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Scope of Topic:
1. Mechonisns of noss movemeni
q) Whot is moss movement?
b) Sheor strengfh ond sheor stress
2. Types of moss movement
o) Heove
b) Slide
c) Flow
d) Foll
3. Foctors offecting moss movement (noturol ond onthropogenic)
4. Effects of moss novemen-t
5. Mqnogement of moss movement
d) Mitigotion Meosures
b) Responses to the effecis of moss movemenfs
Objeciives:
Additionol Reodings/References :
l Clork ond Smoll (1990) Slopes and l,l/eathertng. combridge University Press:
6reot Britoin. Ch.3
> Guinness & Nqgle (2OO4) Advanced aeography. Hodder & Stoughtoni London
} Murck, Skinner, Portee (1997) Dcngerous Earth: An fntuoduction lo 6eologic
Hazards. John Wiley & Sons, fnc.: United Stqtes
> Nafional Lands/ide fnfornafion Cenler
hitp://-oeohozords.cr.usgs.qovlhtml f ileslnlicgun.hlml
I Overview of Engineeting Te.hniques fo Reduce 6roding
httpr,/,/www.coostol.co.qov,/londf orm/attoch3.html
> Geo Foclsheelt The Lqndslide Hozord (sep 2001)
1. MECHANI5M5 OF AAA55 MOVEMENT
q) Whqt is Mqss ,ilovemenf?
Mqss rnovemen-t is the downhill movenenf of rock ond regolith neor the Eorth's
surfoce primorily under the influence of grqvity.
The detdchment ond novement of eorth mqteriols occurs if the shear stress
imposed is gredler lhan the shear ttrength of fhe ndieriol to hold i.t in
place. Hence, os long os sheor strength exceeds shear stress, the rock of
debris will nof move.
ff the sofety foctor is less thon 1, fhe slope is unstoble. If the sqfety foctor is
equols to or obove 1, the slope is stoble.
The slope of the surfoce detetmines the omount of stress thot occurs on
eorth moferiqls. As the slope 5ecomes sleepet, the sheor stress becomes
lorger (Figure l).
Wqfer odds weight to increose sheor stress bul olso octs fo lubricote the
moteriol.
The movemeni, especiolly in the cose of slides ond slumps, is olong o foilure
plone. The foilure plone moy be q well-delined loyer of cloy or rock upon which
sits the destobilized surfoce moteriol.
Humons induce mqss movemenf when subjecfing c slope to o lood thol exceeds
ifs obility to resist movemenl. People building ho.uses on scenic hill slopes
often find their homes lhreatened by o londslide. Undercuttinq of hrllsides
during rood construction commonly crofes unstoble slopes, moking them prone
to foilure-
2. TYPES OF MA55 MOVEMENT
Refers to ihe roising of porticles ql right ongles to the slope during exponsion
of the ground qs it f"eezes. When the ground controcts (with the coming of
spring ond worming), fhe porficles drop ver.ticolly to o downslope position.
i) Soil cleep
Soil creep is neorly imperceptible to the naked eye qs it is ihe slowest of oll
types of moss movement.
Soil creep during wei-dry periods: during roinfoll. moisfure increoses the
volume ond weight of the soil, cousing exponsion ond upon controction, the soil
move downslope under grovity (Figure 3).
Freeze-thow: when the soil freezes, lhe presence of ice crystols increose the
volume of the soil by 9%. As the soil exponds, por.ticles ore lifted ot right-
ongles to the slope in o process colled heove (Figure 4). When the ground ldter
thows ond the soil controcts, these porticles foll bock verticolly under the
influence of grovity ond so move downslope.
. Olher foctors olso cohtribule to soil creep: growing plonfs exerting o wedge
like pressure \etween tock porticles in the soil thus, cousing them to be
disploced downslope; bur.owing orgqnisms disploce poriicles ond with eoch
movement, the force of grovity pulls the pdrficles downslope; undercutting from
runoff ond sireoms, increosed loods of roinwoter ond snow, ond disturbance of
slope surfoces by eorfhquokes ond conslruction by humons.
Eftects
A speciolized, ropid form of soil c(eep fhot results from soturofion of the
surfoce moferidl by neltwoter from snow ond ground ice.
Occurs when the fhow seoson leods to high soil rnoisture content becouse
percolotion is inrpeded by the impermeoble permofrosl loyer. As meliwoler
connot percoldie downword info the permofrost loyer, the upper zone of soil
becornes complelely soturdfed, ond lorge oreqs ,of rcgolith will flow slowly
dow^ even the gentlest slope.
Effects
. Creoles on uneven ond hummocky tertoin where Ihe layers of rockond soil are
very dislurbed ond distorted; vegetqtion is often disrupted os well
. Forms solifluction lobes, which ore round€d domes of soil or rocks _thot hove
been moved downslope by ihe process. \
. Often the lobes hove flot tops known os solifluction terroces
b) slide
. The movement is often ropid ds the occumulotion of stress obove the slide
plone is releosed.
. They ote chqacterized by most of the movement toking ploce ocross q well-
defined slide plone.
. Very shollow slides moy occur altet heovy roin, usuolly on cloy slopes ond
involve moinly the weothered surfoce moteriql resting on solid rock.
. Londslides ore very sensitive fo woter confent, which reduces the sirength of
the mo-feriol by increosing wotet ptessute in pores ond joints. This hos lhe
effect ol pushing the particles oport. The woter cohteht olso odds weight to
the moieriol so thot downslope force is increosed while resistohce (friction) is
decreased.
. Thete ore two mdin types of londslides: fronslotionol ond rototionol slides
i) Trdnsldtional Landslides
. Mosses move down ond oui by sliding on surfoces of weok weokness such os
foults. joints, o cloy-rich loyer qnd soff rocks slipping off hord rocks.
