FLORIDA SOLAR ENERGY CENTER

A Research Institute of the University of Central Florida

How does Solar Energy Work

Florida Solar Energy Center

1679 Clearlake Road
Cocoa, Florida , USA, 32922

Objectives

Understand the variables affecting the amount of solar energy

received on a given surface
Differentiate between solar irradiance (power) and solar
insolation (energy)
Demonstrate how solar radiation and weather data are used in
sizing photovoltaic systems
Assess site specific issues such as array location, orientation and
shading, roof condition, safety hazards, and other requirements
for PV installations.

October 3, 1998

Solar Spectral Data and PV

Device Response
ASTM891

Cz-Si

2000

1600

0.8

1200

0.6

800

0.4

400

0.2

0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Quantum Efficiency (%)

Irradiance (W/m2)

ASTM892

Wavelength (micron)
October 3, 1998

Factors Affecting the Solar

Radiation Received on a Surface

Geometric effects:

Atmospheric effects:

rotation of the earth about a tilted axis and earths orbit

around the sun
Orientation of the surface with respect to the suns rays
scattering and absorption by atmospheric constituents
effects vary significantly with altitude, latitude, time of
day and year, and local weather conditions

Shading effects:

Objects shading the sun from the array

October 3, 1998

Earths Rotation and Declination

Arctic Circle 66.55 oN

Earths Rotational Axis

Tropic of Cancer 23.45 oN

Equator

Ecliptic Plane
Solar Declination (*)

Tropic of Capricorn 23.45 oS

Sun
Equatorial
Plane

Antarctic Circle 66.55 oS

October 3, 1998

Earths Orbit Around the Sun

4
Vernal Equinox: March 21
Declination = 0o
Earths axis of
rotation

Earths Orbit Around the Sun

(counter- clockwise)

Summer Solstice: June 22

Declination = +23.45o

Aphelion - July 2

Perhelion -January 2

96 million miles
(1.017 AU)

90 million miles
(0.983 AU)

Sun
Ecliptic
Plane

Winter Solstice: December 22

Declination = - 23.45o

Autumnal Equinox: September 23

Declination = 0o

2
October 3, 1998

Sun Paths for 30o N Latitude

1

June 22: 12 noon

September 23 and March 21: 12 noon

Zenith
10 am
2 pm

2
10 am

8 am

December 21: 12 noon

8 am
2 pm
4 pm

East

10 am
8 am

2 pm

North
4 pm

Point
O

South

4 pm

West

October 3, 1998

Atmospheric Effects

Results in the scattering, attenuation and

absorption of direct solar radiation received
outside the earths atmosphere
Effects vary significantly with altitude,
latitude, time of day and year, and local
weather conditions.

October 3, 1998

Effect of Air Mass

Atmospheric path length

affects the amount and
spectral content of solar
radiation.
PV module performance
Sun at
is rated under AM 1.5
mid-morning or
spectral distribution
mid-afternoon

Sun at noon

One Air Mass

(AM 1 )
Earth
Atmosphere

1.5 Air Mass

( AM 1.5 )
October 3, 1998

Sun Position - Definitions

Zenith
90 deg altitude

East
Altitude Angle (")
Azimuth Angle (R)

North
Point O

South
0 deg azimuth

West

October 3, 1998

10

Solar Irradiance (Power)

Solar irradiance is the radiant power per unit area, commonly

expressed in units of kW/m2, or W/m2
Outside the earths atmosphere, the suns power is relatively
constant, equal to 1.36 kW/m2 and is referred to as the Solar
Constant.
Typical peak terrestrial irradiance values are approximately 1
kW/m2 (1000 watts/m2) for surfaces normal to the suns rays
under clear sky conditions.
1 kW/m2 is also used as the peak rating condition for PV module
performance.

