Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Contents
1
Overview
1.1
CERN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
Particle accelerators
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3
Sites
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4
1.1.5
Public exhibits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.6
In popular culture
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.7
Associated institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
11
1.2.1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.2.2
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.2.3
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.2.4
Operational history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.2.5
Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.2.6
Proposed upgrade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.2.7
Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.2.8
Computing resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
1.2.9
17
17
17
18
18
1.2.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
22
1.2
Experiments
23
2.1
23
2.1.1
23
2.1.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
ii
CONTENTS
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.1.3
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
2.1.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
2.1.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
23
2.2.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.2.2
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.2.3
24
2.2.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
2.2.5
Data Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
2.2.6
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.2.7
Future Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
2.2.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
2.2.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
ATLAS experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
2.3.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
2.3.2
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
2.3.3
Physics program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
2.3.4
39
2.3.5
Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
2.3.6
42
2.3.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
2.3.8
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
2.3.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
43
44
2.4.1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
2.4.2
Physics goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
2.4.3
Detector summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
2.4.4
CMS by layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
2.4.5
47
2.4.6
Milestones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
2.4.7
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
2.4.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
2.4.9
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
2.4.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
49
VELO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
2.5.1
Physics goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
2.5.2
50
2.5.3
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
2.5.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
CONTENTS
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.5.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
2.5.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
LHCf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
2.6.1
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
2.6.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
2.6.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
FP420 experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
2.7.1
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
2.7.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
2.7.3
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
TOTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
2.8.1
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
2.8.2
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
2.8.3
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
Technology
53
3.1
Beetle (ASIC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
3.1.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
3.1.2
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
53
3.2.1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
3.2.2
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
3.2.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
3.2.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
3.2.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
LHC@home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
3.3.1
SixTrack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
3.3.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
3.3.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
3.3.4
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
55
3.4.1
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
3.4.2
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
VELO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
3.5.1
Physics goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
3.5.2
56
3.5.3
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
3.5.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
3.5.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
3.5.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
iii
Theory
58
iv
CONTENTS
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Standard Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
4.1.1
Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
4.1.2
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
4.1.3
Particle content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
4.1.4
Theoretical aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
4.1.5
Fundamental forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
4.1.6
62
4.1.7
Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
4.1.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
4.1.9
63
4.1.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
65
65
Particle physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
4.2.1
Subatomic particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
4.2.2
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
4.2.3
Standard Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
4.2.4
Experimental laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
4.2.5
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
4.2.6
Practical applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
4.2.7
Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
4.2.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
4.2.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
69
70
Superpartner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
4.3.1
Theoretical predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
4.3.2
Recreating superpartners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
4.3.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
4.3.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
4.3.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
Supersymmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
4.4.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
4.4.2
Motivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
4.4.3
Applications
72
4.4.4
General supersymmetry
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
4.4.5
75
4.4.6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
4.4.7
Falsiability
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
4.4.8
Current status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
4.4.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
4.5
76
4.4.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
78
79
Higgs boson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
4.5.1
A non-technical summary
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
4.5.2
Signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
4.5.3
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
4.5.4
Theoretical properties
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
4.5.5
Experimental search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
4.5.6
Public discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
4.5.7
91
4.5.8
91
4.5.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
4.5.10 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
4.5.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
Safety
5.1
5.2
104
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.1.4
5.1.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.1.6
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
5.2.5
5.2.6
5.2.7
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.2.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.2.9
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Strangelet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
Dangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
vi
CONTENTS
Debate about the strange matter hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.3.5
In ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.3.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.3.7
Future
6.1
6.2
5.3.4
120
6.1.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.1.3
6.2.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.2.3
122
7.1
Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.2
Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.3
Chapter 1
Overview
1.1 CERN
For the company with the ticker symbol CERN, see
Cerner. For the rocket nozzle, see SERN.
Coordinates:
6.05278E
1.1.1
History
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
More recently, CERN has become a centre for the development of grid computing, hosting projects including the
Several important achievements in particle physics have Enabling Grids for E-sciencE (EGEE) and LHC Computbeen made during experiments at CERN. They include: ing Grid. It also hosts the CERN Internet Exchange Point
(CIXP), one of the two main internet exchange points in
Switzerland.
1973: The discovery of neutral currents in the
[6]
Gargamelle bubble chamber;
Faster-than-light neutrino anomaly
1983: The discovery of W and Z bosons in the UA1
[7]
and UA2 experiments;
Main article: Faster-than-light neutrino anomaly
1989: The determination of the number of light
neutrino families at the Large ElectronPositron On 22 September 2011, the OPERA Collaboration reCollider (LEP) operating on the Z boson peak;
ported the detection of 17 GeV and 28 GeV muon neutrinos, sent 730 kilometers (450 miles) from CERN near
1995: The rst creation of antihydrogen atoms in
Geneva, Switzerland to the Gran Sasso National Labothe PS210 experiment;[8]
ratory in Italy, traveling apparently faster than light by a
1999: The discovery of direct CP violation in the factor of 2.48105 (approximately 1 in 40,000), a statistic with 6.0-sigma signicance.[16] However, in March
NA48 experiment;[9]
2012 it was reported by a new team of scientists for
2010: The isolation of 38 atoms of antihydrogen;[10] CERN, Icarus, that the previous experiment was most
by scientists of both the
2011: Maintaining antihydrogen for over 15 likely awed and will be retested
[17]
Opera
and
Icarus
teams;
on
16
March, CERN stated
[11]
minutes;
in a press release that the results were awed due to an
2012: A boson with mass around 125 GeV/c2 con- incorrectly connected GPS-synchronization cable.[18]
sistent with long-sought Higgs boson.[12]
Scientic achievements
CMS
North Area
LHC-b
TI8
SPS
TT10
Computer science
Wide Web
TI2
ATLAS
West Area
AD
CNGS
Towards
Gran Sasso
TT60
TT2
LINAC 2
n-TOF
BOOSTER
East Area
ISOLDE
PS
CTF3
Prior to the Webs development, CERN had been a pioneer in the introduction of Internet technology, beginning
antiprotons
electrons
neutrinos
PS
SPS
LHC
Proton Synchrotron
Super Proton Synchrotron
Large Hadron Collider
Antiproton Decelerator
AD
n-TOF Neutron Time Of Flight
CNGS CERN Neutrinos Gran Sasso
CTF3 CLIC TestFacility 3
1.1. CERN
3
the velocity of antiprotons to about 10% of the speed
of light for research into antimatter.
The Compact Linear Collider Test Facility, which
studies feasibility issues for the future normal conducting linear collider project.
Large Hadron Collider
Collider
Most of the activities at CERN are currently directed towards operating the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), and
the experiments for it. The LHC represents a large-scale,
worldwide scientic cooperation project.
Map of the Large Hadron Collider together with the Super Proton
Synchrotron at CERN
The Proton Synchrotron Booster increases the energy of particles generated by the proton linear accelerator before they are transferred to the other accelerators.
The Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) accelerates the
ions from the ion linear accelerator, before transferring them to the Proton Synchrotron (PS). This
accelerator was commissioned in 2005, after having been recongured from the previous Low Energy Antiproton Ring (LEAR).
The 28 GeV Proton Synchrotron (PS), built in 1959
and still operating as a feeder to the more powerful
SPS.
The Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS), a circular accelerator with a diameter of 2 kilometres built in
a tunnel, which started operation in 1976. It was
designed to deliver an energy of 300 GeV and was
gradually upgraded to 450 GeV. As well as having its own beamlines for xed-target experiments
(currently COMPASS and NA62), it has been operated as a protonantiproton collider (the SppS collider), and for accelerating high energy electrons
and positrons which were injected into the Large
ElectronPositron Collider (LEP). Since 2008, it
has been used to inject protons and heavy ions into
the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).
Seven
experiments
(CMS,
ATLAS,
LHCb,
MoEDAL,[20] TOTEM, LHC-forward and ALICE)
will run on the collider; each of them will study particle
collisions from a dierent point of view, and with
dierent technologies. Construction for these experiments required an extraordinary engineering eort. For
example, a special crane was rented from Belgium to
The Antiproton Decelerator (AD), which reduces lower pieces of the CMS detector into its underground
The On-Line Isotope Mass Separator (ISOLDE),
which is used to study unstable nuclei. The radioactive ions are produced by the impact of protons at an
energy of 1.01.4 GeV from the Proton Synchrotron
Booster. It was rst commissioned in 1967 and was
rebuilt with major upgrades in 1974 and 1992.
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
Decommissioned accelerators
The original linear accelerator (LINAC 1).
The 600 MeV Synchrocyclotron (SC) which started
operation in 1957 and was shut down in 1991.
The Intersecting Storage Rings (ISR), an early collider built from 1966 to 1971 and operated until
1984.
1.1. CERN
D, in Switzerland, for goods reception at specic famous physicists, such as Richard Feynman, Niels Bohr,
times.
and Albert Einstein.
E, in France, for French-resident CERN personnel at
specic times. Controlled by customs personnel.[24] 1.1.4 Participation and funding
Named Porte Charles de Gaulle in recognition of
his role in the creation of CERN.[25]
Member states and budget
Inter-site tunnel, in France, for equipment transfer to
and from CERN sites in France by personnel with a
specic permit. This is the only permitted route for
such transfers. Under the CERN treaty, no taxes are
payable when such transfers are made. Controlled
by customs personnel.[24]
The SPS and LEP/LHC tunnels are almost entirely outside the main site, and are mostly buried under French
farmland and invisible from the surface. However, they
have surface sites at various points around them, either
as the location of buildings associated with experiments
or other facilities needed to operate the colliders such as
cryogenic plants and access shafts. The experiments are
located at the same underground level as the tunnels at
these sites.
Three of these experimental sites are in France, with ATLAS in Switzerland, although some of the ancillary cryogenic and access sites are in Switzerland. The largest of
the experimental sites is the Prvessin site, also known
as the North Area, which is the target station for noncollider experiments on the SPS accelerator. Other sites
are the ones which were used for the UA1, UA2 and the
LEP experiments (the latter which will be used for LHC
experiments).
Outside of the LEP and LHC experiments, most are ocially named and numbered after the site where they were
located. For example, NA32 was an experiment looking at the production of charmed particles and located
at the Prvessin (North Area) site while WA22 used the
Big European Bubble Chamber (BEBC) at the Meyrin
(West Area) site to examine neutrino interactions. The
UA1 and UA2 experiments were considered to be in the
Underground Area, i.e. situated underground at sites on
the SPS accelerator.
Most of the roads on the CERN campus are named after
Since its foundation by 12 members in 1954, CERN regularly accepted new members. All new members have
remained in the organization continuously since their accession, except Spain and Yugoslavia. Spain rst joined
CERN in 1961, withdrew in 1969, and rejoined in 1983.
Yugoslavia was a founding member of CERN but left
in 1961. Initially only West Germany was a (founding) member of CERN. Of the twenty members, 18 are
European Union member states. Switzerland and Norway are not. Israel joined CERN as a full member on 6
January 2014,[26] becoming the rst (and currently only)
non-European member.[27]
As of 2014, CERN receives contributions from states
with a total population of about 517 million people. Averaged across those states, the contribution per person in
2014 is about 2.2 CHF/year.
[1] Based on the population in 2014.[28]
[2] 12 founding members drafted the Convention for the
Establishment of a European Organization for Nuclear
Research which entered into force on 29 September
1954.[29][30]
[3] Acceded members became CERN member states upon
signing an accession agreement.[31]
[4] Additional contribution from Candidates for Accession
and Associate Member States.[31]
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
Enlargement
International relations
Associate Members, Candidates (note that dates are initial signature, not of ratication):
+ Slovenia, Cyprus,
1.1. CERN
Non-Member States (with dates of Co-operation Agreements) currently involved in CERN programmes are:
Algeria
Bolivia
Romania 1 October 1991. Since 12 December 2008 it has the Status of Candidate for Accession to Membership.
Vietnam
Cuba
Ghana
Ireland
Latvia
Lebanon
Madagascar
Malaysia
Mozambique
Palestinian Authority
Ecuador
Philippines
Qatar
Rwanda
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Taiwan
[51]
Thailand
Tunisia
Uzbekistan
Venezuela
[53]
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
1.1.5
Public exhibits
1.1. CERN
In Robert J. Sawyer's science ction novel
Flashforward, at CERN, the Large Hadron Collider
accelerator is performing a run to search for the
Higgs boson when the entire human race sees
themselves twenty-one years and six months in the
future.
In season 3 episode 15 of the popular TV sitcom The
Big Bang Theory titled The Large Hadron Collision, Leonard and Rajesh travel to CERN to attend
a conference and see the LHC.
The 2012 student lm Decay, which centers around
the idea of the Large Hadron Collider transforming people into zombies, was lmed on location in
CERNs maintenance tunnels.[65]
Public.web.cern.ch.
Retrieved 20
1.1.7
Associated institutions
1.1.8
See also
CERN Openlab
Fermilab
Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk
Onderzoek
Science and technology in Switzerland
Scientic Linux
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
World Wide Web
Large Hadron Collider Wikipedia book
1.1.9
References
10
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
[45] Decisions from CERN Councils 169th session. 13 December 2013. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
[62] Large Hadron Collider Rap Video Is a Hit, National Geographic News. 10 September 2008. Retrieved 13 August
2010.
[63] Southparkstudios.com. South Park Studios. Retrieved
25 May 2011.
[64] Angels and Demons. CERN. Retrieved 31 January
2012.
1.1.10
External links
11
understanding of physical laws. It contains seven detectors, each designed for certain kinds of research.
The LHC was built in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists and engineers from over 100 countries, as well as
hundreds of universities and laboratories.[4] It lies in a
tunnel 27 kilometres (17 mi) in circumference, as deep
as 175 metres (574 ft) beneath the Franco-Swiss border
near Geneva, Switzerland. It is also the longest machine
ever built.
As of 2014, the LHC remains the largest and most complex experimental facility ever built. Its synchrotron is
CERN at 50
designed to collide two opposing particle beams of ei CERN Courier International journal of high- ther protons at up to 4 teraelectronvolts (4 TeV or 0.64
microjoules), or lead nuclei (574 TeV per nucleus, or 2.76
energy physics
TeV per nucleon),[5][6] with energies to be increased to
Israel may become rst non-European member of around 6.5 TeV (13 TeV collision energy) about seven
nuclear research group CERN
times the previous record in 2015. Collision data was
also anticipated to be produced at an unprecedented rate
Big Bang Day: The Making of CERN, September
of tens of petabytes per year, to be analysed by a grid2008, A BBC Radio program
based computer network infrastructure connecting 140
computing centers in 35 countries[7][8] (by 2012 the LHC
Computing Grid was the worlds largest computing grid,
1.2 Large Hadron Collider
comprising over 170 computing facilities in a worldwide
network across 36 countries[9][10][11] ).
LHC redirects here. For other uses, see LHC (disam- The LHC went live on 10 September 2008, with proton
biguation).
beams successfully circulated in the main ring of the LHC
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the worlds for the rst time,[12] but nine days later a faulty electrical
connection led to the rupture of a liquid helium enclosure, causing both a magnet quench and several tons of
helium gas escaping with explosive force. The incident
resulted in damage to over 50 superconducting magnets
and their mountings, and contamination of the vacuum
pipe, and delayed further operations by 14 months.[13][14]
On November 20, 2009 proton beams were successfully
circulated again,[15][16] with the rst recorded proton
proton collisions occurring three days later at the injection energy of 450 GeV per beam.[17] On March 30,
2010, the rst collisions took place between two 3.5
TeV beams, setting a world record for the highest-energy
man-made particle collisions,[18] and the LHC began its
planned research program.
The LHC has discovered a massive 125 GeV boson
(which subsequent results conrmed to be the long-sought
Higgs boson) and several composite particles (hadrons)
largest and most powerful particle collider, and the largest
like the (3P) bottomonium state, created a quark
single machine in the world,[1] built by the European Orgluon plasma, and recorded the rst observations of the
ganization for Nuclear Research (CERN) from 1998 to
very rare decay of the B meson into two muons (B 0
2008.
+ ), which challenged the validity of existing models
Its aim is to allow physicists to test the predictions of of supersymmetry.[19]
dierent theories of particle physics and high-energy
The LHC operated at 3.5 TeV per beam in 2010 and 2011
physics like the Standard Model, and particularly prove
[20]
Protonproton collisions are the
[2] and at 4 TeV in 2012.
or disprove the existence of the theorized Higgs boson
main operation mode. It collided protons with lead nuclei
and of the large family of new particles predicted by
for two months in 2013 and used leadlead collisions for
supersymmetric theories.[3] The discovery of a particle
about one month each in 2010, 2011 and 2013. The LHC
matching the Higgs boson was conrmed by data from
went into shutdown for upgrades to increase beam energy
the LHC in 2013. The LHC is expected to address some
to 6.5 TeV per beam, with reopening currently planned
of the unsolved questions of physics, advancing human
A section of the LHC
12
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
1.2.1
Background
Are there extra dimensions,[32] as predicted by various models based on string theory, and can we detect
them?[33]
What is the nature of the dark matter that appears to
account for 27% of the mass-energy of the universe?
1.2.2
Purpose
Physicists hope that the LHC will help answer some of the
fundamental open questions in physics, concerning the
What are the nature and properties of quarkgluon
basic laws governing the interactions and forces among
plasma, believed to have existed in the early universe
the elementary objects, the deep structure of space and
and in certain compact and strange astronomical obtime, and in particular the interrelation between quantum
jects today? This will be investigated by heavy ion
mechanics and general relativity, where current theories
collisions, mainly in ALICE.
and knowledge are unclear or break down altogether.
Data is also needed from high energy particle experiments to suggest which versions of current scientic mod- 1.2.3 Design
els are more likely to be correct in particular to choose
between the Standard Model and Higgsless models and
to validate their predictions and allow further theoretical
development. Many theorists expect new physics beyond
the Standard Model to emerge at the TeV energy level, as
the Standard Model appears to be unsatisfactory. Issues
0
possibly to be explored by LHC collisions include:[23][24]
W, Z
Are the masses of elementary particles actually generated by the Higgs mechanism via electroweak
symmetry breaking?[25] It is expected that the collider will either demonstrate or rule out the existence of the elusive Higgs boson, thereby allowing
physicists to consider whether the Standard Model
or its Higgsless alternatives are more likely to be A Feynman diagram of one way the Higgs boson may be procorrect.[26][27][28]
duced at the LHC. Here, two quarks each emit a W or Z boson,
W, Z
Is supersymmetry, an extension of the Standard Model and Poincar symmetry, realized in The LHC is the worlds largest and highest-energy particle
nature, implying that all known particles have accelerator.[5][34] The collider is contained in a circular
supersymmetric partners?[29][30][31]
tunnel, with a circumference of 27 kilometres (17 mi), at
13
with most weighing over 27 tonnes.[37] Approximately
96 tonnes of superuid helium 4 is needed to keep the
magnets, made of copper-clad niobium-titanium, at their
operating temperature of 1.9 K (271.25 C), making the
LHC the largest cryogenic facility in the world at liquid
helium temperature.
The 3.8-metre (12 ft) wide concrete-lined tunnel, constructed between 1983 and 1988, was formerly used to
house the Large ElectronPositron Collider.[35] It crosses
the border between Switzerland and France at four points,
with most of it in France. Surface buildings hold ancillary Prior to being injected into the main accelerator, the parequipment such as compressors, ventilation equipment, ticles are prepared by a series of systems that succescontrol electronics and refrigeration plants.
sively increase their energy. The rst system is the linear
The collider tunnel contains two adjacent parallel particle accelerator LINAC 2 generating 50-MeV probeamlines (or beam pipes) that intersect at four points, tons, which feeds the Proton Synchrotron Booster (PSB).
each containing a proton beam, which travel in opposite There the protons are accelerated to 1.4 GeV and injected
directions around the ring. Some 1,232 dipole magnets into the Proton Synchrotron (PS), where they are accelkeep the beams on their circular path (see image[36] ), erated to 26 GeV. Finally the Super Proton Synchrotron
while an additional 392 quadrupole magnets are used (SPS) is used to further increase their energy to 450 GeV
to keep the beams focused, in order to maximize the before they are at last injected (over a period of several
chances of interaction between the particles in the four minutes) into the main ring. Here the proton bunches are
intersection points, where the two beams cross. In to- accumulated, accelerated (over a period of 20 minutes) to
tal, over 1,600 superconducting magnets are installed, their peak energy, and nally circulated for 5 to 24 hours
14
while collisions occur at the four intersection points.[41]
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
Computing and analysis facilities
Main article: LHC Computing Grid
The LHC Computing Grid is an international collaborative project that consists of a grid-based computer network infrastructure initially connecting 140 computing
centers in 35 countries (over 170 in 36 countries as of
2012). It was designed by CERN to handle the signicant volume of data produced by LHC experiments.[7][8]
By 2012 data from over 6 quadrillion (6 x 1015 ) LHC
proton-proton collisions had been analyzed,[44] LHC collision data was being produced at approximately 25
petabytes per year, and the LHC Computing Grid had
become the worlds largest computing grid (as of 2012),
comprising over 170 computing facilities in a worldwide
network across 36 countries.[9][10][11]
15
6 December 2010,[58] allowing the ALICE experiment to
study matter under extreme conditions similar to those
shortly after the Big Bang.[59]
CERN originally planned that the LHC would run
through to the end of 2012, with a short break at the end
of 2011 to allow for an increase in beam energy from
3.5 to 4 TeV per beam.[20] At the end of 2012 the LHC
would be shut down until around 2015 to allow upgrade
to a planned beam energy of 7 TeV per beam.[21] In late
2012, in light of the July 2012 discovery of a new particle, the shutdown was postponed for some weeks into
early 2013, to allow additional data to be obtained prior
to shutdown.
Timeline of operations
1.2.5 Findings
CERN scientists estimated that, if the Standard Model is
correct, several Higgs bosons would be produced every
minute, and that over a few years enough data to conrm
or disprove the Higgs boson unambiguously and to obtain sucient results concerning supersymmetric particles would be gathered to draw meaningful conclusions.[5]
Some extensions of the Standard Model predict additional particles, such as the heavy W' and Z' gauge
bosons, which may also lie within reach of the LHC to
discover.[74]
The rst physics results from the LHC, involving 284 collisions which took place in the ALICE detector, were
reported on 15 December 2009.[61] The results of the
rst protonproton collisions at energies higher than
Fermilabs Tevatron protonantiproton collisions were
published by the CMS collaboration in early February
2010, yielding greater-than-predicted charged-hadron
production.[62]
After the rst year of data collection, the LHC experimental collaborations started to release their preliminary
results concerning searches for new physics beyond the
Standard Model in proton-proton collisions.[75][76][77][78]
No evidence of new particles was detected in the 2010
data. As a result, bounds were set on the allowed parameter space of various extensions of the Standard
Model, such as models with large extra dimensions, constrained versions of the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model, and others.[79][80][81]
On 24 May 2011, it was reported that quarkgluon
plasma (the densest matter besides black holes) has been
created in the LHC.[66]
16
clude with 95% condence level (using the CLs method)
the existence of a Higgs boson with the properties predicted by the Standard Model over most of the mass region between 145 and 466 GeV.[84] The searches for new
particles did not yield signals either, allowing to further
constrain the parameter space of various extensions of
the Standard Model, including its supersymmetric extensions.[85][86]
On 13 December 2011, CERN reported that the Standard Model Higgs boson, if it exists, is most likely to
have a mass constrained to the range 115130 GeV. Both
the CMS and ATLAS detectors have also shown intensity peaks in the 124125 GeV range, consistent with
either background noise or the observation of the Higgs
boson.[87]
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
On 22 December 2011, it was reported that a new particle The optimal path for the LHC luminosity upgrade includes an increase in the beam current (i.e. the number
had been observed, the (3P) bottomonium state.[69]
of protons in the beams) and the modication of the two
On 4 July 2012, both the CMS and ATLAS teams anhigh-luminosity interaction regions, ATLAS and CMS.
nounced the discovery of a boson in the mass region
To achieve these increases, the energy of the beams at
around 125126 GeV, with a statistical signicance at
the point that they are injected into the (Super) LHC
the level of 5 sigma. This meets the formal level required
should also be increased to 1 TeV. This will require an upto announce a new particle which is consistent with the
grade of the full pre-injector system, the needed changes
Higgs boson, but scientists were cautious as to whether it
in the Super Proton Synchrotron being the most expenis formally identied as actually being the Higgs boson,
sive. Currently the collaborative research eort of LHC
pending further analysis.[88]
Accelerator Research Program, LARP, is conducting reOn 8 November 2012, the LHCb team reported on an search into how to achieve these goals.[95]
experiment seen as a golden test of supersymmetry
theories in physics,[72] by measuring the very rare decay of the B meson into two muons (B 0 + ). 1.2.7 Cost
The results, which match those predicted by the nonsupersymmetrical Standard Model rather than the pre- See also: List of megaprojects
dictions of many branches of supersymmetry, show the
decays are less common than some forms of supersymWith a budget of 7.5 billion euros (approx. $9bn or
metry predict, though could still match the predictions of
6.19bn as of June 2010), the LHC is one of the most exother versions of supersymmetry theory. The results as
pensive scientic instruments[96] ever built.[97] The total
initially drafted are stated to be short of proof but at a
cost of the project is expected to be of the order of 4.6bn
relatively high 3.5 sigma level of signicance.[89] The reSwiss francs (SFr) (approx. $4.4bn, 3.1bn, or 2.8bn
sult was later conrmed by the CMS collaboration.[90]
as of Jan 2010) for the accelerator and 1.16bn (SFr) (apIn August 2013 the team revealed an anomaly in the an- prox. $1.1bn, 0.8bn, or 0.7bn as of Jan 2010) for the
gular distribution of B meson decay products which could CERN contribution to the experiments.[98]
not be predicted by the Standard Model; this anomaly
The construction of LHC was approved in 1995 with a
had a statistical certainty of 4.5 sigma, just short of the 5
budget of SFr 2.6bn, with another SFr 210M towards the
sigma needed to be ocially recognized as a discovery.
experiments. However, cost overruns, estimated in a maIt is unknown what the cause of this anomaly would be,
jor review in 2001 at around SFr 480M for the accelalthough the Z' boson has been suggested as a possible
erator, and SFr 50M for the experiments, along with a
candidate.[91]
reduction in CERNs budget, pushed the completion date
On 19 November 2014, the LHCb experiment announced from 2005 to April 2007.[99] The superconducting magthe discovery of two new heavy subatomic particles, nets were responsible for SFr 180M of the cost increase.
b and
There were also further costs and delays due to engib. Both of them are baryons that are composed of one neering diculties encountered while building the underbottom, one down, and one strange quark. They are ex- ground cavern for the Compact Muon Solenoid,[100] and
cited states of the bottom Xi baryon.[92][93]
also due to faulty parts provided by Fermilab.[101] Due to
lower electricity costs during the summer, the LHC normally does not operate over the winter months,[102] although an exception over the 2009/10 winter was made
to make up for the 2008 start-up delays.
1.2.8
17
Computing resources
18
1.2.12
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
Popular culture
The third season of the popular CBS sitcom The Big [11] What is the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid? (PubBang Theory features an episode revolving around a
lic 'About' page) 14 November 2012: Currently WLCG
is made up of more than 170 computing centers in 36
dilemma regarding a trip to Switzerland to see the Large
countries...The WLCG is now the worlds largest computHadron Collider.
ing grid
The feature documentary Particle Fever follows the experimental physicists at CERN who run the experiments, [12] First beam in the LHC Accelerating science (Press
release). CERN Press Oce. 10 September 2008. Reas well as the theoretical physicists who attempt to protrieved 2008-10-09.
vide a conceptual framework for the LHCs results. It
won the Sheeld International Doc/Fest in 2013.
