1.

ROCKS

* The eorth's crust is composed of rocks.

,{ Rocks ore composed of min€rqls

A) ROCK AAINERAL5

;il" A minerql is composed of qn ordered orroy of otoms chemicolly bonded

togelher to form o porticulor crystolline structure. This orderly stocking of
otoms is reflected in the regulqrly shoped objects colled crystols.

'* Eoch ninerol hos o definite chemicol composition which gives il o unique sef
of physicol properties.

+ The elements of the eorth's crust qre orgonized into cornpounds ihot ore
recogntzed os minerols. In other words, minerols ore conposed of the
ditferenl elements of the Eorth.

"1" only 8 elemehts compose the bulk of these minerols ond these elements
represent over 987" (by weight) of the continentol crusf.

* These 8 most obundont elements of the Eorth's crust ore oxygen, silicon,
oluminum, iroh, cqlcium, sodium, potossium, ond mqghesiun.

i) Physicol Prop€rties of Minerols

The more eosily recoqnized physicol properties of mingrqls include:

'i! Crystol form: the externql expression of o minerol thqt reflects lhe orderly
internol orrongemeht of dtoms;

+ Lusteri the oppeoronce or quqlity of light reflected frotn the surfoce of o

minerol;

{ Colou produced by the presence of impurities in the minerol;

'f Streokr the colour of o minerol iti its powdered\form ond is obtoined by
rubbing the minerol ocross o piece of unglazed porceloin:
 nl Hordness: d meosure resistqnce of o minerol to obrosion or
of lhe
scrqtching. Mohs Scole of Hordness is the bosic comporison tesi;

J Cleovoget ihe iendency of o minerol to breok qlong Plones of weok bonding.

It is the direction of splittjng in metomorphic rocks, orising from the
pdrollel olignnent of plqty minerols such os mico;

+ Froclurei minerols thot do no exhibit cleovoge when broken, such os quortz,

ore soid 10 froc-ture - those thot breok into smooth curved surfoces
resernbling broken gloss hqve o conchoidol froclure; others breok inio
spliniers or fibres, but most minerols frocture irregulqrly;

*l Specific grovityr o number representing the roiio of the weight of o minerol

to the weight of on equol volume of woier.

& To dqte.4OO0 minerols hqve been identified - only o few dozen moke uP most
of ihe rocks of the eorth's crusf ond ore clossified os ihe rock-formihg
minerols.

ii) The Rock-forming Minerols

+ 9 groups of rock-forming minerols:

i. the Elements group

ii. the Sulfides group
iii the Hdlides
iv. the Oxides
v. the Corbonqtes
vi. the Sulphqies
vii. ihe Phosphqtes
viii. ihe Silicqtes
ix. Orgonics

B) TyPES OF ROCKS

* Rock: ony oggregote of minerols in o solid stofe.

\
* Comes in o wide ronge of conPosifions, physicol chdrocteristics qnd oges

* Usuolly composed of 2 or more ninerols

 & Con be divided inio 3 clqsses bosed on how they form (lheir origin):

. Igneous rocks
. Sedimentory rocks
. Metomorphic rock

i) Igneous Rocks

"l Forms when mogmo cools ond solidifies.

+ The type of igneous rock fhot forms from mogmo dePends oh 3 fociors:

1. The chenicol cornposition of the mogmo;

2. Temperoture of solidificotion;
3. The rote of cooling

1. Chenicdl conposition of the magma

'* 4 bosic types of mogmo occording to fheir chemicol composilion

4. Felsic nogmos: contoin high quontities of sodiun, dluminum, potossium ond >
65% salico. Rocks forned from felsic mogmos include gronile, diotite, docite
qnd rhyolite.

+ All these rocks ore light in colour because of the doninonce of guotlz,
potossium ond sodium feldspors ond plogioclqse feldspor minerols

n! iliofic nognosl rich in colcium. iron ond nognesium but ore relatively poor in
silicq (45 - 52%). They produce rocks with o qimilor chemicol composilion.
fnclude fine-groined bosolt (extrusive igneous rock/volconic rock) ond
coorse-grained gobbro (the intrusive'iwin" of bosolt). Mqfic igneous rocks
iend to be dork in colour becouse they contoin o lorge Proportion of minerols
rich rn iron dnd mognesium.