. Include:
I Rock slide
I Debris slide
> Pock slide
Bedding pldnes ond joint plones ore inportont in ollowing the rock to frogment
ond providing ready-mode slide plones over which deloched mosses coh slide.
Slopes affected by rock slide show the strong conlrol exeied by geologicol
slruciure (such os bedding plones)
Exomple: The 1903 Fronk rockslide which occurred in Alberto, Conodo. This
slide occurred ocross bedding plones in o steep onficline formed in the well-
jointed limes-ione of Turtle Mountoin, which wqs olso subjected fo mining
octivify. The rockslade destroyed porf of the smoll town of Fronk, killing dbout
70 people.
. The sliding moss moy deform ond disintegrote to form o debris slide.
Similor to rock slides except fot the moteriol involved which con consist of o
mixture of rocks, soil, regolith ohd orgonic motter.
Exomple: Debris slide in Vdiont Dom, Itqly in 9 Octobe\ 1963. The dom wos built
in 1960 ond the reservoir impounded 150 millioh m3 of woter. Heovy roins couse
the collopse of the south woll of the dom ond triggered o debris slide (1.8km
long ond 1.6km wide) thot killed neorly 7000 people in 7 minuies.
ii) Pototiondl ldndslides
. Rototionql slides move downword ond oulword on top of curved slip surfoces
. Result is o poifern of scors ond depositionol feotures; the rnosf common is ihe
spoon-shoped scor ossocioied with sheor foilures olong orcuote plones
. Coherent blocks of moferiol slip down ocross one or more converging slide plones
(Figure 7).
. As lhe block rnoves downword ond outword, it cornnonly rotdtes so ihof bedding
or other surfoces ore filted bockword ioword the source.
Sondstone
Similo|to rototionol slips in some ospects but the coherence of the moss is
lost. Although there is o slide plone, movenent tokes ploce os o flow
especiolly neor the lower port of ihe slipped mcss or foe.
The rotqtiohol movemeni moves rndferiol from the highet Forts of the slope
to the lower, ond fhdt the sediment thot wos ot the lower end of the slope is
pushed oufwcrds, offen forming o lobe protruding ihto o vdlley.
Slumping producesr
> on orcuote scor, or disfincf curved incision, ot the heod where tnoteriol hqs
been moved:
> o lineor tongue of mobile moterial ond,
r o bulging loe, i^ the lowen port of the slump, subjected to flow (Figure 8).
SLIDE a
Figure 9. Conporison between the velocity ol flow ond slide ot eoch depth
The rnateriols conprising q flow ore usuolly of snoll size (no lorger thon sond)
ond would include soil, regolith or pulverized rock-
. Ropidly flowing moss of wet hoieridl thdt conioins ot least 50 percent sdnd-,
silf-, ond cloy-sized porticles, typicolly following streom vclleys.
. Occurs when fine-textured sediment such os cloy ond silt become soiuroted ond
flow downhill os the excess woter hos teduced lheir internol strength
. Moy conlqin up to 60% wofer by weight. They ore more likely to occur qfter
periods of intensive roinfoll, when both volume ond weight ore odded to ihe soil,
giving it o higher woter content thon debris flow.
. Mudflows thot occur on the slopes of volconoes due to snowmelt during volconic
eruptions ore called lahors.
Exornples
. Nevodo del Ruiz (1985) - The eruption of Nevqdo del Ruiz in 1985 ttiggered a
lohor which killed 25,000 people in fhe villoge of Amero.
. /t4i Pinolubo, Philippihes (1991) - In the fist few yeors following lhe
cotdclysmic l99l e1ption, they ho"te deposited more thon 0.7 cubic miles of
debris on the lowlonds surounding the volcono, burying hundreds of squore
rniles of lcnd. Duning heovy roins, lohors ot Pinotubo cqn lTonsport qnd deposit
iens of millions of cubic yords of mud in o single doy. Since the I99l eruption,
lohors from Pinotubo hove destroyed the homes of more thon 100,000 people
I Earlhflow
. Involves soil ond other loose sediments moving downhill in o viscous moss qt q
much slower poce thon o nudflow
. Most of moleriol is silt or clqy sized. ond eorthflows occur on slopes of between
2" qnd 35".
-fhey
arc thick€r in consistency ond deeper.
. Usuolly confined to o chonnel ond they lose their velocity guickly when they
reoch o flot surfoce
. Eqrthflows vary in speed from lm/day to several hundred m/hr.
. Less dongerous thqn mudflows but they con still domqge infrqstrlcture such qs
roods ond roilwoys
I Debris flow
. Ropid mqss movenent in which loose ond unconsolido-ted soils, rocks, ond orgonic
motte|ihot flows downslope ds viscous fluids, typically spredding ouf fron a
river chonnel to form on olluviol fon.
. Debris flows with higher woter content move foster ond further from fhe
originol source os compored to londslides
. Moss novenents involving lqrge volumes of rocks ond debris thot breok up on
impoct, but continue to lrovel downslope. They hove the gredtest impoct in
populqted mounlqinous dreqs.
Exomples
Mont Blonc, Itoly (1717) - fn September 1717, o lorge debris ovalonche (of
rock ond ice) fell from Triolei Glocier neor Mounf 8lqnc, Ifoly. Debris moved
ropidly downslope reoching velocities up lo 3zOkm,/h ond fell over 1850m. As
the debris hit the volley floor, it iroveled 6Om ond there it overwhelrned lwo
entire villoges .
d) Foll
I Pock falls
The free loll of deloched bodies of bedrock through the qir from o cliff
steep bore rock slopes (ongles gtealet thon 40 degrees).