October 3, 1998

11

Peak Solar Irradiance on a Surface

Sunlight intensity measured in watts per square meter
With sun directly over head and PV flat on the ground

1m

One
Square
Meter

= 1000 watts = 1 kilowatt

1m

October 3, 1998

12

Solar Insolation (Energy)

Solar irradiance (power) summed over time equals solar

insolation (energy)
Solar Insolation is the radiant energy per unit area, and is
expressed in units of kWh/(m2-day)
Peak Sun Hours (PSH) is the amount of solar energy received on
a surface, and is equivalent to the number of hours that the solar
irradiance would be at a peak level of 1 kW/m2, or the
equivalent number of hours per day that a PV array will operate
at peak output levels.

October 3, 1998

13

Solar Irradiance (W/m2)

Solar Insolation
(Peak Sun Hours)

peak sun hours

1000 W/m2
Area of box equals
area under curve

Solar irradiance

500 W/m2

Solar insolation

Sunrise
October 3, 1998

Noon

Time of Day (hrs)

Sunset
14

Array Orientation
Zenith
Solar incidence
angle (()

East

Surface
normal

Array surface
North

South
Array tilt angle (")
Array azimuth
angle (R)

West
October 3, 1998

15

Array Orientation Tilt Angle

Optimal performance of PV arrays is achieved by

facing the array south (north in the southern
hemisphere), and at a tilt angle from horizontal using
the guidelines below:
Application
Maximum Annual Energy
Production
Winter Peak Load
Summer Peak Load

October 3, 1998

Best Array Tilt Angle

90% of Latitude
Latitude plus 15 degrees
Latitude minus 15 degrees

16

Array Orientation Azimuth

Optimal energy performance of PV arrays is achieved by facing the

array due south.
In most cases, latitude-tilt surfaces with azimuth orientations of +/- 45
degrees from due south will receive 75-80 percent of solar energy on
south-facing surfaces.
Where magnetic declination is significant,adjust compass readings for
due north south by adding magnetic declination:

See: http://geomag.usgs.gov/

For example, a magnetic compass needle in central California will point

15 degrees east of true north, and a compass in New York will point 15
degrees west of true north.

October 3, 1998

17

U.S. Magnetic Declination

October 3, 1998

18

U.S. Solar Radiation Data

June

October 3, 1998

19

U.S. Solar Radiation Data

December

October 3, 1998

20

Peak Sun-Hour Data

Minimum daily Peak Sun-hours
during hurricane season.

October 3, 1998

21

U.S. Solar Radiation Data

Availability

National Renewable Energy Laboratory - Solar

Radiation Data Manual for Flat-Plate and
Concentrating Collectors:

http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/pubs/redbook/

Other solar resource data is available from:

http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/pubs/

October 3, 1998

22

Solar Radiation Measurement

PSP
PV - PSP

October 3, 1998

23

Solar Radiation Measurement

Solar Meter: See:

http://www.solaqua.com/daysolmet.html

October 3, 1998

24

What is Required for Energy Estimation

While there are several methods to determine

PV system performance, the following
parameters are required
Nominal

Array Size
Peak Sun-hours - Sunlight Energy incident on
the PV array
Array Tilt
Array Azimuth Angle

October 3, 1998

25

The PV Installation Process

Conducting a Site Survey

Installing the System

October 3, 1998

Selecting a System

System Checkout &

Inspection

26

Solar Photovoltaic System (SPS)

Solar Photovoltaic System (690.2)

The total components and subsystems that, in combination, convert
solar energy into electrical energy suitable for connection to a
utilization load.
energy
source

load
utilization

power
conditioning

PV Array

Inverter
Charger
Controller

load
center

energy
distribution

energy
conversion

energy
storage
October 3, 1998

battery

electric
utility
network
27

Solar Photovoltaic System (SPS)

Components
PV Array: An electrical assembly of photovoltaic modules that
convert sunlight to DC electricity.
Inverter: A device that converts DC power from batteries or PV
arrays into utility-grade AC power.
Energy Storage: Electrical or other storage devices sometimes
used to store energy produced by PV arrays for later
consumption.
System Charge Control: A device used to protect batteries from
overcharge and overdischarge, sometimes provide load control
functions.
Load: Energy consuming electrical appliances served by the
system.
Balance of System (BOS) Components: Other equipment
required to control, conduct, protect and distribute power in the28
October 3, 1998
system.