[13] Paul Rincon (23 September 2008). Collider halted until
next year. BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
Onion News Network featured a parodied news story
about the LHC titled Bored Scientists Now Just Stick[14] Large Hadron Collider Purdue Particle Physics.
ing Random Things Into Large Hadron Collider.
Physics.purdue.edu. Retrieved 2012-07-05.
In the Japanese visual novel Steins;Gate developed by
[15] Large Hadron Collider.
5pb. and Nitroplus, the Large Hadron Collider is utilized
by the games parody of CERN, named SERN, for time [16] The LHC is back (Press release). CERN Press Oce.
travel, and eventual world domination.[132]
20 November 2009. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
19
[19] M. Hogenboom (24 July 2013). Ultra-rare decay conrmed in LHC. BBC. Retrieved 2013-08-18.
[21] CERN Press Oce (17 December 2012). The rst LHC
protons run ends with new milestone. CERN.
[36] Henley, E. M.; Ellis, S. D., eds. (2013). 100 Years of Subatomic Physics. World Scientic. ISBN 978-981-442580-3.
[37] Dr. Stephen Myers (4 October 2013). The Large
Hadron Collider 2008-2013.
International Journal of Modern Physics A 28 (25): 13300351
133003565.
Bibcode:2013IJMPA..2830035M.
doi:10.1142/S0217751X13300354.
[38] LHC: How Fast do These Protons Go?". yogiblog. Retrieved 2008-10-29.
[39] LHC commissioning with beam. CERN. Retrieved
2009-04-17.
[40] Operational Experience of the ATLAS High Level Trigger with Single-Beam and Cosmic Rays (PDF). Retrieved 2010-10-29.
[41] Jrg Wenninger (November 2007). Operational challenges of the LHC (PowerPoint). p. 53. Retrieved 200904-17.
[42] Ions for LHC (I-LHC) Project. CERN. 1 November
2007. Retrieved 2009-04-17.
[43] Paul Rincon (10 September 2008). "'Big Bang' experiment starts well. BBC News. Retrieved 2009-04-17.
[44] Craig Lloyd (18 Dec 2012). First LHC proton run ends
in success, new milestone. Retrieved 26 Dec 2014.
[45] First beam in the LHC Accelerating science (Press
release). CERN Press Oce. 10 September 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-10.
[46] Mark Henderson (10 September 2008). Scientists cheer
as protons complete rst circuit of Large Hadron Collider. Times Online (London). Retrieved 2008-10-06.
[47] Interim Summary Report on the Analysis of the 19
September 2008 Incident at the LHC (PDF). CERN. 15
October 2008. EDMS 973073. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[48] Incident in LHC sector 34 (Press release). CERN
Press Oce. 20 September 2008. Retrieved 2009-0928.
[49] CERN releases analysis of LHC incident (Press release).
CERN Press Oce. 16 October 2008. Retrieved 200909-28.
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[73] The rst LHC protons run ends with new milestone.
CERN. 17 December 2012. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
[79] Chalmers,
M. Reality check
physicsworld.com, Jan 18, 2011
[65] CERN Press Oce (22 April 2011). LHC sets world
record beam intensity. Press.web.cern.ch. Retrieved
2011-05-22.
[66] Densest Matter Created in Big-Bang Machine, National
Geographic Daily News
[67] LHC achieves 2011 data milestone. Press.web.cern.ch.
17 June 2011. Retrieved 2011-06-20.
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the
LHC,
[83] CERN Press Oce (22 August 2011). LHC experiments present latest results at Mumbai conference.
Press.web.cern.ch. Retrieved 2011-09-01.
[69] Jonathan Amos (22 December 2011). LHC reports discovery of its rst new particle. BBC News.
[84] Pallab Ghosh (22 August 2011). Higgs boson range narrows at European collider. BBC News.
21
[85] Pallab Ghosh (27 August 2011). LHC results put super- [106] BOINC client-server technology#Server design weaksymmetry theory 'on the spot'". BBC News.
nesses, tecnologies weakness on win32 api
[86] LHCb experiment sees Standard Model physics. Sym- [107] LHC@home, BOINC
metry Breaking. SLAC/Fermilab. 29 August 2011. Re[108] Alan Boyle (2 September 2008). Courts weigh doomstrieved 2011-09-01.
day claims. Cosmic Log. MSNBC. Retrieved 2009-0928.
[87] ATLAS and CMS experiments present Higgs search status. CERN. 13 December 2011. Retrieved 2 January
[109] J.-P. Blaizot, J. Iliopoulos, J. Madsen, G.G. Ross, P. Son2012.
deregger, H.-J. Specht (2003). Study of Potentially Dangerous Events During Heavy-Ion Collisions at the LHC.
[88] CERN experiments observe particle consistent with
CERN. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
long-sought Higgs boson. CERN. 4 July 2012. Retrieved
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[110] J. Ellis J, G. Giudice, M.L. Mangano, T. Tkachev,
U. Wiedemann (LHC Safety Assessment Group) (5
[89] First evidence for the decay B>0 + , 8 Nov 2012,
September 2008). Review of the Safety of LHC
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Collisions. Journal of Physics G 35 (11): 115004.
[90] CMS collaboration (5 September 2013). Measurement
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Bibcode:2008JPhG...35k5004E.
of the B0 + Branching Fraction and Search for
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B0 + with the CMS Experiment. Physical Review Letters. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.101804. Re- [111] The safety of the LHC. CERN. 2008. Retrieved 200909-28.
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[112] Division of Particles & Fields. Statement by the Executive Committee of the DPF on the Safety of Collisions at
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[91] Hints of New Physics Detected in the LHC?".
[94] F. Ruggerio (29 September 2005). LHC upgrade (accel[114] John Poole (2004). Beam Parameters and Denitions.
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[95] DOE Review of LARP. Fermilab. 56 June 2007. Re[115] Robert Aymar (26 October 2005). Message from the
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[116] Fermilab 'Dumbfounded' by asco that broke magnet.
[97] Agence Science-Presse (7 December 2009). LHC: Un
Photonics.com. 4 April 2007. Archived from the original
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[117] Fermilab update on inner triplet magnets at LHC: Mag[98] How much does it cost?". CERN. 2007. Retrieved 2009net repairs underway at CERN (Press release). CERN
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[99] Luciano Maiani (16 October 2001). LHC Cost Review [118] Updates on LHC inner triplet failure. Fermilab Today.
Fermilab. 28 September 2007. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
to Completion. CERN. Retrieved 2001-01-15.
[100] Toni Feder (2001).
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Physics Today 54 (12): 21.
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[120] Dennis Overbye (5 December 2008). After repairs, summer start-up planned for collider. New York Times. Re[101] Bursting magnets may delay CERN collider project.
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Reuters. 5 April 2007. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[102] Paul Rincon (23 September 2008). Collider halted until [121] L. Rossi (2010). Superconductivity: its role, its
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lider of CERN. Superconductor Science and Technol[103] Worldwide LHC Computing Grid. CERN. 2008. Reogy 23 (3): 034001. Bibcode:2010SuScT..23c4001R.
trieved 2 October 2011.
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[104] grille de production : les petits pc du lhc.
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[105] Worldwide LHC Computing Grid. Ocial public web- [123] Ceri Perkins (2 June 2008). ATLAS gets the Hollywood
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treatment. ATLAS e-News. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
22
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
1.2.15
External links
Ocial website
Overview of the LHC at CERNs public webpage
CERN Courier magazine
LHC Portal Web portal
CERN, how it works on YouTube
Lyndon Evans and Philip Bryant (eds) (2008).
LHC Machine.
Journal of Instrumentation
3 (8): S08001. Bibcode:2008JInst...3S8001E.
doi:10.1088/1748-0221/3/08/S08001. Full documentation for design and construction of the LHC
and its six detectors (1600p).
New Yorker: Crash Course. The worlds largest particle accelerator.
NYTimes: A Giant Takes On Physics Biggest
Questions.
Why a Large Hadron Collider? Seed Magazine interviews with physicists.
Thirty collected pictures during commissioning and
post- 19 September 2008 incident repair, from
Boston Globe.
Podcast Interview with CERNs Rolf Landua about
the LHC and the physics behind it
Chapter 2
Experiments
2.1 List of Large Hadron Collider
experiments
2.1.1
CERN. Retrieved
2.1.2
LHC website
See also
Experiments
SPIRES database
List of Super Proton Synchrotron experiments
Facilities
CERN: European Organization for Nuclear Research
PS: Proton Synchrotron
SPS: Super Proton Synchrotron
ISOLDE: On-Line Isotope Mass Separator
ISR: Intersecting Storage Rings
24
2.2.1
CHAPTER 2. EXPERIMENTS
Introduction
Computer generated cut-away view of ALICE showing the 18 detectors of the experiment.
2.2.2
History
Searches for Quark Gluon plasma and a deeper understanding of the QCD started at CERN and Brookhaven
with lighter ions in the 1980s.[6][7] Todays programme at
ALICE was rst proposed as a central detector in 1993 these laboratories has moved on to ultrarelativistic col-
25
celerates each proton to an energy of 3.5 TeV, thus resulting in an energy of 287 TeV per beam, or a total collision
energy of 574 TeV.
Up to 3,000 charged particles were emitted from each
collision, shown here as lines radiating from the collision
point. The colors of the lines indicate how much energy
each particle carried away from the collision.
Proton-lead collisions at the LHC
When the two lead nuclei slam into each other, matter undergoes a transition to form for a brief instant a droplet
of primordial matter, the so-called quarkgluon plasma
which is believed to have lled the universe a few microseconds after the Big Bang.
The quarkgluon plasma is formed as proton and neutrons
melt into their elementary constituentsm, quarks and
gluons become asymptotically free. The droplet of QGP
instantly cools, and the individual quarks and gluons (collectively called partons) recombine into a blizzard of ordinary matter that speeds away in all directions.[8] The debris contains particles such as pions and kaons, which are
made of a quark and an antiquark; protons and neutrons,
made of three quarks; and even copious antiprotons and Proton-Lead ion collision recorded by the ALICE Experiment
antineutrons, which may combine to form the nuclei of on 13 September 2012 at a center of mass energy per colliding
antiatoms as heavy as helium. Much can be learned by nucleon-nucleon pair of 5.02 TeV.
studying the distribution and energy of this debris.
In 2013, the LHC collided protons with lead ions for
the LHCs rst physics beams of 2013.[11] The rst leadFirst Lead-Lead Collisions
proton run at the LHC lasted for one month and data help
ALICE physicists to decouple the eects of the plasma
from eects that stem from cold nuclear matter eects
and shed more light on the study of the Quark-Gluon
plasma.
In the case of lead-lead collisions, the congurations of
the quarks and gluons that make up the protons and neutrons of the incoming lead nucleus can be somewhat different of those in the incoming protons. In order to
study if part of the eects we see when comparing leadlead and proton-proton collisions is due to this conguration dierence rather than the formation of the plasma.
Proton-lead collisions are an ideal tool for this study.
One of the LHCs rst lead-ion collisions, as recorded by the ALICE detector.
26
CHAPTER 2. EXPERIMENTS
the point where the interaction has taken place (the vertex of the event) but rather from a point at a distance of
as small as a tenth of a millimeter.
Tracking Particles
An ensemble of cylindrical detectors that surround the
interaction point is used to track all the particles that y
out of the hot medium. The Inner Tracking System (consisting of three layers of detectors: ITS Pixels, ITS Drift,
ITS Strips) the TPC and the TRD measure at many points
the passage of each particle carrying an electric charge
and give precise information about the particles trajectory. The ALICE tracking detectors are embedded in a
magnetic eld of 0.5 Tesla produced by a huge magnetic
solenoid, bending the trajectories of the particles: from
the curvature of the tracks one can nd their momentum.
The ITS is so precise that particles which are generated
by the decay of other particles with a very short life time
can be identied by seeing that they do not originate from
Inner Tracking System The short-living heavy particles cover a very small distance before decaying. This
system aims at identifying these phenomena of disintegration by measuring the location where they occur with
a precision of a tenth of millimetre.[14]
The Inner Tracking System (ITS) consists of six cylindrical layers of silicon detectors. The layers surround the
collision point and measure the properties of the particles emerging from the collisions, pin-pointing their position of passage to a fraction of a millimetre.[15] With the
help of the ITS particles containing heavy quarks (charm
and beauty) can be identied by reconstructing the coordinates at which they decay.
ITS layers (counting from the interaction point):
2 layers of SPD (Silicon Pixel Detector),
2 layers of SDD (Silicon Drift Detector),
2 layers of SSD (Silicon Strip Detector).
The ITS was inserted at the heart of the ALICE experiment in March 2007 following a large phase of R&D.
Using the smallest amounts of the lightest material, the
ITS has been made as lightweight and delicate as possible. With almost 5 m2 of double-sided silicon strip detectors and more than 1 m2 of silicon drift detectors, it is
the largest system using both types of silicon detector.
ALICE has recently presented plans for an upgraded Inner Tracking System, mainly based on building a new silicon tracker with greatly improved features in terms of determination of the impact parameter (d0) to the primary
vertex, tracking eciency at low pT and readout rate
capabilities.[16] The upgraded ITS will open new channels
in the study of the Quark Gluon Plasma formed at LHC
which are necessary in order to understand the dynamics
of this condensed phase of the QCD.
27
pads that form the cathode plane of the multi-wire proportional chambers (MWPC) located at the end plates.
This gives the radial distance to the beam and the azimuth. The last coordinate, z along the beam direction,
is given by the drift time. Since energy-loss uctuations
can be considerable, in general many pulse-height measurements are performed along the particle track in order
to optimize the resolution of the ionization measurement.
Almost all of the TPCs volume is sensitive to the traversing charged particles, but it features a minimum material
budget. The straightforward pattern recognition (continuous tracks) make TPCs the perfect choice for highmultiplicity environments, such as in heavy-ion collisions,
where thousands of particles have to be tracked simultaneously. Inside the ALICE TPC, the ionization strength
of all tracks is sampled up to 159 times, resulting in a
resolution of the ionization measurement as good as 5%.
Time Projection Chamber The ALICE Time Proules (trapezoidal prisms in a radial arrangement).
jection Chamber (TPC) is a large volume lled with a
gas as detection medium and is the main particle track- Transition Radiation Detector
Electrons and
ing device in ALICE.[17][18]
positrons can be discriminated from other charged
Charged particles crossing the gas of the TPC ionize the particles using the emission of transition radiation,
gas atoms along their path, liberating electrons that drift X-rays emitted when the particles cross many layers of
towards the end plates of the detector. The characteris- thin materials.
tics of the ionization process caused by fast charged par- The identication of electrons and positrons is achieved
ticles passing through a medium can be used for particle using a transition radiation detector (TRD).[19] In a simidentication. The velocity dependence of the ionization ilar manner to the muon spectrometer, this system enstrength is connected to the well-known Bethe-Bloch for- ables detailed studies of the production of vector-meson
mula, which describes the average energy loss of charged resonances, but with extended coverage down to the light
particles through inelastic Coulomb collisions with the vector-meson and in a dierent rapidity region. Below
atomic electrons of the medium.
1 GeV/c, electrons can be identied via a combination of
Multiwire proportional counters or solid-state counters
are often used as detection medium, because they provide signals with pulse heights proportional to the ionization strength. An avalanche eect in the vicinity of
the anode wires strung in the readout chambers, gives
the necessary signal amplication. The positive ions created in the avalanche induce a positive current signal on
the pad plane. The readout is performed by the 557 568
PID measurements in the TPC and TOF. In the momentum range 110 GeV/c, the fact that electrons may create
TR when travelling through a dedicated radiator can be
exploited. Inside such a radiator, fast charged particles
cross the boundaries between materials with dierent dielectric constants, which can lead to the emission of TR
photons with energies in the X-ray range. The eect is
tiny and the radiator has to provide many hundreds of ma-
28
terial boundaries to achieve a high enough probability to
produce at least one photon. In the ALICE TRD, the TR
photons are detected just behind the radiator using MWPCs lled with a xenon-based gas mixture, where they
deposit their energy on top of the ionization signals from
the particles track.
The ALICE TRD was designed to derive a fast trigger for
charged particles with high momentum and can signicantly enhance the recorded yields of vector mesons. For
this purpose, 250,000 CPUs are installed right on the detector to identify candidates for high-momentum tracks
and analyse the energy deposition associated with them
as quickly as possible (while the signals are still being created in the detector). This information is sent to a global
tracking unit, which combines all of the information to
search for electronpositron track pairs within only 6 s.
CHAPTER 2. EXPERIMENTS
the ight time over a given distance along the track
trajectory.[20][21] Using the tracking information from
other detectors every track ring a sensor is identied.
Provided the momentum is also known, the mass of the
particle can then be derived from these measurements.
The ALICE TOF detector is a large-area detector based
on multigap resistive plate chambers (MRPCs) that cover
a cylindrical surface of 141 m2, with an inner radius of
3.7 m. There are approximately 160 000 MRPC pads
with time resolution of about 100 ps distributed over the
large surface of 150 square meters.
29
Cherenkov detectors make use of this eect and in general consist of two main elements: a radiator in which
Cherenkov radiation is produced and a photon detector.
Ring imaging Cherenkov (RICH) detectors resolve the
ring-shaped image of the focused Cherenkov radiation,
enabling a measurement of the Cherenkov angle and thus
the particle velocity. This in turn is sucient to determine the mass of the charged particle.
If a dense medium (large refractive index) is used, only
a thin radiator layer of the order of a few centimetres is
required to emit a sucient number of Cherenkov photons. The photon detector is then located at some distance (usually about 10 cm) behind the radiator, allowing
the cone of light to expand and form the characteristic
ring-shaped image. Such a proximity-focusing RICH is
installed in the ALICE experiment.
ALICE HMPIDs momentum range is up to 3 GeV
for pion/kaon discrimination and up to 5 GeV for
kaon/proton discrimination. It is the worlds largest
A technology for mass production of PWO crystals has been decaesium iodide RICH detector, with an active area of 11
veloped in close cooperation between CERN, the Apatity plant
m. A prototype was successfully tested at CERN in 1997 and RRC Kurchatov Institute.
and currently takes data at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at the Brookhaven National Laboratory in the US.
the ones used by CMS, read out using Avalanche Photodiodes (APD).
Calorimeters
Calorimeters measure the energy of particles, and determine whether they have electromagnetic or hadronic interactions. Particle Identication in a calorimeter is a destructive measurement. All particles except muons and
neutrinos deposit all their energy in the calorimeter system by production of electromagnetic or hadronic showers. Photons, electrons and positrons deposit all their energy in an electromagnetic calorimeter. Their showers
are indistinguishable, but a photon can be identied by
the non-existence of a track in the tracking system that is
associated to the shower.
Electro-Magnetic Calorimeter
The EMCal is a
lead-scintillator sampling calorimeter comprising almost
13,000 individual towers that are grouped into ten supermodules. The towers are read out by wavelength-shifting
optical bers in a shashlik geometry coupled to an
The photons (particles of light), like the light emitted avalanche photodiode. The complete EMCal will contain
from a hot object, tell us about the temperature of the 100,000 individual scintillator tiles and 185 kilometers of
system. To measure them, special detectors are neces- optical ber, weighing in total about 100 tons.
sary: the crystals of the PHOS, which are as dense as lead
and as transparent as glass, will measure them with fan- The EMCal covers almost the full length of the ALICE
tastic precision in a limited region, while the PMD and Time Projection Chamber and central detector, and a
in particular the EMCal will measure them over a very third of its azimuth placed back-to-back with the ALICE
wide area. The EMCal will also measure groups of close Photon Spectrometer - a smaller, highly granular leadparticles (called jets) which have a memory of the early tungstate calorimeter.
phases of the event.
The super-modules are inserted into an independent support frame situated within the ALICE magnet, between
the time-of-ight counters and the magnet coil. The supPhoton Spectrometer
PHOS is a high-resolution port frame itself is a complex structure: it weighs 20 tons
electromagnetic calorimeter installed in ALICE[22] to and must support ve times its own weight, with a maxprovide data to test the thermal and dynamical proper- imum deection between being empty and being fully
ties of the initial phase of the collision. This is done by loaded of only a couple of centimeters. Installation of the
measuring photons emerging directly from the collision. eight-ton super-modules requires a system of rails with a
PHOS covers a limited acceptance domain at central ra- sophisticated insertion device to bridge across to the suppidity. It is made of lead tungstate crystals,[23] similar to port structure.
30
The Electro-Magnetic Calorimeter (EM-Cal) will add
greatly to the high momentum particle measurement capabilities of ALICE.[24] It will extend ALICEs reach to
study jets and other hard processes.
CHAPTER 2. EXPERIMENTS
charmonium states (J/ and ) as well as the bottomonium states (, and ) can be studied. The Dimuon
spectrometer is optimized for the detection of these heavy
quark resonances.
Photon Multiplicity Detector The Photon Multiplicity Detector (PMD) is a Particle shower detector which
measures the multiplicity and spatial distribution of photons produced in the collisions.[25] It utilizes as a rst layer
a veto detector to reject charged particles. Photons on the
other hand pass through a converter, initiating an electromagnetic shower in a second detector layer where they
produce large signals on several cells of its sensitive volume. Hadrons on the other hand normally aect only one The main components of the ALICE muon spectrometer: an abcell and produce a signal representing minimum-ionizing sorber to lter the background, a set of tracking chambers before,
inside and after the magnet and a set of trigger chambers.
particles.
Muons may be identied using the just described technique by using the fact that they are the only charged particles able to pass almost undisturbed through any material. This behaviour is connected to the fact that muons
with momenta below a few hundred GeV/c do not suer
from radiative energy losses and so do not produce electromagnetic showers. Also, because they are leptons, they
are not subject to strong interactions with the nuclei of
the material they traverse. This behaviour is exploited in
muon spectrometers in high-energy physics experiments
by installing muon detectors behind the calorimeter systems or behind thick absorber materials. All charged parALICE Forward Multiplicity Detector
ticles other than muons are completely stopped, producForward Multiplicity Detectors The Forward Mul- ing electromagnetic (and hadronic) showers.
tiplicity Detector (FMD) extends the coverage for multi- The muon spectrometer in the forward region of ALICE
plicity of charge particles into the forward regions - giving features a very thick and complex front absorber and an
ALICE the widest coverage of the 4 LHC experiments for additional muon lter consisting of an iron wall 1.2 m
these measurements.[26]
thick. Muon candidates selected from tracks penetrating these absorbers are measured precisely in a dedicated
set of tracking detectors. Pairs of muons are used to
collect the spectrum of heavy-quark vector-meson resonances (J/Psi). Their production rates can be analysed
as a function of transverse momentum and collision centrality in order to investigate dissociation due to colour
screening. The acceptance of the ALICE Muon Spectrometer covers the pseudorapidity interval 2.5 4
The forward detectors also comprise the main trigger deand the resonances can be detected down to zero transtectors for timing (T0) and for collision centrality (V0).
verse momentum.
FMD consist of 5 large silicon discs with each 10 240
individual detector channels to measure the charged particles emitted at small angles relative to the beam. FMD
provides an independent measurement of the orientation
of the collisions in the vertical plane, which can be used
with measurements from the barrel detector to investigate
ow, jets, etc.
Muon Spectrometer The ALICE forward muon spectrometer studies the complete spectrum of heavy quarkonia (J/, , , , ) via their decay in the + channel. Heavy quarkonium states, provide an essential tool
to study the early and hot stage of heavy-ion collisions.[27]
In particular they are expected to be sensitive to QuarkGluon Plasma formation. In the presence of a deconned medium (i.e. QGP) with high enough energy density, quarkonium states are dissociated because of colour
screening. This leads to a suppression of their production rates. At the high LHC collision energy, both the
31
Front face of the ZN calorimeter: One of the two ZN calorimeters during assembly. The quartz bers are hosted in the 1936
grooves of the W-alloy slabs.
to the whole array if desired. ACORDEs high luminosity allows the recording of cosmic events with very high
multiplicity of parallel muon tracks, the so-called muon
bundles.
32
CHAPTER 2. EXPERIMENTS
very frequent but small events, with few produced particles encountered during proton-proton collisions and the
relatively rare, but extremely large events, with tens of
thousands of new particles produced in lead-lead collisions at the LHC (L = 1027 cm2 s1 in Pb-Pb with 100
ns bunch crossings and L = 1030 1031 cm2 s1 in pp
with 25 ns bunch crossings).[28]
The ALICE data acquisition system needs to balance its
capacity to record the steady stream of very large events
resulting from central collisions, with an ability to select
and record rare cross-section processes. These requirements result in an aggregate event building bandwidth of
up to 2.5 GByte/s and a storage capability of up to 1.25
GByte/s, giving a total of more than 1 PByte of data every year. As shown in the gure, ALICE needs a data
storage capacity that by far exceeds that of the current Events recorded by the ALICE experiment from the rst lead ion
collisions, at a centre-of-mass energy of 2.76 TeV per nucleon
generation of experiments. This data rate is equivalent
pair.
to six times the contents of the Encyclopdia Britannica
every second.
The hardware of the ALICE DAQ system[29] is largely
based on commodity components: PCs running Linux
and standard Ethernet switches for the eventbuilding network. The required performances are achieved by the
interconnection of hundreds of these PCs into a large
DAQ fabric. The software framework of the ALICE
DAQ is called DATE (ALICE Data Acquisition and Test
Environment). DATE is already in use today, during
the construction and testing phase of the experiment,
while evolving gradually towards the nal production system. Moreover, AFFAIR (A Flexible Fabric and Application Information Recorder) is the performance monitoring software developed by the ALICE Data Acquisition project. AFFAIR is largely based on open source
code and is composed of the following components: data
gathering, inter-node communication employing DIM,
fast and temporary round robin database storage, and permanent storage and plot generation using ROOT.
2.2.6
Results
The physics programme of ALICE includes the following main topics: i) the study of the thermalization of partons in the QGP with focus on the massive charm and
beauty quarks and understanding the behaviour of these
heavy quarks in relation to the stroungly-coupled medium
of QGP, ii) the study of the mechanisms of energy loss
33
the incoming nuclei. A highly energetic parton (a colour
charge) probes the coloured medium rather like an X-ray
probes ordinary matter. The production of these partonic
probes in hadronic collisions is well understood within
perturbative QCD. The theory also shows that a parton
traversing the medium will lose a fraction of its energy in
emitting many soft (low energy) gluons. The amount of
the radiated energy is proportional to the density of the
medium and to the square of the path length travelled by
the parton in the medium. Theory also predicts that the
energy loss depends on the avour of the parton.
O-centre nuclear collisions, with a nite impact parameter, create a strongly asymmetric almond-shaped reball. However, experiments cannot measure the spatial
dimensions of the interaction (except in special cases,
for example in the production of pions, see[32] ). Instead,
they measure the momentum distributions of the emitted
particles. A correlation between the measured azimuthal
momentum distribution of particles emitted from the decaying reball and the initial spatial asymmetry can arise
only from multiple interactions between the constituents
Jet quenching was rst observed at RHIC by measuring
of the created matter; in other words it tells us about how
the yields of hadrons with high transverse momentum.
the matter ows, which is related to its equation of state
These particles are produced via fragmentation of enerand its thermodynamic transport properties.[33]
getic partons. The yields of these high-pT particles in
The measured azimuthal distribution of particles in mo- central nucleusnucleus collisions were found to be a facmentum space can be decomposed into Fourier coe- tor of ve lower than expected from the measurements in
cients. The second Fourier coecient (v2), called ellip- protonproton reactions. ALICE has recently published
tic ow, is particularly sensitive to the internal friction or the measurement of charged particles in central heavyviscosity of the uid, or more precisely, /s, the ratio of ion collisions at the LHC. As at RHIC, the production
the shear viscosity () to entropy (s) of the system. For a of high-pT hadrons at the LHC is strongly suppressed.
good uid such as water, the /s ratio is small. A thick However, the observations at the LHC show qualitatively
liquid, such as honey, has large values of /s.
new features. The observation from ALICE is consistent
In heavy-ion collisions at the LHC, the ALICE collab- with reports from the ATLAS and CMS collaborations on
oration found that the hot matter created in the collision direct evidence for parton energy loss within heavy-ion
jets of
behaves like a uid with little friction, with /s close to its collisions using fully reconstructed back-to-back[37]
particles
associated
with
hard
parton
scatterings.