Occurs when o piece of rock on o steep slope becomes dislodged ond folls
down the slope.
A rock foll moy be o single rock or o mcss of rock, ond the folling rocks con
dislodge olher rock os lhey collide wifh the cliff. Eecouse this process
involves Ihe ftee toll of rno-teriol, folls conrnonly occur whete lhete ote steep
.liffs.
E.9. The foll of o 162,000 fonne noss of gronitic rock ot Glocier Point ih
yosenite Nofionol Pork, USA, on 1O July 1996. fhe follen rock moss hit the
ground ond creoted o mognifude 3+ eorthguoke. However, only one person wos
killed by o lree blown down by the oirblost in froht of fhe fqllen rock moss.
Ihe presence of joints, bedding plones, foults and fissures offer lines of
weokness olong which detochment of blocks occur. The greotest rock foll
hozord exists when joints ond bedding plohes o.e inclined ot steep ongles, os
in the highly folded rock in mountqin chains.
Rocl( and
Figure 12. Folling rocks ond debris occumulote ot the boses of cliffs os fdlus.
Effects:
, Debris folls ore similor to rock folls, except they.involve o mrxture of sojl,
regolih . \ eget oI ion. ond rocks.
3. FACTORS AFFECTING MASS MOVEMENT
i) Naturol Foctors
o) Slope 6rodient
. Eg. in mountoinous environmenls such os the Hitnoldyos ond the Andes, obout one
cotostrophic rock foll, which involves huge nosses of moterial (up io 100 x
106m3), occurs per decode
b) Type of ,iloleriol
. Thin soils iehd to be more unstdble os they con only supporl limited vegefotion.
. A porous ond permeoble soil, e.9. Sond, is less likely-to become soluroted thon
impermeoble soil such os cloy. Unconsolidcfed sond hove lower internol cohesion
ond lower sheqr strehgth ds conpored to cloy.
. Areas .oveted with thick sheets of wind-blown loess or tephro ore olso
susceptible to flows ond slides
. Where the weothered loyer is very deep, or where rocks ore weok, the slope will
olso be nore unstoble.
. Geologic s-tructures tefet to the rock structure ond sirengfh of the rock or
soil \
. Especiolly fovouroble to noss movenent ore mossive rocks overlying wedk rocks
(cloy or shole); o clossic situoiion for slope foilure
. Porous moteriql qbsorbs watet.6e.oming heovier qnd prone to novemehf. The
woter lubricoies the sheer plone to focilitote movemenf
d) Climote
. Includes temperdture ond roinfoll which con influence weqthering processes ond
slope slobili+y
> Tenperdlure
I Roinfall
. heovy roin or olternqte freeztng and fhowing leods to olternote exponsion ond
controction of the soil which encouroges moss movemenl
. Moss movernents ore oflen ossocidted with heovy or persistent roinfoll thoi
odds weight ond volurne to the soil
. Heavy roin increoses the erosive power of cny river of the bose of o slope ond
by removing moteriol, mokes lhe slope less sloble
. Heovy snowfoll odds volume dnd weight to the soil ond encouroges ropid moss
novenents such c5 ovolonches
e) Vegetdtion
. tl,lechanicol foctors orise from the phvsicol interoctions of either the folioqe 9!
root syslem of fhe pldnt with the slope.
. Hydtologicol rnechonisms ore those intricocies of the hydrologicol cycle fhof
exist when vegelotion is present.
3. On the ofher hond, presence of roots ond stems lends to increose the
roughness of the slope surfoce, which moy leod to a gteatet copocity for
infilirofion.
4. Root chdnnels noy olso contribute to the erosion of internol pipes in some soils.
5. Prolonged extrdction of moisture by roots con leod fo desiccotion of the soil ond
formotion of
crocks in soil. Once formed, such crocks moy increose the
permeabilify ohd infiltrdtion cdpdcity of soil.
|Uechahical mechdnisms :
6. Plont roots bind the soil porticles fogether, ihus reducing the rote of soil
erosion which moy olherwise leqd to undercutting ond slope instobility.
7. Lorge toots, especiolly of trees, moy penelrcte deeply ond become onchored in
firm strotq fhereby forming o supporf to the soil montle upslope of the ttee.
Hehce, roots teinfotce the soil, increosing soil sheor strength.
8. yet on rock slopes, tree roots moy enien discontinuities ond wedge block opqrt,
possibly cqusing the detochment ond foll of boulders.
9. Vegetotion exposed to wind tronsmits forces into the slope, cnd if uprooting or
overturning occurs, both increosed erosion ond infilirqfion noy result.
I Earthquakes
. Eorihquokes moy releose so much energy thol slopes foilures of vorying types
ond scole ore triggered sitnultoneously os sheor sfress is increosed
. Intense shoking con couse o buildup of woter pressure in the pore spqces of
sedimenl, Ieoding to liguefoction. fn other words, liquefocfion is nol qlwdys
relqfed fo on increose in woter conlentj sometimes shoking couses the pore
watet already presenf in ihe sediment to coolesce so thot the sediment groins
lose contoct with one onother.
Exomoles
. l97O Peru Eorthquoke triggeted a debris ovolonche thot moved more fhon 3.5
krn down the sieep, rock slopes of Mount Huoscoron, reoching speeds of 480
krn/h. The villoge of yuhgoy wds destroyed ond os mony os 1O,O0O people killed.
9) Undercutting
. Slurnps ond other lypes of coostol londslides con 6e triggered. by the
undercutting ociion of o streom olong its bonk or by wgve oction olong o codst
. Heovy rain incredses the erosi\e power of ony river ot the bose of o slope ond
by rernoving mcieriol, increoses sheor stress, which mokes the slope less stoble
Un s upp orted
clil{ collapses
Hiqh Tide
o) Removol of vegefotion
. Surfoce moieriols become looser due to the loss of soil binding by roofs ond the
slope is olso more exposed to the erosive oction of surfoce runoff.