,lL Irtermedidte mogmosi hqve q chemicol comPosition between felsic ond mofic
(silicq between 53 - 65%). Rocks cooled frorn intermediote mogmos ore rich
in plogioclose felspqr. qmphibole ond pyroxene. Includes the rocks qndesite
(o common volconic rock) ond diorite. \
,& Ultromofic nogmds: low omounls of silico (< 45%) ond ore dominoted by the
minerqls olivine, colcium-rich plogioclose feldspors ond pyroxene. Peridotife
is the nost comrnon ultrqmqfic rock. Exfremely rote at the eorth's surfqce.
Z. femperdture of solidificalion

'il Rocks thot begin their cooling ot low temperotures (neor the eqrih's
surfoce) tend to be rich in minerqls conposed of silicq, potossium dnd
oluminum.

"l Rocks thot begin theit cooling ot higher temperotures (thqt is, qt greqter
depths below the earth's surfoce) ore dominoted by minerols rich in colcium,
sodium, iron ond mognesium.

3. Pale of cooling

*. Role of cooling is importont in crystql development. It deternines the

texture or size of crystdls.

lL Igneous rocks thot form through o groduol cooling process tend to hove
lorge crystols. Relotively fost cooling of mogrno produces smoll crystols.

i! Volconic mogmo thof cools very quickly on the eorth's surfoce produce
obsidion (volconic Aldss), which contoins no crystolline structures.

ii) Sedimentory Rocks

+ Are layeted occumulotions of minerol porticles (sediments) derived in vorious

woys from pre-existing rocks (which could be igneous or netdmorphic).

'{ fnvolves the wesfhering of pre-existing rock, lronsportolion of the

wealhered moteriql frorn fhe originql site, onC deposition of the eroded
moteriol in the seo or in sone oiher sedimentqry environment.

+ The deposited sediments then undergo liihificotion to become sedimentory

rocks.

+ Lithificotion refe$ to the process thqt turns row rock sedimenl inlo
consolidqfed sedimenfqry rock.If con occur by woy of:

. Drying ond conpoction

. Oxidotion of iron ond oluminum
. Cementolion of loose sediments by colcium ond silicq minerdls
Dislinguishing fealures of sedinentary rocks

.1. Occur in distinct loyers which ore differcntioted by colour, texture,

composiiion, etc. fhese loyers ore terned siroto or beds. The plones
seporoting the loyers ore plones of strotificotion or bedding plones.

{ Groded beddihg: A progressive decreose in gtain size upword through the

bed. Commonly produced on the deep ocean floor by turbidity currents
where os the currents move, their velocity groduolly decreoses so fhot the
coorser porticles qre deposited first.

& Cross-bedding: An orrongement of smoll beds lying ot on ongle to the moin

sedimenlory loyer.

+ Contoin onimol ond plont fossils.

Mud crock
Groded 5edding
<=:+

Symmetricol wove ripples

Roindrop prints
ond wove ripple cross
strqtificotion
\----------J nov dk{toi

Ripples ond cross-

Figure 1. Feotures of Sedimentory Rocks

Classificalion of sedinentdry rocks

* Can be categotized into 3 groups bosed on sedimeni type into:

. Clostic sedimeniory rocks
. Chemicol sedimentory rocks
. Orgonic sedrmenfory rocks

. Ctasfic sedimentary rocks

,$ Formed either from the frogrnents of other rocks or from lhe breok up ond
deposition of shells. corol ond other morine orgonisms. Exomples qre the
noteridls in a sond bor of o river bed, or on o sondy oceqn beoch.

