stote.

*, Fe*2 (ferrous iron) --> Fe'3 (ferric ircn) or zFeo + o2 --> Fe2O3

+ A common effeci: the'rusting'of the elements ofiron in q rock, os blue-grey

becomes reddish-brown ond ferrous 6e.omes lercic.
iii) Biologicol Weothering Processes

+ They ore o cornbinotion of physicol ond chemicql weqthering. Thus. it is olso

known os biomechonicql qnd biochemicol weothering.

+ Biomechdnicol processesinclude:

. Simple breoking of pqrticles, qs by ihe eoting or burrowing of onimols,

. Physicol breqkup of jointed rocks by the pressute exefied by iree roots,

especiolly in oreos where bedrock is close fo the surfoce

. The action of tree roots open possogewoys for chemicol ottqck

'l Eiochenicol processes include:

. Simple chemicol effects, os when solution is enhonced by the corbon

dicxide produced by respirotion of plonts ond onimols;

. Effects of moislure reteniion. These effecls ore partly due 1o the

woter-holding effects of root mosses ond humus, portly by the shode
effecis of plontsj

. The disihtegrotion of rocks lhrough chemicol reociions wilh orgonic

qcids, such os humic qcid, which is produced by the decomPosilion of
organic motter

. Complex chemicol reoctions such os chelotion. whereby Plonts extroct

ions (nutrients) from minerqls, cousing the minerols to breok down.
C) PATTERNS AND PRODUCT5 OF ROCK WEATHERINo

i) Block Disintegrotion

+ The breokdown of a rock into blocks olong o system of intersecting joint

plones.

& The results of block disintegrotion ore coorse, ongulor cuboidol

boulders/blocks which are in turn further broken down by ofher processes.

* Conditions favouring block disintegrotion:

. Rock struciure: well-developed recfqngulor joint systen ond bedding

plones which ollow permeqbility by weothering ogents
. E9. in igneous ond sedimeniory .ocks with homogeneous structure

4 Wedlhe ng prccesses that retult in block dkinfegrafion:

. Freeze-lhaw action
. Insolotionweqthering
. Biornechonicol weothering - oction of plonf roots
. Chemicol weothering ptocesses such os hydrolysis ond corbonoiion olong
joints

Figve 11- Block disintegrotion

ii) 6ronulor Disintegrotion

'iL The breokdown of o rock into its constituent minerols or fine minerol qroins
such os sond or grovel.

iL ln mony sondsiones, the quortz groins ore weokly cemented together with
colcite, which is reodily dissolved ond removed by wotet. Once the cementing
moteriol is renoved or weakened, there is nothing lo hold the groins
together, ond they fdll aport. or disoggregqte.

*, fndividuol ninerol groins simply seporote from one onother olong their
nolurol contocls ond produce sond or grovel. in which eoch porficle hos the
some shope ond size os it did in the originol rocks.

+ In gronite, the quaftz grqins qre disoggregqted qs the feldspors ore

decomposed into cloy.

;i' The soft cloy loosens the intenlocking groins ond the once-solid piece of
grqnite stqrts to crumble into individuol groins or groups of groins.

+ The resuli is thot fhe snoll, iffegulor quortz groins thot once filled the
spqces between feldspor ore now releosed ond become the source of most
sond

+ Conditions fayouing granuldr disinlegration :

. Coorce-gtdned rocks with heterogeneous rninerols (different colours ond
dif f ercnt coeffictents of exponsion)
. Rock which ore porous - spoces for solt crystqls to grow
& l4eatheing processes that resull in granuld|disinfegtation:

. Solt crystolgrowth
. Insolotionweothering
. Frosl oction: ice crystol growth
. Chemicol weothering processes such os hydrolysis, oxidotion ond
hydrolion
 Figure 12. oronulor disinfegrotion

iii) Spheroidol Weothering

breqkdown of on ongulor ond blocky rock into concentric shells of

"L The
weothered mqteriols.

,{ fn fhe process, o rounded corestone with o rsdidl profile is left behind

+ A rounded corestone is produced becouse weatheting oitock on exposed

rock from oll sides ot once and, thetefote. decomposition is rnore ropid clong
the corners ond edges of the rock.