. Londslides often occur when noturol slopes hove been tnodified by humon
ocfivities E.g. Where roods hove been cul in-io regolith, creofing on ortificiol
slope thot exceeds ihe ongle of repose
. Londslides ore olso cornnon olong the coostol cliffs of Colifornio whete toods
h,Jve 6een carved inlo deforned sedimeniory rocks-
c) Adding Weight io Slope
Urbonizotion ond residentiol development not only odds weighi through the
buildings, increosing ihe grovitotionol lorce 6eing opplied to the slope bul olso
through excess woter supplied from londscope irrigotion or seepoge from
swimming pools ond sewoge systems.
On 5 June 1993, o rototionol slump occurred in the bock gorden of the Holbeck
Holl Hotel in Scorborough. Although the couses of this slump ore ot leost
threefold (soturoiion of boulder cloy on the cliff following o porticulorly wet
spring, undercutting of the cliff by coostol erosaon ond the extrd weight of the
hotel) there seems liltle doubt fhof the ptesence ol the hotel wos o significont
conlributory fqctor in cousing fhe slunp.
Moss novements, especiolly londslides con suddenly rush down o steep slope
ond couse greof desfruction ocross q wide qrea of hobitoble lond
con couse floods by domming up bodies of wqter.
This will result in o greot loss of lives ond property
Domoges to buildahg struciures ond infrostructure
Loss of productivity of ogriculfurol londs
Loss of industriol producfivity 5ecouse ol interrup{ion of tronsporlqlion
systems by moss movements
5low rnovement of creep does long lerm economic domoge to roilroods,
buildrng structure ond underground prpes.
5. MANAGEMENT OF AAASS MOVE/IAENT HAZARDS
i) Mitigotion,tAeosures
. Londslide control is most successful when combined with urbon risk ossessment
ond londuse plqnning through the use of hozord mopping techniques, legislotion
ond eorly worninq sysfern.
. Hozord ossessnenfs posed by poientiol moss movement events qre bcsed on:
I Hazard nopping
. Mops showing oreos lhot coald be affected by noss rnoven€ht e\ents ote
imporiont tools for lond-use plonners.
@ 8ddrnfu h.:.d
srod,e h..nr
'E414
> Legislation
. The use of low ond reguldtion to restrict construc-tion in oreos of known high
risk oreos so thot domoges will be minimol
For e.9. lond thoi is susceptible to mild foilures might be suitqble for some
Iypes of development (e.g. tectealion or pork) bui not others (e.9. intensive
ogriculture of housing).
Groding ordinonces such os the Uniform Euilding Code odopted in the USA ore
importon t regulotory tools.
\
E.g.With the inlroduction of o gtoding ordinqnce in Los Angeles in 1952, losses
ot new construction sites ore less thon 27". Befovihot, more thon 10% of
building lots were dornoged by slope foilure.
c) Slope Stqbilizotion Technigues
. In oddition to
ossessmeni, prediction ond eorly worh,hg, sone e gineering
fechhiques con be used to mitigote ot even ptevenl londslides. These include
reloining devices; droinoge pipes; groding; ond diversion wolls.
. A reloining woll is o structure thot holds bock eorth. E.g. Piles, buttresses ond
retoining wdlls, geotextiles.
. Retoining wolls stobilize soil ond rock from down slope moverneht ond provide
supporJ for verticdl or neor-veriico! grode chonges.
. One of the most common opprooches is the use of concrete block wolls, poured
or sproyed concrele (sholcrete), rock bolts or gobions (rocks conJoined in wire
mesh coges) to sirengthen slopes
. Guidi^g structures near lhe slope bose, such os diversion wolls con deflect smdll
debtis f low s el I ectiv ely.
unstdble slopes. The locotion of properly boundories moy olso resfrict the use
ol t hrs opprooch
. Properly designed ond constructed droinoge systems work well bui others soon
\ecome clogged by fine porticles.
6rading
Oversteepened hill slopes ccn 6e prevenled from slumping if they ore regroded
to ongles equol to or less fhon the noturol angle of repose.
Groding con be done through the use of excovotion ond filling methods to
produce o more stoble overoge slope, especiolly ot roodcuts olong hill slopes.
Specific fechniques include unlooding the heod of o slide ond looding the toe,
with .the replacernent ol f oiled moteriol with lighter loods.
EXCAVATON AY SIDECASTING
. This will increqse sheor strength if more ttees cre plonted in o plot of lond
since vegetdtion binds soil togeiher which teduces the likelihood of noss
movement.
. Vegetoiion conopy olso helps to protect the soil dgoinst roinsplosh inpoct which
reduces the cohesion of the soil porticles.
. These construction methods use moinly un-rooted cuttings, token from live
plonts ond instqlled in the ground. The plont cuttings ioke root ond become
estoblished on the slope.
. These systems reduce surface erosion qs well os reinforce the soil. How
effective the soil is reinforced depends on the depih of which the culfings cqn
be ploced ond the depth to which roots will penetrote.
. fndividuol moss movemeht disdslers rorely ottroct ot)ention ond emetgency oid
due fo fhe smoller scole losses os compored to othet geologic hozords.
. emergency relief cornprises the provision ol sheher, food, bosic hygiene
omenities ond medicol core.
End of Topic
. Moss movemenls con ronge frorn dry io wet, slow to fost, smqll to lorge ond
from free-folling to g.oduql or intermittent.