Nome of rock Froqm€nt tvDe

Bteccio Coorse frqgnents of ongulor grovel ond
rock
Conglomero'fe Coqrse frqgments of rounded grovel ond
rock
Sondstone Sond-sized porticles thof ore 90% quarlz
Arkose Sondstone composed of 25% feldspor grains
5hole Cloy porticles
Silfstone 5ilt porticles
Mudstone Mixiure of cloy ond silt
Linestone Mixture of shells, corol ahd other morine
skeletohs

. Chenical sedimentary rocks

iL Formed by direct precipitqtion of minerqls fiqm solution. These minerols

include Co, No, K, ond M9. fn the process of chemicol precipitotion, ions in
solution combine to form solid minerol motter seporqte from lhe solutions.
An exomple is o loyer of rock solt, such os thot found in dry loke birds in orid
regions.

Nome of rock PreciDitqte iype

Holite Sodiutn ond chlorine
6ypsum Colcium, sulphur and oxygen
Silcretes Silico \
Fefficretes Iron
Limestone Cdlcium corbonote
Dolomite Colciun, mognesium. corbonote
. Orgdnic sedinentary rocks

+ Consists of the lithified remoins of plonts ond onimols; the tissues of plonis
ond onirnols occunuloted ond preserved afler lhe deolh of the orgonism. An
exqmple is o layet of peat in o bog or morsh.

Nome of rock PreciDitote tYDe

Chetl Rehqihs of tiny morine orgonisms thot noke
their skeletons of silico
Cool Lithif ied Dloni rernoins

iii) Metomorphic rocks

;! Rock thqt have been oliered by heot, pr*sure ond the chemicol oction of
pore fluids to such on extent thqt the disiinguishing feotures of the originol
rocks ore modified or erosed.

d Con be formed from igneous, sedimentory or even previously metomorphosed

rocks.

'[ Like igneous rock, hove o crystolline Structure, i.e. interlocking crystols,
usuolly with o preferred groin orientqfion.

,{ During metonorphism, new minerols, new textures dnd new Siructures

develop.

+ Constitute o lorge port of the continentol crust.

+ Provide evidence thqt the eqrth's crust hos bBen subjected to tepeoled
deformotion throughout geologic time, suggesting thoi the fectonic system
hos operqted during most of ecrth's history

DistitguithitE feolures of netanorihic rocks

2 mojor groups:

l. rocks lhol possess o detinite plonor textur€ or folioted rocks:

2. rocks ihot lock foliotion ond hove a gronulor texture or non-folidled rocks
1. Folidled rocks

* During metornorphism. minerolgrqins in rocks odjusi ond re-crystollize.

+ New minerdls gtow in the direciion of leost stress so rocks ore produced in
which minerol grains hove o strong preferred orientotion.

't This gives rock o distincfly plonor elemeni cqlled foliotion.

+ E.9. sldte, schist ond gneiss

lmaqeA lmage a

Figure 2. Rocks minerols re-or|'onge in the direction of l€dst stress to give fhe
netomorphosed rock o Plonor texture

2. Non-foliated rocks

"! Rocks originolly composed of one minerol (such os limestone ond sondstone),
which forrns equi-dimensiondl crystols, do no develop sfrong folioiion.

+ Insteod, they develop q gronulor texture with lorge minerol groins.

.! E.9. when o fine-groined linestone is metomorphosed, lhe smoll colcite

crysfols combine to f ormlorge, interlocking crystols, resuhing in o rock with
o texture similor to thot of o coorse-groined gronite.

"! E.9. include morble (formed from limestone) ond quortzite ( o very hord
metomorphosed rock formed from guortz sondstone
\
 Exornples of mefomorphic rocks

Rock DescriDtion /tidior minerols Oriqinol rock

Morble Non-folioted. Cdl.ile Limesfohe,
coorse-groined dolomit€

Quortzife Noh-folioled. Qlortz Sqndstone

coorse-groan€d

6heass Folioled, nediun F€lspors, quorlz, Gtonile

+o coorse-groaned micog

Folio+ed, coorse-
Schrst groined, loyered, Qudrtz, lnicos Vorious sholes
floky or ploty
texlure

Folioted, ve.y fine-

slote groihed. splats
cledhly on flof, Cloy minerols
porollelcleovoge
blones
c) THE ROCK CyCLE

5e{:lment
-*---!-Erosior, Trdnsport
and 0eposiHon
Surlal and
Vov€rnent ofMagmd tithificatlon
lo €aath s Sul.fdce

Met!mffphlsm Metdmorphlsm

Melting Meltirg

SUsSURFACE ENVIfi ONMENT

1II6H PBESSURE AND IEMPERATUFS
Figure 3. The Rock Cycle

{ The rock cycle is o generol model thot describes how vorious geologicol
processes creote, modify, ond influence rocks.