Solar Cell

Solar Cell (690.2)

The basic photovoltaic device that generates dc electricity

when exposed to light. A typical silicon solar cell produces
about 0.5 volt and up to 6 amps and 3 watts for larger area
cells.
electrical load
(-)

sun
typical crystalline silicon
photovoltaic cell

dc current flow

phosphorous-doped (N-type)
silicon layer ~ 0.3 x 10-6 m

boron-doped (P-type)
silicon layer ~ 250 x 10-6 m

(+)
October 3, 1998

29

Photovoltaic Modules

Module (690.2)
A complete, environmentally protected unit consisting of solar
cells, optics, and other components, exclusive of tracker,
designed to generate dc power when expose to sunlight.
60 watt polycrystalline
module

October 3, 1998

75 watt crystalline
module

12 watt thin film

module

30

Photovoltaic Modules and Arrays

Typical PV modules range in size from around 0.5 m2 to over 3

m2 surface area, with peak power output of 50 to 300 watts dc.
Area power densities range from 80-120 W/m2.
Most commercially available crystalline and multi-crystalline PV
modules have 36 cells in series, and have open-circuit voltages of
20-22 volts dc, and designed for battery charging applications.
Most listed modules can be connected in series up to 600 volts
DC.
Some thin-film modules have open circuit voltages as high as
100 volts dc, and may use multiple parallel module connections
per source circuit.

October 3, 1998

31

Definitions: Photovoltaic Cells,

Modules, Panels and Arrays

cell

module

array
October 3, 1998

panel
32

Typical Module Label Required by

National Electrical Code
Siemens Solar Industries
Camarillo, CA 93011
MODEL M55
PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE
AT 1000 W/M2 SOLAR IRRADIANCE
AND 25 oC CELL TEMPERATURE

MAX. POWER
53 WATTS

30B9 LISTED

SHORT CKT.
3.35 A

RATED
3.05 A

MAX. SYST. OPEN CKT. V.

600 VOLTS

OPEN CKT.
21.7 V

RATED
17.4 V

FIRE RATING
CLASS C

SERIES FUSE
5A

FIELD WIRING
BYPASS DIODE
COPPER ONLY, 14 AWG MIN. INSTALLATION GUIDE
INSULATED FOR 75 C MIN.
233-701500-20
MADE IN U.S.A.

October 3, 1998

33

Identification of Photovoltaic
System Components
Photovoltaic source circuits

Blocking diodes
Fuses
Solar cells
Module

Photovoltaic
output circuits

Panel
Array
Adapted from NEC 2002
Figure 690.1(A)

October 3, 1998

34

PV System Charge Controllers

October 3, 1998

35

Battery Charging

Battery charging modes:

Bulk or normal charging

Finishing charge
Equalizing charge

Temperature compensation

minimizes excessive charge and electrolyte

when hot,
improves capacity when cold.

October 3, 1998

36

Inverters for PV Systems

Inverter (690.2)
Equipment that is used to
change dc input to ac output,
and may also function as a
battery charger for systems
using storage.
Inverters for PV systems in
sizes from 100 watts to custom
designs of up to 1 MW or
more
DC operating voltages of 12
volts up to 600 volts, with AC
outputs from 120 V single
phase to 480 V three phase.

October 3, 1998

37

PV Inverter Classifications

Stand-Alone Inverters
Inverter in solar PV systems that operate and supply power
independent of the electrical production and distribution
network, typically operate from storage batteries.
Utility-Interactive or Grid-Connected Inverters
Inverters in solar PV system that operate in parallel with and
may deliver power to an electrical production and
distribution network, may be connected to PV arrays or
batteries.
Bi-Modal Inverters
Can operate either in interactive or stand-alone mode, but
not simultaneously, typically use batteries.

October 3, 1998

38

Amplitude

Alternating Current Waveforms

square wave
sine wave
quasi-sine wave
Time

One Cycle
October 3, 1998

39

Efficiency

Inverter Efficiency vs. Load

October 3, 1998

Output Power Level

40

Batteries for PV Systems

Storage Batteries (690.71, 480)

Batteries are used in some PV
systems to store energy produced
by the PV array and supply it to
electrical loads as needed.
Charge control is required in
most cases to protect batteries
from overcharge by PV array,
and overdischarge from loads.