. The ongle of repose of loose sedirneni groins represents o bolonce of driving ond
resisling forces on o slope.
Solifluctioh . Sotlroted . Gentle . siow but s ighily . salurotion of soil by hleltwo+er a formotion of . Lewis Hills,6ros
soilond slopes foster +hon soil creep froln snow ond grolhd ice durihg solifluction lobes
regolilh . role ronging from 5 the +how seoson ond sheets of
Newfoundlond,
cmondlmoyeor debris ihot
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1 28 GEOMORPHALOGICAL HAZARDS
lour pcople dierl *hen lhe_v Lllgj iua ircdi, a scnrlor lor
ueE car.ied a$ay by x mldslirir thc.tr.snon l.rzr lblrx pan!.
.rllcn i.i a lxilianrenltty
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'Ih. b.dics oll
oa a :14 yslr co'.nrissLo. .1 inqutrJ r! he
w.nia, and hcr lhrc. chi[n0 .pcred iuo th. srt.l .ivi
aged bctwecr lour and Il {oc
lasired oul rnlo r s.cel nr
0km2A Bracrjrli o exrly lesterda! alLer
j
r Dudslirle hiL Lh. village thc
prevrous nrghL Lhe aurho.ilics
srld Anoll,e, trvo Fople werr
rdpo ca b hrv..lLel ir the
Figure 7,5 Newspaper articlc: 100 feared .lead as mudstio.s hit south ltaLv lSource: In: tme. ' Nrar 19981
NATURAL HAZARDS ON ALIUVIAL FANS:
THE VENEZUELA DEBRIS FLOW AND FLASH FLOOD DISASTER
Highly dewloped alluval fan, Caftballeda, Venezuela, aetial view laokins nafth
{#,.
".,r'..
.IH
AN EXAMPLE OF ALLUVIAL FAI'I E PAST IS TH E KEY TO
HAZARDS: THE FUTURE
h d'c past. drc landslidc hazard has bcetr sonrewhat neglect.d dd Fig.3 Frciorr contribdln'g lo slope insrrbiliq:
urdcrestimrtsd in lnatit has bcon li.tcd solclyraith thchiglr maenitudc.
lo$ fr.quoncy events thal luve caus€d nassivc ioss ofltla, such as tho Slzep EratidL llc slc.pd rslopc, lhc great.r will be thc
l96l Va,o.l Dam d6r{d n,Iraly, whc. ovd2000 pcollc fqkhcd lLl.art cfclivcress of the dorvnrvard pull ol sravity, tolknrg c.lltpsc
l]14 J) or lhc l9T0lluascanu rock avaiarchc in lhe teruvian A.dcs, nrore likcly t o.cdr lt is, h.wcvcr, wrore lo asumc drat
*hich rv,ped oullv. vilhgcs rnd killcd 25,000 lcotl.. lrndslidcs arc onlyasociatcd wilh stecD slopes.
ll..t /)'/a Rocls dillij in 6cn.bili(y lo lDld a sloNi grn.it. and
Nlany p.ople, panicul.rly h tlio lrlc hilcd b lray rptropri.tc lnn6bnc. for exanrple, r'ill hold a vcnical slope vidorr collaps,ng
atenrion to drc 'n.dir,
hdilnLs drt ..cur $ a ...scqucncc ol c.rthquxkcs. {
wh@as sands rd chys dc only irblc il llr slopc is a lorv turglc
!olcr.oe\ orhuFicrnc\ NIL'ch ol rho dcrlruclion dld loss ollifcllrl occu6 Rocks lnal arc loos. and uncoDsolidaled arc nruch more prone ro
durina rh.sc dlcnG is oltcn d,rc.lly rlaled to slope failurc ranrcr nrar to collatle R.ckjrhl[snni is nrlpon too, as wc.terrocks or lop of
gtuund sliaknig .r leq
nnr and slonB w ds. All ioo ohen, lhe cfiecls ol sNnaer rccks nay be prcne ro slidins o\er thc $de yins srdla
Ihc landslidcs. h tcrns oflos ollifc a
finnncFl cosls, are lorrecordins ceotusiut ttruLtute |l\c dip al rocLs. or lhc frscncc ol inclbcd
ptrrtoses, $rbsumcd wiihin thc nr.in event itsclfind theefoE receivc lirtle iaults. rviilinnuene lhe likelihood ofshdins. Hcivrly |raclurcd or
acknowlcdscrrcntas a baard in $en orm nsh!. The result is ttol lddsldcs jo cd rocks qill bc n.rc pro.c ro qcathcrn€ proc.s.s such rs
oftcnro l.pely utrccosniscd asse.ous and li€quenr nrrurnlhaaftls. nost snaftcri.e, making them wlnerble to collaps..
n'ntu co"tent an.l pcthcobilit, W3rur conrcnl, or mlrc trcu,s.ly
Su.h tr'istolre'ntalion is dturgLrous in nad studr.s, for il Esulis in a lack of
varcr pore prossurc, is rc.og.is.d as bcnrg o.c oi rlrc noli
lotrs o. dr ul k$6 t or.xmph, nr an nrqukcpmneara,weshouldnot
impodnnt lacros in afiectinj. sloDe vulnembility. walcr scncs k)
o lv build boNs tlft will sld$i{d shakiux brt we slould build ddn ir ald
icducc llrc friclian ber$ec. panicles a.d n lubricares the sloD.
.way tuD lhe danscn olslop3 lailure llslor€ frilure scs uln@snisql {s a
polential hu&l $en lhe ask ol,lnf,{cr is incMsul hgcly rhrough ,gnomcc.
p.omorinscollapse Thcmdjdiryollandsl,d$cdnbclinkcdtiltr'
picscncc ofwatel nr a slope.