This model suggests thol the origin of oll rocks cqn be ultimotely troced
bqck to ihe solidificotion of nol.ien mogmd.

Igneous rocks form from the cooling ond crystollizofion of nqgmo os it

rnigrotes closer to the Eorfh's surfoce.

ff the crystollizdtion process occurs ot the Eorth's surfoce, lhe rocks

creoted ore called extrusive igneous rocks.

Irtrusive igneous rocks ore rocks thdt fo"m \"ithin fhe Edrth's solid
lifhosphere. fntrusive igheous rocks con be brought to the surioce of the
Eoflth by denudotion ond by o vqriefy of tectonic processes.
'S lgneous rock undergoes weofhering to form sediment. The sediment is
transported ond deposited in ploces such os obeoch or in o delto, or in ihe
deep sea etc.

il The deposited sediment undergoes lithificdtion (the processes thot turn it

into o rock). This includes the processes of cEmentotion ond compoction.

+ As the sedimentory rock is buried under more ond more sediment, the heoi
ond pressure of buridl cquses netomorphistn fo occur. This transforms the
sedimentory rock into a netomorphic rock.

+ As the metomorphic rock is buried more deeply (or os it is squeezed by plqte

tectonic pressures), temperotures qnd pressures continue to rise. If the
lemperoture becones hot enough, the metomorphic rock undergoes melting.
The molten rock is colled tnogmo. This completes the cycle.
 Char eclcrfetr?s of R ack<,
M I N F]R - AND ROCK \VEATI IER] NG
^I
Rocklreathering
nrore compli€ted than
Rockr are mad€ uP of minerais, bul r()ckweaihering is much
mcrelv thc sum ofwcathering ofthe component mincrals The style and rale ofweath-
rhc rocl $ hich golcms
i' ** **r' rle por osirv and permFal'ihN of
"1"" *un *r'ti.f.-", u'.r
'"tlcdlv
can entct dnd $cJlhenng products bc tcmoved Some r(Yk5
in" J"..
"
t'"uc'u.t,atriehpo,osiwrhatPrrcricalhev€Dnrincrdlgtrtnisexpo+dtoweathcring:
al lh(
nra*iuc-roik' t,vc no intet granular polos'rv ar rll anJ can weallt"r only
'om.
-sur rdce rn.l rlont J lcu widclv spaccd loinr\'
ifr. **,t'"ti"-g.f tL. .ornrnon.sl tffk r}?es \rll no$ be drsclibedinlermcdralc'
There arc a
greal many olhcr'rocL5 somc ol $hi'h !.ln be rcgard"d a\ v"riants or
too mre' ortheir
B"r*""n lfi*" a"."trta here; oibers pra\ent unique fealures but arc
weattrering features too littlc knoM' to be de{ribed here

Sedinenlary rccks
and most
Sedincntary rocks are formed by compaction and induralion ofsediments'
or iL"t ,."ir.ri""O.rr.rn marini sedirnents' Thesc havc
all rhe varialions ofco'npo-
n s€diments, plus tunticr features associa ted with cemelr-