"t As the decomposed moteriol folls off , lhe coriels become rounded ond the
block is reduced to on ellipsoid or o sphere.

* The sphere is the geometric form thot hos ihe leqst omounl of surfoce oreo
per unit of volume. Once the block oftoins this shope, it simply becones
smoller wifh further weothering.

+ Conditions fovouting spheroiddl weolherag:

. Rocks with heterogeneous minerqls - differing resistonces to chemicql
oitock \
* Wedthering processes lhat result in spheroidol uedthering:
. Selective chemicol weathering - eg. hydrolysis
 Figure 13. spheroidol weothering

1998 Wadsoorth Publishinq ComFrnv/lTF

Figuee 14. Weofhering of ongulor blocks into rounded corestones
iv) Exfoliction

+ The bredkdown of o rock into spolls, loyers or flokes frorn the surfoce of o
rock outcrop or boulder

Conditions fdvouring exfolialion :

. Presence of sheet or curvilineor joints in rocks
+ Weathering processes thot result in exfoliation
. fnsolotionweothering
. Pressure releose
. Chemicql weothering processes such os hydrotion

Figwe 15. Exfoliotion

Figure 16- Sheet Joihts focilitqtihg exfoliotion

D) FACTORS AFFECTINo THE RATE OF WEATHERING PROCESSE5

i) oeolooicol foctors

+ Chorocteristics of the rock subjected to wealheting

.L Rocks offer o wide ronge of resistonce to weothering, owing to both

mechonicql qnd chernicol foctors.

1) Pock Strucfute: Joinls and Bedding Planes

;t Ploy on importont influence on the types of weothering thot will occur.

. Joints ore very norrow but horizontolly extensive crocks.

. They result from stresses generoted during the cooling ond contrqction
of igneous rocks, the sheoring ond tensionql forces genetoled by eofih
movements in sedimentory rocks, ond in crystolline rocks such os gronile
ond gneiss, joints ore forrned during pressure releose when overlying
rocks qre renoved by erosion.

. A well-\edded ond closely jointed (numerous joints) rock ollows the reody
penetrolion of wofer, ocids ond oxygen, oll ogenfs of decomposition.

. Joints effectively increose the sub-surfoce oteo of the rock thol is

exposed to chemicol processes. os well os providing lines of physicol
weokness thot con be exploited by processes suah as fteeze-thow. By
controst, mqssive rock without bedding plones ond with few or no joints.
are fairly resistont. only the surfoce of lhe rock con be ottocked by
wealheting ogents, ond liftle or no chenicdl,or physicol breok-down con
occur iniernolly.

- v ,/ 7 r---" 41
fl)t1=tt-t,
fflflflfl;- \ -5m

trs - 6 dr
surfae rotal surlnce A@ = 12 cmr
Figu.e 77. Joints increose surfoce oreo of rock exposed to weothering
+ Joints did weoth eting ptocesses in o number of woys:

. Chemicol weotheting by ocidulofed roinwoter is concen-troted olong join-is

ond beddinq plones,

. rn gronite oreos, lhe rock moy be divided into cuboidol blocks os o result
of chemicql ottock olong verticol controction joints cnd horizontol
pseudo-bedding plones ond the individudl blocks ore in turn subjected to
further weothering by physicol ond,/or chemicol meons;

Figure 18. Orfhogonol Joints

. Joints qid the processes of frosi ond ice wedging in periglociol ond glociol
climotes;

. The process of exfolioiion depends on the existence of sheet or

curvilineor jointing, resulting f ron dilototion.

Beddhg planes, these ore the lines of junction seporoting individuol loyers
of sedimentory rocks. They constiiute lines olong which the rock reodily
spliis, qnd olso provide routes for the underground movemeni of woter. For
e.9. ih limestohe couniry, underground possoges frequently result fron the
opening up by solution of mojor bedding plones.
2) Rock Strenglh and Hardness

.1" Rock hordness depends 2 foctors:

Their constituent minerqls, fhe noture of their cementotion (how tightly

bonded these minerols qre) ond the degree of compression: for e.9. mosi
igneous rock ore hord os o result of their constituent minerols (feldspor
ond quortz which ore themselves very hord) ond becquse these tninerols,
in the process of cooling ond crystollizotion, ore very tightly bonded
logethet.
The o9e of the rock: older rocks have often been buried beneoth younger
rocks, the resultqni conpression helped to bind the minerol crysfols
togetlrct.