The
lower limit (almost zero viscosity). With these measurelatter
two
experiments
have
shown
a
strong
energy
imbalments, ALICE has just begun to explore the temperature
dependence of /s and we anticipate many more in-depth ance between the jet and its recoiling partner (G Aad et
ow-related measurements at the LHC that will constrain al. 2010 and CMS collaboration 2011). This imbalance
is thought to arise because one of the jets traversed the
the hydrodynamic features of the QGP even further.
hot and dense matter, transferring a substantial fraction
of its energy to the medium in a way that is not recovered
by the reconstruction of the jets.
Measuring the highest temperature on Earth
In August 2012 ALICE scientists announced that their
experiments produced quarkgluon plasma with temperature at around 5.5 trillion degrees, the highest temperature mass achieved in any physical experiments thus
far.[34] This temperature is about 38% higher than the
previous record of about 4 trillion degrees, achieved in
the 2010 experiments at the Brookhaven National Laboratory.[35]
The ALICE results were announced at the August 13
Quark Matter 2012 conference in Washington, D.C.. The
quarkgluon plasma produced by these experiments approximates the conditions in the universe that existed microseconds after the Big Bang, before the matter coalesced into atoms.[36]
Energy Loss
34
as it is more dicult for charm anticharm or bottom
antibottom to form new bound states. At very high temperatures no quarkonium states are expected to survive;
they melt in the QGP. Quarkonium sequential suppression is therefore considered as a QGP thermometer, as
states with dierent masses have dierent sizes and are
expected to be screened and dissociated at dierent temperatures. However - as the collision energy increases so does the number of charm-anticharm quarks that can
form bound states, and a balancing mechanism of recombination of quarkonia may appear as we move to higher
energies.
The results from the rst ALICE run are rather striking,
when compared with the observations from lower energies. While a similar suppression is observed at LHC
energies for peripheral collisions, when moving towards
more head-on collisions as quantied by the increasing
number of nucleons in the lead nuclei participating in the
interaction the suppression no longer increases. Therefore, despite the higher temperatures attained in the nuclear collisions at the LHC, more J/ mesons are detected
by the ALICE experiment in PbPb with respect to pp.
Such an eect is likely to be related to a regeneration process occurring at the temperature boundary between the
QGP and a hot gas of hadrons
CHAPTER 2. EXPERIMENTS
the LHC revealed a completely unexpected double-ridge
structure with so far unknown origin. The protonlead
(pPb) collisions in 2013, two years after its heavy-ion
collisions opened a new chapter in exploration of the
properties of the deconned, chirally symmetrical state
of the QGP. A surprising near-side, long-range (elongated in pseudorapidity) correlation, forming a ridge-like
structure observed in high-multiplicity pp collisions, was
also found in high-multiplicity pPb collisions, but with a
much larger amplitude ([39] ). However, the biggest surprise came from the observation that this near-side ridge
is accompanied by an essentially symmetrical away-side
ridge, opposite in azimuth (CERN Courier March 2013
p6). This double ridge was revealed after the short-range
correlations arising from jet fragmentation and resonance
decays were suppressed by subtracting the correlation distribution measured for low-multiplicity events from the
one for high-multiplicity events.
Similar long-range structures in heavy-ion collisions have
been attributed to the collective ow of particles emitted
from a thermalized system undergoing a collective hydrodynamic expansion. This anisotropy can be characterized
by means of the vn (n = 2, 3, ...) coecients of a Fourier
decomposition of the single-particle azimuthal distribution. To test the possible presence of collective phenomena further, the ALICE collaboration has extended
the two-particle correlation analysis to identied particles, checking for a potential mass ordering of the v2
harmonic coecients. Such an ordering in mass was observed in heavy-ion collisions, where it was interpreted
to arise from a common radial boost the so-called radial ow coupled to the anisotropy in momentum space.
Continuing the surprises, a clear particle-mass ordering,
similar to the one observed in mid-central PbPb collisions
(CERN Courier, September 2013), has been measured in
high-multiplicity pPb collisions.
2.2.7
Future Plans
35
2.2.8
References
36
CHAPTER 2. EXPERIMENTS
2.3.1 History
[38] Studying Quarkonium hadroproduction with ALICE ALICE Matters, 20 August 2013
[39] ALICE and ATLAS nd intriguing double ridge in protonlead collisions CERN Courier, February 2013
[40] Is Cold nuclear matter really cold? CERN Courier, February 2014
2.2.9
External links
37
ATLAS experiment under construction in October 2004 in the experiment pit. Construction was completed in 2008 and the experiment has been successfully collecting data since November
2009, when colliding beam operation at the LHC started. Note
the people in the background, for size comparison.
38
CHAPTER 2. EXPERIMENTS
2.3.3
Physics program
the new particle was indeed a Higgs boson. Having analyzed two and a half times more data than was available
for the discovery announcement in July, the condence
of observation has risen to 10 sigma. The experiments
were also able to show that the properties of the particle
as well as the ways it interacts with other particles were
well-matched with those of a Higgs boson, which is expected to have spin 0 and parity +. In 2013 two of the
theoretical physicists who predicted the existence of the
Standard Model Higgs boson, Peter Higgs and Franois
Englert were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Physicists have now to pursue their measurements to determine
if this Higgs particle corresponds indeed to the Standard
Model Higgs boson or if it is part of a new physics scenario.
The asymmetry between the behavior of matter and
antimatter, known as CP violation, is also being
investigated.[9] Current CP violation experiments, such
as BaBar and Belle, have not yet detected sucient CP
violation in the Standard Model to explain the lack of
detectable antimatter in the universe. It is possible that
new models of physics will introduce additional CP violation, shedding light on this problem. Evidence supporting
these models might either be detected directly by the production of new particles, or indirectly by measurements
of the properties of B-mesons. (LHCb, an LHC experiment dedicated to B-mesons, is likely to be better suited
to the latter).[10]
The properties of the top quark, discovered at Fermilab
in 1995, have so far only been measured approximately.
With much greater energy and greater collision rates, the
LHC produces a tremendous number of top quarks, allowing ATLAS to make much more precise measurements of its mass and interactions with other particles.[11]
These measurements will provide indirect information on
the details of the Standard Model, perhaps revealing inconsistencies that point to new physics. Similar precision
measurements will be made of other known particles; for
example, ATLAS may eventually measure the mass of
the W boson twice as accurately as has previously been
achieved.
2.3.4
2.3.5
Components
39
The only established stable particles that cannot be detected directly are neutrinos; their presence is inferred by
measuring a momentum imbalance among detected particles. For this to work, the detector must be "hermetic",
meaning it must detect all non-neutrinos produced, with
50% of the total readout channels of the whole experiment. Having such a large count created a considerable
design and engineering challenge. Another challenge was
the radiation to which the Pixel Detector is exposed because of its proximity to the interaction point, requiring
40
CHAPTER 2. EXPERIMENTS
that all components be radiation hardened in order to continue operating after signicant exposures.
The Semi-Conductor Tracker (SCT) is the middle component of the inner detector. It is similar in concept and
function to the Pixel Detector but with long, narrow strips
rather than small pixels, making coverage of a larger area
practical. Each strip measures 80 micrometres by 12 centimetres. The SCT is the most critical part of the inner
detector for basic tracking in the plane perpendicular to
the beam, since it measures particles over a much larger
area than the Pixel Detector, with more sampled points
and roughly equal (albeit one-dimensional) accuracy. It
is composed of four double layers of silicon strips, and
has 6.3 million readout channels and a total area of 61
September 2005: The main barrel section of the ATLAS hadronic
square meters.
calorimeter, waiting to be moved inside the toroid magnets.
Calorimeters
41
dion shaped electrodes and the energy-absorbing materials are lead and stainless steel, with liquid argon as the
sampling material, and a cryostat is required around the
EM calorimeter to keep it suciently cool.
The hadron calorimeter absorbs energy from particles
that pass through the EM calorimeter, but do interact via
the strong force; these particles are primarily hadrons. It
is less precise, both in energy magnitude and in the localization (within about 0.1 radians only).[10] The energyabsorbing material is steel, with scintillating tiles that
sample the energy deposited. Many of the features of
the calorimeter are chosen for their cost-eectiveness; the
instrument is large and comprises a huge amount of construction material: the main part of the calorimeter the
tile calorimeter is 8 metres in diameter and covers 12 The ends of four of the eight ATLAS toroid magnets, looking
down from about 90 metres above, in September 2005.
metres along the beam axis. The far-forward sections of
the hadronic calorimeter are contained within the forward
EM calorimeters cryostat, and use liquid argon as well,
while copper and tungsten are used as absorbers.
Muon Spectrometer
The Muon Spectrometer is an extremely large tracking
system, consisting of three parts: (1) a magnetic eld provided by three toroidal magnets, (2) a set of 1200 chambers measuring with high spatial precision the tracks of
the outgoing muons, (3) a set of triggering chambers with
accurate time-resolution. The extent of this sub-detector
starts at a radius of 4.25 m close to the calorimeters out to
the full radius of the detector (11 m).[14] Its tremendous
size is required to accurately measure the momentum of
muons, which rst go through all the other elements of the
detector before reaching the muon spectrometer. It was
designed to measure, standalone, the momentum of 100
GeV muons with 3% accuracy and of 1 TeV muons with
10% accuracy. It was vital to go to the lengths of putting
together such a large piece of equipment because a number of interesting physical processes can only be observed
if one or more muons are detected, and because the total energy of particles in an event could not be measured
if the muons were ignored. It functions similarly to the
Inner Detector, with muons curving so that their momentum can be measured, albeit with a dierent magnetic
eld conguration, lower spatial precision, and a much
larger volume. It also serves the function of simply identifying muons very few particles of other types are expected to pass through the calorimeters and subsequently
leave signals in the Muon Spectrometer. It has roughly
one million readout channels, and its layers of detectors
have a total area of 12,000 square meters.
Part of the ATLAS detector, as it looked in February 2007.
Magnet system
The ATLAS detector uses two large superconducting
magnet systems to bend charged particles so that their
momenta can be measured. This bending is due to the
Lorentz force, which is proportional to velocity. Since
42
CHAPTER 2. EXPERIMENTS
Oine event reconstruction is performed on all permanently stored events, turning the pattern of signals from
the detector into physics objects, such as jets, photons,
and leptons. Grid computing is being extensively used
for event reconstruction, allowing the parallel use of university and laboratory computer networks throughout the
world for the CPU-intensive task of reducing large quantities of raw data into a form suitable for physics analysis.
Detector performance
The software for these tasks has been under development
for many years, and will continue to be rened even now
The installation of all the above detectors was nished in that the experiment is collecting data.
August 2008. The detectors collected millions of cosmic
Individuals and groups within the collaboration are writrays during the magnet repairs which took place between
ing their own code to perform further analysis of these
fall 2008 and fall 2009, prior to the rst proton collisions.
objects, searching the patterns of detected particles for
The detector operated with close to 100% eciency and
particular physical models or hypothetical particles.
provided performance characteristics very close to its design values.[21]
2.3.8 Notes
[1] Aad, G.; et al. (ATLAS Collaboration) (2008). The
ATLAS Experiment at the CERN Large Hadron
Collider. Journal of Instrumentation 3 (8): S08003.
Bibcode:2008JInst...3S8003A.
doi:10.1088/17480221/3/08/S08003.
[2] http://www.atlas.ch/fact-sheets-1-view.html
[3] What is ATLAS?". ATLAS. Retrieved 2013-10-27.
2.3.6
43
[12] C.M. Harris, M.J. Palmer, M.A. Parker, P. Richardson, A. Sabetfakhri and B.R. Webber (2005). Exploring higher dimensional black holes at the Large Hadron
Collider. Journal of High Energy Physics 5 (5): 053.
arXiv:hep-ph/0411022. Bibcode:2005JHEP...05..053H.
doi:10.1088/1126-6708/2005/05/053.
[13] J. Tanaka, T. Yamamura, S. Asai, J. Kanzaki (2005).
Study of Black Holes with the ATLAS detector at the
LHC. European Physical Journal C 41 (s2): 1933.
arXiv:hep-ph/0411095. Bibcode:2005EPJC...41...19T.
doi:10.1140/epjcd/s2005-02-008-x.
[14] Overall detector concept. ATLAS Technical Proposal.
CERN. 1994.
[15] F. Pastore (2010). Readiness of the ATLAS detector: Performance with the rst beam and cosmic data.
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in
Physics Research.
Section A, Accelerators, Spectrometers,
Detectors and Associated Equipment
617 (1/3):
48.
Bibcode:2010NIMPA.617...48P.
doi:10.1016/j.nima.2009.08.068.
[16] Regina Moles-Valls (2010). Alignment of the ATLAS
inner detector tracking system. Nuclear Instruments
and Methods in Physics Research. Section A, Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment
617 (1-3): 568570. Bibcode:2010NIMPA.617..568M.
doi:10.1016/j.nima.2009.09.101.
[17] Inner detector. ATLAS Technical Proposal. CERN.
1994.
[18] Hugging, F. (2006). The ATLAS pixel detector.
IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 53 (6): 1732.
arXiv:physics/0412138. Bibcode:2006ITNS...53.1732H.
doi:10.1109/TNS.2006.871506.
[19] Calorimetry. ATLAS Technical Proposal. CERN. 1994.
[20] Magnet system. ATLAS Technical Proposal. CERN.
1994.
[21] Aad, G.; et al.
(ATLAS Collaboration) (2010).
Performance of the ATLAS Detector using
First Collision Data.
JHEP 1009 (9):
056.
arXiv:1005.5254.
Bibcode:2010JHEP...09..056A.
doi:10.1007/JHEP09(2010)056.
[22] Detector Description.
[23] D.A. Scannicchio (2010). ATLAS Trigger and Data Acquisition: Capabilities and commissioning. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research. Section A, Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 617 (1/3): 306. Bibcode:2010NIMPA.617..306S.
doi:10.1016/j.nima.2009.06.114.
[24] The sensitive giant. United States Department of Energy
Research News. March 2004.
[25] Stefan Haas. The IEEE 1355 Standard: Developments,
Performance and Application in High Energy Physics.
1998. p. 1.
2.3.9 References
ATLAS Technical Proposal. CERN: The Atlas Experiment. Retrieved on 2007-04-10
ATLAS Detector and Physics Performance Technical Design Report. CERN: The Atlas Experiment.
Retrieved on 2007-04-10
N. V. Krasnikov, V. A. Matveev (September
1997). Physics at LHC. Physics of Particles and Nuclei 28 (5): 441470. arXiv:hepph/9703204.
Bibcode:1997PPN....28..441K.
doi:10.1134/1.953049.
44
CHAPTER 2. EXPERIMENTS
Padilla, Antonio (Tony). ATLAS at the Large physics explanation for dark matter and the reasons for
Hadron Collider. Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the imbalance of matter and antimatter observed in the
the University of Nottingham.
Universe.
View of the CMS endcap through the barrel sections. The ladder
to the lower right gives an impression of scale.
2.4.1
Background
45
46
CHAPTER 2. EXPERIMENTS
detector. It has 205 m2 of silicon sensors (approximately the area of a tennis court) comprising 76 million
channels.[4]
Layer 2 The Electromagnetic Calorimeter
The Electromagnetic Calorimeter (ECAL) is designed to
measure with high accuracy the energies of electrons and
photons.
The ECAL is constructed from crystals of lead tungstate,
PbWO4 . This is an extremely dense but optically clear
material, ideal for stopping high energy particles. Lead
tungstate crystal is made primarily of metal and is heavier than stainless steel, but with a touch of oxygen in this
crystalline form it is highly transparent and scintillates
when electrons and photons pass through it. This means
it produces light in proportion to the particles energy.
These high-density crystals produce light in fast, short,
well-dened photon bursts that allow for a precise, fast
and fairly compact detector. It has a radiation length of
0 = 0.89 cm, and has a rapid light yield, with 80% of light
yield within one crossing time (25 ns). This is balanced
however by a relatively low light yield of 30 photons per
MeV of incident energy. The crystals used have a front
size of 22 mm 22 mm and a depth of 230 mm. They
are set in a matrix of carbon bre to keep them optically
isolated, and backed by silicon avalanche photodiodes for
readout.
The ECAL, made up of a barrel section and two endcaps, forms a layer between the tracker and the HCAL.
The cylindrical barrel consists of 61,200 crystals
formed into 36 supermodules, each weighing around
three tonnes and containing 1700 crystals. The at ECAL
endcaps seal o the barrel at either end and are made up
of almost 15,000 further crystals.
For extra spatial precision, the ECAL also contains
preshower detectors that sit in front of the endcaps. These
allow CMS to distinguish between single high-energy
photons (often signs of exciting physics) and the less interesting close pairs of low-energy photons.
47
groups of four, each with up to 60 tubes: the middle group
measures the coordinate along the direction parallel to the
beam and the two outside groups measure the perpendicular coordinate.
Cathode strip chambers (CSC) are used in the endcap
disks where the magnetic eld is uneven and particle rates
are high. CSCs consist of arrays of positively-charged
anode wires crossed with negatively-charged copper
cathode strips within a gas volume. When muons pass
through, they knock electrons o the gas atoms, which
ock to the anode wires creating an avalanche of electrons. Positive ions move away from the wire and towards
the copper cathode, also inducing a charge pulse in the
strips, at right angles to the wire direction. Because the
strips and the wires are perpendicular, we get two position coordinates for each passing particle. In addition to
providing precise space and time information, the closely
spaced wires make the CSCs fast detectors suitable for
triggering. Each CSC module contains six layers making
it able to accurately identify muons and match their tracks
to those in the tracker.
Resistive plate chambers (RPC) are fast gaseous detectors
that provide a muon trigger system parallel with those of
the DTs and CSCs. RPCs consist of two parallel plates, a
positively-charged anode and a negatively-charged cathode, both made of a very high resistivity plastic material and separated by a gas volume. When a muon passes
through the chamber, electrons are knocked out of gas
atoms. These electrons in turn hit other atoms causing
an avalanche of electrons. The electrodes are transparent
to the signal (the electrons), which are instead picked up
by external metallic strips after a small but precise time
delay. The pattern of hit strips gives a quick measure of
the muon momentum, which is then used by the trigger
to make immediate decisions about whether the data are
worth keeping. RPCs combine a good spatial resolution
with a time resolution of just one nanosecond (one billionth of a second).
The Hadron Calorimeter Barrel (in the foreground,
on the yellow frame) waits to be inserted into the
superconducting magnet (the silver cylinder in the
centre of the red magnet yoke).
A part of the Magnet Yoke, with drift tubes and
resistive-plate chambers in the barrel region.
48
CHAPTER 2. EXPERIMENTS
the High Level trigger, which is software (mainly written in C++) running on ordinary computer servers. The
lower event rate in the High Level trigger allows time for
much more detailed analysis of the event to be done than
in the Level 1 trigger. The High Level trigger reduces the
event rate by a further factor of about a thousand down to
around 100 events per second. These are then stored on
tape for future analysis.
Data analysis
Data that has passed the triggering stages and been
stored on tape is duplicated using the Grid to additional
sites around the world for easier access and redundancy.
Physicists are then able to use the Grid to access and run
their analyses on the data.
There are a huge range of analyses performed at CMS,
including:
Performing precision measurements of Standard
Model particles, which allows both for furthering the
knowledge of these particles and also for the collaboration to calibrate the detector and measure the
performance of various components.
to be identied. The presence (or not) of any new particles can then be inferred.
Trigger system
To have a good chance of producing a rare particle,
such as a Higgs boson, a very large number of collisions is required. Most collision events in the detector
are soft and do not produce interesting eects. The
amount of raw data from each crossing is approximately
1 megabytes, which at the 40 MHz crossing rate would result in 40 terabytes of data a second, an amount that the
experiment cannot hope to store, let alone process properly. The trigger system reduces the rate of interesting
events down to a manageable 100 per second.
Searching for events with large amounts of missing transverse energy, which implies the presence of
particles that have passed through the detector without leaving a signature. In the Standard Model only
neutrinos would traverse the detector without being
detected but a wide range of Beyond the Standard
Model theories contain new particles that would also
result in missing transverse energy.
Studying the kinematics of pairs of particles produced by the decay of a parent, such as the Z boson
decaying to a pair of electrons or the Higgs boson
decaying to a pair of tau leptons or photons, to determine various properties and mass of the parent.
Looking at jets of particles to study the way the partons (quarks and gluons) in the collided protons have
interacted, or to search for evidence of new physics
that manifests in hadronic nal states.
2.5. VELO
YE+1, a component of CMS weighing 1,270 tonnes,
nishes its 100 m descent into the CMS cavern, January 2007
Computer-generated event display of protons hitting
a tungsten block just upstream of CMS on the rst
beam day, September 2008
2.4.7
Etymology
The term Compact Muon Solenoid comes from the relatively compact size of the detector, the fact that it detects muons, and the use of solenoids in the detector.[10]
CMS is also a reference to the center-of-mass system,
an important concept in particle physics.
2.4.8
See also
2.4.9
Notes
49
CMS section from US/LHC Website
http://petermccready.com/portfolio/07041601.
html Panoramic view - click and drag to look
around the experiment under construction (with
sound!) (requires QuickTime)
The assembly of the CMS detector, step by step,
through a 3D animation
The CMS Collaboration, S Chatrchyan et al.
(2008-08-14). The CMS experiment at the CERN
LHC. Journal of Instrumentation 3 (8): S08004.
Bibcode:2008JInst...3S8004T. doi:10.1088/17480221/3/08/S08004. Retrieved 2008-08-26. (Full
design documentation)
Copeland, Ed. Inside the CMS Experiment. Sixty
Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
[1] http://www.stfc.ac.uk/publications/PDF/CERN-CMS.
pdf
2.5 VELO
[2] http://cms.web.cern.ch/content/cms-collaboration
Coordinates:
461427.64N
46.2410111N 6.0969333E
[3] http://cms.web.cern.ch/news/tracker-detector
[4] CMS installs the worlds largest silicon detector, CERN
Courier, Feb 15, 2008
[5] Using Russian navy shells - Lucas Taylor
[6] Precise mapping of the magnetic eld in the CMS barrel
yoke using cosmic rays
[7] First lead-ion collisions in the LHC. CERN. 2010. Retrieved 2014-03-14.
[8] New world record - rst pp collisions at 8 TeV. CERN.
2012. Retrieved 2014-03-14.
[9] LHC report: Run 1 - the nal urry. CERN. 2013. Retrieved 2014-03-14.
[10] Aczel, Ammir D. Present at the Creation: Discovering
the Higgs Boson. Random House, 2012
2.4.10
6548.96E
References
Della Negra, Michel; Petrilli, Achille; Herve, Alain; 2.5.1 Physics goals
Foa, Lorenzo; (2006). CMS Physics Technical Design Report Volume I: Software and Detector Per- The experiment has wide physics program covering many
important aspects of Heavy Flavor (both beauty and
formance (PDF). CERN.
charm), Electroweak and QCD physics. Six key measurements have been identied involving B mesons. These are
described in a roadmap document [2] that form the core
2.4.11 External links
physics programme for the rst high energy LHC running
in 20102012. They include:
CMS home page
CMS Outreach
CMS Times
50
CHAPTER 2. EXPERIMENTS
Subsystems
The vertex detector (VELO) is built around the proton
interaction region.[3][4] It is used to measure the particle
trajectories close to the interaction point in order to precisely separate primary and secondary vertices.
2.5.2
2.6. LHCF
51
The Outer Tracker. A straw-tube based detector lo- 2.5.6 External links
cated after the dipole magnet covering the outer part
of the detector acceptance
LHCb Public Webpage
The Inner Tracker, silicon strip based detector located after the dipole magnet covering the inner part
of the detector acceptance
Following the tracking system is RICH-2. It allows the
identication of the particle type of high-momentum
tracks.
The electromagnetic and hadronic calorimeters provide
measurements of the energy of electrons, photons, and
hadrons. These measurements are used at trigger level
to identify the particles with large transverse momentum
(high-Pt particles).
2.6 LHCf
2.5.3
Results
During the 2011 proton-proton run LHCb recorded a luminosity of 1 fb1 [5] at energy 7 TeV. In 2012 about 2
fb1 was collected at 8 TeV.[6] These datasets allow them
to carry out the physics program of precision Standard
Model tests with many additional measurements. The
analysis led to evidence for the avour changing neutral
current decay B .[7] This measurement impacts
the parameter space of supersymmetry. CP violation was
studied in various particle systems such as B , Kaons, and
The LHCf experiment, the smallest of the seven experiments on
D0 .[8] New Xi baryons were observed in 2014.[9]
the LHC
2.5.4
See also
2.5.5
References
2.6.1 Purpose
52
CHAPTER 2. EXPERIMENTS
2.6.2
See also
2.6.3
References
2.8 TOTEM
TOTal Elastic and diractive cross section Measurement (TOTEM) is one of the seven detector experiments
at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. The other six are:
ATLAS, ALICE, CMS, LHCb, LHCf, and MoEDAL.
It shares intersection point IP5 with the Compact Muon
Solenoid. The detector aims at measurement of total
cross section, elastic scattering, and diractive processes.
O Adriani et al.
(LHCf Collaboration)
(2013).
LHCf detector performance during the 2009-2010 LHC run.
International 2.8.1 See also
Journal of Modern Physics A 28 (25):
CERN: European Organization for Nuclear Re1330036-1.
Bibcode:2013IJMPA..2830036A.
search
doi:10.1142/S0217751X13300366. (Full design
documentation)
Large Hadron Collider
Coordinates:
6.05500E
2.7.1
See also
2.7.2
References
Chapter 3
Technology
3.1 Beetle (ASIC)
The Worldwide LHC Computing Grid (WLCG), forThe Beetle ASIC is an analog readout chip. It is devel- merly (until 2006)[1] the LHC Computing Grid (LCG),
oped for the LHCb experiment at CERN.
is an international collaborative project that consists of a
grid-based computer network infrastructure incorporating over 170 computing centers in 36 countries, as of
3.1.1 Overview
2012. It was designed by CERN to handle the prodigious volume of data produced by Large Hadron Collider
The chip integrates 128 channels with low-noise charge- (LHC) experiments.[2][3]
sensitive pre-ampliers and shapers. The pulse shape can
14
be chosen such that it complies with LHCb specications: By 2012, data from over 300 trillion (310 ) LHC
[4]
a peaking time of 25 ns with a remainder of the peak proton-proton collisions had been analyzed, and LHC
voltage after 25 ns of less than 30%. A comparator per collision data was being produced at approximately 25
channel with congurable polarity provides a binary sig- petabytes per year. As of 2012, The LHC Computing
nal. Four adjacent comparator channels are being ORed Grid had become the worlds largest computing grid comprising over 170 computing facilities in a worldwide netand brought o chip via LVDS drivers.
work across 36 countries.[4][5][6]
Either the shaper or comparator output is sampled with
the LHC bunch-crossing frequency of 40 MHz into an
analog pipeline. This ring buer has a programmable la- 3.2.1 Background
tency of a maximum of 160 sampling intervals and an integrated derandomising buer of 16 stages. For analogue The Large Hadron Collider at CERN was designed to
readout data is multiplexed with up to 40 MHz onto one prove or disprove the existence of the Higgs boson, an
or four ports. A binary readout mode operates at up to important but elusive piece of knowledge that had been
80 MHz output rate on two ports. Current drivers bring sought by particle physicists for over 40 years. A very
the serialised data o chip.
powerful particle accelerator was needed, because Higgs
The chip can accept trigger rates up to 1.1 MHz to per- bosons might not be seen in lower energy experiments,
form a dead-timeless readout within 900 ns per trigger. and because vast numbers of collisions would need to
53
54
CHAPTER 3. TECHNOLOGY
be studied. Such a collider would also produce unprecedented quantities of collision data requiring analysis. Therefore advanced computing facilities were needed
to process the data.
trieved 2012-12-20.