i"rr-, i"a.t*".""-*"fidated
"t,t."L*i -a -incral alteration. Sediments consisl of successive layers' called-
*"ii...b.a";. n",y -i eral grains tend to lic fla-t' and lhc prefefed orienlation of
te,.l' ro ol"nar ,nrsolt unv and PretercnliJldtrP'l'un ol waler mo\cnrenr Ihrough
'-,".
ii,i'" i-s',lii"gp""'"u'.pr^n.'orri*'r'ryr"'$cenheo IrIhc'rpldn'l'"'''19':l'
sD".cd Lhc ro. k r\..rJ bc Iltinb'dded.rirlRvaI'wrdedpa'(lneDco<ar'saroro
'o
iL:ir'i.r"r''",*,*.lr-scdimenrrrvsrrucrurrntJvbeiurrhe''ornpl\rre'lbv'to''
*;;;.;;'^';';
LreJdrns,,rrJd€d I'td l,ng ?nd olh'r [eaLUres'
t ,arrlcra\irrcdin'' /d ri' ro'k*u'ha\\'rndsronc shrr(
"."s.n
...g]"*"i""; ..t' iforyanic or igin such as coal anil manv limcstones' and roclcs
""i
ofclental origin such as lravctli e chen and rock salt'
) /nd.rJa. sdn,l ronc .or\r rs ol '34'l tsrJrn commortl!
uuarv nrorc ur k t
refrcnledb) dmdrrrxul,'rl'er rnincr:rl Srad'r^nc ollenhJve$rd(l\sl':lcc'lJUrnIrng
il;;;;;;;".*o,tnrs. weathcrinsof sandsrone conrisls larselv of aliack orl thc
mrvb'
.enre"i rna mu'rlor supPorI for Ihetrndg'Jrrrs ft' "men'rrrg mrtrerrl
"
I rnov' J or Jlletcd Lrur ,r ihc ol qu rrr/ lh'\ ar' lirlle JllP\ le.d
"ant E,r'r'n"re
Cilci'rFoL''\anJ'rone':1rel/rtselyallccredbysoluriona'rdbeuru\eolrnrlrilporo{rr
gtains o'
solulion g.€s lo gredr detrh. Calcatcnrrc {srrrd\lone wrrlr '""'ttl-:::lit:
quanl $ndslone Clay mdrrir sandslones $'alncr,Dy
more liki a lime'ron" lhdn a
b'cdkdo$n and eluvi,lion otclav lron oxidc 'emcnls tcnd
lu lryd'dle lo n\cro/rocs'
ofiron within the sandslone to formconcrelions or oth€r
,tJ,i.." r.
a, , umutarion,. Srlr"elccrnenrcd cand\tone\ weJlher hke qurrr'/ire\'
"f"",";g*tion ,.
q:rler F ab'orl cd an4 rn cold rcUon(
Mo't su Ird.rone has a hrgh por osiw $ plenw or
due to iornrs ur\rdrnt
tro.' aedIhcring L rmPnnanr. Variarions in warer holdinE abihrv
rntl oororirv make lin"' nf $eakncs" lor Phv\rcal w':r'hering'
Sona'ron", unl,y$crlhet'loblock' or cnrmble-ro anJ :rllhough rn m^rc "nPure
q;;..f";t;i" i"""d An irresular dislributioo orccment sivcs risc to diffcrenriat
 56 nLcoll r H,sotts ANo IANDI-oRMs
qpJtheflngan,I'"rr.\rtr.lomrto\.wo,L\.ror.l
rori.\.rndLrorr Rurrncgutd,*e,th
.r'ng at.o o.. , s on Jpprr.nrty unitornt jrnds(one.
w ilh morc clay or feldspars, sandsloncs be.ome re)*,ckcs o. a rkoses .nrcsc
8 h avc
utany propc.li€s in common wi1h sandstooas; most ofthe ditferences
are axributable
io grealer ease ofchenical wcirhering