,tl Rock hordness is not o very importont determinqnl of rote of weotheting

since neorly oll hqrd rocks possess weoknesses (strucfurol or of chemicol
cornposition) which qllow ihem to be ottockad by chemicol Processes.

3) Chenicdl composition

+ Rock minerols vory in their obility to resisf chemicol chonge ond breokdown.

+ Limestone, lor e.g. whose main constituent minerol is colcium cqrbonote, is

ropidly octed upon by ociduloted roinwoter ond nony types of sqndstones
(porticularly those held togelher by colcoreous or ferrous cements) ore olso
reodily ottocked.

+ Also, certoin minerqls ore rnore stoble thon others. For e.9. quartz is highly
stoble ond resistonce lo chemicol ottqck. Less stoble minerqls: ougite ond
olivine.

Light coloured minerols ore more stoble thon dork-coloured tninerols. A dqrk
rock such os bqsolt or gobbro will heqt up more ropidly ond so experience
greqter stroin. thon o light-coloured rock like cholk or limestone, which will
reflect the sun's rqys.

A rock conposed of voriously coloured minerols is subiected to siroin

becouse the cqpocity of these minerols io obsqrb ihe sun's heot is not
uniform, ond thus differentiol exponsion is cqused.
4) Pock Texture

* Refers to the crystolline noture of the tock, whether it is coorse-groined or

f i^e-qained.

+ fhe e{fects of textwe on wedfhering ore highly complex ond dilfer from
one rock type to onother.

+ fn some coses, coorse-texiured rocks ore resistont; in other rocks where

sorne of the constituent rninerqls cre chemicolly unstoble, selective chemicol
qltock quickly reduces the rock's coherence.

"1" In mony fine-groined rocks, the finer crystqls dre tightly bonded ond
interlocked, 9ivin9 the rock strength bul there ore more crystol boundories
which provide lines of poteniiol weokness, ollowing weothering ogenis to
otfock.

ii) Climote
+ Climote is the singe most importont foctor influencing wedthering.

'{ The mosi importont voriobles ore precipitotion ond temperoture.

+ Wqter (from precipitotion) influences the exlent ond notute of weatheting

+ Wofer focilitotes mechqnicol weqthering processes such os freeze-thow.

+ Woter olso focilitqies chemicol processes such os hydrolysis, solution ond

corbonotion.
+ Woter is lhe key ogent of chemicql weothering.

* Unlike mechonicol weothering, chemicol weoihering is most effectiv€ below

the earth's surfoce since percololing wqter hos goined orgonic ocids. From
the soil ond vegetotion.

.{ Acidic woter helps to breok down rock such os chqlk, limestone ond grqnite.

The omounl of woter is importont os it determines the depth of weothering

os the woter moves olong the joints/crqcks of rocks.
+ The importonl ospects of precipitotion orer

. Tolol drnount of roinfoll

. fntensity of roinfoll
. Seosonol vdrio-tions
. Infiltrotion
. Runoff
. Rdte of evoporotion

+ Temperoture is importont in oll ospecfs of weothering. Fot e.g. lhe tate of

chemicol reoctions increoses os temperoture increoses.

-t According to Voh't Hoff's Low, the speed of o chemicol reoction increoses

2t/2 times with each rise of fenpe.oture of 100c.

d Processes of rock weothering vory from ploce to ploce occording to clinote.

Figure 19. Peltier's diogrom showing the relofioiship between climote

(temperoture ond precipitoiion) ond type ond intensity of wedthe.ihg
1) Hunid Tropical Clinates

+ Regions between lotitudes 100 N ond 5 of the equotor.

+ Charocte.ized by high onnuol precipitofion (>17o0mrn), high meon onnuol

tempero.tures (>27"C), high humidity levels (>80%) ond luxuridni vegetotion,
which is conducive for chemicol weothering.