H,s thc lrtrdslide hazrrd inc.e,s€d? Retnowl of vesetalio". vegdldlio., prnicularly in tlle fom of
lteE {e sfleEl r6oN why dd lMdslidc lEtd hts i..rety{ n, 4ht yca: irccs, rcduces 1he likelilood olslopc collapsc because 11 intercepls
. L@se t)ot1t oJ th? w'lrt hdE bea opeEl rq li rcmnle expbitdir-, ninrall, uies w.icr to grorv and hclps r.bind soil and rock
Eenaali. d d inJ stttlw l&Aqn.nk ,1Mr thd w otu
t)avcr parriclcs togelhc. if vecetalion n reDoved, for cxample, lnr
. tidaal b he Ende hnv lx.onlt.bthped, p ti'g nnnr ?.L?Luti:L timbeior aor drc dcvclopnrcntofrski slopc, tlrc slopc immcdiately
. tnb iw itrt, ?aniculurt i| LttDCs, hu: l.d t tht t?rutul.J urlun bcconcs more wlDerable to collapse.
ure^ o b hjlL-itL: ?rctiausl!.ottrLrcd too tuhgctols for hdl'naian slop. undscutlir!. ll a slope k 0.dercul, cilho !y DaLual
t g in Litna, P.tu dnd llin de Johent. Brdil atul in llo\K.ry. processes such trs lluviilor mrn.c smsnin,.rby humln a.lions,
. Cauiul au: hdt. b.." ihct osiht, d.r.lap..l lor ittduirr od sucl, is road buildnrg, n becomcs unslnble, incFasnrs rhc
tonri:n, arl.lilfl..r!: ur pd nrlarb' rtlherabl. ta calhps.
. thnu aLt^iLr hr! nrarrcl vrh slnp. !tuft.s ad rr,c.scs Itz,t,u rrro,j ,\s ihc dcv.lopmo.i ol slopes bas increanal rr
Sl.rc: h.r.l.rh rnotltfrd c.! fot turtl l, llr\ ar.l tlrdi a!., trd rcccnr ycrA ior sctlcDrenl. resourcc cxploiklion rn{l injiAtucru,t
th4t tno,lili.dLiahs ahl dh.r.tiohs r) thc notunl slat). srsta hz\e deve)qlncn! noFs hilc bc..ni. n!.r.rsnrgly rbdincd, oncn
t h.,n!.1 \ (: nfld trd l\' r?q,rr.r t)f lor.tstt.l.t
maknre lk.r nrorc $hcrxblc lo collapsc.Ilouringdere lnDcnr ln'
To$, r,trisr. r,orc p.opLc tu.'L.warffk 6onra sr.nid nurnlis ollandslds qinpl., b.i i,r.r.xscd tlr vciglfon nopcs: l irlerlcr.d wnhI r
naluai dr? .Be syscnr.1hc duorti.g ol collieq Nx{. on rmcr
$ lar c!usrs landslidesl sbpcr ir rodrcr \'.y lruna a.tions . pljt nMeascd pres$E on a
lr h po$lblc ro dislirrllrslr ber\een n{o set ol lirclo6, fimtly those sLol]c, 6 a( AbcrlD. In allen.|: slopc I'olilcs and F)rcss.s, dy
contiliurlnE Io th. lillclihood ol a l.ndslide, and sccoodly, those sulo ol balan.o rhat rngl,r hrle cxhled is nnnr.dmrcly
rcspoNiLl. lo, lri8ecrne thc laDdslide ilsell co prcmned lnndslides € nrcreasing beirg linled lo hum n
ac1ivr1y, lbr exampl. lcaking titls, lhc .cnrral ol \cgctriid\ ard
I. Co,ttibutoryJAdts- I J dur rg or o! . \l .oo onar pLL.r- .. e r'. <.'i'
L
Aslopc ir i c.n\kntly clolving l.ndslrpc unir Ir i. a rcsNnsc b a nrruril lakc accounl olrbc Dossitrlc cllccrs ol{lovclopncnton in.rcNt'g tllc
sct ol tucrffs r.d cond tuns, such rs tuck tytc, vcgcrrrion cdvc. ..d
climrrc, rnd non slopcs will rvcnlually Nhicvc a sirt oI b.l.n.c or
cquilibnud H.lv.vcr it n a dyn.nic cquilibriunr 3s it is onl' vlcn
.ondnbns.llr.gc, cilhcr naturnll!, sDch as a for6t firc or cafhquakc, or as
dr.suholhuhma.livit' llat thc stoN bccomcs usablc and rcsFnds by
dilcntrgnsprollcinordcr lorchi$canewshteolbaldrear..Irr .r.
2. Ttigeo Dtethant a
E .h lbdnide cvcntcan bc linkcd lo a l'loces lhal IDs tiiggercn ihc slopc
lirild rqikt scvcnl proccscs car acl .s tieScs, srch as a pciod of
imcn\c atusl shxrcn.g, slotc udcrcunnre by tie sea or vibntions caused by
./,l rgg. T'o{Jr.r.trdsi.n,i ,r\.y
'.'ll'
. t1tr12\ l inmt! ',.,o"ino
in gtuurl*akr'.1pn:in is r.n!id.rc./ L'! sLp.