S/'dler. Sh'hL\rhec.mnr.n \trukexpordarrtrcrJrthirudrr,burNtifll-..rrrd,ed,

p-'hdps be.ru\. ir usualty ro[ns towtdnd\ and N trl|te c\pos..l Sr,,r..."^;.,
.lay nrneral5 w,rh m'cn an,l o..aiondtort,e, minc, ats, or,co qrh oi
a higt, .he;.; ;i;;.;
ra_(ion Carbonarc is prescnt h marls. Bcddins is usua y*clr mirk"cd.
\i"rii;;; L
often intense ar rhc surface and decreascs down tfr" p-fir", rrur p.oi.r.
,rong.r;ik.
to a much grearcr deprh. Thls rhc rock is broken inio biocks wriich
ar. r.*r".-rta.,
but wearhered on thcir faccs. In the cnse of marts rhere is dccalcificarion
from tirc
surface, following fissures, wirh the accumula(ion ofan insolubrc
residue th.
Thedip ofnrara "r
wearhe ring. In horizontalshale rt is hard for wa,_.-;; "";;"_
"ffecls
b,, ,, ,n: sr,drn lrlc recpty,nctin.r n,rny bed,tins ptaner a,c erpo\ed. $hi.h
Lil::
ailows ea\y wrrer penerrarion
Shales erode faster than nosr se{tjm€nhryroct s, nol only
because thcy are sofr arr.t
wrJ'h€' mo'e..-'sity. bur b.cause rhey a,e impem,.jbh and so rh.re
o,r. r nere r\, rn.'etor(..
is ,,; "i",';i
a grcrl(, tcnd.n^ ior rhe *"arher"d proJrt.l ro be r.movi l
i,.tu,ri,18Joromirp.^di.rrnrui\her bv . mrrhrrrar_r soru
11:.:':-,,,,.",'.,,".
hrr,r\ thn,r! hp,.um,n^n'o.I\Fr,."pr re\rr.me.trnr,rrcn\i,oUnre,lr,,soturr.,ni.
In. prrJo, rndn' s.ilhp ng aB"nr uf t,m".rorr. Tt," a, ruJi p,o"F* ot w.rrh.Unr
dFt.nd\ on rh. vir rFry ot trmesr,,n.. Sumc i\,jen."
nd :olulon r . un..'r'rir"d dtons iourrs dnd trddrnx-","."",,i.r,.,"i._;;,;;;;.
plal"\ t1,,, is rl,. *,r'; ;;".
\ro,, rl,d.rur-s.,iprortuprd,,r'ropog,rph)O,h-;jin-,,or",r,.m,:_.,,..i;,
'l,rlr.d d,l,rn( I',r...ro,'. wJr.r p.,r.r,arp\rt,.Fnri,,,,rt tstr,"",,.1,..,,,,..,""._,,
k, drh.,rng...,,lr jo,,r,\ dnd t, ddUrS ptJn,.. Jr. or tr t. o, no,,,ip.,un,.
'., o Jrr vurLondre,'1dv to,m,r o, n. .r rh" \ufl .,,.,,t so t,n r,1..,, o,
laycr known as .:aLE1c, .otol," .na .rn", n,.,., "!;,r,.\ roln,ne, l.Jri

Igu:ou rork

Ign"ou\ ,o, I s may b. a/tuvrp rhir ,\. e,ujrrcd ar ttrc.Jrih.\ \uriac.

-a tr\r fluw\ o,
ds voi Jnr. dsll \how. r\t htpobv{at, Iltdt 6. emptr. ed as JytFs \rfl
, or orhe, f..,Jr.s in
lr'.,L,ppcr ldlcr\ot rireeJflh..rurt.orp/lroarr.rha,i, rornrc,iarcon\idp,Jhl.dpprtr
rn rhe canLs.,,^r
I L, 'e.rl .e lrnds or
,ldr'al wirh the rgnFous ro ! trprbysdt dnd fjuro,rr a,e .o ,
tsrrin :r/c -rupr^..
olrh^ rl} k miI.r Jt, lrurrw" ro<t s., r jf rdtv. hav" s,tl
. r v.rdl, d.r nrtp..,nd uv.u.n bc gtd\\r ^otrng
r,,1,rjied
usudlly "rr,cnr"tv,dp;ry. n r,u"l r.nro,
ra \pc rhe.rv\rrt\ ltypdb\\rj ,oc[\ trave.nr" ro
"',^19'."r.,. 'equircd
rclru"'(ry(al\rt':Icdr.b. c"n by rhe n.ked .v" ntuioni,o.k\..,vsrd i/rngr.,)
.iowlv g'ow I rrgF i rv\rat. I hdr dr€ ptJrnty vr .ibt. rnd ma] bc ,.\"r ,t ,,.nrirn"rr".
ai , os
i,runr a chp , dl j,uinr ol vi.u relcuu. ,u.ts Jrc .1a..(|rrpd
3\ a.id, ;nt..nnnln!.
n' l],.\n A.I.i r., t\ dre rh.\- \irt, .r Irgh propo run .t \rt,, d, ind .u, tr ro.t\
 58 nEcoLITH, sotls AND LANDI-ORMS