+ Chernicol weothering is dominonl. However, this does not m€oh thot

physicol weoihering is totolly obsent.

oL Feldspors in granite ond reloted rocks ore oliered to cloys through the
process of hydrolysis.

Soluble minerols rnoy be leoched out. Ohly fhe most insoluble minerols remoin
(silico, oluminum, iroh) resulting in ihfertile soils.

High temperoiures speed up chemicol reoctions + chemicol decomposition

of rocks, resulling in o thick regoliih.

+ Frost oction is non-existent excepf on the peoks of high mountoins

IATGA.POOSOL sEI,'DESER' g
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It
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Figuee 20. Strokhov's diogrom showirg ihe depth of regolith in different

climotic zones
2) Seosonally Hunid Tropics Oropicdl Ateds ,yith Wet ond Dry Seosons)

,rt Regions between ldtitudes 100 - 300 N qnd 5 of the equotor.

I Includes the sovonno belt of tropicol Africq ohd .fhe lropicol nonsoon
regions of the fndion sub-continent.

{ Gteatq seosonql confrosts of humidity ond tenperotures, with pronounced

wet ond dry seosons.

'l High intensity roinfall is experienced mostly in summer, 500 - lOO0 mm/yeor

* Vegetotion less luxuriont thon the humid tropicql roinforest, with trees
shedding lheir leoves in the dry winter rnonths.

+ During the roiny seoson, which decreoses in length iowords the deseri
fringes, the omount ond iniensity of the doily roinfoll often eguols thot of
the humid tropics. The conditions fovour chemicol weothering but regoliihs
ore thinner becquse of the presence of o dry period ond fhe rote of
chemicol weothering is not os high os the hurnid tropics.

i! Due to the less dense vegelotion co\/er, surfqce erosion is more ropid during
roin- nore rqpid removol of the upper regolith.

+ The onset of the dry seqson reduces chemicol weoihering. IJ the wotet
toble remoins high, sub-surfoce weotheting moy still coniinue. Removol of
the uppet regolith exposes fresh bosql rock to physicol weothering during
the dry seoson.

,il Physical weotheting tokes the form of exfolioiion, which is most octive ot
the beginning ond neor the end of the rqins where temperoture chqnges ore
high ond cooling is offected by ftequent rqin showers.

,iL Pressure teleose cousing the development of sheet joinis could qlso be
experienced ofte( the roiny seoson os gronitic mosses moy be brough+ to the
eqrth's surfqce ofter periodic stripping of the ovetlying loyers by surfoce
runoff. This is mqde possible by the ihin \tegetstive cover during the dry
seoson.
3) Low-lotilude Hol Desefis (Semi-arid / Arid Deserts)

+ The lotitude ronge is 15-28" north ond south of the eguotor.

'1 Their globol ronge covers obouf l/5 of the eofih, including the world'sgreot
deserts: Sohoro, Sonorq, Thor, Kqlqhori ond the 6reot Austrolidn.

.+ Characletized by low level of roinfoll ond extreme diurnol ronge of

fenpero-ture

& Conducivefor the physicol weothering processes of insoldtion weothering

ond sqlt cryslol growth fron groundwole.. This is evident from the
presence of fresh ongulor debris on slopes.

+ Intense solor heoting in the doy is often followed by ropid nocturnol cooling.
Diurnol ronge of femperoture exceeding 50'C is thus common in this
climotic zone. Such o lorge temperqture chqnge within o doy meons thqt the
rocks ore subjected to exponsion ond controction within o short spon of
lime.

.[ Chemicol weolhering is minimdl becouse of ihe lock of precipiiotion.

However, chemicol weothering processes ore ptesent ofter Precipitdtion hos
occurred.

'{ Due to high evoporotion rotes, solf crystol growth occurs when copillary
oction drows groundwoier into joinls of rocks, which is common in shody
ports of desert rock.

r! Another source of woter is dew. Dew is experienced in the morning just

before sunrise when temperotures ore of their lowest for the doy. Woter
droplets collect on rock surfqces qnd reoct with rock minerqls.

* Thin loyer of regoli.lh, fresh unqltered bedrock is obundqnf.