[2] What is the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid?, CERN,
January 2011, retrieved 2012-01-11
[3] Welcome, CERN, January 2011, retrieved 2012-01-11
3.2.2
Description
A design report was published in 2005.[7] It was announced to be ready for data on 3 October 2008.[8] A popular 2008 press article predicted the internet could soon
be made obsolete by its technology.[9] CERN had to publish its own articles trying to clear up the confusion.[10] It
incorporates both private ber optic cable links and existing high-speed portions of the public Internet. At the end
of 2010, the Grid consisted of some 200,000 processing
cores and 150 petabytes of disk space, distributed across
34 countries.[11]
The data stream from the detectors provides approximately 300 GByte/s of data, which after ltering for interesting events, results in a data stream of about 300
MByte/s. The CERN computer center, considered Tier
0 of the LHC Computing Grid, has a dedicated 10 Gbit/s
connection to the counting room.
The project was expected to generate 27 TB of raw data
per day, plus 10 TB of event summary data, which represents the output of calculations done by the CPU farm
at the CERN data center. This data is sent out from
CERN to eleven Tier 1 academic institutions in Europe,
Asia, and North America, via dedicated 10 Gbit/s links.
This is called the LHC Optical Private Network.[12] More
than 150 Tier 2 institutions are connected to the Tier 1
institutions by general-purpose national research and education networks.[13] The data produced by the LHC on
all of its distributed computing grid is expected to add up
to 1015 PB of data each year.[14] In total, the four main
detectors at the LHC produced 13 petabytes of data in
2010.[11]
3.2.3
See also
Openlab (CERN)
3.3 LHC@home
LHC@home is a distributed computing project for
particle physics based on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform.
55
2.0, Test4Theory, which went live in August 2011 and is 3.3.3 References
used to simulate high-energy particle collisions to proLHC@Home Classic - Credit
vide a reference to test the measurements performed at [1] Willy de Zutter.
overview. boincstats.com. Retrieved 16 December
the LHC.
2011.
3.3.1
SixTrack
The project was rst introduced as a beta on 1 September 2004 and a record 1000 users signed up within 24
hours. The project went public, with a 5000 user limit,
on September 29 to commemorate CERNs 50th anniversary. Currently there is no user limit and qualication.
Data from the project is utilized by engineers to improve
the operation and eciency of the accelerator, and to predict possible problems that could arise from adjustment
or modication of the LHCs equipment. The project is
administered by volunteers, and receives no funding from
CERN. There are currently no plans to use the project to
do computation on the data that will be collected by the
LHC.
SixTrack homepage
Test4Theory Project Page
3.3.2
See also
56
CHAPTER 3. TECHNOLOGY
3.5 VELO
Coordinates:
461427.64N
46.2410111N 6.0969333E
3.5.1
Physics goals
3.5. VELO
57
The Tracker Turicensis, a silicon strip detector located before the LHCb dipole magnet
The Outer Tracker. A straw-tube based detector located after the dipole magnet covering the outer part
of the detector acceptance
The Inner Tracker, silicon strip based detector located after the dipole magnet covering the inner part
of the detector acceptance
Following the tracking system is RICH-2. It allows the
identication of the particle type of high-momentum
tracks.
The electromagnetic and hadronic calorimeters provide
measurements of the energy of electrons, photons, and
hadrons. These measurements are used at trigger level
to identify the particles with large transverse momentum
(high-Pt particles).
The muon system is used to identify and trigger on muons
in the events.
3.5.3
Results
During the 2011 proton-proton run LHCb recorded a luminosity of 1 fb1 [5] at energy 7 TeV. In 2012 about 2
fb1 was collected at 8 TeV.[6] These datasets allow them
to carry out the physics program of precision Standard
Model tests with many additional measurements. The
analysis led to evidence for the avour changing neutral
current decay B .[7] This measurement impacts
the parameter space of supersymmetry. CP violation was
studied in various particle systems such as B , Kaons, and
D0 .[8] New Xi baryons were observed in 2014.[9]
3.5.4
See also
Chapter 4
Theory
4.1 Standard Model
This article is about the Standard Model of particle
physics. For other uses, see Standard model (disambiguation).
This article is a non-mathematical general overview of the
Standard Model. For a mathematical description, see the
article Standard Model (mathematical formulation).
The Standard Model of particle physics is a theory con-
The Standard Model of elementary particles (more schematic depiction), with the three generations of matter, gauge bosons in the
fourth column, and the Higgs boson in the fth.
erything.
Although the Standard Model is believed to be theoretically self-consistent[2] and has demonstrated huge and
continued successes in providing experimental predicStandard Model of Particle Physics. The diagram shows the tions, it does leave some phenomena unexplained and
elementary particles of the Standard Model (the Higgs boson, the it falls short of being a complete theory of fundamenthree generations of quarks and leptons, and the gauge bosons), tal interactions. It does not incorporate the full theory
including their names, masses, spins, charges, chiralities, and in- of gravitation[3] as described by general relativity, or acteractions with the strong, weak and electromagnetic forces. It count for the accelerating expansion of the universe (as
also depicts the crucial role of the Higgs boson in electroweak possibly described by dark energy). The model does not
symmetry breaking, and shows how the properties of the various
contain any viable dark matter particle that possesses all
particles dier in the (high-energy) symmetric phase (top) and
of the required properties deduced from observational
the (low-energy) broken-symmetry phase (bottom).
cosmology. It also does not incorporate neutrino oscilcerning the electromagnetic, weak, and strong nuclear in- lations (and their non-zero masses).
teractions, as well as classifying all the subatomic parti- The development of the Standard Model was driven by
cles known. It was developed throughout the latter half theoretical and experimental particle physicists alike. For
of the 20th century, as a collaborative eort of scientists theorists, the Standard Model is a paradigm of a quantum
around the world.[1] The current formulation was nal- eld theory, which exhibits a wide range of physics inized in the mid-1970s upon experimental conrmation of cluding spontaneous symmetry breaking, anomalies, nonthe existence of quarks. Since then, discoveries of the top perturbative behavior, etc. It is used as a basis for buildquark (1995), the tau neutrino (2000), and more recently ing more exotic models that incorporate hypothetical parthe Higgs boson (2013), have given further credence to ticles, extra dimensions, and elaborate symmetries (such
the Standard Model. Because of its success in explain- as supersymmetry) in an attempt to explain experimental
ing a wide variety of experimental results, the Standard results at variance with the Standard Model, such as the
Model is sometimes regarded as a theory of almost ev- existence of dark matter and neutrino oscillations.
58
4.1.1
59
Historical background
eL
YW
uR
dL
H
R
g
dL
+
eR
W+
uL
dR
g8 3
g
Z
T3
H*
L
dR
uR
uL
The theory of the strong interaction, to which many the vertical. The neutral Higgs eld (gray square) breaks the
contributed, acquired its modern form around 197374, electroweak symmetry and interacts with other particles to give
when experiments conrmed that the hadrons were com- them mass.
posed of fractionally charged quarks.
charges they carry). There are six quarks (up, down,
charm, strange, top, bottom), and six leptons (electron,
electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tau, tau neuAt present, matter and energy are best understood in trino). Pairs from each classication are grouped together
terms of the kinematics and interactions of elementary to form a generation, with corresponding particles exparticles. To date, physics has reduced the laws govern- hibiting similar physical behavior (see table).
ing the behavior and interaction of all known forms of
The dening property of the quarks is that they carry
matter and energy to a small set of fundamental laws and
color charge, and hence, interact via the strong interactheories. A major goal of physics is to nd the comtion. A phenomenon called color connement results in
mon ground that would unite all of these theories into
quarks being very strongly bound to one another, formone integrated theory of everything, of which all the other
ing color-neutral composite particles (hadrons) containknown laws would be special cases, and from which the
ing either a quark and an antiquark (mesons) or three
behavior of all matter and energy could be derived (at
quarks (baryons). The familiar proton and the neutron
[14]
least in principle).
are the two baryons having the smallest mass. Quarks
also carry electric charge and weak isospin. Hence they
interact with other fermions both electromagnetically and
4.1.3 Particle content
via the weak interaction.
4.1.2
Overview
60
hand, decay with very short half lives, and are observed
only in very high-energy environments. Neutrinos of all
generations also do not decay, and pervade the universe,
but rarely interact with baryonic matter.
Gauge bosons
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
Interactions in physics are the ways that particles inuence other particles. At a macroscopic level, electromagnetism allows particles to interact with one another
via electric and magnetic elds, and gravitation allows
particles with mass to attract one another in accordance
with Einsteins theory of general relativity. The Standard Model explains such forces as resulting from matter particles exchanging other particles, generally referred
to as force mediating particles. When a force-mediating
particle is exchanged, at a macroscopic level the eect
is equivalent to a force inuencing both of them, and
the particle is therefore said to have mediated (i.e., been
the agent of) that force. The Feynman diagram calculations, which are a graphical representation of the perturbation theory approximation, invoke force mediating
particles, and when applied to analyze high-energy scattering experiments are in reasonable agreement with the
data. However, perturbation theory (and with it the concept of a force-mediating particle) fails in other situations. These include low-energy quantum chromodynamics, bound states, and solitons.
The gauge bosons of the Standard Model all have spin (as
do matter particles). The value of the spin is 1, making
them bosons. As a result, they do not follow the Pauli
exclusion principle that constrains fermions: thus bosons
(e.g. photons) do not have a theoretical limit on their spatial density (number per volume). The dierent types of
gauge bosons are described below.
Photons mediate the electromagnetic force between
electrically charged particles. The photon is massless and is well-described by the theory of quantum
electrodynamics.
The W+, W, and Z gauge bosons mediate the weak
interactions between particles of dierent avors
(all quarks and leptons). They are massive, with
the Z being more massive than the W. The weak
interactions involving the W exclusively act on
left-handed particles and right-handed antiparticles.
Furthermore, the W carries an electric charge of
+1 and 1 and couples to the electromagnetic interaction. The electrically neutral Z boson interacts with both left-handed particles and antiparticles. These three gauge bosons along with the photons are grouped together, as collectively mediating
the electroweak interaction.
The eight gluons mediate the strong interactions between color charged particles (the quarks). Gluons
are massless. The eightfold multiplicity of gluons
is labeled by a combination of color and anticolor
charge (e.g. redantigreen).[nb 1] Because the gluons
have an eective color charge, they can also interact
among themselves. The gluons and their interactions
are described by the theory of quantum chromodynamics.
61
The interactions between all the particles described by the Full particle count
Standard Model are summarized by the diagrams on the
Counting particles by a rule that distinguishes beright of this section.
tween particles and their corresponding antiparticles, and
among the many color states of quarks and gluons, gives
a total of 61 elementary particles.[25]
Higgs boson
Main article: Higgs boson
62
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
Ga is the SU(3) gauge eld containing the gluons, are 4.1.6 Tests and predictions
the Dirac matrices, D and U are the Dirac spinors associated with up- and down-type quarks, and g is the strong The Standard Model (SM) predicted the existence of the
coupling constant.
W and Z bosons, gluon, and the top and charm quarks
before these particles were observed. Their predicted
properties were experimentally conrmed with good preElectroweak sector Main article: Electroweak inter- cision. To give an idea of the success of the SM, the folaction
lowing table compares the measured masses of the W and
Z bosons with the masses predicted by the SM:
The electroweak sector is a YangMills gauge theory with The SM also makes several predictions about the decay
the simple symmetry group U(1)SU(2)L,
of Z bosons, which have been experimentally conrmed
by the Large Electron-Positron Collider at CERN.
LEW =
(
)
i g 1 YW B g 1 L W
2
2
In May 2012 BaBar Collaboration reported that their recently analyzed data may suggest possible aws in the
Standard Model of particle physics.[28][29] These data
show that a particular type of particle decay called B
to D-star-tau-nu happens more often than the Standard
Model says it should. In this type of decay, a particle
called the B-bar meson decays into a D meson, an antineutrino and a tau-lepton. While the level of certainty
of the excess (3.4 sigma) is not enough to claim a break
from the Standard Model, the results are a potential sign
of something amiss and are likely to impact existing theories, including those attempting to deduce the properties
of Higgs bosons.[30]
On December 13, 2012, physicists reported the conIn the Standard Model, the Higgs eld is a complex scalar stancy, over space and time, of a basic physical constant
of the group SU(2)L:
of nature that supports the standard model of physics.
The scientists, studying methanol molecules in a distant
galaxy, found the change (/) in the proton-to-electron
( + )
1
Challenges
Self-consistency
of the Standard
Model (currently formu(
)) (
))
i(
i ( lated as a non-abelian
2 ( theory2 )quantized
2
through
LH =
g YW B + g W
+
g YW B + g W
gauge
v
,
2
2
4
path-integrals) has not been mathematically proven.
While regularized versions useful for approximate comwhich can also be written as:
putations (for example lattice gauge theory) exist, it is not
known whether they converge (in the sense of S-matrix
elements) in the limit that the regulator is removed. A
(
)
)
2 2 (
i(
2
key)question
related to the consistency is the YangMills
LH = +
g YW B + g W
v2 .
2
4
existence and mass gap problem.
Experiments indicate that neutrinos have mass, which the
classic Standard Model did not allow.[33] To accommo4.1.5 Fundamental forces
date this nding, the classic Standard Model can be modThe Standard Model classied all four fundamental forces ied to include neutrino mass.
in nature. In the Standard Model, a force is described as If one insists on using only Standard Model particles, this
an exchange of bosons between the objects aected, such can be achieved by adding a non-renormalizable interacas a photon for the electromagnetic force and a gluon for tion of leptons with the Higgs boson.[34] On a fundamenthe strong interaction. Those particles are called force tal level, such an interaction emerges in the seesaw mechcarriers.[26]
anism where heavy right-handed neutrinos are added to
63
the theory. This is natural in the left-right symmetric ex- 4.1.8 See also
tension of the Standard Model [35][36] and in certain grand
Fundamental interaction:
unied theories.[37] As long as new physics appears below
14
or around 10 GeV, the neutrino masses can be of the
Quantum electrodynamics
right order of magnitude.
Strong interaction: Color charge, Quantum
Theoretical and experimental research has attempted to
chromodynamics, Quark model
extend the Standard Model into a Unied eld theory or
Weak interaction: Electroweak theory, Fermi
a Theory of everything, a complete theory explaining all
theory of beta decay, Weak hypercharge,
physical phenomena including constants. Inadequacies of
Weak isospin
the Standard Model that motivate such research include:
Gauge theory: Nontechnical introduction to gauge
theory
It does not attempt to explain gravitation, although
a theoretical particle known as a graviton would
Generation
help explain it, and unlike for the strong and elec Higgs mechanism: Higgs boson, Higgsless model
troweak interactions of the Standard Model, there
is no known way of describing general relativity,
J. C. Ward
the canonical theory of gravitation, consistently in
J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics
terms of quantum eld theory. The reason for this
is, among other things, that quantum eld theories
Lagrangian
of gravity generally break down before reaching the
Planck scale. As a consequence, we have no reliable
Open questions: BTeV experiment, CP violation,
theory for the very early universe;
Neutrino masses, Quark matter, Quantum triviality
Some consider it to be ad hoc and inelegant, requir Penguin diagram
ing 19 numerical constants whose values are unre Quantum eld theory
lated and arbitrary. Although the Standard Model,
as it now stands, can explain why neutrinos have
Standard Model: Mathematical formulation of,
masses, the specics of neutrino mass are still unPhysics beyond the Standard Model
clear. It is believed that explaining neutrino mass
will require an additional 7 or 8 constants, which are
4.1.9 Notes and references
also arbitrary parameters;
The Higgs mechanism gives rise to the hierarchy [1] Technically, there are nine such coloranticolor combinations. However, there is one color-symmetric combinaproblem if some new physics (coupled to the Higgs)
tion that can be constructed out of a linear superposition
is present at high energy scales. In these cases in orof the nine combinations, reducing the count to eight.
der for the weak scale to be much smaller than the
Planck scale, severe ne tuning of the parameters is
required; there are, however, other scenarios that in4.1.10 References
clude quantum gravity in which such ne tuning can
be avoided. [38] There are also issues of Quantum [1] R. Oerter (2006). The Theory of Almost Everything: The
triviality, which suggests that it may not be possible
Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph of Modern Physics
to create a consistent quantum eld theory involving
(Kindle ed.). Penguin Group. p. 2. ISBN 0-13-2366789.
elementary scalar particles.
It should be modied so as to be consistent with
the emerging Standard Model of cosmology. In
particular, the Standard Model cannot explain the
observed amount of cold dark matter (CDM) and
gives contributions to dark energy which are many
orders of magnitude too large. It is also dicult to
accommodate the observed predominance of matter over antimatter (matter/antimatter asymmetry).
The isotropy and homogeneity of the visible universe over large distances seems to require a mechanism like cosmic ination, which would also constitute an extension of the Standard Model.
Currently, no proposed Theory of Everything has been
widely accepted or veried.
64
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
(5): 15191531.
Bibcode:1977PhRvD..16.1519L.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.16.1519.
[17] Huge $10 billion collider resumes hunt for 'God particle'". CNN. 11 November 2009. Retrieved 2010-05-04.
[18] M. Strassler (10 July 2012). Higgs Discovery: Is it a
Higgs?". Retrieved 2013-08-06.
[19] CERN experiments observe particle consistent with
long-sought Higgs boson. CERN. 4 July 2012. Retrieved
2012-07-04.
[20] Observation of a New Particle with a Mass of 125 GeV.
CERN. 4 July 2012. Retrieved 2012-07-05.
[21] ATLAS Experiment. ATLAS. 1 January 2006. Retrieved 2012-07-05.
[22] Conrmed: CERN discovers new particle likely to be the
Higgs boson. YouTube. Russia Today. 4 July 2012. Retrieved 2013-08-06.
[23] D. Overbye (4 July 2012). A New Particle Could Be
Physics Holy Grail. New York Times. Retrieved 201207-04.
[24] New results indicate that new particle is a Higgs boson.
CERN. 14 March 2013. Retrieved 2013-08-06.
[25] S. Braibant, G. Giacomelli, M. Spurio (2009). Particles
and Fundamental Interactions: An Introduction to Particle Physics. Springer. pp. 313314. ISBN 978-94-0072463-1.
[26] http://home.web.cern.ch/about/physics/standard-model
Ocial CERN website
[27] http://www.pha.jhu.edu/~{}dfehling/particle.gif
[28] BABAR Data in Tension with the Standard Model.
SLAC. 31 May 2012. Retrieved 2013-08-06.
[29] BaBar
Collaboration
(2012).
Evidence
for an excess of B D(*) decays.
Physical Review Letters 109 (10):
101802.
arXiv:1205.5442.
Bibcode:2012PhRvL.109j1802L.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.109.101802.
[30] BaBar data hint at cracks in the Standard Model. e! Science News. 18 June 2012. Retrieved 2013-08-06.
4.1.11
Further reading
65
L. O'Raifeartaigh (1988). Group structure of gauge
theories. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52134785-8.
Nagashima Y. Elementary Particle Physics: Foundations of the Standard Model, Volume 2. (Wiley
2013) 920
Schwartz, M.D. Quantum Field Theory and the
Standard Model (ambridge University Press 2013)
952 pages
Langacker P. The standard model and beyond.
(CRC Press, 2010) 670 pages Highlights grouptheoretical aspects of the Standard Model.
Journal articles
E.S. Abers, B.W. Lee (1973).
Gauge
theories.
Physics Reports 9:
1141.
Bibcode:1973PhR.....9....1A. doi:10.1016/03701573(73)90027-6.
M. Baak et al.
(2012).
The Electroweak
Fit of the Standard Model after the Discovery of a New Boson at the LHC.
The European Physical Journal C 72 (11).
arXiv:1209.2716. Bibcode:2012EPJC...72.2205B.
doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-012-2205-9.
Y. Hayato et al. (1999). Search for Proton Decay through p K + in a Large
Water Cherenkov Detector.
Physical Review Letters 83 (8):
1529.
arXiv:hepex/9904020.
Bibcode:1999PhRvL..83.1529H.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.1529.
S.F. Novaes (2000). Standard Model: An Introduction. arXiv:hep-ph/0001283 [hep-ph].
D.P. Roy (1999). Basic Constituents of Matter and their Interactions A Progress Report.
arXiv:hep-ph/9912523 [hep-ph].
F. Wilczek (2004).
The Universe Is A
Strange Place.
Nuclear Physics B - Proceedings Supplements 134: 3.
arXiv:astroph/0401347.
Bibcode:2004NuPhS.134....3W.
doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2004.08.001.
T.P. Cheng, L.F. Li (2006). Gauge theory of ele- 4.1.12 External links
mentary particle physics. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-851961-3. Highlights the gauge theory
"The Standard Model explained in Detail by
aspects of the Standard Model.
CERNs John Ellis" omega tau podcast.
J.F. Donoghue, E. Golowich, B.R. Holstein (1994).
Dynamics of the Standard Model. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47652-2. Highlights dynamical and phenomenological aspects of
the Standard Model.
66
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
4.2.3
Standard Model
4.2.4
Experimental laboratories
67
Large ElectronPositron Collider (LEP), which was
stopped on 2 November 2000 and then dismantled
to give way for LHC; and the Super Proton Synchrotron, which is being reused as a pre-accelerator
for the LHC.[14]
DESY
(Deutsches
Elektronen-Synchrotron)
(Hamburg, Germany). Its main facility is the
Hadron Elektron Ring Anlage (HERA), which
collides electrons and positrons with protons.[15]
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab),
(Batavia, United States). Its main facility until 2011
was the Tevatron, which collided protons and antiprotons and was the highest-energy particle collider on earth until the Large Hadron Collider surpassed it on 29 November 2009.[16]
KEK, (Tsukuba, Japan). It is the home of a number of experiments such as the K2K experiment, a
neutrino oscillation experiment and Belle, an experiment measuring the CP violation of B mesons.[17]
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, (Menlo
Park, United States). Its 2-mile-long linear particle accelerator began operating in 1962 and was the
basis for numerous electron and positron collision
experiments until 2008. Since then the linear accelerator is being used for the Linac Coherent Light
Source X-ray laser as well as advanced accelerator
design research. SLAC sta continue to participate
in developing and building many particle physics experiments around the world.[18]
Many other particle accelerators do exist.
The techniques required to do modern, experimental,
particle physics are quite varied and complex, constituting a sub-specialty nearly completely distinct from the
theoretical side of the eld.
4.2.5 Theory
Theoretical particle physics attempts to develop the
models, theoretical framework, and mathematical tools
to understand current experiments and make predictions
for future experiments. See also theoretical physics.
There are several major interrelated eorts being made
in theoretical particle physics today. One important
branch attempts to better understand the Standard Model
and its tests. By extracting the parameters of the Standard Model, from experiments with less uncertainty,
this work probes the limits of the Standard Model and
therefore expands our understanding of natures building
blocks. Those eorts are made challenging by the diculty of calculating quantities in quantum chromodynamics. Some theorists working in this area refer to themselves as phenomenologists and they may use the tools
of quantum eld theory and eective eld theory. Others
68
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
4.2.7
Future
69
[19] arxiv.org
Unparticle physics
Tetraquark
4.2.9
References
Introductory reading
[1] http://home.web.cern.ch/topics/higgs-boson
[2] http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/
laureates/2013/advanced-physicsprize2013.pdf
[4] Particle Physics and Astrophysics Research. The Henryk Niewodniczanski Institute of Nuclear Physics. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
complex.
Oerter, Robert (2006). The Theory of Almost Everything: The Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph
of Modern Physics. Plume.
Schumm, Bruce A. (2004). Deep Down Things: The
Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-7971-X.
Close, Frank (2006). The New Cosmic Onion.
Taylor & Francis. ISBN 1-58488-798-2.
Advanced reading
Robinson, Matthew B.; Bland, Karen R.; Cleaver,
Gerald. B.; Dittmann, Jay R. (2008). A Simple
Introduction to Particle Physics. arXiv:0810.3328
[hep-th].
Robinson, Matthew B.; Cleaver, Gerald; Cleaver,
Gerald B. (2009). A Simple Introduction to Particle Physics Part II. arXiv:0908.1395 [hep-th].
Griths, David J. (1987). Introduction to Elementary Particles. Wiley, John & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0471-60386-4.
Kane, Gordon L. (1987). Modern Elementary Particle Physics. Perseus Books. ISBN 0-201-11749-5.
Perkins, Donald H. (1999). Introduction to High Energy Physics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521-62196-8.
Povh, Bogdan (1995). Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts. Springer-Verlag.
ISBN 0-387-59439-6.
Boyarkin, Oleg (2011). Advanced Particle Physics
Two-Volume Set. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-43980412-4.
70
4.2.11
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
External links
Symmetry magazine
If the supersymmetry theory is correct, it should be possible to recreate these particles in high-energy particle ac Fermilab
celerators. Doing so will not be an easy task; these partitimes greater than
Particle physics it matters the Institute of Physics cles may have masses up to a thousand
their corresponding real particles.[1]
Nobes, Matthew (2002) Introduction to the Stan- Some researchers have hoped the Large Hadron Collider
dard Model of Particle Physics on Kuro5hin: Part at CERN might produce evidence for the existence of su1, Part 2, Part 3a, Part 3b.
perpartner particles.[1] However, as of 2013, no such ev[4]
CERN European Organization for Nuclear Re- idence has been found.
search
4.3 Superpartner
Neutralino
Sfermion
Higgsino
The word superpartner is a portmanteau of supersymmetry and partner. The word sparticle is a portmanteau of 4.3.4
supersymmetry and particle.
4.3.1
Theoretical predictions
References
4.4. SUPERSYMMETRY
4.4 Supersymmetry
71
4.4.1 History
72
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
yet extremely puzzling and said we have to get peo- 4.4.3 Applications
ple to try to nd the new principles that will explain the
simplicity.[20]
Extension of possible symmetry groups
4.4.2
Motivations
One reason that physicists explored supersymmetry is because it oers an extension to the more familiar symmetries of quantum eld theory. These symmetries are
grouped into the Poincar group and internal symmetries and the ColemanMandula theorem showed that under certain assumptions, the symmetries of the S-matrix
must be a direct product of the Poincar group with a
compact internal symmetry group or if there is no mass
gap, the conformal group with a compact internal symmetry group. In 1971 Golfand and Likhtman were the
rst to show that the Poincar algebra can be extended
through introduction of four anticommuting spinor generators (in four dimensions), which later became known
as supercharges. In 1975 the Haag-Lopuszanski-Sohnius
theorem analyzed all possible superalgebras in the general
form, including those with an extended number of the supergenerators and central charges. This extended superPoincar algebra paved the way for obtaining a very large
and important class of supersymmetric eld theories.