protile in suitablc .nvi'onnrc.(s 'Floare.s' of unwearhcred Msak occasio!r:r v o.orr

in,l"y
Basaltic volcrnic ash, bcing porous, gener:r ywealh€rs rapidly, fonning fe(itc soils
in a rclalively short time. -nre fullcr\ earrh of the Mcsozoic of sourhem Eogland is
weathered volcanic ash and is almosr pure c?tciun montmoritlonirc. tl;rc is a
spcclacular increasc in lhe 2mount of montmorillonitc ir the Crelaceous ofEngland,
whi, h may b. rcla{cd lo rn. rcd\rne trorrgh dr\lJn') \ ol.an,. a.tiviry

Dol..r'rr- Dolerire (knovn as'di?base'in rhc USA) haslhe samechenlicat and mnrer
alo8ical composnion as baiak, ard wcalhers in a slmilar way, Joiniing is lvc ma,ked
and.egular,

/th]olrre. Rhyolirc isan ac;d effusive igncous iock tliar conrains quarlzand so can give
nse Iosand upon wearherinS- It ;s not so w€ilhcrabte as basalt, and gives rise rosial-
Iowcr ard poore r soils A frorhy, gtrsst va riery of rhyoli(c is ca [ed .pumice,- I I wealhers
and foms lroor sandy soits.
.slowly
,rnd6rrd, Andcsiie is an cffusivc ign€ous rock ot inlermediare composrrion, wj(h
wea(hering properties inrermediate between basall anit ihyotile.

MetaDlotphic rock
Mclxmorphrc rocks arcrrcircd byrtrer.tion ofprc exisrnrS rocks, whct her l8ncous or
sedincnri.y, by heat, pressurc or Lrolh A.oundlhccdgesofagranircpturonrhercrs
usually a rirg or'aureole'ofmct?mor?hism rhar convcrls thc counrry.ock inro horn
l€ls, usually a fnrc grained, vcry rougtr rock
Mosl mclamorphjc rocks are distioguishcd by a very merked prefered o.ientarior
ot mrner.ls, thc dcvelopmcnr of new nrincr?ls ar thc expe se ofor;ginal oncs, ard lhc
lornrxtion o{ a very markcd fissilit} nr many prra et parr;nss, described as .staritress,
"! ,i,i\ro-r) aoJrs. Briin".t rr't1mo,ptr'. ro,t\",ccr c.l8a.a\,anJliner.A,JtD.d
,,n.\lv t,.. \lar" and !./r/\/ tlo I rJn{ m;.prJl\trv, rrcr^LIijin.rvJn.|l... u,hr..
,rtica s.hisi, ardaluiite sltaic, ctc , and zoncs ofdifferenl degrecsofmetarnorphism ?re
characlcrized bydiffercDr mincralissemblages. Veryfinc grained rocks may bc mctn
molPho:icd to slale Ma.ble i5 mctamorptroscd tinreslonc

G,r.rr. Cneiss is a coarse grained, foliared rock co.taining quaI1z, fcldspn,, anrphi-
bolcr, pyroxcncs, mica.nd garner- It is inlermediatc in propcrties berweenAranitc;nd
s.hFr lr i\ r Jr.lv as welltornred and unrtor mly massive as gr iniL". MrrFrrti Jr€ scgrc
8aled nno laycrs, and bands of lh€ most wealhclabte mineral affecr ihe rotal rock
slrcn8lh a property that oflen provcs trolrbtesome ;n engineerinB_
&r.i. Schistconsiisofthi laycrsoidiffcrcnl,ninerals,Ihe.schistosiry'.Irsptirsvery
easily aloog bands of mic-?, and this is ve.y imporranr i. lv€arherin8 Schisri conrain
somc very resistant minerals but wealhering is modcratejy east Froslweaiherinp can
rrp ly break upschist-
LIatble. Marble is meramorphosed timesrone, and ir wenthers in a nrajor rcspecrs
likc a dense lime<to""
\
N'IINFR AI- AND ROCK \I'EATHERINCJ 59