t 9\\.' b b! th( rn.rt L.nD o" tut!.ltd,rtst ta lht urldi , n
\n1?r.anLdn? rt. bdkinrlai aspir)asa. .!olen,.li t hd^y
rax4a En|]rtDna : rthjtdta b roi.dt ol int.Lt tklin. fu
dn plc q,.lo .r .t ,bn\r. t drc t)aturrldtlf v ne,abl. t. lndtlid4
1\.se ttr'L\lider \t.r1 n trinr rtnbld) d\ a ft! t .l t ttt.:dtu Mix:h
. Seienit a.th'itt. 71k ,ihanid6 tr:tLair !Lr| urtlqnaka! tnl
vtu"i. dhi0frqtl( h hirsu land:lirla: t'r un cuihqrub tt.nt
e|! .li.n b( h..L$..n!r.l lanlthl.s that eill.d^t Et?tt.n kas
. l l ilL u l dtna tc 1. p'? r,..rr't r it is pa ii.rlarlt th..ns. ||Act sirs
u.l.laJ,! L,..o c hqt./i.J A.|\lik ) ir t"st)ors. to shdki,E at \ns
td..ts. th th. 19614laJknr an4rle t985 M6w att, rd rtjudkut
The lrndslide hazard
Ilor can thc landslide hlzard be redu.€d? 2. Sbuctural cryit.erhry t.spo s.s (p@ention)
Reducina rhe sio|c h'2'd.xn hkc Ift lonD olb€[ ioural rcsponscs, Srruclurdl r.sponscs. hlolvnrs sonrc loro ol .nsinccring, a,e lh. mon
Nhich involvo rcdu.ire pcople s{rlncEbilrry lohndslidei ,nn rr-rri co'nDoD and lvldesp.crd ftspiin\cs ro rl,c landslidc hrzat(l Thc us. o1
or cneineerila responses, r'h,ch dcdcsigrcd to r.duc.lbe lik.lihood ola s(ccl pi.r, Rrc cagcs .nd rclinlg arc. a€. t rc umnon rdnriqos
l.ndslidccvcnl occurnls Landslides nr rcmorc and unpopuldtcd arcasdo aimcd ar nabilisins a slop€or rcdu.ing rl[ cfii.ts ol$allsctrle collapsc,
rot E|rercnr a haTrrd is su.h and c.n bc lar!.ly rSmred. su.h rs rocklalk. lnrrcvhs sloDe drinar:e lFt d) is a tunld.onnnor
Cts. StutU 2: IIMr Et*t stop. st'bitisutit Notther" IriC- 6 lntrrovn,s slopc dnn,rge.
',
Tne a"st../ ttupnf L ru: l.*.ttd b ftnt.c thc ltk.lihDod af In conno. wilh allfonns ofhazad manrgcmcnl, a c.sl l,cdcil analysis
lutttr sti^ tak s pkr. nceds to be conducrcd bcrrc.nginccring works rF underllkcn
A tu.k L,unrcst iat tonrruttulb k !u: u \rrlldt th( hu:tor h. UIl,mr{cl}, only {hoso slopcs losnrS thc grcalest risk t) pcoplc an!
Irieh.sr lDancial losscs rvill bc pdccled *irh thc ho$ cxlcnsiyc an.l
sothntlrtd nructtrcs lidhennorc,.s wilh flood.lclcnccs, no schctr,c
'!ltu;t ntc wll rnt t\ld i) !!&t h) 1t .:drL u .tn thut ". r roc.in.r\lron 1",i
,
'lun r(.'1. 0.r1.'. "' ''tuJ_
oJ
b. lqo ofiablr'tuhbn i l,!lor,1h. st1\,1n 'l n|h,'l
" r,'mi,,lnriLt,,rL i h, ,.'\ rn rl
r'.tc dtlat:hrd Th",
Fig. T Locatio ttCarucas, Wnezu.lu . aatuut t L.u lcl. nLa! s l.! l'! ttt st..? ,illslopcs tu d
"'ap a uuryi al Jorhabitunn O'ullttyu]:
th.t i: devril,ed ds bei
\ht t L\tr |x1t b.. d(t.lopd on nr6. !.cp !1.p.!, $tnti
*dh lr ..t ro pla rE u d a srbsequdl !a.:k./hutite\ sr|h
ds .ltaitnXe Presidthl Chnr.z Llo,t.l .ortut)t pt r\\n
Sor.rr .rts lor oU.viry iI.1:41 shd,ty bw"t b dlvtlop r nrl i
L.ntideret! b he bo nnhg.ttllt ht habitalioh il CNN rcp,t
pnblish.d on 19\ De.e thct I99t staled 4rat nlil!tun.t .tJ p.rr
p.arle hut! huilt h.hte! (JIihLtr pft.ati.u!ry ?efth.d shd.ks) o
th. t outot sd. becnus. the) cartdnl .4lotd b tire ary. rra
.ls., atullotdecad.t, sor.rhnt.nt alJn:ialt d.1tr11te b i.p thL t
Case Studj 4: chctry Hilt! La"lslid., Anlipolo Cil), [is. I Thc Chetr IIiUs landnide.
(rt.l",,luAt:r l919
a liM:ln,1: lunlsli.l.o..rrtul ih the ah.tt! lIils
ol Ahtip.la Ci4, (Fk 8), tust ! qbt to thc eatt aJ Mdnila Manr
li:ti.t
A.6es wre de:h.yed ona ent! 53 peapL l.! theirlit.s.
C6e Stutl! 5: Los Coti,ns n'udnida, El Sut'u.lor,2001 Whd ,'erc thz Mnszqut"tt!!
1tu ?rt!'nr 1. d.\ch4, c\ nkar l h :nt( is .aned.nnn. rnn
d(rit. th. dnan.: it :ro: liktlr thnl hrt.h ol 14. tdnd ettt hc
Oh lJ'J.ruory 2001 a'.artA,1udk. h!1 tl)a (-o t11l ,1.toi.un !at(.1 It\,?lL?el .n.. aquin, olthouAh p$rhlr thr n./.I. ctls!