The supersymmetry
Supersymmetry algebra
algebra
Main
article:
Traditional symmetries in physics are generated by objects that transform under the tensor representations of
the Poincar group and internal symmetries. Supersymmetries, on the other hand, are generated by objects that
transform under the spinor representations. According to
the spin-statistics theorem, bosonic elds commute while
fermionic elds anticommute. Combining the two kinds
of elds into a single algebra requires the introduction of a
Z2 -grading under which the bosons are the even elements
Supersymmetry is also motivated by solutions to several and the fermions are the odd elements. Such an algebra
theoretical problems, for generally providing many de- is called a Lie superalgebra.
sirable mathematical properties, and for ensuring sensi- The simplest supersymmetric extension of the Poincar
ble behavior at high energies. Supersymmetric quantum algebra is the Super-Poincar algebra. Expressed in terms
eld theory is often much easier to analyze, as many more of two Weyl spinors, has the following anti-commutation
problems become exactly solvable. When supersymme- relation:
try is imposed as a local symmetry, Einsteins theory of
general relativity is included automatically, and the result
is said to be a theory of supergravity. It is also a neces = 2( ) P
Pauli matrices.
translation
and
are
the
symmetries from being combined in any nontrivial way,
for quantum eld theories like the Standard Model under very general assumptions. The Haag-LopuszanskiSohnius theorem demonstrates that supersymmetry is the
only way spacetime and internal symmetries can be consistently combined.[24]
4.4. SUPERSYMMETRY
The Supersymmetric Standard Model
Main article: Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model
Incorporating supersymmetry into the Standard Model
requires doubling the number of particles since there is
no way that any of the particles in the Standard Model can
be superpartners of each other. With the addition of new
particles, there are many possible new interactions. The
simplest possible supersymmetric model consistent with
the Standard Model is the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM) which can include the necessary additional new particles that are able to be superpartners of
those in the Standard Model.
73
of the theory does not respect the symmetry and supersymmetry is broken spontaneously. The supersymmetry
break can not be done permanently by the particles of the
MSSM as they currently appear. This means that there
is a new sector of the theory that is responsible for the
breaking. The only constraint on this new sector is that
it must break supersymmetry permanently and must give
superparticles TeV scale masses. There are many models
that can do this and most of their details do not matter.
In order to parameterize the relevant features of supersymmetry breaking, arbitrary soft SUSY breaking terms
are added to the theory which temporarily break SUSY
explicitly but could never arise from a complete theory of
supersymmetry breaking.
Gauge-coupling unication Main article: Minimal
Supersymmetric Standard Model Gauge-coupling
unication
One piece of evidence for supersymmetry existing is
gauge coupling unication. The renormalization group
evolution of the three gauge coupling constants of the
Standard Model is somewhat sensitive to the present particle content of the theory. These coupling constants
do not quite meet together at a common energy scale
if we run the renormalization group using the Standard
Model.[5] With the addition of minimal SUSY joint convergence of the coupling constants is projected at approximately 1016 GeV.[5]
Cancellation of the Higgs boson quadratic mass renormalization between fermionic top quark loop and scalar stop squark
tadpole Feynman diagrams in a supersymmetric extension of the
Standard Model
Supersymmetric quantum mechanics adds the SUSY superalgebra to quantum mechanics as opposed to quantum
eld theory. Supersymmetric quantum mechanics often
comes up when studying the dynamics of supersymmetric
solitons, and due to the simplied nature of having elds
which are only functions of time (rather than space-time),
a great deal of progress has been made in this subject and
it is now studied in its own right.
SUSY quantum mechanics involves pairs of
Hamiltonians which share a particular mathematical relationship, which are called partner Hamiltonians.
(The potential energy terms which occur in the Hamiltonians are then called partner potentials.) An introductory
theorem shows that for every eigenstate of one Hamiltonian, its partner Hamiltonian has a corresponding
eigenstate with the same energy. This fact can be
exploited to deduce many properties of the eigenstate
spectrum. It is analogous to the original description of
SUSY, which referred to bosons and fermions. We can
imagine a bosonic Hamiltonian, whose eigenstates are
the various bosons of our theory. The SUSY partner
of this Hamiltonian would be fermionic, and its
74
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
eigenstates would be the theorys fermions. Each boson 4.4.4 General supersymmetry
would have a fermionic partner of equal energy.
Supersymmetry appears in many dierent contexts in
theoretical physics that are closely related. It is possible
to have multiple supersymmetries and also have superSupersymmetry: Applications to condensed matter symmetric extra dimensions.
physics
SUSY concepts have provided useful extensions to the
WKB approximation. In addition, SUSY has been
applied to disorder averaged systems both quantum
and non-quantum (through statistical mechanics). The
Fokker-Planck equation being an example of a nonquantum theory. The `supersymmetry' in all these systems arises from the fact that one is modelling one particle and as such the`statistics don't matter. The use of the
supersymmetry method provides a mathematical rigorous
alternative to the replica trick, but only in non-interacting
systems, which attempts to address the so-called `problem of the denominator' under disorder averaging. For
more on the applications of supersymmetry in condensed
matter physics see the book[25]
Supersymmetry in optics
Integrated optics was recently found[26] to provide a
fertile ground on which certain ramications of SUSY
can be explored in readily-accessible laboratory settings.
Making use of the analogous mathematical structure of
the quantum-mechanical Schrdinger equation and the
wave equation governing the evolution of light in onedimensional settings, one may interpret the refractive index distribution of a structure as a potential landscape in
which optical wave packets propagate. Along these lines,
a new class of functional optical structures with possible
applications in phase matching, mode conversion[27] and
space-division multiplexing becomes possible. SUSY
transformations have been also proposed as a way to address inverse scattering problems in optics and as a onedimensional transformation optics [28]
Extended supersymmetry
Main article: Extended supersymmetry
It is possible to have more than one kind of supersymmetry transformation. Theories with more than one supersymmetry transformation are known as extended supersymmetric theories. The more supersymmetry a theory
has, the more constrained the eld content and interactions are. Typically the number of copies of a supersymmetry is a power of 2, i.e. 1, 2, 4, 8. In four dimensions, a spinor has four degrees of freedom and thus the
minimal number of supersymmetry generators is four in
four dimensions and having eight copies of supersymmetry means that there are 32 supersymmetry generators.
The maximal number of supersymmetry generators possible is 32. Theories with more than 32 supersymmetry
generators automatically have massless elds with spin
greater than 2. It is not known how to make massless
elds with spin greater than two interact, so the maximal number of supersymmetry generators considered is
32. This corresponds to an N = 8 supersymmetry theory.
Theories with 32 supersymmetries automatically have a
graviton.
In four dimensions there are the following theories, with
the corresponding multiplets[30] (CPT adds a copy, whenever they are not invariant under such symmetry)
N=1
Chiral multiplet: (0,1 2 ) Vector multiplet: (1 2 ,1) Gravitino multiplet: (1,3 2 ) Graviton multiplet: (3 2 ,2)
N=2
Mathematics
(2,-3 2 8 ,128 ,-
4.4. SUPERSYMMETRY
75
4.4.7 Falsiability
4.4.6
Supersymmetry is part of a larger enterprise of theoretical physics to unify everything we know about the physical world into a single fundamental framework of physical laws, known as the quest for a Theory of Everything
(TOE). A signicant part of this larger enterprise is the
quest for a theory of quantum gravity, which would unify
the classical theory of general relativity and the Standard
Model, which explains the other three basic forces in
physics (electromagnetism, the strong interaction, and the
weak interaction), and provides a palette of fundamental
particles upon which all four forces act. Two of the most
active approaches to forming a theory of quantum gravity are string theory and loop quantum gravity (LQG), al- 4.4.8 Current status
though in theory, supersymmetry could be a component
of other theoretical approaches as well.
Supersymmetric models are constrained by a variety of
experiments, including measurements of low-energy obFor string theory to be consistent, supersymmetry appears
to be required at some level (although it may be a strongly servables for example, the anomalous magnetic moment
of the muon at Brookhaven; the WMAP dark matter denbroken symmetry). In particle theory, supersymmetry is
sity
measurement and direct detection experiments for
recognized as a way to stabilize the hierarchy between the
example,
XENON100; and by particle collider experunication scale and the electroweak scale (or the Higgs
B-physics, Higgs phenomenology and
iments,
including
boson mass), and can also provide a natural dark matdirect
searches
for
superpartners (sparticles), at the Large
ter candidate. String theory also requires extra spatial
ElectronPositron
Collider, Tevatron and the LHC.
dimensions which have to be compactied as in Kaluza
Klein theory.
Historically, the tightest limits were from direct production at colliders. The rst mass limits for squarks and
gluinos were made at CERN by the UA1 experiment and
the UA2 experiment at the Super Proton Synchrotron.
LEP later set very strong limits.[31] In 2006 these limits
were extended by the D0 experiment.[32][33]
Loop quantum gravity (LQG) predicts no additional spatial dimensions, nor anything else about particle physics.
These theories can be formulated in three spatial dimensions and one dimension of time, although in some LQG
theories dimensionality is an emergent property of the
theory, rather than a fundamental assumption of the the- From 2003, WMAP's dark matter density measurements
ory. Also, LQG is a theory of quantum gravity which have strongly constrained supersymmetry models, which
does not require supersymmetry. Lee Smolin, one of the have to be tuned to invoke a particular mechanism to suf-
76
ciently reduce the neutralino density.
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
itation theory which includes Cartan torsion (EinsteinCartan theory), supersymmetry is not required. (8) The
mass hierarchy problem of Grand Unied theories need
not arise if Grand Unication does not exist. The proton decay predicted by Grand Unied theories has not
been observed. The quantization of electric charge can
be explained by theories which include Dirac magnetic
monopoles, so Grand Unication is not necessary.[42]
for
example,
the NMSSM.
[39]
cluded up to 500 GeV.
Searches are only applicable
for a nite set of tested points because simulation using
the Monte Carlo method must be made so that limits for 4.4.9 See also
that particular model can be calculated. This complicates
matters because dierent experiments have looked at dif Supersymmetric gauge theory
ferent sets of points. Some extrapolation between points
WessZumino model
can be made within particular models but it is dicult to
set general limits even for the Minimal Supersymmetric
Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model
Standard Model.
Supersymmetry as a quantum group
In 2011 and 2012, the LHC discovered a Higgs boson with a mass of about 125 GeV, and with couplings
Quantum group
to fermions and bosons which are consistent with the
Standard Model. The MSSM predicts that the mass of
Supercharge
the lightest Higgs boson should not be much higher than
Supereld
the mass of the Z boson, and, in the absence of ne tuning (with the supersymmetry breaking scale on the order
Supergeometry
of 1 TeV), should not exceed 130 GeV. Furthermore, for
values of the MSSM parameter tan 3, it predicts a
Supergravity
Higgs mass below 114 GeV over most of the parame Supergroup
ter space.[40] This region of Higgs mass was excluded by
LEP by 2000. The LHC result is somewhat problematic
Superspace
for the minimal supersymmetric model, as the value of
125 GeV is relatively large for the model and can only be
achieved with large radiative loop corrections from top
4.4.10 In Popular Culture
squarks, which many theorists consider to be unnatural
[41]
(see naturalness and ne tuning).
Popular indie rock band Arcade Fire produced a
There are eight arguments against supersymmetry. (1) song on their 2013 album Reektor by the name of
The LUX experiment for cold dark matter has not ob- Supersymmetry"--a likely reference to the supersymmeserved neutralinos. (2) The large size of the WMAP cold try of particle physics.
spot is larger than predicted by Lambda cold dark matter
models. (3) The large-scale ow of galaxies is larger than
predicted by Lambda CDM models. (4) The number of 4.4.11 References
faint dwarf galaxies is smaller than predicted by Lambda
CDM models. (5) Neither the ATLAS nor the CMS col- [1] Sean Carroll, Dark Matter, Dark Energy: The Dark Side
of the Universe, The Teaching Company, Guidebook Part
laboration have observed gluinos and squarks. (6) The
2 page 60, Accessed Oct. 7, 2013, "...Supersymmetry -rest mass, interaction cross-section and decay rates of
A hypothetical symmetry relating bosons to fermions...
the Higgs boson are compatible with the standard theory, but not with earlier predictions by supersymmetric [2] Wolchover,
Natalie
(November
29,
2012).
Supersymmetry Fails Test, Forcing Physics to Seek New
models. (7) Dirac fermions can be described by a gravIdeas. Scientic American.
4.4. SUPERSYMMETRY
77
[3] M. Hogenboom (24 July 2013). Ultra-rare decay conrmed in LHC. BBC. Retrieved 2013-08-18.
[5] Gordon L. Kane, The Dawn of Physics Beyond the Standard Model, Scientic American, June 2003, page 60 and
The frontiers of physics, special edition, Vol 15, #3, page
8 Indirect evidence for supersymmetry comes from the
extrapolation of interactions to high energies.
[7] H. Miyazawa (1968). Spinor Currents and Symmetries of Baryons and Mesons. Phys. Rev. 170
(5): 15861590.
Bibcode:1968PhRv..170.1586M.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.170.1586.
[8] Michio Kaku, Quantum Field Theory, ISBN 0-19509158-2, pg 663.
[9] Peter Freund, Introduction to Supersymmetry, ISBN 0521-35675-X, pages 26-27, 138.
[10] Gervais, J. -L.; Sakita, B. (1971). Field theory interpretation of supergauges in dual models. Nuclear
Physics B 34 (2): 632. Bibcode:1971NuPhB..34..632G.
doi:10.1016/0550-3213(71)90351-8.
[11] D.V. Volkov, V.P. Akulov, Pisma Zh.Eksp.Teor.Fiz. 16
(1972) 621; Phys.Lett. B46 (1973) 109; V.P. Akulov,
D.V. Volkov, Teor.Mat.Fiz. 18 (1974) 39
[12] Ramond,
P. (1971).
Dual Theory for
Free Fermions.
Physical Review D 3
(10):
2415.
Bibcode:1971PhRvD...3.2415R.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.3.2415.
[13] Wess, J.; Zumino, B. (1974). Supergauge transformations in four dimensions. Nuclear Physics B 70:
39. Bibcode:1974NuPhB..70...39W. doi:10.1016/05503213(74)90355-1.
[21] Jonathan Feng: Supersymmetric Dark Matter (pdf), University of California, Irvine, 11 May 2007
[23] http://profmattstrassler.com/articles-and-posts/lhcposts/
what-do-current-mid-august-2011-lhc-results-imply-about-supersymmetry/
[14] http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~{}kleinert/kleinert/?p=
supersym suggested here
[31] LEPSUSYWG, ALEPH, DELPHI, L3 and OPAL experiments, charginos, large m0 LEPSUSYWG/01-03.1
[16] Friedan, D.; Qiu, Z.; Shenker, S. (1984). Conformal Invariance, Unitarity, and Critical Exponents in Two Dimensions. Physical Review Letters
Bibcode:1984PhRvL..52.1575F.
52 (18): 1575.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.52.1575.
[17] ATLAS SUSY search documents
[18] CMS SUSY search documents
78
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
[34] O. Buchmueller et al.. Likelihood Functions for Supersymmetric Observables in Frequentist Analyses of the
CMSSM and NUHM1. arXiv:0907.5568.
[35] Implications of Initial LHC Searches for Supersymmetry
[36] Fine-tuning implications for complementary dark matter
and LHC SUSY searches
[37] What LHC tells about SUSY
[38] Early SUSY searches at the LHC
Cooper, F.; Khare, A.; Sukhatme, U. (1995). Supersymmetry and quantum mechanics. Physics
Reports 251 (56): 267.
doi:10.1016/03701573(94)00080-M. (arXiv:hep-th/9405029).
Gordon L. Kane and Shifman, M., eds. The Supersymmetric World: The Beginnings of the Theory,
World Scientic, Singapore (2000). ISBN 981-024522-X.
4.4.12
Further reading
Junker, G. (1996).
Supersymmetric Methods in Quantum and Statistical Physics.
doi:10.1007/978-3-642-61194-0.
ISBN 9783-540-61591-0..
Gordon L. Kane.Supersymmetry: Unveiling the Ultimate Laws of Nature Basic Books, New York
(2001). ISBN 0-7382-0489-7.
4.4.13
External links
79
predicted by the Standard Model, and was also tentatively
conrmed to have positive parity and zero spin,[1] two
fundamental attributes of a Higgs boson. This appears
to be the rst elementary scalar particle discovered in
nature.[12] More data is needed to know if the discovered
particle exactly matches the predictions of the Standard
Model, or whether, as predicted by some theories, multiple Higgs bosons exist.[3]
The Higgs boson is named after Peter Higgs, one of
six physicists who, in 1964, proposed the mechanism
that suggested the existence of such a particle. Although Higgss name has come to be associated with
this theory, several researchers between about 1960 and
1972 each independently developed dierent parts of it.
In mainstream media the Higgs boson has often been
called the God particle, from a 1993 book on the
topic; the nickname is strongly disliked by many physicists, including Higgs, who regard it as inappropriate
sensationalism.[13][14] On December 10, 2013 two of the
original researchers, Peter Higgs and Franois Englert,
were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work
and prediction.[15] Englerts co-researcher Robert Brout
had died in 2011 and the Nobel Prize is not ordinarily
given posthumously.
80
Overview
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
molasses. However, analogies based on simple resistance
to motion are inaccurate as the Higgs eld does not work
by resisting motion.
81
82
described Gilberts objection as prompting his own
paper.[62] ) Properties of the model were further considered by Guralnik in 1965,[63] by Higgs in 1966,[64] by
Kibble in 1967,[65] and further by GHK in 1967.[66] The
original three 1964 papers showed that when a gauge
theory is combined with an additional eld that spontaneously breaks the symmetry, the gauge bosons can consistently acquire a nite mass.[51][52][67] In 1967, Steven
Weinberg[68] and Abdus Salam[69] independently showed
how a Higgs mechanism could be used to break the electroweak symmetry of Sheldon Glashow's unied model
for the weak and electromagnetic interactions[70] (itself
an extension of work by Schwinger), forming what became the Standard Model of particle physics. Weinberg
was the rst to observe that this would also provide mass
terms for the fermions.[71] [Note 11]
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
dard Model was the central problem today in particle
physics.[77][78]
Summary and impact of the PRL papers
83
g
Z
W
are observed to have mass, but a boson mass term conWeak
Gluons
Photon
tains terms, which clearly depend on the choice of gauge
Bosons
and therefore these masses too cannot be gauge invariant. Therefore it seems that none of the standard model
fermions or bosons could begin with mass as an inH
built property except by abandoning gauge invariance. If
Higgs Boson
gauge invariance were to be retained, then these particles had to be acquiring their mass by some other mechanism or interaction. Additionally, whatever was giving Summary of interactions between certain particles described by
the Standard Model.
these particles their mass, had to not break gauge invariance as the basis for other parts of the theories where it
worked well, and had to not require or predict unexpected
Properties of the Standard Model Higgs
massless particles and long-range forces (seemingly an inevitable consequence of Goldstones theorem) which did In the Standard Model, the Higgs eld consists of four
not actually seem to exist in nature.
components, two neutral ones and two charged compoA solution to all of these overlapping problems came nent elds. Both of the charged components and one of
from the discovery of a previously unnoticed border- the neutral elds are Goldstone bosons, which act as the
line case hidden in the mathematics of Goldstones longitudinal third-polarization components of the mastheorem,[Note 10] that under certain conditions it might sive W+ , W , and Z bosons. The quantum of the remaintheoretically be possible for a symmetry to be bro- ing neutral component corresponds to (and is theoretiken without disrupting gauge invariance and without any cally realised as) the massive Higgs boson.[85] Since the
new massless particles or forces, and having sensible Higgs eld is a scalar eld (meaning it does not transform
(renormalisable) results mathematically: this became under Lorentz transformations), the Higgs boson has no
known as the Higgs mechanism.
spin. The Higgs boson is also its own antiparticle and is
[86]
The Standard Model hypothesizes a eld which is respon- CP-even, and has zero electric and colour charge.
sible for this eect, called the Higgs eld (symbol:
), which has the unusual property of a non-zero amplitude in its ground state; i.e., a non-zero vacuum expectation value. It can have this eect because of its unusual
Mexican hat shaped potential whose lowest point is
not at its centre. Below a certain extremely high energy
level the existence of this non-zero vacuum expectation
spontaneously breaks electroweak gauge symmetry which
in turn gives rise to the Higgs mechanism and triggers the
acquisition of mass by those particles interacting with the
84
becomes inconsistent without such a mechanism, because
unitarity is violated in certain scattering processes.[90]
It is also possible, although experimentally dicult, to
estimate the mass of the Higgs boson indirectly. In the
Standard Model, the Higgs boson has a number of indirect eects; most notably, Higgs loops result in tiny corrections to masses of W and Z bosons. Precision measurements of electroweak parameters, such as the Fermi
constant and masses of W/Z bosons, can be used to calculate constraints on the mass of the Higgs. As of July 2011,
the precision electroweak measurements tell us that the
mass of the Higgs boson is likely to be less than about
161 GeV/c2 at 95% condence level (this upper limit
would increase to 185 GeV/c2 if the lower bound of 114.4
GeV/c2 from the LEP-2 direct search is allowed for[91] ).
These indirect constraints rely on the assumption that the
Standard Model is correct. It may still be possible to discover a Higgs boson above these masses if it is accompanied by other particles beyond those predicted by the
Standard Model.[92]
Production
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
of the other processes.[93][94]
Higgs Strahlung. If an elementary fermion collides
with an anti-fermione.g., a quark with an antiquark or an electron with a positronthe two can
merge to form a virtual W or Z boson which, if
it carries sucient energy, can then emit a Higgs
boson. This process was the dominant production
mode at the LEP, where an electron and a positron
collided to form a virtual Z boson, and it was the second largest contribution for Higgs production at the
Tevatron. At the LHC this process is only the third
largest, because the LHC collides protons with protons, making a quark-antiquark collision less likely
than at the Tevatron. Higgs Strahlung is also known
as associated production.[93][94][95]
Weak boson fusion. Another possibility when two
(anti-)fermions collide is that the two exchange a
virtual W or Z boson, which emits a Higgs boson.
The colliding fermions do not need to be the same
type. So, for example, an up quark may exchange
a Z boson with an anti-down quark. This process
is the second most important for the production of
Higgs particle at the LHC and LEP.[93][95]
If Higgs particle theories are correct, then a Higgs par Top fusion. The nal process that is commonly conticle can be produced much like other particles that are
sidered is by far the least likely (by two orders of
studied, in a particle collider. This involves accelerating
magnitude). This process involves two colliding glua large number of particles to extremely high energies
ons, which each decay into a heavy quarkantiquark
and extremely close to the speed of light, then allowing
pair. A quark and antiquark from each pair can then
them to smash together. Protons and lead ions (the bare
combine to form a Higgs particle.[93][94]
nuclei of lead atoms) are used at the LHC. In the extreme
energies of these collisions, the desired esoteric particles
will occasionally be produced and this can be detected Decay
and studied; any absence or dierence from theoretical expectations can also be used to improve the theory.
The relevant particle theory (in this case the Standard
Model) will determine the necessary kinds of collisions
and detectors. The Standard Model predicts that Higgs
bosons could be formed in a number of ways,[93][94][95]
although the probability of producing a Higgs boson in
any collision is always expected to be very smallfor
example, only 1 Higgs boson per 10 billion collisions in
the Large Hadron Collider.[Note 13] The most common expected processes for Higgs boson production are:
Gluon fusion. If the collided particles are hadrons
such as the proton or antiprotonas is the case in
the LHC and Tevatronthen it is most likely that
two of the gluons binding the hadron together collide. The easiest way to produce a Higgs particle is
if the two gluons combine to form a loop of virtual
quarks. Since the coupling of particles to the Higgs
boson is proportional to their mass, this process is
more likely for heavy particles. In practice it is
enough to consider the contributions of virtual top
and bottom quarks (the heaviest quarks). This process is the dominant contribution at the LHC and
Tevatron being about ten times more likely than any
The Standard Model prediction for the decay width of the Higgs
particle depends on the value of its mass.
85
126 GeV/c2 the SM predicts a mean life time of about of virtual heavy quarks (top or bottom) or massive gauge
1.61022 s.[Note 2]
bosons.[99] The most common such process is the decay into a pair of gluons through a loop of virtual heavy
quarks. This process, which is the reverse of the gluon
fusion process mentioned above, happens approximately
8.5% of the time for a Higgs boson with a mass of 126
GeV/c2 .[98] Much rarer is the decay into a pair of photons mediated by a loop of W bosons or heavy quarks,
which happens only twice for every thousand decays.[98]
However, this process is very relevant for experimental
searches for the Higgs boson, because the energy and momentum of the photons can be measured very precisely,
giving an accurate reconstruction of the mass of the decaying particle.[99]
The Standard Model prediction for the branching ratios of the
dierent decay modes of the Higgs particle depends on the value
of its mass.
Alternative models
Since it interacts with all the massive elementary particles
of the SM, the Higgs boson has many dierent processes
through which it can decay. Each of these possible processes has its own probability, expressed as the branching
ratio; the fraction of the total number decays that follows
that process. The SM predicts these branching ratios as a
function of the Higgs mass (see plot).
86
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
87
ber 2011, the anomalous data at 125 GeV was becoming
too large to ignore (although still far from conclusive),
and the team leaders at both ATLAS and CMS each privately suspected they might have found the Higgs.[116] On
November 28, 2011, at an internal meeting of the two
team leaders and the director general of CERN, the latest analyses were discussed outside their teams for the
rst time, suggesting both ATLAS and CMS might be
converging on a possible shared result at 125 GeV, and
initial preparations commenced in case of a successful
nding.[116] While this information was not known publicly at the time, the narrowing of the possible Higgs range
to around 115130 GeV and the repeated observation of
small but consistent event excesses across multiple channels at both ATLAS and CMS in the 124-126 GeV region
(described as tantalising hints of around 2-3 sigma)
were public knowledge with a lot of interest.[117] It was
therefore widely anticipated around the end of 2011, that
the LHC would provide sucient data to either exclude
or conrm the nding of a Higgs boson by the end of
2012, when their 2012 collision data (with slightly higher
8 TeV collision energy) had been examined.[117][118]
Discovery of candidate boson at CERN
On 22 June 2012 CERN announced an upcoming seminar covering tentative ndings for 2012,[122][123] and
shortly afterwards (from around 1 July 2012 according to an analysis of the spreading rumour in social
media[124] ) rumours began to spread in the media that
this would include a major announcement, but it was
unclear whether this would be a stronger signal or
a formal discovery.[125][126] Speculation escalated to a
fevered pitch when reports emerged that Peter Higgs,
who proposed the particle, was to be attending the
seminar,[127][128] and that ve leading physicists had
been invited generally believed to signify the ve living
1964 authors with Higgs, Englert, Guralnik, Hagen attending and Kibble conrming his invitation (Brout having died in 2011).[129][130]
On 4 July 2012 both of the CERN experiments
announced they had independently made the same
discovery:[131] CMS of a previously unknown boson with
mass 125.3 0.6 GeV/c2[132][133] and ATLAS of a boson
with mass 126.0 0.6 GeV/c2 .[134][135] Using the combined analysis of two interaction types (known as 'channels), both experiments independently reached a local
signicance of 5-sigma - less than a one in three-anda-half million chance of error. When additional channels
were taken into account, the CMS signicance was reduced to 4.9-sigma.[133]
The two teams had been working 'blinded' from each
other from around late 2011 or early 2012,[116] meaning
they did not discuss their results with each other, providing additional certainty that any common nding was genuine validation of a particle.[105] This level of evidence,
conrmed independently by two separate teams and ex-
88
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
periments, meets the formal level of proof required to so, it could still have been a Higgs boson or some other
announce a conrmed discovery.
unknown boson, since future tests could show behaviours
On 31 July 2012, the ATLAS collaboration presented ad- that do not match a Higgs boson, so as of December 2012
the new particle was consisditional data analysis on the observation of a new parti- CERN still only stated that[9][11]
tent
with
the
Higgs
boson,
and scientists did not yet
cle, including data from a third channel, which improved
[140]
positively
say
it
was
the
Higgs
boson.