O@rrz!r.. Mclamo.phoscd sandstonc is known asquarrzllc Th;shas lostlhe porosily

ot sandslone, so even less wc?{hcrablc Ir i5 almosl ined chctnically, a'd Ph}sical
wealhering dominant
's I})e m(xt ancient erosion surfaces are ofien PreseNed on
's mosl.esislant rock ofall
quadzite, the

Anphtbolilt Amphibolite consists alrnost entirelyof homblelrde- It weathcrs rather

like basalt, oftenvery decply, gMnS rl5c lo a claywith abundaDt ba-res aJ)d iron- Cleavage
cnables casf wlllerpeDeiralioo and deep wcalhcnng

Sldrz- State is r fine-grained mclamoryhic rock lhal splils inlo vcry thin plates.
Cle?vagc planes sepa.atinglhe pliles oflen cul across layedngin lhc oriSinal rock

Plry i/.-I'hyllite r€presenls a highcr sDgc of rnetamorphism than slxtc It is hiShly

lusrrous bccause o(rhe highconlenl of mica, ahhouSh the mica grains can bc seen only
u dera microscopc Some phylliles have eisible crystals ofgarnel and olher mincmls

rtr ialtu., ? oJ rc, L :ttu.tu.

Ro.t srnl. tur"\ md] he origin.l edntrenrdty o' l""ru'e., rh.v -iy be du. lo
'gn".,rt
ahcralion Mrhi'r rhe rock, or they may rcsult frojn slresses applicd from otternal

Ba.ldir{ pkrnes. Ded<ling plancs arc thc rnost obvious of oriSinal strucru.es in sedi
nentary rocks, They arc contacts between different beds ofsedinenls, a.d are fomcd
ir lhc rimc ofscdimcnlarion.
Joars. Joi,rrs nre plancs of fraclurc or potetlaal fraclurc thal are Iodnd in no!t
rocks Thcy occu. in scrs, which liave p?rallelplancs, or sysrems, madc up ofse!c'.1
scrs aDd usuilly havnrg a parrcrn rcpcalcd over a considcrable area Thcrc is no
dtsplaccmenr.cross rhc c.ack ofajoint. Joi rs tniy bc c.used byshrinkage, aswbcn
a lava sheer cools, or a sedirnerrary ]ay€' loses volume by debydrarion Olhcrs arc
due to Ieclolric strcases. ioinls conr only occur perPendicul.r ro beddinS plalres,
but mary otler altiltrdes are possible, Joinls a and ;mpo.lant iII lhe
weathcrirg of granjle, bisall aod limcstonc. Satldstoncs and o{her scdimenlary
rocks are usually joinr€d, bur joinrs in these rocks a.c generally of lcss i'npo(?ncc

Ci.dvd8.. Cleavage isa drre.tron ol easyspliilingin folded or me lamorPhosed rocks

]}e mary varieri€s ofjoinring aDd cleavage nnd numcrous other rock struclurcs arc
describ€d in all slandard tcxlbook ofsltuctural geology

.Far16- Faulrs are fraclures in rock in which significanl disPlacelnent han @curred
The conventionrl diviiion is into nomral, thnlsl and st rike-slip fauks Normal nrd strike
sliptaftltsarevedicalorsleeply;rc]nred,a darcoilcnassociatedwilh leDsion Wcrth_
erhgpe elra(es along such faulrs. This may b€ reflecred nr lo*ering ofoxidizcd zoncs,
Ioweri gof rlrewearhering fronr orothcr fealures. Thn$r faulsmayb€ pickedoul by