4) lUarn Temperale Regions

+ Both chemicol ond mechanicol processes operotei chemicol weothering being

more importont during the summer months whert\ temperotures are highet
ond where there is summer roin. Mechqnical weothering processes such cs
freeze-thow occur during lote winter ond eorly sPring whqn ternperotures
tend to fluctuote just qbove qnd below zero.
 Soil ond regoliih develop to depths of severol metres.

There is sufficient woter present to focilitdte oll the chemicol processes

ond the temperoture ronge is large enough to occount for the mechonicol
processes (l5 well.

During the cool roiny winters in the Mediterranean zones of Africo.

evqporotion rotes ore lowe( ond heqvy frontol roinfolls couse much ledching
or woshing downwords of minerols deeper into the soil.

Chemicol weolhering tqkes plqce but is only o froction of the tote of the
humid tropics due to lower temperotures. The presence of o soil monlle ond
vegelation cover in certoin ploces fovour the infiltrotion of roin ond the
retention of soil solution. The underlying rocks ore olmost continuously moist
for chemicol weqthering to toke ploce.

Wiih fhe coming droughts, woter tobles drop ond chemicol weqthering is
greotly reduced.

At higher oltitudes, mechonicol frost oction is octive especiolly on the

exposed jointed rocks in the higher oreos. Melt woter produced during the
doy seeps into the rock joints ond crocks only to refreeze into ice wedges
during the cold winter nights.

5) Cool Tenperale Pegions

,il, The doninonf weothering processes ore ihe mechonicql processes. The low
temperotur€s during winter often reoching 6elow freezing point, noking
frost oction o dohirdnt process.

Chemicol weothering is insignificonf despite the presence of woler. This is

becquse for os long os 6 months of the yeor, ihe woter thql is present ot or
neqr the ground surfoce is trozen as ice ond is therefore unqvciloble for
chemicol processes to occur.

However, chemicol weotheting is not fotqlly obseni. During the thow period
eoch yeor which occurs in ihe summer seoson, melt woter issuing from
beneoih snow patches do engoge in some chemiqol weoihering Processes,
such ds cdrbonotion.
6) Polar Clinates

il' Polor cfimotes ore chorocterized by ice sheels, ice cops ond volley glociers -
these profect lond surfoces from weothering.

+ Lorgely mechonicol weotherihg in ihe form of treeze-thow during the few

months when there is sunlighi.

+ Summer roin conloins dissolved COz ond Oz + some chemicol weolhering

though rqies of reqction ore slow b€cause of the low iemperotures.

iii) Topoqrophic factors

1) Elevalion

* The higher the elevoiion, the bettet chonce thete is for octive woier
movement through the rock. In low-lying oreos, the droinoge moy be poor.
Moreover, the wdter tends to become soturoted with dissolved ncteriol ond,
os o resuli, becomes incqpoble of undertoking further solution.

2) Slope

'* High ond especiolly steep slop€s leqd to the downslope woshrhg dnd creep of
wealhered moteriol. There is q tendency for roinwoter to flow off the
surfoce rother thon lo percolofe downwqrds io undertoke weothering.

3) Aspect

+ Slopes exposed to sun ond roin will be more prone to weoihering thon
sheltered slopes.

"l slopes focing the sun in high qltitudes will be more subject to fteeze-lhow
oction thon those thof ore olwoys cold ond sunless.

iv) Biotic fqctors \

+ Plqnts moy qct os d protecfive cover ond so prevenf the wdsting (removol) of
soil.

+ Their roots moy qssist fhe penetrafion of woter ond so help solution.
 Pldnt roots moy exert q wedging elfect where they Penettote crocks in the
rock. Burrowing onimcls moy loosen the soil ond 5o mcke it eosier for other
foctors (like woter) io do their work.

Pldnts moy olso extroct certqin minerols from the soil cnd so help to breok
them down.

v) Time foctor

^1"
The length o+ time a rock surfoce hos been exposed to weoihering will
allect lhe degree to which o porticulor type of rock is weothered ond the
thickness of the weothered moter;ol.

Figste 21. Ove"|view ol foctors offecting rotes of weqthering