Despite this, in
the signicance to 5.9-sigma (1 in 588 million chance of
late
2012,
widespread
media
reports
announced
(incorbeing due to random background eects) and mass 126.0
rectly)
that
a
Higgs
boson
had
been
conrmed
during
the
2 [135]
0.4 (stat) 0.4 (sys) GeV/c ,
and CMS improved
year.[141]
the signicance to 5-sigma and mass 125.3 0.4 (stat)
0.5 (sys) GeV/c2 .[132]
In January 2013, CERN director-general Rolf-Dieter
Heuer stated that based on data analysis to date, an answer could be possible 'towards mid-2013,[147] and the
deputy chair of physics at Brookhaven National LaboThe new particle tested as a possible Higgs boson
ratory stated in February 2013 that a denitive ananother few years after the colliders
Following the 2012 discovery, it was still unconrmed swer might require
[148]
2
2015
restart.
In
early March 2013, CERN Research
whether or not the 125 GeV/c particle was a Higgs boDirector
Sergio
Bertolucci
stated that conrming spinson. On one hand, observations remained consistent with
0
was
the
major
remaining
requirement to determine
the observed particle being the Standard Model Higgs
whether
the
particle
is
at
least
some kind of Higgs
boson, and the particle decayed into at least some of
[149]
boson.
the predicted channels. Moreover, the production rates
and branching ratios for the observed channels broadly
matched the predictions by the Standard Model within
Conrmation of new particle as a Higgs boson, and
the experimental uncertainties. However, the experimencurrent status
tal uncertainties currently still left room for alternative explanations, meaning an announcement of the discovery of
On 14 March 2013 CERN conrmed that:
a Higgs boson would have been premature.[99] To allow
more opportunity for data collection, the LHCs proposed
CMS and ATLAS have compared a number
2012 shutdown and 201314 upgrade were postponed by
[136]
of options for the spin-parity of this particle,
7 weeks into 2013.
and these all prefer no spin and positive parIn November 2012, in a conference in Kyoto researchers
ity [two fundamental criteria of a Higgs bosaid evidence gathered since July was falling into line
son consistent with the Standard Model]. This,
with the basic Standard Model more than its alternatives,
coupled with the measured interactions of the
with a range of results for several interactions matchnew particle with other particles, strongly indiing that theorys predictions.[137] Physicist Matt Strassler
cates that it is a Higgs boson. [1]
highlighted considerable evidence that the new particle is not a pseudoscalar negative parity particle (consistent with this required nding for a Higgs boson), evap- This also makes the particle the rst elementary scalar
[12]
oration or lack of increased signicance for previous particle to be discovered in nature.
hints of non-Standard Model ndings, expected Standard Examples of tests used to validate whether the 125 GeV
Model interactions with W and Z bosons, absence of sig- particle is a Higgs boson:[138][150]
nicant new implications for or against supersymmetry,
and in general no signicant deviations to date from the
results expected of a Standard Model Higgs boson.[138]
However some kinds of extensions to the Standard Model
would also show very similar results;[139] so commenta- 4.5.6 Public discussion
tors noted that based on other particles that are still being
understood long after their discovery, it may take years to Naming
be sure, and decades to fully understand the particle that
has been found.[137][138]
Names used by physicists The name most strongly
These ndings meant that as of January 2013, scientists
were very sure they had found an unknown particle of
mass ~ 125 GeV/c2 , and had not been misled by experimental error or a chance result. They were also sure, from
initial observations, that the new particle was some kind
of boson. The behaviours and properties of the particle,
so far as examined since July 2012, also seemed quite
close to the behaviours expected of a Higgs boson. Even
89
simplicity [...and...] remarkably accurate. But
it is also incomplete and, in fact, internally
inconsistent... This boson is so central to the
state of physics today, so crucial to our nal
understanding of the structure of matter, yet
so elusive, that I have given it a nickname:
the God Particle. Why God Particle? Two
reasons. One, the publisher wouldn't let us call
it the Goddamn Particle, though that might be
a more appropriate title, given its villainous
nature and the expense it is causing. And
two, there is a connection, of sorts, to another
book, a much older one...
Leon M. Lederman and Dick Teresi, The
God Particle: If the Universe is the Answer,
What is the Question[17] p. 22
There has been considerable public discussion of analogies and explanations for the Higgs particle and how the
eld creates mass,[189][190] including coverage of explanatory attempts in their own right and a competition in 1993
Lederman begins with a review of the long human search for the best popular explanation by then-UK Minister for
for knowledge, and explains that his tongue-in-cheek title Science Sir William Waldegrave[191] and articles in newsdraws an analogy between the impact of the Higgs eld papers worldwide.
on the fundamental symmetries at the Big Bang, and the
An educational collaboration involving an LHC physicist
apparent chaos of structures, particles, forces and interacand a High School Teachers at CERN educator suggests
tions that resulted and shaped our present universe, with
that dispersion of light responsible for the rainbow and
the biblical story of Babel in which the primordial sindispersive prism is a useful analogy for the Higgs elds
gle language of early Genesis was fragmented into many
symmetry
breaking and mass-causing eect.[192]
disparate languages and cultures.[185]
Today ... we have the standard model,
which reduces all of reality to a dozen or so
particles and four forces. ... Its a hard-won
90
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
some particles motion but not others a simple resistive
eect could also conict with Newtons third law.[197]
Recognition and awards
There has been considerable discussion of how to allocate the credit if the Higgs boson is proven, made more
pointed as a Nobel prize had been expected, and the very
wide basis of people entitled to consideration. These include a range of theoreticians who made the Higgs mechanism theory possible, the theoreticians of the 1964 PRL
papers (including Higgs himself), the theoreticians who
derived from these, a working electroweak theory and
the Standard Model itself, and also the experimentalists
at CERN and other institutions who made possible the
proof of the Higgs eld and boson in reality. The Nobel
prize has a limit of 3 persons to share an award, and some
possible winners are already prize holders for other work,
or are deceased (the prize is only awarded to persons in
their lifetime). Existing prizes for works relating to the
Higgs eld, boson, or mechanism include:
Photograph of light passing through a dispersive prism: the rainbow eect arises because photons are not all aected to the same
degree by the dispersive material of the prism.
The Higgs elds eect on particles was famously described by physicist David Miller as akin to a room full of
political party workers spread evenly throughout a room:
the crowd gravitates to and slows down famous people but
does not slow down others.[Note 16] He also drew attention
[200]
to well-known eects in solid state physics where an electrons eective mass can be much greater than usual in the
presence of a crystal lattice.[195]
Additionally Physical Review Letters' 50-year review
Analogies based on drag eects, including analogies of (2008) recognized the 1964 PRL symmetry breaking pa"syrup" or "molasses" are also well known, but can be pers and Weinbergs 1967 paper A model of Leptons (the
somewhat misleading since they may be understood (in- most cited paper in particle physics, as of 2012) milecorrectly) as saying that the Higgs eld simply resists stone Letters.[75]
4.5.7
91
in which physicists expected to nd the Higgs boson
is therefore not a constraint given by the theory, and
nding a new particle in this mass range is not in
itself an evidence that is particle is a Higgs boson.
Couplings to other particles. The newly discovered
particle at CERN does interact with both matter particles and gauge bosons, like the Higgs boson should,
however this is not specic to the Higgs Boson, since
it is also the case of the well-known Z0 boson. The
strength of these interactions for the new particle
also seem experimentaly to depend on the mass of
the involved particles like the theory of the Higgs
boson predicts. This property of the new particle, if
conrmed with lower experimental uncertainties, is
probably the most convicing evidence that the new
particle behaves like the Higgs boson should behave.
By end of 2013 (but published in August 2014), a collaboration of scientists[204] promoted an alternative explanation to the LHC data based on the Technicolor theory
(even though this theory, strongly constrained by experiments, is not the prefered candidate model). Later, in
June 2014, the CMS collaboration conrmed in a scientic article[205] the identication of the new particle as
a Higgs boson, based on the direct observation of decays of the new particle into fermions. The statement
of this paper seem to rule out alternative models like the
Technicolor theory. However, even though a scalar particle, coupling to both matter and gauge bosons is an incredibly good candidate for a Higgs boson, one cannot
conclude from the strict application of Gauge Theories
(one of them being the Standard Model) that the new
particle is indeed the one explaining the mass of the W
and Z bosons. The missing identication criterion can be
to demonstrate the existence of the Higgs potential, the
core property of the Higgs boson in Peter Higgs seminal
article.[59] Unfortunately, this potential cannot be measured at the LHC in its initial conguration, but may possibly be measured if the LHC can be upgraded to a higher
luminosity in the future (3000 fb1 required, against possibly 100 fb1 expected by end of 2015 for the total integrated luminosity).[206] If the Higgs potential cannot be
measured in this upgraded conguration, scientists will
then have to wait for the next generation of particle colliders (like the CLIC) to proove the existence of this potential, which would clear out any doubt on the identication
of this new particle.[207][208]
92
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
The quarks and the leptons interact with the Higgs eld
through Yukawa interaction terms:
while the eld has charge +1/2 under the weak hypercharge U(1) symmetry (in the convention where the electric charge, Q, the weak isospin, I3 , and the weak hypercharge, Y, are related by Q = I3 + Y).[209]
Standard Model
Quantum gauge theory
Introduction to quantum mechanics
Noncommutative
standard
model
noncommutative geometry generally
and
4.5.10 Notes
with their ratio determining the Weinberg angle,
W
|g|
cos W = M
, and leave a massless U(1)
MZ =
2
2
g +g
photon, .
[1] Note that such events also occur due to other processes.
Detection involves a statistically signicant excess of such
events at specic energies.
93
94
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
i.e., contributions from L L and R R terms do not
appear. We see that the mass-generating interaction is
achieved by constant ipping of particle chirality. Since
the spin-half particles have no right/left helicity pair with
the same SU(2) and SU(3) representation and the same
weak hypercharge, then assuming these gauge charges are
conserved in the vacuum, none of the spin-half particles
could ever swap helicity. Therefore in the absence of some
other cause, all fermions must be massless.
4.5.11
References
95
96
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
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[153] Higgs-like Particle in a Mirror. American Physical So- [167] Examples of early papers using the term Higgs boson
ciety. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
include 'A phenomenological prole of the Higgs boson'
(Ellis, Gaillard and Nanopoulos, 1976), 'Weak interaction
[154] The CMS Collaboration (2014-06-22). Evidence for the
theory and neutral currents (Bjorken, 1977), and 'Mass of
direct decay of the 125 GeV Higgs boson to fermions.
the Higgs boson' (Wienberg, received 1975)
Nature Publishing Group doi= 10.1038/nphys3005.
[168] Leon Lederman; Dick Teresi (2006). The God Parti[155] Adam Falkowski (writing as 'Jester') (2012-12-13).
cle: If the Universe Is the Answer, What Is the Question?.
Twin Peaks in ATLAS. Rsonaances particle physics
Houghton Miin Harcourt. ISBN 0-547-52462-5.
blog. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
[169] Kelly Dickerson (September 8, 2014). Stephen Hawk[156] Liu, G. Z.; Cheng, G. (2002).
Extension
ing Says 'God Particle' Could Wipe Out the Universe.
of the Anderson-Higgs mechanism.
Physilivescience.com.
cal Review B 65 (13):
132513.
arXiv:condmat/0106070.
Bibcode:2002PhRvB..65m2513L. [170] Jim Baggott (2012). Higgs: The invention and discovery
of the 'God Particle'. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.65.132513.
0-19-165003-1.
[157] Editorial (2012-03-21). Mass appeal: As physicists
close in on the Higgs boson, they should resist calls to [171] Scientic American Editors (2012). The Higgs Boson:
Searching for the God Particle. Macmillan. ISBN 978change its name. Nature. 483, 374 (7390): 374.
1-4668-2413-3.
Bibcode:2012Natur.483..374..
doi:10.1038/483374a.
Retrieved 21 January 2013.
[172] Ted Jaeckel (2007). The God Particle: The Discovery
and Modeling of the Ultimate Prime Particle. Universal[158] Becker, Kate (2012-03-29). A Higgs by Any Other
Publishers. ISBN 978-1-58112-959-5.
Name. NOVA (PBS) physics. Retrieved 21 January
2013.
[173] Aschenbach, Joy (1993-12-05). No Resurrection in
Sight for Moribund Super Collider : Science: Global [159] Frequently Asked Questions: The Higgs!". The Bulletin.
nancial partnerships could be the only way to salvage such
CERN. Retrieved 18 July 2012.
a project. Some feel that Congress delivered a fatal blow.
Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 16 January 2013. 'We have
[160] Woits physics blog Not Even Wrong: Anderson on
to keep the momentum and optimism and start thinking
Anderson-Higgs 2013-04-13
about international collaboration,' said Leon M. Lederman, the Nobel Prize-winning physicist who was the ar[161] Sample, Ian (2012-07-04). Higgs bosons many great
chitect of the super collider plan
minds cause a Nobel prize headache. The Guardian
(London). Retrieved 23 July 2013.
[174] A Supercompetition For Illinois. Chicago Tribune.
1986-10-31. Retrieved 16 January 2013. The SSC, pro[162] Rochesters Hagen Sakurai Prize Announcement (Press
posed by the U.S. Department of Energy in 1983, is a
release). University of Rochester. 2010.
mind-bending project ... this gigantic laboratory ... this
[163] C.R. Hagen Sakurai Prize Talk (YouTube). 2010.
titanic project
101
language ... Like God, says Lederman, the Higgs dierentiated the perfect sameness, confusing everyone (physicists included) ... [Nobel Prizewinner Richard] Feynman
wondered why the universe we live in was so obviously
askew ... Perhaps, he speculated, total perfection would
have been unacceptable to God. And so, just as God shattered the perfection of Babel, 'God made the laws only
nearly symmetrical'
102
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
A. Klein and B.W. Lee (1964). Does Spontaneous Breakdown of Symmetry Imply ZeroMass Particles?".
Physical Review Letters 12
(10):
266.
Bibcode:1964PhRvL..12..266K.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.12.266.
[208] Langacker Paul. The Standard Model And Beyond, section 7.5 page 362.
Video1 (07:44) + Video2 (07:44) Higgs Boson Explained by CERN Physicist, Dr. Daniel Whiteson
(16 June 2011).
4.5.12
Further reading
103
of 47 pages covering the development, history and
mathematics of Higgs theories from around 1950 to
1974.
Chapter 5
Safety
5.1 Safety of particle collisions at
the Large Hadron Collider
5.1.1 Background
Main articles:
Collider
105
Examples of colliders
Before the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider started operation, critics postulated that the extremely high energy
could produce catastrophic scenarios,[20] such as creating
a black hole, a transition into a dierent quantum mechanical vacuum (see false vacuum), or the creation of
strange matter that is more stable than ordinary matter.
These hypotheses are complex, but many predict that the
Earth would be destroyed in a time frame from seconds to
millennia, depending on the theory considered. However,
the fact that objects of the Solar System (e.g., the Moon)
have been bombarded with cosmic particles of signicantly higher energies than that of RHIC and other man
made colliders for billions of years, without any harm to
the Solar System, were among the most striking arguments that these hypotheses were unfounded.[21]
The other main controversial issue was a demand by critics for physicists to reasonably exclude the probability for
such a catastrophic scenario. Physicists are unable to
demonstrate experimental and astrophysical constraints
of zero probability of catastrophic events, nor that tomorrow Earth will be struck with a "doomsday" cosmic ray
(they can only calculate an upper limit for the likelihood).
The result would be the same destructive scenarios described above, although obviously not caused by humans.
According to this argument of upper limits, RHIC would
still modify the chance for the Earths survival by an innitesimal amount.
Concerns were raised in connection with the RHIC particle accelerator, both in the media[22][23] and in the popular science media.[24] The risk of a doomsday scenario
was indicated by Martin Rees, with respect to the RHIC,
as being at least a 1 in 50 million chance.[25] With regards to the production of strangelets, Frank Close, professor of physics at the University of Oxford, indicates
that the chance of this happening is like you winning
the major prize on the lottery 3 weeks in succession; the
problem is that people believe it is possible to win the
lottery 3 weeks in succession.[13] After detailed studies,
scientists reached such conclusions as beyond reasonable
doubt, heavy-ion experiments at RHIC will not endanger our planet[26] and that there is powerful empirical
evidence against the possibility of dangerous strangelet
production.[27]
106
CHAPTER 5. SAFETY
History of discussion
The debate started in 1999 with an exchange of letters in
Scientic American between Walter L. Wagner,[28] and
F. Wilczek,[29] Institute for Advanced Study, in response
to a previous article by M. Mukerjee.[30] The media attention unfolded with an article in U.K. Sunday Times of
July 18, 1999 by J. Leake,[31] closely followed by articles in the U.S. media.[32] The controversy mostly ended
with the report of a committee convened by the director
of Brookhaven National Laboratory, J. H. Marburger, ostensibly ruling out the catastrophic scenarios depicted.[21]
However, the report left open the possibility that relativistic cosmic ray impact products might behave dierently while transiting earth compared to at rest RHIC
products; and the possibility that the qualitative dierence between high-E proton collisions with earth or the
moon might be dierent than gold on gold collisions at
the RHIC. Wagner tried subsequently to stop full energy
collision at RHIC by ling Federal lawsuits in San Francisco and New York, but without success.[33] The New
York suit was dismissed on the technicality that the San
Francisco suit was the preferred forum. The San Francisco suit was dismissed, but with leave to rele if additional information was developed and presented to the
court.[34]
On March 17, 2005, the BBC published an article[35]
implying that researcher Horaiu Nstase believes black
holes have been created at RHIC. However, the original
papers of H. Nstase[36] and the New Scientist article[37]
cited by the BBC state that the correspondence of the hot
dense QCD matter created in RHIC to a black hole is
only in the sense of a correspondence of QCD scattering in Minkowski space and scattering in the AdS 5 X5
space in AdS/CFT; in other words, it is similar mathematically. Therefore, RHIC collisions might be described
by mathematics relevant to theories of quantum gravity
within AdS/CFT, but the described physical phenomena
are not the same.
5.1.3
bles.[1][43]
Based on such safety concerns, US federal judge Richard
Posner,[44] Future of Humanity Institute research associate Toby Ord[45] and others[46][47][48][49] have argued
that the LHC experiments are too risky to undertake.
In the book Our Final Century: Will the Human Race
Survive the Twenty-rst Century?, English cosmologist
and astrophysicist Martin Rees calculated an upper limit
of 1 in 50 million for the probability that the Large
Hadron Collider will produce a global catastrophe or
black hole.[39] However, Rees has also reported not to be
losing sleep over the collider, and trusts the scientists
who have built it.[50] He has stated: My book has been
misquoted in one or two places. I would refer you to the
up-to-date safety study.[51]
The risk assessments of catastrophic scenarios at the LHC
sparked public fears,[38] and some scientists associated
with the project received protests - the Large Hadron Collider team revealed that they had received death threats
and threatening emails and phone calls demanding the experiment be halted.[51] On 9 September 2008, Romanias
Conservative Party held a protest before the European
Commission mission to Bucharest, demanding that the
experiment be halted because it feared that the LHC
could create dangerous black holes.[52][53]
Media coverage
The safety concerns regarding the LHC collisions have attracted widespread media attention.[38][54] Various widely
circulated newspapers have reported doomsday fears in
connection with the collider, including The Times,[55] The
Guardian,[56] The Independent,[57] The Sydney Morning
Herald,[58] and Time.[59] Among other media sources,
CNN mentioned that Some have expressed fears that the
project could lead to the Earths demise,[60] but it assured its readers with comments from scientists like John
Huth, who said that it was baloney.[60] MSNBC said
that, there are more serious things to worry about[61]
and allayed fears that the atom-smasher might set o
earthquakes or other dangerous rumblings.[61] The results of an online survey it conducted indicate that a lot
of [the public] know enough not to panic.[61] The BBC
stated, the scientic consensus appears to be on the side
of CERNs theorists[62] who say the LHC poses no conceivable danger.[62] Brian Greene in the New York Times
reassured readers by saying, If a black hole is produced
under Geneva, might it swallow Switzerland and continue
on a ravenous rampage until the Earth is devoured? Its a
reasonable question with a denite answer: no.[63]
The tabloids also covered the safety concerns. The Daily
Mail produced headlines such as Are we all going to die
next Wednesday?"[64] and End of the world postponed
as broken Hadron Collider out of commission until the
spring.[65] The Sun quoted Otto Rssler saying, The
weather will change completely, wiping out life. There
107
After the dismissal of the federal lawsuit, The Daily Strangelets Main article: Strangelets
Shows correspondent John Oliver interviewed Walter L.
Wagner, who declared that he believed the chance of the
Strangelets are small fragments of strange mattera hyLHC destroying the Earth to be 50%, since it will either
pothetical form of quark matterthat contain roughly
[69][70]
happen or it won't.
equal numbers of up, down, and strange quarks and that
are more stable than ordinary nuclei (strangelets would
range in size from a few femtometers to a few meters
Specic concerns
across).[3] If strangelets can actually exist, and if they
were produced at the LHC, they could conceivably iniMicro black holes Main article: Micro black hole
tiate a runaway fusion process in which all the nuclei in
the planet would be converted to strange matter, similar
Although the Standard Model of particle physics predicts to a strange star.[3]
that LHC energies are far too low to create black holes,
some extensions of the Standard Model posit the exis- The probability of the creation of strangelets decreases
[3]
tence of extra spatial dimensions, in which it would be at higher energies. As the LHC operates at higher enpossible to create micro black holes at the LHC at a rate ergies than the RHIC or the heavy ion programs of the
of the order of one per second.[71][72][73][74][75] Accord- 1980s and 1990s, the LHC is less likely to produce
[3]
ing to the standard calculations these are harmless be- strangelets than its predecessors. Furthermore, mod[73]
els indicate that strangelets are only stable or long-lived
cause they would quickly decay by Hawking radiation.
Hawking radiation is a thermal radiation predicted to be at low temperatures. Strangelets are bound at low enemitted by black holes due to quantum eects. Because ergies (in the range of 110 MeV), while the collisions
Hawking radiation allows black holes to lose mass, black in the LHC release energies in the range of 714 TeV.
holes that lose more matter than they gain through other Thermodynamics very strongly disfavors the formation of
means are expected to dissipate, shrink, and ultimately a cold condensate that is an order of magnitude cooler
vanish. Smaller micro black holes (MBHs), which could than the surrounding medium. As an example, it is far
be produced at the LHC, are currently predicted by the- more probable that ice will form spontaneously in boiling
[3]
ory to be larger net emitters of radiation than larger black water.
[76]
holes, and to shrink and dissipate instantly. The LHC
Safety Assessment Group (LSAG) indicates that there is
broad consensus among physicists on the reality of Hawk- Concerns not meeting peer review Otto Rssler,
ing radiation, but so far no experiment has had the sensi- a German chemistry professor at the University of
Tbingen, argues that micro black holes created in the
tivity required to nd direct evidence for it.[3]
LHC could grow exponentially.[78][79][80][81][82] On 4 July
According to the LSAG, even if micro black holes were 2008, Rssler met with a CERN physicist, Rolf Lanproduced by the LHC and were stable, they would be dua, with whom he discussed his safety concerns.[83]
unable to accrete matter in a manner dangerous for the Following the meeting, Landua asked another expert,
Earth. They would also have been produced by cosmic Hermann Nicolai, Director of the Albert Einstein Instirays and have stopped in neutron stars and white dwarfs, tute, in Germany, to examine Rsslers arguments.[83]
and the stability of these astronomical bodies means that Nicolai reviewed Otto Rsslers research paper on the
they cannot be dangerous:[3][77]
safety of the LHC[79] and issued a statement highlighting logical inconsistencies and physical misunderstandStable black holes could be either electriings in Rsslers arguments.[84] Nicolai concluded that
cally charged or neutral. [...] If stable mithis text would not pass the referee process in a sericroscopic black holes had no electric charge,
ous journal.[82][84] Domenico Giulini also commented
with Hermann Nicolai on Otto Rsslers thesis, concludtheir interactions with the Earth would be very
ing that his argument concerns only the General Theweak. Those produced by cosmic rays would
ory of Relativity (GRT), and makes no logical connecpass harmlessly through the Earth into space,
tion to LHC physics; the argument is not valid; the arwhereas those produced by the LHC could
gument is not self-consistent.[85] On 1 August 2008, a
remain on Earth. However, there are much
group of German physicists, the Committee for Elemenlarger and denser astronomical bodies than the
108
tary Particle Physics (KET),[86] published an open letter
further dismissing Rsslers concerns and carrying assurances that the LHC is safe.[87][88] Otto Rssler was due to
meet Swiss president Pascal Couchepin in August 2008
to discuss this concern,[89] but it was later reported that
the meeting had been canceled as it was believed Rssler
and his fellow opponents would have used the meeting for
their own publicity.[90]
On 10 August 2008, Rainer Plaga, a German astrophysicist, posted a research paper on the arXiv Web archive
concluding that LHC safety studies have not denitely
ruled out the potential catastrophic threat from microscopic black holes, including the possible danger from
Hawking radiation emitted by black holes.[1][91][92][93] In
a follow-up paper posted on the arXiv on 29 August 2008,
Steven Giddings and Michelangelo Mangano, the authors
of the research paper Astrophysical implications of hypothetical stable TeV-scale black holes,[94] responded to
Plagas concerns.[95] They pointed out what they see as a
basic inconsistency in Plagas calculation, and argued that
their own conclusions on the safety of the collider, as referred to in the LHC safety assessment (LSAG) report,[3]
remain robust.[95] Giddings and Mangano also referred to
the research paper Exclusion of black hole disaster scenarios at the LHC, which relies on a number of new arguments to conclude that there is no risk due to mini black
holes at the LHC.[1][96] On 19 January 2009 Roberto
Casadio, Sergio Fabi and Benjamin Harms posted on the
arXiv a paper, later published on Physical Review D, ruling out the catastrophic growth of black holes in the scenario considered by Plaga.[97] In reaction to the criticisms,
Plaga updated his paper on the arXiv on 26 September
2008 and again on 9 August 2009.[91] So far, Plagas paper has not been published in a peer-reviewed journal.
Safety reviews
CERN-commissioned reports Drawing from research performed to assess the safety of the RHIC
collisions, the LHC Safety Study Group, a group of
independent scientists, performed a safety analysis of
the LHC, and released their ndings in the 2003 report
Study of Potentially Dangerous Events During Heavy-Ion
Collisions at the LHC. The report concluded that there
is no basis for any conceivable threat.[2] Several of its
arguments were based on the predicted evaporation of
hypothetical micro black holes by Hawking radiation
and on the theoretical predictions of the Standard Model
with regard to the outcome of events to be studied in the
LHC. One argument raised against doomsday fears was
that collisions at energies equivalent to and higher than
those of the LHC have been happening in nature for
billions of years apparently without hazardous eects, as
ultra-high-energy cosmic rays impact Earths atmosphere
and other bodies in the universe.[2]
CHAPTER 5. SAFETY
Safety Assessment Group (LSAG), consisting of John
Ellis, Gian Giudice, Michelangelo Mangano and Urs
Wiedemann, of CERN, and Igor Tkachev, of the Institute
for Nuclear Research in Moscowto monitor the latest
concerns about the LHC collisions.[4] On 20 June 2008,
in light of new experimental data and theoretical understanding, the LSAG issued a report updating the 2003
safety review, in which they rearmed and extended its
conclusions that LHC collisions present no danger and
that there are no reasons for concern.[3][4] The LSAG
report was then reviewed by CERNs Scientic Policy
Committee (SPC), a group of external scientists that advises CERNs governing body, its Council.[5][41][98] The
report was reviewed and endorsed by a panel of ve
independent scientists, Peter Braun-Munzinger, Matteo
Cavalli-Sforza, Gerard 't Hooft, Bryan Webber and Fabio
Zwirner, and their conclusions were unanimously approved by the full 20 members of the SPC.[98] On 5
September 2008, the LSAGs Review of the safety of
LHC collisions was published in the Journal of Physics
G: Nuclear and Particle Physics by the UK Institute of
Physics, which endorsed its conclusions in a press release
that announced the publication.[3][7]
Following the July 2008 release of the LSAG safety
report,[3] the Executive Committee of the Division of
Particles and Fields (DPF) of the American Physical Society, the worlds second largest organization of physicists, issued a statement approving the LSAGs conclusions and noting that this report explains why there is
nothing to fear from particles created at the LHC.[6]
On 1 August 2008, a group of German quantum physicists, the Committee for Elementary Particle Physics
(KET),[86] published an open letter further dismissing
concerns about the LHC experiments and carrying assurances that they are safe based on the LSAG safety
review.[87][88]
109
On 21 March 2008, a complaint requesting an injunction to halt the LHCs startup was led by Walter L.