October 3, 1998

41

Secondary Battery Types and

Characteristics

BATTERY TYPE
FLOODED LEAD-ACID
Lead-Antimony
Lead-Calcium Open Vent
Lead-Calcium Sealed Vent
Lead Antimony/Calcium Hybrid
CAPTIVE ELECTROLYTE LEAD-ACID
(VRLA)
Gelled
Absorbed Glass Mat

October 3, 1998

Cost

Deep Cycle
Performance

Maintenance

low
low
low
medium

good
poor
poor
good

high
medium
low
medium

medium
medium

fair
fair

low
low

42

Rack-Mounted PV Arrays

October 3, 1998

43

Tracking Array Configurations

October 3, 1998

44

Standoff-Mounted Arrays

Above and
parallel to roof
slope
Promotes array
cooling
Can Reduce heat
gain into
buildings
October 3, 1998

45

Commercial BIPV System

October 3, 1998

Image courtesy of PowerLight Corp

46

Direct-Coupled
Stand-Alone Systems

Simplest type of stand-alone PV system, common

applications include water pumps and fans.
DC load is directly connected to a PV array, no energy
storage.
No overcurrent device typically required.

PV Array

October 3, 1998

DC Load

47

Stand-Alone PV System with

Battery Storage

PV array charges battery which supplies power to DC

electrical loads as needed.
Without charge control, battery is susceptible to
overcharge and overdischarge.
Charge control may only be eliminated under special
circumstances the load is well defined and the battery
is oversized.
PV Array

October 3, 1998

Battery

DC Load

48

Stand-Alone PV System with

Batteries and Charge Control

Charge control is required whenever the load is

variable and the battery is not oversized.
Protects the battery from overcharge and
overdischarge, and may provide load control
functions.
PV Array

Charge
Controller

DC Load

Battery
October 3, 1998

49

Stand-Alone PV System with

AC and DC Loads

PV Array

Charge
Controller

DC Load

Battery

Inverter/
Charger

AC Load

October 3, 1998

AC Source
(Charger Only)
50

Stand-Alone PV Hybrid System

PV Array

Charge
Controller

DC Load

Rectifier

Battery

Inverter

DC Bus
Engine-generator,
wind turbine or grid backup
October 3, 1998

Charger

AC Load
AC Bus
51

Basic Utility-Interactive or
Grid-Connected PV System
AC Loads

PV Array

Inverter/Power
Conditioner

Distribution
Panel

Electric
Utility
October 3, 1998

52

Utility-Interactive PV System
No Battery Storage Dual Metering
Customer
Electrical Loads

PV Array
Customer-supplied meter
for PV generation
(recommended)

Inverter

PV kWh

Customer
Electrical
Panel

Customer
Utility

Customer-supplied visible break,

lockable PV disconnect
Outdoor
(utility may require) Disconnect
* Arrows indicate directions of power flows

October 3, 1998

Electric Utility
Network
To Utility
kWh

From Utility
kWh

Two, unidirectional revenue meters, or single bidirectional recording meter (utility-supplied) 53

Utility-Interactive PV System
with Energy Storage
Backup
AC Loads

Primary
AC Loads

Bypass circuit

Critical Load
Sub Panel

Inverter/
Charger

PV Array

Battery
Storage

October 3, 1998

Main Panel

Electric
Utility
* Arrows indicate directions of power flows

54

Utility-Interactive PV System with

Battery Storage Net Metering
Customer
Backup Load

PV Array

Customer
Sub Panel

Inverter/
Charger

Battery
Storage

From
Main kWh

Customer

Customer-supplied
sub metering
(recommended)

Customer Primary
Electrical Loads

To Main
kWh

Customer
Main Electrical
Panel
From
Main kWh

Inverter Bypass Circuit

Transfer Switch

Utility
Customer-supplied visible break,
lockable PV disconnect
(utility may require)

Outdoor
Disconnect

Utility Net
kWh

Electric
Utility
Network

* Arrows indicate directions of power flows

October 3, 1998

Standard, bi-directional revenue meter (utility-supplied)