F! Snlv.dn': .tt'in! (i.l(4rrt.l .Lrtstrlior ar.i .iEt.tul: t.\.rtl A.,sirq thnt w ttlelt btpr. th. ntulsl"l.
"ot "i1h
l&1dshl.r /11 Lor Cahui the.npiLlt su Salrrtlot (t i! 9) |
".at
c rudllN :utrul tl.\!n a ,tlkid. h .Er4 tt. ,1tt. . t Mar.\ t-ig , Lo.ation ,1dtr of EI Snlrnlor.
"us! ^
hur. .dt aJr.p!'.1o\1 tht. !rr?\ d t1 se,.n] th.talrtl \t.r. n't tl
,/hat .r. ntz uncibttot!lacto6?
. nE t?t.1et1intt^lnLt hcs ut ]tu /i'.! .,ld r.t| !.rr hillslr,r,. t,.tt
.f \hnh snrt,L" ..ltrt.'i o b lhr h."\nt[ htt.r\ ,h r th?
,oL\i)E hat d h.r t. !t1r.t.rl ." t( hnlslat. itstf. it las
Lltuh tuht(tnLlr la lot)r fonurc
. Frt \tvrdl ftd)\ ori)unkntul lt tp! unl lorrl tultt.rb hll
L'(" ptrAtunt: uttn)! thc dtttrlttau.r d att dtrrL)pn)ut o1
At ridti.tJ t!1t ( t,drtlou tal Bul:otu .' tkUrlih? ntu.\.tl.okr
Lu: CDllhdt. ) l.rlrtit vrt c|d l.dEll .A uln tit t,t:1tu...
..nt)a t!t, rhrth bt.ryh! . nrlu!4 h.l,q .lc\rlop"1.ht. |!o\t r.t:
thdl \!tt.r.rr.it..l at 1999 a ddevlip'on",u!lba4)uru!
t t!: nntl L linbttul).s?.,f11.hi:l.pe
. H.arf rcn^-.1ufi1A11t. wnkt hd.! t ttle 1tu eil\ hlow unl s.hnne.l
tYhnt wus lte triqst fu.hr?
th.r'iSS.rlot th. hu.Lrtt,l.:!a: d t a:sir!7 6a,tl)quul! tlnlorLu,trl
n the Pd.lir dzu b th. eutL.fsah Sohad..
Exant Hint: Case studies 3,4 and 5arci.t.alt.t suppo4ing your 'l herc nrchr roo mJny ki lii t'ctuj.ny s.ar.h wiLlre\.allilc'n ly hundrrdr
ow, exaa a.swers as 16eyarc recent, cteadv set our and lutt ol
pte.is. fa.tua| derail. Read thtough .l sircs Lllobxl rnd locrl ncu\ xgcDcics ($w,6rr. .. h rl\Lils a rtn.ri
th. causcs \9.rc physjcat, good rlrnins roi'n) \vill lrni!id. r.u pil| addilion uionnrlron on (hr
tuccr1..sc n!di$ lcalured jI this !ni.l. !n1l oD orcs 1l,r( pon-dilc i(.
Lrn,lnnfus tukc n'xry Lnns rrd, wlrikl msny occur iir remole !re!s
Ll W|al L.1o6 are resfonsibl! lni lrnilslidcsl
C. Eunnr, with rcfcrcncc lo cxrnrples you l,alr nudicd, rhc rolc ol
por.slinldl ea! to pcorlc, rn,.cusns runbcr nrw o.curnr lofulalcd pcoplcandlunanrctirilyinnrrcNnrgtl[landsl chrztrd.a/r,tr 1,
rrrs \Vhilnlr.ddidcs arcp.,i.clly naluml Espooses roslo|re $hbility,
in in rcasnrg numhcr olthonr hrr r dNtn.(ilc h!dr. clc.rnl ir lhcir
crui., rturi.nlarl] $hcLcunnritiblc land hrs becn ovcrnovclol)cd
A This is a rrirly sbriglrtfor*tud qucslon rcquinnr dein{n,n. xnd rlcrr
ll rhc lrndslidc |rhrd
h rol to in.rcisc nnhel' srenier reserch needs 1o
lntu bclwccn lhc n.luftl er€nt u]d $c mrl
sci ro roDlc RcDrcnrb!,
Lharx h':nl'onlycxisl whc Fcopleor hunran &tl!i1yrrcrlnst
bc undcnlk.n lo slody sbpc rfuccssc\ ldJ ro ptuducc hazald na$.
tlrn.c6 thcn nccd to rcstord accordrnely. enher b] rcsiridins B Hcrc y. nccd ro be clea' about thc dillirc cc benvcen ibr
conrriburory ficlors.nd rl,c kiggcr hclols llnrtralclhc ftrcrors ulth
dcvclopmcrl on dangeurs slopes, or by e.sunng rhrr adlors arc Ixkcn
.€laicncc to cxaDpl.s.
C. Thn is a Drorc chrlleneing qucslnt! q4rich rcqunes you 10 evalurt.
d,c rolc ol l.oplcorlum actions in either sendfutins ddid.s oi
-lhe.6t
l
Rcfcrcnccs and furthcr rcserrch
turnnrs rncnr Iionr Dalural evcnrs inlo rn Dade disxstcr
Mon,4S rndA2 lcvcltcrdr.ks lirlc.nrtle,sncvolcdbslopcpocesses,and
srudics in th. rn,clc givc you rnd't/ to rci.r lo, bur mrkc surc to!
drto dc \.v.r.lbools dcihrg {ilh Nrunl Hxzrds dlrhrvc nh.le(harre$ tucus on lhc qucstio..
deroled to linGlnLs Ir iall,Nins rclLrcnccs tu! NnrN lcis vcllktu]vn.