Wagner and Luis Sancho against CERN and its American collaborators, the US Department of Energy, the
National Science Foundation and the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, before the United States District
Court for the District of Hawaii.[43][101][102] The plain- 5.1.4 See also
tis demanded an injunction against the LHCs activation for 4 months after issuance of the LHC Safety As- 5.1.5 References
sessment Groups (LSAG) most recent safety documentation, and a permanent injunction until the LHC can [1] Boyle, Alan (19 August 2008). "Twists in the Doomsday
be demonstrated to be reasonably safe within industry
debate". Cosmic Log. msnbc.com.
standards.[103] The US Federal Court scheduled trial to
[2] Blaizot JP, Iliopoulos J, Madsen J, Ross GG, Sonderegbegin 16 June 2009.[104]
The LSAG review, issued on 20 June 2008 after outside
review, found no basis for any concerns about the consequences of new particles or forms of matter that could
possibly be produced by the LHC.[3] The US Government, in response, called for summary dismissal of the
suit against the government defendants as untimely due
to the expiration of a six-year statute of limitations (since
funding began by 1999 and has essentially been completed already), and also called the hazards claimed by the
plaintis overly speculative and not credible.[105] The
Hawaii District Court heard the governments motion to
dismiss on 2 September 2008,[38] and on 26 September
the Court issued an order granting the motion to dismiss
on the grounds that it had no jurisdiction over the LHC
project.[106] A subsequent appeal by the plaintis was dismissed by the Court on 24 August 2010.[107][108]
On 26 August 2008, a group of European citizens, led
by German biochemist Otto Rssler, led a suit against
CERN in the European Court of Human Rights in
Strasbourg.[80] The suit, which was summarily rejected
on the same day, alleged that the Large Hadron Collider
posed grave risks for the safety of the 27 member states
of the European Union and their citizens.[55][59][80]
Late in 2009 a review of the legal situation by Eric Johnson, a lawyer, was published in the Tennessee Law Review.[109][110][111] In this paper, Johnson states, remarkably, that Given such a state, it is not clear that any
particle-physics testimony should be allowed in the courtroom, in reference to the dual problems that (a) the
scientic arguments regarding the risks are so complex
that only persons who have devoted many years to particle physics study are competent to understand them, but
(b) any such persons, by reason of this huge personal investment, will inevitably be highly biased in favor of the
experiments, and also endangered by severe professional
censure if they threaten their continuation.[112] In February 2010 a summary of Johnsons article appeared as an
opinion piece in New Scientist.[113]
[3] Ellis J, Giudice G, Mangano ML, Tkachev I, Wiedemann U (LHC Safety Assessment Group) (5 September 2008). "Review of the Safety of LHC Collisions"
(PDF, 586 KiB). ''Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics. 35, 115004 (18pp). doi:10.1088/09543899/35/11/115004. arXiv:0806.3414. CERN record.
[4] "The safety of the LHC". CERN 2008 (CERN website).
[5] CERN Scientic Policy Committee (2008). SPC Report
on LSAG Documents. CERN record.
[6] "Statement by the Executive Committee of the DPF on the
Safety of Collisions at the Large Hadron Collider" (PDF,
40 KiB) issued by the Division of Particles & Fields (DPF)
of the American Physical Society (APS)
[7] "LHC switch-on fears are completely unfounded". The
Institute of Physics. PR 48 (08). 5 September 2008.
[8] CERN Communication Group (January 2008). "CERN
FAQ LHC: the guide" (PDF). CERN. Geneva (44p).
[9] Achenbach, Joel (1 March 2008). "The God Particle".
National Geographic Magazine.
[10] CERN press release (2009)" LHC ends 2009 run on a high
note."
[11] CERN LHC sees high-energy success (Press release).
BBC News. 30 March 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-30.
[12] CERN Press Oce (31 January 2011).
nounces LHC to run in 2012. CERN.
CERN an-
In February 2010, the German Constitutional Court [16] Wagner, Walter (1999). Black holes at Brookhaven?".
(Bundesverfassungsgericht) rejected an injunction peti(Letters to the Editors)". Scientic American 281: 8.
110
CHAPTER 5. SAFETY
Photonics.Com.
111
BBC News.
11
112
CHAPTER 5. SAFETY
[92] Clery, Daniel; & Cho, Adrian (5 September 2008). [109] Johnson, Eric E. The Black Hole Case. Tennessee Law
Large Hadron Collider: Is the LHC a Doomsday MaReview 76: 819908.
chine?" Science. Vol. 321. no. 5894, p. 1291. doi:
[110] Johnson (2009). The Black Hole Case: The In10.1126/science.321.5894.1291.
junction Against the End of the World.
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[93] Brean, Joseph (9 September 2008). "Is the end nigh? SciL. Rev.
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ence experiment could swallow Earth, critics say". NaBibcode:2009arXiv0912.5480J.
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[111] Cartlidge, Edwin (Feb 2, 2010). Law and the end of
[94] Giddings, Steven B.; & Mangano, Michelangelo L.
the world. physicsworld.com (Institute of Physics). Re(18 August 2008). "Astrophysical implications of hytrieved 2010-04-01.
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[113] Johnson, Eric E. (23 February 2010). CERN on trial:
CERN-PH-TH/2008-025.
could a lawsuit shut the LHC down?". New Scientist. Re[95] Giddings, Steven B.; & Mangano, Michelangelo L.
trieved 2010-04-01.
(29 August 2008). Comments on claimed risk from
metastable black holes (PDF). arXiv:0808.4087. CERN- [114] BVerfG, 2 BvR 2502/08 vom 18.2.2010
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[115] Ruling of the Administrative Court of Cologne, Case Nr.
[96] Koch B, Bleicher M, Stcker H (9 February 2009).
13 K 5693/08 (in German)
Exclusion of black hole disaster scenarios at the LHC
(PDF). Physics Letters B. 672 (1): 7176. doi:10.1016/j. [116] Web portal of the Justice Ministry of North RhineWestphalia (in German).
physletb.2009.01.003. arXiv:0807.3349. CERN record
[97] R. Casadio, S. Fabi and B. Harms Possibility of Catastrophic Black Hole Growth in the Warped Brane-World
Scenario at the LHC (PDF).
[98] "CERN Council looks forward to LHC start-up".
PR05.08 (20 June 2008). CERN 2008.
[99] Mgrdichian, Laura (1 September 2008). "Physicists Rule
Out the Production of Dangerous Black Holes at the
LHC". PhysOrg.com.
[100] Peskin, Michael (18 August 2008). "The end of the
world at the Large Hadron Collider?". Physics. 1 (14).
American Physical Society. doi:10.1103/Physics.1.14.
[101] Overbye, Dennis (29 March 2008). "Asking a Judge to
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[102] "Sancho v.
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[103] "Documentation submitted by plainti".
fense.org.
LHCDe-
[106]
[107]
[108]
5.2.1
113
the other escaping the vicinity of the black hole. The net
result is the black hole loses mass (due to conservation of
energy). According to the formulae of black hole thermodynamics, the more the black hole loses mass the hotter it
becomes, and the faster it evaporates, until it approaches
the Planck mass. At this stage a black hole would have
a Hawking temperature of TP / 8 (5.61032 K), which
means an emitted Hawking particle would have an energy
comparable to the mass of the black hole. Thus a thermodynamic description breaks down. Such a mini-black
hole would also have an entropy of only 4 nats, approximately the minimum possible value. At this point then,
the object can no longer be described as a classical black
hole, and Hawkings calculations also break down.
Hawking radiation
Main article: Hawking radiation
In 1974 Stephen Hawking argued that due to quantum effects, black holes evaporate by a process now referred
to as Hawking radiation in which elementary particles
(photons, electrons, quarks, gluons, etc.) are emitted.[6]
His calculations show that the smaller the size of the black
hole, the faster the evaporation rate, resulting in a sudden
burst of particles as the micro black hole suddenly explodes.
Any primordial black hole of suciently low mass will
evaporate to near the Planck mass within the lifetime of
the Universe. In this process, these small black holes radiate away matter. A rough picture of this is that pairs of
virtual particles emerge from the vacuum near the event
horizon, with one member of a pair being captured, and
114
CHAPTER 5. SAFETY
Safety arguments
5.2.4
Feasibility of production
In familiar three-dimensional gravity, the minimum energy of a microscopic black hole is 1019 GeV, which
would have to be condensed into a region on the order
of the Planck length. This is far beyond the limits of
any current technology. It is estimated that to collide two
particles to within a distance of a Planck length with currently achievable magnetic eld strengths would require
a ring accelerator about 1000 light years in diameter to
keep the particles on track. Stephen Hawking also said in
chapter 6 of his Brief History of Time that physicist John
Archibald Wheeler once calculated that a very powerful
hydrogen bomb using all the deuterium in all the water on
Earth could also generate such a black hole, but Hawking
does not provide this calculation or any reference to it to
support this assertion.
Hawkings calculation[6] and more general quantum mechanical arguments predict that micro black holes evaporate almost instantaneously. Additional safety arguments
beyond those based on Hawking radiation were given in
the paper,[19][20] which showed that in hypothetical scenarios with stable black holes that could damage Earth,
such black holes would have been produced by cosmic
rays and would have already destroyed known astronomical objects such as the Earth, Sun, neutron stars, or white
dwarfs.
115
[17] Choptuik,
Matthew W. & Pretorius,
Frans
(2010).
Ultrarelativistic
Particle
Collisions. Phys. Rev. Lett. 104 (11): 111101.
arXiv:0908.1780.
Bibcode:2010PhRvL.104k1101C.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.104.111101.
PMID
20366461.
[18] Peng, G. X.; Wen, X. J.; Chen, Y. D. (2006). New
solutions for the color-avor locked strangelets.
Physics Letters B 633 (23): 314318. arXiv:hepph/0512112.
Bibcode:2006PhLB..633..314P.
doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2005.11.081.
[19] S.B. Giddings and M.L. Mangano, Astrophysical implications of hypothetical stable TeV-scale black holes,
arXiv:0806.3381, Phys. Rev. D78: 035009, 2008
[20] M.E. Peskin, The end of the world at the Large Hadron
Collider?" Physics 1, 14 (2008)
[21] Hawking, Stephen (1995).
arXiv:hep-th/9510029v1.
5.2.9 Bibliography
D. Page, Phys. Rev. D13 (1976) 198 : rst detailed
studies of the evaporation mechanism
B.J. Carr & S.W. Hawking, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc 168 (1974) 399 : links between primordial black holes and the early universe
A. Barrau et al., Astron.
Astrophys.
388
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Astrophys. J. 630 (2005) 1015 : experimental
searches for primordial black holes thanks to the
emitted antimatter
A. Barrau & G. Boudoul, Review talk given at
the International Conference on Theoretical Physics
TH2002 : cosmology with primordial black holes
A. Barrau & J. Grain, Phys. Lett. B 584 (2004) 114
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primordial black holes
P. Kanti, Int. J. Mod. Phys. A19 (2004) 4899 :
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D. Ida, K.-y. Oda & S.C.Park, : determination of
black holes life and extra dimensions
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L. Modesto, PhysRevD.70.124009: Disappearance
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116
CHAPTER 5. SAFETY
P. Nicolini, A. Smailacic, E. Spallucci, quarks are collected together, the lowest energy state is
j.physletb.2005.11.004:
Noncommutative ge- one which has roughly equal numbers of up, down, and
ometry inspired Schwarzschild black hole
strange quarks, namely a strangelet. This stability would
occur because of the Pauli exclusion principle; having
A. Bonanno, M. Reuter, PhysRevD.73.083005:
three types of quarks, rather than two as in normal nuSpacetime Structure of an Evaporating Black Hole
clear matter, allows more quarks to be placed in lower
in Quantum Gravity
energy levels.
S. Fujioka et al., Nature Physics 5, 821 825
(2009): X-ray astronomy in the laboratory with a
Relationship with nuclei
miniature compact object produced by laser-driven
implosion
A nucleus is a collection of a large number of up and down
quarks, conned into triplets (neutrons and protons). According to the strange matter hypothesis, strangelets are
5.2.10 External links
more stable than nuclei, so nuclei are expected to decay
Astrophysical implications of hypothetical stable into strangelets. But this process may be extremely slow
because there is a large energy barrier to overcome: as the
TeV-scale black holes
weak interaction starts making a nucleus into a strangelet,
A. Barrau & J. Grain, The Case for mini black holes the rst few strange quarks form strange baryons, such as
: a review of the searches for new physics with micro the Lambda, which are heavy. Only if many conversions
black holes possibly formed at colliders
occur almost simultaneously will the number of strange
Mini Black Holes Might Reveal 5th Dimension quarks reach the critical proportion required to achieve
a lower energy state. This is very unlikely to happen, so
Space.com
even if the strange matter hypothesis were correct, nuclei
Doomsday Machine Large Hadron Collider? A would never be seen to decay to strangelets because their
scientic essay about energies, dimensions, black lifetime would be longer than the age of the universe.
holes, and the associated public attention to CERN,
by Norbert Frischauf (also available as Podcast)
Size
5.3 Strangelet
5.3. STRANGELET
117
QCD connement phase transition occurred. It is useful as a sort of strangelet observatory using the enpossible that strangelets were created along with the tire Earth as its detector. The IMS will be designed to
neutrons and protons which form ordinary matter.
detect anomalous seismic disturbances down to 1 kiloton
of TNT (4.2 TJ) energy release or less, and could be able
High energy processes. The universe is full of very to track strangelets passing through Earth in real time if
high-energy particles (cosmic rays). It is possible properly exploited.
that when these collide with each other or with neutron stars they may provide enough energy to overcome the energy barrier and create strangelets from Impacts on Solar System bodies
nuclear matter.
It has been suggested that strangelets of subplanetary
Cosmic ray impacts. In addition to head-on coli.e. heavy metorite mass, would puncture planets and
lisions of cosmic rays, ultra high energy cosmic
other solar system objects, leading to impact (exit) craters
rays impacting on Earths atmosphere may create
which show characteristic features.[12]
strangelets.
These scenarios oer possibilities for observing
strangelets. If there are strangelets ying around the
universe, then occasionally a strangelet should hit Earth,
where it would appear as an exotic type of cosmic ray.
If strangelets can be produced in high energy collisions,
then we might make them at heavy-ion colliders.
Accelerator production
At heavy ion accelerators like the Relativistic Heavy Ion
Collider (RHIC), nuclei are collided at relativistic speeds,
creating strange and antistrange quarks which could conceivably lead to strangelet production. The experimental signature of a strangelet would be its very high ratio
of mass to charge, which would cause its trajectory in
a magnetic eld to be very nearly, but not quite, straight.
The STAR collaboration has searched for strangelets produced at the RHIC,[6] but none were found. The Large
Hadron Collider (LHC) is even less likely to produce
strangelets,[7] but searches are planned[8] for the LHC
ALICE detector.
Space-based detection
5.3.3 Dangers
If the strange matter hypothesis is correct and its surface tension is larger than the aforementioned critical
value, then a larger strangelet would be more stable than
a smaller one. One speculation that has resulted from the
idea is that a strangelet coming into contact with a lump
of ordinary matter could convert the ordinary matter to
strange matter.[13][14] This "ice-nine"-like disaster scenario is as follows: one strangelet hits a nucleus, catalyzing its immediate conversion to strange matter. This liberates energy, producing a larger, more stable strangelet,
which in turn hits another nucleus, catalyzing its conversion to strange matter. In the end, all the nuclei of all the
atoms of Earth are converted, and Earth is reduced to a
hot, large lump of strange matter.
This is not a concern for strangelets in cosmic rays because they are produced far from Earth and have had
time to decay to their ground state, which is predicted
by most models to be positively charged, so they are electrostatically repelled by nuclei, and would rarely merge
with them.[15][16] But high-energy collisions could produce negatively charged strangelet states which live long
enough to interact with the nuclei of ordinary matter.[17]
The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), an instru- The danger of catalyzed conversion by strangelets proment which is mounted on the International Space Sta- duced in heavy-ion colliders has received some media attention,[18][19] and concerns of this type were
tion, could detect strangelets.[9]
raised[13][20] at the commencement of the Relativistic
Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) experiment at Brookhaven,
Possible seismic detection
which could potentially have created strangelets. A detailed analysis[14] concluded that the RHIC collisions
In May 2002, a group of researchers at Southern were comparable to ones which naturally occur as cosmic
Methodist University reported the possibility that rays traverse the solar system, so we would already have
strangelets may have been responsible for seismic events seen such a disaster if it were possible. RHIC has been
recorded on October 22 and November 24 in 1993.[10] operating since 2000 without incident. Similar concerns
The authors later retracted their claim, after nding that have been raised about the operation of the Large Hadron
the clock of one of the seismic stations had a large error Collider (LHC) at CERN[21] but such fears are dismissed
during the relevant period.[11]
as far-fetched by scientists.[21][22][23]
It has been suggested that the International Monitoring In the case of a neutron star, the conversion scenario
System being set up to verify the Comprehensive Nuclear seems much more plausible. A neutron star is in a sense
Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) after entry into force may be a giant nucleus (20 km across), held together by gravity,
118
CHAPTER 5. SAFETY
but it is electrically neutral and so does not electrostatically repel strangelets. If a strangelet hit a neutron star, it
could convert a small region of it, and that region would
grow to consume the entire star, creating a quark star.[24]
5.3.4
The strange matter hypothesis remains unproven. No direct search for strangelets in cosmic rays or particle accelerators has seen a strangelet (see references in earlier
sections). If any of the objects we call neutron stars could
be shown to have a surface made of strange matter, this
would indicate that strange matter is stable at zero pressure, which would vindicate the strange matter hypothesis. But there is no strong evidence for strange matter
surfaces on neutron stars (see below).
5.3.5
In ction
An episode of Odyssey 5 featured an attempt to destroy the planet by intentionally creating negatively
charged strangelets in a particle accelerator.[32]
The BBC docudrama End Day features a scenario
where a particle accelerator in New York City explodes, creating a strangelet and starting a catastrophic chain reaction which destroys Earth.
The story A Matter most Strange in the collection
Indistinguishable from Magic by Robert L. Forward
deals with the making of a strangelet in a particle
accelerator.
Impact, published in 2010 and written by Douglas
Preston, deals with an alien machine that creates
strangelets. The machines strangelets impact the
Earth and Moon and pass through.
[5] M. Alford, K. Rajagopal, S. Reddy, A. Steiner, The Stability of Strange Star Crusts and Strangelets, Phys. Rev.
D73 114016 (2006) arXiv:hep-ph/0604134
[6] STAR Collaboration, Strangelet search at RHIC, arXiv:
nucl-ex/0511047
[7] Ellis J, Giudice G, Mangano ML, Tkachev I, Wiedemann U (LHC Safety Assessment Group) (5 September 2008). "Review of the Safety of LHC Collisions"
(PDF, 586 KiB). ''Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics. 35, 115004 (18pp). doi:10.1088/09543899/35/11/115004. arXiv:0806.3414. CERN record.
[8] A. Angelis et al., Model of Centauro and strangelet production in heavy ion collisions, Phys. Atom. Nucl.
67:396-405 (2004) arXiv:nucl-th/0301003
[9] J. Sandweiss, Overview of strangelet searches and Alpha
Magnetic Spectrometer: When will we stop searching?"
J. Phys. G30:S51-S59 (2004)
5.3. STRANGELET
119
[10] D. Anderson et al., Two seismic events with the properties for the passage of strange quark matter through the
earth arXiv:astro-ph/0205089
[30] A. Heger, A. Cumming, D. Galloway, S. Woosley, Models of Type I X-ray Bursts from GS 1826-24: A Probe of
rp-Process Hydrogen Burning, arXiv:0711.1195
[31] A. Watts and S. Reddy, Magnetar oscillations pose challenges for strange stars, MNRAS, 379, L63 (2007)
arXiv:astro-ph/0609364
[32] Odyssey 5: Trouble with Harry, an episode of the Canadian science ction television series Odyssey 5 by Manny
Coto (2002)
Fridolin Weber (2004). Strange Quark Matter and Compact Stars. Progress in Particle
and Nuclear Physics 54: 193288. arXiv:astroph/0407155.
Bibcode:2005PrPNP..54..193W.
doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2004.07.001.
Jes Madsen (1998). Hadrons in Dense Matter and Hadrosynthesis. Lect.Notes Phys. Lecture Notes in Physics 516: 162203. arXiv:astroph/9809032. doi:10.1007/BFb0107314. ISBN
978-3-540-65209-0. |chapter= ignored (help)
Chapter 6
Future
6.1 Super Large Hadron Collider
6.1.2 References
The High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider (HL- [1] IR optics collection
LHC; formerly SLHC, Super Large Hadron Collider)
is a proposed upgrade to the Large Hadron Collider to be [2] LUMI 06 workshop
made after around ten years of operation. The upgrade
aims at increasing the luminosity of the machine by a fac- [3] ATLAS upgrade web page
tor of 10, up to 1035 cm2 s1 , providing a better chance
to see rare processes and improving statistically marginal
6.1.3 External links
measurements.
Many dierent paths exist for upgrading the collider. A
collection of dierent designs of the high luminosity interaction regions is being maintained by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN).[1] A workshop
was held in 2006 to establish which are the most promising options.[2] Increasing LHC luminosity involves reduction of beam size at the collision point and either reduction of bunch length and spacing, or signicant increase
in bunch length and population. The maximum integrated luminosity increase of the existing options is about
a factor of 4 higher than the LHC ultimate performance,
unfortunately far below the LHC upgrade projects initial ambition of a factor of 10. However, at the latest
LUMI'06 workshop,[2] several suggestions were proposed
that would boost the LHC peak luminosity by a factor of
10 beyond nominal towards 1035 cm2 s1 .
6.1.1
Injector upgrade
Given that such a performance increase necessitates a correspondingly large increase in size, cost, and power reAs part of the Phase 2 Super LHC, signicant changes quirements, a signicant amount of international collabowould be made to the proton injector.
ration over a period of decades would be required to con[1]
Superconducting Proton Linac (SPL): Accelerating struct such a collider.
protons with superconducting radio frequency cavities to
an energy of 5 GeV.
Proton Synchrotron 2 (PS2): Accelerating the beam from
5 GeV at injection to 50 GeV at extraction.
Particle physics
High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider
6.2.2
References
[1] Glanz, James (10 July 2001). Physicists Unite, Sort of,
on Next Collider. The New York Times. Retrieved 27
June 2009.
[2] Reich, Eugenie Samuel (2013-11-12), Physicists plan to
build a bigger LHC, Nature News, retrieved 2013-12-03,
The giant machine would dwarf all of its predecessors.
It would collide protons at energies around 100 teraelectronvolts (TeV), compared with the planned 14 TeV of the
LHC at CERN, Europes particle-physics lab near Geneva
in Switzerland. And it would require a tunnel 80100 kilometres around, compared with the LHCs 27-km circumference. For the past decade or so, there has been little research money available worldwide to develop the concept.
But this summer, at the Snowmass meeting in Minneapolis, Minnesota where hundreds of particle physicists assembled to dream up machines for their elds long-term
future the VLHC concept stood out as a favourite.