55

Utility-Interactive PV System with

Battery Storage

Source: Xantrex/Trace
Engineering

October 3, 1998

56

Watts Electrical Schematic

2

UTILITY
CONNECTION

#8 THWN-2 IN METAL CONDUIT

#10/#6 GROUND

#10 USE-2

AC LOAD
CENTER

UTILITY
DISCONNECT

60A

#6 THHN

INTERCONNECT
PER 690.64

15A FUSED
COMBINERS
+

#6 THHN

#6 THHN

50A

120V
EMERGENCY
LOADS
SUBPANEL

GROUNDING
ELECTRODE
[250.64]

120V OUTPUT
INVERTER
-

40A BREAKERS
EXTERNAL GFDI
MAY BE
REQUIRED (690.5)

POSITIVE
BUS

#10 USE-2 TRANSITIONS TO #8 THWN-2 IN METAL

JUNCTION BOX; METAL CONDUIT CONNECTS
CONSECUTIVE JUNCTION BOXES

40A CHARGE
CONTROLLERS

80A

6 #8 THWN-2 IN METAL CONDUIT TO COMBINERS

2 #6 THHN IN CONDUIT

#6 THHN

ASSUMED AMBIENT
TEMPERATURES:
65C ROOFTOP MODULES & CONDUIT
30C ALL OTHER EQUIPMENT

2 #4 THHN IN CONDUIT

2 #4/0 THHN IN CONDUIT

2 #6 THHN IN CONDUIT

October 3, 1998

GND

BATTERY BOX

#4 THHN

2 #10 USE-2 W/ #10 BARE EQUIPMENT GROUND, NOT IN

CONDUIT (NOTE: SOME JURISDICTIONS REQUIRE A #6
BARE GROUND

6
5

PV MODULES
1

#4/0 THHN
250A

ALL TERMINAL TEMPERATURE

RATINGS ASSUMED TO BE 75C,
EXCEPT FOR 90C MODULE
TERMINALS

NEUTRAL BUS

57

October 3, 1998

58

Zero Energy Homes

October 3, 1998

59

Energy Estimation Software

Selected PV Software Programs

Maui Solar PV Design Pro

z

http://www.mauisolarsoftware.com

PV CAD: http://www.iset.uni-kassel.de
PV F-Chart:
http://www.fchart.com/pvfchart/pvfchart.html
PV Sol: http://www.valentin.de/englisch/startseite-e.htm
PVSYST 3.21: http://www.pvsyst.com
KeryChip: http://www.kerychip.dk/eng.htm
HOMER: http://analysis.nrel.gov/homer/
PV Watts: http://www.pvwatts.org

October 3, 1998

60

Solar Hot Water Systems

Differential controller operated

Direct pumped system
Photovoltaic operated system
Indirect pumped system
Drain back system
Integral collector storage (ICS) system
Thermosiphon system
October 3, 1998

61

Types of Solar Water Heating Systems

Passive

Direct

Indirect

Active

October 3, 1998

62

Typical Thermal System Diagram

October 3, 1998

63

Solar Water Heat Large Fields

Martin County
Correctional Institute
Two fields, each:

70 flat plate collectors

Two 3000 gallon tanks
Three pump loops

October 3, 1998

64

Large Utility Scale Power

October 3, 1998

65

Large Scale Power CSP Dish

UNLV Pilot
Planned: 1-MW, >40
units near Las Vegas

October 3, 1998

66

Audubon Society Nature Center, LA

100 % Solar Thermal AC

Heat, DHW w/800 SF
array
25 kWp PV for pumps,
fans, electrical

October 3, 1998

67

Other - Transpired Collector wall

October 3, 1998

68

Many designs and proven performance

Personal cookers to Village cookers

October 3, 1998

69

Solar Thermal Shower

October 3, 1998

70

Summary

Identified factors affecting the amount of solar energy

received at a given location
Define solar irradiance and insolation
Discussed criteria for orienting PV arrays
Demonstrated use of solar radiation data in
estimating the performance of PV systems
Identified considerations for PV installation site
surveys

October 3, 1998

71