6.2.3
External links
121
Chapter 7
122
7.1. TEXT
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Lightmouse, Crisis, Techman224, Greatrobo76, Robfrost, Profgregory, OKBot, Maelgwnbot, LonelyMarble, Jhann Heiar rnason,
Torchwoodwho, Kurtilein, Casmiky, Chrisrus, Maxime.Debosschere, Veldin963, Sheps999, Sockies, Mygerardromance, Hamiltondaniel,
WikiLaurent, Yhkhoo, Superbeecat, Florentino oro, Pinkadelica, Tmckeage, Babakathy, Randy Kryn, Jtyard, Scaler1112, TSRL, ImageRemovalBot, Llywelyn2000, Faithlessthewonderboy, Lethesl, Gourra, Atif.t2, Loren.wilton, Martarius, Beeblebrox, Darsie from german wiki pedia, Phyte, ClueBot, GorillaWarfare, Boodlesthecat, GrandDrake, Mhworth, The Thing That Should Not Be, Mriya, IceUnshattered, Techdawg667, General Epitaph, Wwheaton, Ndenison, Dux is me, DanielDeibler, Boing! said Zebedee, Xertoz, Estevoaei,
QuantumAmyrillis, TarzanASG, Piledhigheranddeeper, Kyurkewicz, Phenylalanine, Ooogly, Final Philosopher, Mspraveen, Polaroids4x5,
Maccy69, Somno, Ktr101, Excirial, AssegaiAli, Alexbot, Hj FUN, Ottre, Eeekster, Haseth, Vanisheduser12345, GreenGourd, Vivio
Testarossa, Sun Creator, Thomasmackat41, NuclearWarfare, Ice Cold Beer, Cenarium, Jotterbot, PhySusie, 842U, Wond3rbread1991,
Snacks, Shivarudra, Shaunofthefuzz7, Lenary, Cellodont, Ottawa4ever, GlobetrottingAussie, Netanel h, Buckethed, Thingg, Colmsherry,
Brickwall04, MAGZine, Spino, Geckon, Versus22, Apparition11, Wnt, Manu-ve Pro Ski, DumZiBoT, SlaterDeterminant, Wikidokman, Wonderash1111, Homocion, Cvet, Ohmyyes, InternetMeme, 03md, XLinkBot, Spitre, PSimeon, DragonFury, Oldnoah, Stickee, RickWagnerPhD, Duncan, 02millers, Little Mountain 5, Mitch Ames, NellieBly, Pokesausage, Jlcoving, PL290, Alexius08, Dacool7, TravisAF, Nukes4Tots, Gouryella, JCDenton2052, ISGTW, HexaChord, Stephen Poppitt, Tayste, Stenho360, Prowikipedians,
Pyfan, JBsupreme, Master michael 90, Willking1979, Some jerk on the Internet, DOI bot, Guoguo12, TheNeutroniumAlchemist, Phlegm
Rooster, Pedant75, AkhtaBot, GuyanaMan, Totakeke423, Ronhjones, Polishhill, Lets Enjoy Life, Gashwnox, PlumCrumbleAndCustard, Frikandel, CanadianLinuxUser, AcademyAD, Gmeyerowitz, Ajeetkumar81, MrOllie, Mentisock, Download, MrVanBot, Lihaas,
AndersBot, Chzz, Debresser, Deamon138, Rodeo90, Barak Sh, Andefs, Chem-MTFC, Anonyfuss, Kisbesbot, Mkhan-95, AgadaUrbanit, 84user, Ehrenkater, Wikbot, F Notebook, Tide rolls, Verbal, Lightbot, ScAvenger, AvalonTreman, QuadrivialMind, SPat, Zorrobot,
MuZemike, Trotter, Alamgir, Beatsbox, Num43, Jim, Ch1n4m4n, Narutolovehinata5, Everyme, Kyro, Clay Juicer, Luckas-bot, TheSuave,
AzureFury, Kartano, Flukas, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Legobot II, Donfbreed, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Evans1982, Antimatter Dilbert,
Buddy431, Bugnot, Jimbob16314, Terryblack, THMRK1, Lukealanjohnson, Paaulinho, Csmallw, Princeb11, Magog the Ogre, Libriantichi, Orion11M87, AnomieBOT, Xasdas, HisNameIsChris, DoctorJoeE, Autumn Fall, Rubinbot, Bsimmons666, PianoDan, Message
From Xenu, Jim1138, Pyrrhus16, AloysiusLiliusBot, Teamnumberawesome, Piano non troppo, Contribut, Bmoc2012tms, Fahadsadah,
Apau98, NORD74, Nacre 10, Adejam, Hedgehawk, Jacob2718, Citation bot, OllieFury, Eumolpo, Iloveham, ArthurBot, LovesMacs,
Mavrisa, The Firewall, Dracoblaze4, Advertiseo, Zykure, Redwodka, Xqbot, Biologicithician, Capricorn42, AbhishekSinghRana, Newzebras, Jerey Mall, Mononomic, Stsang, Anna Frodesiak, Srich32977, Pikematerson, PimRijkee, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Chickenweed, Hechser, Mark Schierbecker, MadGeographer, EmilyUndead, Seeleschneider, Ace111, Mgambentok, EuroWikiWorld, Der Falke,
Locobot, JediMaster362, Natural Cut, Shadowjams, Spellage, WaysToEscape, Douchedoom, A. di M., Chriss789, SD5, Dailycare, FrescoBot, God=nocioni, Paine Ellsworth, W Nowicki, Jerey Solimine, StaticVision, Recognizance, Thorenn, Bergdohle, Jamesooders, DivineAlpha, Cannolis, HamburgerRadio, Citation bot 1, PointOfPresence, Ntse, Camronwest, Biker Biker, Shiftyalex1, Pinethicket, I dream
of horses, Schmitzhugen, HRoestBot, Edderso, Safetynut, Martinvl, RedBot, CamB42424, SpaceFlight89, Zestofalemon, Spaluch1, Tcnuk,
Realtruth.co.nr, Shanmugamp7, Aknochel, December21st2012Freak, 343GuiltySpark343, IVAN3MAN, Lesdo234, Calle Cool, Fl4ian,
TobeBot, Puzl bustr, Wotnow, Beta Orionis, Fama Clamosa, Onanysunday, Hickorybark, Lotje, Dinamik-bot, TBloemink, Sammy00193,
Muhammedpbuh, Jerd10, Excellt127, Tbhotch, Minimac, Swedernish, Remnar, Cathardic, Itain'tsobad, Mean as custard, Ztbbq, Sfsupro, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, MMS2013, Alph Bot, Markos Strofyllas, Deagle AP, EmausBot, Black Shadow, Orphan Wiki, Mickeyhill,
Ever388, Docjudith, Trickett rocks, Belismakr, Mrgalaxy01, Sumsum2010, RA0808, Jmv2009, Gimmetoo, Themorrissey, Slightsmile,
Sandeepsuri, Wikipelli, Piggyspider123, Hhhippo, ZroBot, John Cline, Shuipzv3, QWERTYMASTR, Ticklemefugly, 99chromehead,
Emily Jensen, ElationAviation, Louprado, Hazard-SJ, Arbnos, Hashiq, Ltlighter, FreddoT, Christina Silverman, Bob drobbs, HelloDenyo, 123smellmyfeet, Brandmeister, Coasterlover1994, Nanouniverse, Tomsdearg92, Donner60, Aldnonymous, GermanJoe, Resonant.Interval, Citedegg, Philippe BINANT, GrayFullbuster, Alderepas, Kingexaldraw, ClueBot NG, Zucchinidreams, Ex Everest, Michaelmas1957, Tbonemalone123, Btcc11, Loliamnot13, HinduPundit, Chrisfex, Theimmaculatechemist, Kmchanw, Delusion23, O.Koslowski,
ScottSteiner, Anonymous5555, Widr, Wisconsinbadger, PooRadley, Bigbullhoodboy, Jbackroyd, Gustavoanaya, Hotswapster, Mophedd,
Jemmalouisemay, Strike Eagle, Titodutta, Bibcode Bot, Trunks ishida, SidKemp, BG19bot, Mimzy2011, Eothred, Lhshammo, Wikiviks,
Uk554, Guy.shrimpton, Mmovchin, Knowsnothing613, Mannasoumya, Willknowsalmosteverything, Seniorlimpio, NeoTheChosenOne,
NotinREALITY, Eio, SkittleJuice, Tictac66, Achowat, Anbu121, BattyBot, Ant314159265, Mdann52, KyleRyanToth, Ytic nam, Rcw258,
ChrisGualtieri, Abcadi, CrunchySkies, Mineville, GetTheShift, Rues, EuroCarGT, KrazyKelle, 786b6364, Rhlozier, Blueprinteditor,
Dexbot, Kulpreet33, Deranged anna, Garuda0001, Athul av, Michael Anon, Febinmathew, EauOo, Hamid26747, Frosty, Nilaykumar07,
Jo-Jo Eumerus, Flatfatmat, OnlyShadab, Reatlas, DaPanda44, Lyxkg007, Rfassbind, ETHJILA, , Abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz12345678, Glasstop, FiredanceThroughTheNight, Noctave, Evano1van, Giraosaurus, Revolution1221, RaphaelQS, CensoredScribe, User-name929, Boone jenner, Zenibus, Neilroy1998, Giu8888, Mandruss, LaGeneralitat, Mrdressup, RoCopter404, Inessa
Alaverdyan, TaiSakuma, Mfb, MyNameIsn'tElvis, Jedipowerz01, Potassium 40, CaesarsPalaceDude, Tighef, WPratiwi, AsalKadal, AslanEntropy, Parabolooidal, Tlmpmt, Vorkel insignia, Swagit420, Vieque, Akro7, Rohan.benia, Medical physicist, Calmyourfarm, Chryst
Laxus, Wendy Sax, Kuber Kanade, Shantanu28Editor, Tetra quark and Anonymous: 1373
List of Large Hadron Collider experiments Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Large%20Hadron%20Collider%
20experiments?oldid=642507134 Contributors: Rursus, Xezbeth, Danski14, Mario23, Khazar, Headbomb, Tetrare, Auntof6, Ironholds,
FrescoBot, Despina.hatzifotiadou, Jodosma, Mfb and Anonymous: 8
A Large Ion Collider Experiment Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALICE%3A_A_Large_Ion_Collider_Experiment?oldid=
650630694 Contributors: Harp, Rich Farmbrough, Laurascudder, Giraedata, BD2412, Seneka, Amorsch, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Dialectric, SCZenz, Caiyu, Merrybrit, Erik J, One, Erwinrossen, Edgar181, Colonies Chris, OrphanBot, Khukri, LeoNomis, Dsupriya, Meno25,
Headbomb, Nick Number, .anacondabot, Xinebbsa, Econ oh my, Connor Behan, Andre.holzner, Sensenmann, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot,
Kyle the bot, TXiKiBoT, Andrius.v, Jackfork, Natg 19, Madhero88, Tainels, Nsk92, RafaAzevedo, Kyurkewicz, Franznavach, Ladsgroup, Gedankenpause, Addbot, , LaaknorBot, Tide rolls, Zorrobot, John-vogel, Luckas-bot, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Amirobot,
Nzkennys, Citation bot, Xqbot, CXCV, SassoBot, MagdaGa, Mnmngb, FrescoBot, RedBot, NameIsRon, AndyHe829, WikitanvirBot,
Dewritech, Javachan, F, Ebehn, ClueBot NG, CocuBot, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, AvocatoBot, Theosphobia, GabeIglesia, Bibliophilen,
Lbarnby, Pcharito and Anonymous: 51
ATLAS experiment Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATLAS%20experiment?oldid=651140779 Contributors: SimonP, Sfdan,
Bcrowell, Ehn, Charles Matthews, Rob.derosa, Francs2000, Sdedeo, Cyberia23, DavidCary, Harp, Lupin, Curps, Frencheigh, Gregb,
Matt Crypto, Bobblewik, Mako098765, DragonySixtyseven, Lumidek, Zondor, Thorwald, Freakofnurture, Rich Farmbrough, Rama,
Tushar.bhatnagar, Laurascudder, Susvolans, Jag123, Suruena, Gene Nygaard, Flying sh, Manfalk, Linas, Mandavi, AndrewWatt, Wayward, Bunchofgrapes, Rjwilmsi, Maxkramer, Bubba73, Erkcan, The wub, Pediadeep, Gurch, GangofOne, Wavelength, Splash, Akamad,
7.1. TEXT
125
Mithridates, Bovineone, Wiki alf, Juhanson, SCZenz, Tony1, BOT-Superzerocool, Cynicism addict, Vald, Cowman109, PeterMcCready,
Djinn65, Colonies Chris, Mallorn, Z6, V9, Jmnbatista, Khukri, Martijn Hoekstra, LeoNomis, Ligulembot, Harryboyles, Loodog, Mjaekel,
AB, Herr apa, SandyGeorgia, Mets501, O. Harris, WISo, Kozuch, Col. Hauler, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Electron9, Nick Number, Ssayler,
Bridgeplayer, TAnthony, VoABot II, Spellmaster, Plasticup, Vanished user 47736712, SinWin, DorganBot, Fuenfundachtzig, Idioma-bot,
Sheliak, Master z0b, VolkovBot, Kyle the bot, TXiKiBoT, Joopercoopers, GimmeBot, Andrius.v, Robert1947, Duncan.Hull, Neparis,
LeadSongDog, ImageRemovalBot, PipepBot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Kyurkewicz, Alexbot, Bzzybee13, Sun Creator, Addbot, Mortense,
DOI bot, Woodrowr, AcademyAD, ChenzwBot, 84user, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Amirobot, Amapelli, Orion11M87,
AnomieBOT, Ciphers, Archon 2488, NearlyDrNash, Citation bot, MauritsBot, Xqbot, CXCV, Srich32977, Davdde, MagdaGa, January2009, , FrescoBot, D'ohBot, Citation bot 1, Francphy5, Roboop, Tm1729, RjwilmsiBot, Newty23125, AndyHe829, DASHBot,
TGCP, EmausBot, Ida Shaw, Bped1985, L3bl4nc, Bibcode Bot, SchroCat, Hyperfunnel, Anderson, Kourkoumeli, JenCawe, Leighperson,
AHusain314, Bibliophilen, Mfb, Anrnusna, Monkbot and Anonymous: 87
Compact Muon Solenoid Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact%20Muon%20Solenoid?oldid=650630597 Contributors:
Michael Hardy, Ojs, Jll, Slathering, Bkell, Giftlite, Harp, Herbee, Qking, Rich Farmbrough, Rama, Laurascudder, Suruena, Dirac1933,
Gene Nygaard, Falcorian, Isnow, Techieb0y, Rjwilmsi, Erkcan, JabberWok, GeeJo, Topperfalkon, Zwobot, Besselfunctions, Netrapt,
Mario23, Chandrasonic, SmackBot, Slashme, Khukri, Tiki2099, LeoNomis, TriTertButoxy, Kuru, Zarniwoot, Beno1000, SchmittM,
WISo, Thijs!bot, Jimbrooke, Headbomb, Tkolberg, Jz 007, LorenzoB, Nevit, CommonsDelinker, Freeboson, Smite-Meister, Idiomabot, Sheliak, LokiClock, TXiKiBoT, Dirc, Chronitis, Murielvd, Angelastic, SieBot, Erier2003, ImageRemovalBot, Kyurkewicz, MartinGrunewald, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Everyme, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, Nonnormalizable,
AnomieBOT, Archon 2488, Icalanise, Citation bot, Cowgoesmoo2, Xqbot, , Srich32977, False vacuum, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT,
MagdaGa, Mnmngb, Spellage, Reality3chick, Citation bot 1, Cougarsoul, RedBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, ShardsOfUs, SirNewtonNinegames, Bornerdogge, Hhhippo, Epsilonphantom, Bibcode Bot, Kiki 233, Dobie80, Bibliophilen, Bombersun, TaiSakuma, Mfb, Akro7,
Kunzejo, ConejitaDo and Anonymous: 75
LHCb Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHCb?oldid=650630652 Contributors: Harp, Rich Farmbrough, Laurascudder, Remuel,
Keenan Pepper, RJFJR, AndyBuckley, Linas, Mark Williamson, Turnstep, Goudzovski, Pip2andahalf, RussBot, Conscious, Spike Wilbury,
SCZenz, Nick, Johantheghost, Mtze, Larosch, GraemeL, David Biddulph, SmackBot, Jmnbatista, Khukri, Ryan Roos, LeoNomis, Barry
m, DJIndica, A1056207, P199, WISo, Headbomb, Oswald le fort, Pkoppenb, Sheliak, CaptinJohn, SieBot, MenoBot, Kyurkewicz, Alexbot,
Addbot, AndersBot, Heliotropia, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Themisb, Archon 2488, Citation bot, GrouchoBot, Davdde, LucienBOT, Steve
Quinn, Citation bot 1, Minimac, AndyHe829, Timetraveler3.14, Ebehn, Bibcode Bot, Mdneedham, Metricopolus, NotWith, Ttquer, GabeIglesia, Bibliophilen, Mfb and Anonymous: 27
LHCf Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHCf?oldid=650630864 Contributors: Rich Farmbrough, Alby, Laurascudder, Bobo192, Erkcan, Alynna Kasmira, Welsh, SmackBot, Khukri, LeoNomis, Alaibot, Headbomb, The Anomebot2, Fuenfundachtzig, GrahamHardy, Sheliak, TXiKiBoT, Alessia2703, CaptinJohn, Kyurkewicz, Addbot, AndersBot, Luckas-bot, Orion11M87, Citation bot, Davdde, Puzl bustr,
Javachan, Bibcode Bot, GabeIglesia, Bibliophilen, WPratiwi and Anonymous: 10
FP420 experiment Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FP420%20experiment?oldid=650627020 Contributors: Thomas Blomberg,
Headbomb, Rettetast, Slyatslys, Vanished user lkdoqw39ru239jwionwcihu8wt4ihjsf, SkywalkerPL, BG19bot, Ellipapa and Anonymous:
3
TOTEM Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOTEM?oldid=650630800 Contributors: Philopp, Harp, Jcw69, Rich Farmbrough, Laurascudder, Water Bottle, Gortu, Falcorian, Conscious, 7segment, Khukri, LeoNomis, Headbomb, Magioladitis, The Anomebot2, Idioma-bot,
Sheliak, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Kyurkewicz, Kaspar.jan, XLinkBot, Addbot, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Adrian 1111, Xqbot, GrouchoBot,
RibotBOT, SassoBot, Francoroldan, Citation bot 1, Rapsar, Javachan, Bibcode Bot, GabeIglesia, Bibliophilen and Anonymous: 9
Beetle (ASIC) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beetle%20(ASIC)?oldid=532577308 Contributors: Gary, Cburnett, RJFJR, Tole,
Larosch, SmackBot, OrphanBot, JonHarder, Amakuru, Headbomb, Addbot, AvicAWB and Anonymous: 3
LHC Computing Grid Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldwide_LHC_Computing_Grid?oldid=648476718 Contributors: Edward, Egil, Jll, Superm401, Cobaltbluetony, Beland, Thorwald, FT2, Bender235, Fieldt, GregorB, Kolbasz, Penguin, Twigboy,
Sim@simpol.net, Chrishmt0423, SmackBot, Eleveneleven, Rsquid, IG-64, Randysnow, Alaibot, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Fabricebaro, Cgingold, Bobbias, Jbond00747, VolkovBot, Pleroma, JukoFF, Ethyr, Lightmouse, Pakaraki, Mattgirling, Heylarson, Walkingstick3, Craigallan.za, DumZiBoT, BillinSanDiego, Legosock, JMacalinao, LaaknorBot, OlEnglish, AnomieBOT, W Nowicki, Steve Quinn, Josve05a,
Concord113, YiFeiBot and Anonymous: 28
LHC@home Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHC%40home?oldid=613568574 Contributors: Ilyanep, Echoray, Lzur, Giftlite,
Wwoods, Creidieki, Rich Farmbrough, Wikiacc, Bender235, ZeroOne, Mr. Billion, Laurascudder, RoyBoy, Giraedata, Minghong, Kocio,
Wdfarmer, Bruce89, Eyreland, Erkcan, FayssalF, Ysangkok, Jjhat1, Chobot, YurikBot, Bovineone, SCZenz, Nucleusboy, SmackBot, Eskimbot, Kinhull, Hex87, PrimeHunter, LeoNomis, Beyazid, Beno1000, Cydebot, Valodzka, Pstanton, Gamer007, Headbomb, 100110100,
Magioladitis, .snoopy., Hekerui, Cgingold, Maurice Carbonaro, Idioma-bot, SpaceKangaroo, WOSlinker, GeneralBelly, Hellcat ghter,
VanishedUserABC, Dirk P Broer, Simon Villeneuve, Professorolous, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Justice Marshall,
Alberthuang2, Xqbot, PanacheCuPunga, Noderaser, FrescoBot, MindZiper, Vise, Moritz37, Wbm1058, NotinREALITY, PalNilsson70,
Artem.harutyunyan and Anonymous: 16
Proton Synchrotron Booster Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton%20Synchrotron%20Booster?oldid=593082473 Contributors:
Laurascudder, Nanite, Khukri, Headbomb, Rtomas, Sheliak, VolkovBot, Andrius.v, Addbot, Dawynn, Eshmo, Lightbot, Buddy431 and
Anonymous: 4
VELO Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHCb?oldid=650630652 Contributors: Harp, Rich Farmbrough, Laurascudder, Remuel,
Keenan Pepper, RJFJR, AndyBuckley, Linas, Mark Williamson, Turnstep, Goudzovski, Pip2andahalf, RussBot, Conscious, Spike Wilbury,
SCZenz, Nick, Johantheghost, Mtze, Larosch, GraemeL, David Biddulph, SmackBot, Jmnbatista, Khukri, Ryan Roos, LeoNomis, Barry
m, DJIndica, A1056207, P199, WISo, Headbomb, Oswald le fort, Pkoppenb, Sheliak, CaptinJohn, SieBot, MenoBot, Kyurkewicz, Alexbot,
Addbot, AndersBot, Heliotropia, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Themisb, Archon 2488, Citation bot, GrouchoBot, Davdde, LucienBOT, Steve
Quinn, Citation bot 1, Minimac, AndyHe829, Timetraveler3.14, Ebehn, Bibcode Bot, Mdneedham, Metricopolus, NotWith, Ttquer, GabeIglesia, Bibliophilen, Mfb and Anonymous: 27
Standard Model Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard%20Model?oldid=648576968 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Derek Ross,
CYD, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Roadrunner, David spector, Isis, Youandme, Ram-Man, Stevertigo, Edward,
Patrick, Boud, Michael Hardy, SebastianHelm, Looxix, Julesd, Glenn, AugPi, Mxn, Raven in Orbit, Reddi, Phr, Tpbradbury, Populus,
126
Haoherb428, Phys, Floydian, Bevo, Pierre Boreal, AnonMoos, BenRG, Jeq, Dmytro, Drxenocide, Robbot, Nurg, Securiger, Texture,
Roscoe x, Fuelbottle, Superm401, Tobias Bergemann, Alan Liefting, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, Dbenbenn, Harp, Herbee, Monedula, LeYaYa,
Xerxes314, Dratman, Alison, JeBobFrank, Dmmaus, Pharotic, Brockert, Bodhitha, Andycjp, Sonjaaa, HorsePunchKid, APH, Icairns,
AmarChandra, Gscshoyru, Kate, Arivero, FT2, Rama, Vsmith, David Schaich, Xezbeth, D-Notice, Dfan, Bender235, Pt, El C, Laurascudder, Shanes, Drhex, Fogger, Brim, Rbj, Jeodesic, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Gary, ChristopherWillis, Guy Harris, Axl, Sligocki, Kocio,
Stillnotelf, Alinor, Wtmitchell, Egg, TenOfAllTrades, H2g2bob, Killing Vector, Linas, Mindmatrix, Benbest, Dodiad, Mpatel, Faethon,
TPickup, Faethon34, Palica, Dysepsion, Faethon36, Qwertyca, Drbogdan, Rjwilmsi, Zbxgscqf, Macumba, Strangethingintheland, Dstudent, R.e.b., Bubba73, Drrngrvy, Agasicles, FlaBot, Naraht, Agasides, DannyWilde, Dave1g, Itinerant1, Gparker, Jrtayloriv, Goudzovski,
Chobot, Bgwhite, FrankTobia, YurikBot, Bambaiah, Ohwilleke, VoxMoose, Bhny, JabberWok, Bovineone, Krbabu, SCZenz, JulesH,
Davemck, Lomn, E2mb0t, Dna-webmaster, Jrf, Dv82matt, Tetracube, Hirak 99, Arthur Rubin, Netrapt, JLaTondre, Caco de vidro, RG2,
GrinBot, That Guy, From That Show!, Hal peridol, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Tom Lougheed, Melchoir, Bazza 7, KocjoBot, Jagged 85,
Thunderboltz, Setanta747 (locked), Skizzik, Dauto, Chris the speller, Bluebot, TimBentley, Sirex98, Silly rabbit, Complexica, Metacomet,
DHN-bot, MovGP0, QFT, Kittybrewster, Addshore, Jmnbatista, Cybercobra, Jgwacker, BullRangifer, Soarhead77, Daniel.Cardenas,
Yevgeny Kats, Byelf2007, TriTertButoxy, Craig Bolon, Ajnosek, Ekjon Lok, Bjankuloski06, Tarcieri, Waggers, JarahE, Michaelbusch,
Lottamiata, Twas Now, IanOfNorwich, Srain, Patrickwooldridge, J Milburn, Mosaa, Gatortpk, Vessels42, Geremia, Van helsing, Harrigan, Phatom87, Cydebot, David edwards, Verdy p, Michael C Price, Xantharius, Crum375, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Headbomb,
Phy1729, Stannered, Tariqhada, Seaphoto, Orionus, Voyaging, Gnixon, Jbaranao, Jrw@pobox.com, Len Raymond, Narssarssuaq, Bakken,
CattleGirl, Davidoaf, Vanished user ty12kl89jq10, Lvwarren, Taborgate, Leyo, HEL, J.delanoy, Hans Dunkelberg, Stephanwehner, Wbellido, Aoosten, Jacksonwalters, The Transliterator, DadaNeem, Student7, Joshmt, WJBscribe, Jozwolf, Hexane2000, BernardZ, Awren, Sheliak, Physicist brazuca, Schucker, Goop Goop, Fences and windows, Dextrose, Mcewan, Swamy g, TXiKiBoT, Sharikkamur, Thrawn562,
Voorlandt, Escalona, Setreset, PDFbot, Pleroma, UnitedStatesian, Piyush Sriva, Kacser, Billinghurst, Francis Flinch, Moose-32, Ptrslv72,
David Barnard, SieBot, ShiftFn, Robdunst, Jim E. Black, SheepNotGoats, Gerakibot, Nozzer42, Mr swordsh, Wing gundam, Bamkin,
Likebox, Arthur Smart, HungarianBarbarian, Commutator, KathrynLybarger, Iomesus, C0nanPayne, Crazz bug 5, ClueBot, Superwj5,
Wwheaton, Garyzx, SuperHamster, Elsweyn, Maldmac, DragonBot, Djr32, Diagramma Della Verita, Nymf, Eeekster, Brews ohare, NuclearWarfare, PhySusie, Ordovico, Mastertek, DumZiBoT, BodhisattvaBot, Guarracino, Mitch Ames, Truthnlove, Stephen Poppitt, Tayste,
Addbot, Deepmath, Eric Drexler, DWHalliday, Mjamja, Leszek Jaczuk, NjardarBot, Mwoldin, Bassbonerocks, Barak Sh, AgadaUrbanit,
Lightbot, Smeagol 17, Abjiklam, Ve744, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Orion11M87, AnomieBOT, JackieBot, Icalanise, Citation bot, ArthurBot,
Northryde, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Professor J Lawrence, Tomwsulcer, Edsegal, GrouchoBot, Trongphu, QMarion II, Ernsts, A. di M., Bytbox,
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Gagnonlg, L21234, TheNextMessiah, Naterealm224, Adrian Lamplighter, Arnab santra, Gemadi, BATMAN1021, DrKitts and Anonymous: 932
Safety of particle collisions at the Large Hadron Collider Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_of_high-energy_particle_
collision_experiments?oldid=650306282 Contributors: The Anome, Stevenj, Lfh, Radiojon, Furrykef, BenRG, Jeq, Moondyne, Rorro,
HaeB, Fred Stober, Apalsola, FT2, Vsmith, Sockatume, Jonathan Drain, Bobo192, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc, Alansohn, Radical Mallard, RainbowOfLight, Jtrainor, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, GregorB, Darkoneko, Mandarax, Jwoodger, SqueakBox, Rjwilmsi, Koavf,
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bot, Xqbot, Brutaldeluxe, Sophus Bie, Bytbox, CaZeRillo, Psychlohexane, Citation bot 2, Citation bot 1, MMS2013, Feedahungryhippo,
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Micro black hole Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro%20black%20hole?oldid=651110025 Contributors: XJaM, Deb, Roadrunner, Patrick, D, Ixfd64, Iluvcapra, Egil, Julesd, Ehn, Timwi, Fairandbalanced, Nurg, Sverdrup, Henrygb, Rorro, Meelar, Auric, Jheise,
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Anonymous: 186
Strangelet Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strangelet?oldid=638742556 Contributors: Oliver Pereira, Julesd, Joquarky, Wertperch,
Xanzzibar, Jackol, Pgan002, Darksun, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, FT2, Army1987, Gunark, Dark Shikari, Radical Mallard, Pauli133,
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and Anonymous: 114
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Ste1n, QuantumShadow, Nickst, Skizzik, Father McKenzie, Khukri, Courcelles, Epbr123, Headbomb, Ygrange, Rtomas, Astavats, VoABot
II, Seba5618, TechnoFaye, HEL, Hans Dunkelberg, Dbiel, Calwiki, Zorx12, ClueBot, Franamax, MaverickFurmeson, DaL33T, Fielddaysunday, Lightbot, OlEnglish, 1exec1, Materialscientist, HappyArtichoke, Shadowjams, Fumitol, RA0808, Jasonbuzz, Morray, Silvrous,
ShotmanMaslo, DoctorKubla, Cheerioswithmilk, La Plaza Cultural and Anonymous: 59
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SCZenz, Zzuuzz, ViperSnake151, SmackBot, Nickst, Skizzik, Yin Huang, XSG, Salamurai, LeoNomis, Iridescent, Headbomb, WilliamH,
RogueNinja, Astavats, Albany NY, Ponty Pirate, Seba5618, Science Guy, J.delanoy, Hans Dunkelberg, Anna Lincoln, Aly89, ClueBot,
PMDrive1061, CoRdigALZ, Qwfp, Addbot, Tcncv, Verbal, Worm That Turned, Azcolvin429, Fatal!ty, 1exec1, JackieBot, Guy Thoreau,
Joe446465446, Tuankiet65, Parabolooidal and Anonymous: 37
7.2 Images
File:1011252_11-A4-at-144-dpi.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/1011252_11-A4-at-144-dpi.jpg
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313C for blue and 361C for green (source: [1], [2]). Drawn by User:Zscout370.
File:Flag_of_Venezuela.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ocial websites Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/law/vi/1951_to_1960/1955/195511/195511300001 http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/Lists/
Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=820 Original artist: Lu Ly v li theo ngun trn
File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.
svg License: Public domain Contributors:
-x-'s le
-x-'s code
Zirlands codes of colors
Original artist:
(of code): SVG version by cs:-x-.
File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_the_People{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_
People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/
design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: The design was taken from [1] and the colors were also taken from a Government website Original artist:
User:Achim1999
7.2. IMAGES
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