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MEIOSIS AND

CROSSING OVER

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8.11 Chromosomes are matched in homologous


pairs
 In humans, ___________________have
23 pairs of homologous chromosomes and
one member of each pair from each parent.

 The human _______________ X and Y differ in


size and genetic composition.
 The other 22 pairs of chromosomes are
____________ with the same size and genetic
composition.

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Karyotype- an ordered display of magnified images of an


individuals chromosomes arranged in pairs (starting with longest)

Centromere
Sister
chromatids
Pair of homologous
chromosomes

8.11 Chromosomes are matched in homologous


pairs
 ___________________________are matched in
length,
centromere position, and
gene locations.

 A _________ (plural, loci) is the position of a gene.


 Different versions of a gene may be found at the
same locus on maternal and paternal
chromosomes.
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Figure 8.11

Applying Your Knowledge


Pair of homologous
chromosomes
Locus

Humans have 46
chromosomes; how many
homologous pairs does
that represent?

Centromere
Sister
chromatids
One duplicated
chromosome

If there is one pair of sex


chromosomes, how many
pairs of autosomes are
found in humans?

8.12 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes


 Meiosis is a process that converts diploid nuclei to
haploid nuclei.
__________ cells (2n) have two homologous sets of
chromosomes.
__________ cells (n) have one set of chromosomes.
Meiosis occurs in the sex organs, producing
gametessperm and eggs.

 Fertilization is the union of sperm and egg.


 The zygote has a diploid chromosome number,
one set from each parent.
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Figure 8.12A

Haploid gametes (n = 23)

Figure 8.12A
The human
life cycle

n
Egg cell
n
Sperm cell

Meiosis

Ovary

Fertilization

Testis
Diploid
zygote
(2n = 46)

2n

Key
Multicellular diploid
adults (2n = 46)

Mitosis

Haploid stage (n)


Diploid stage (2n)

8.12 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes


 All sexual life cycles include an alternation
between
a diploid (2n) stage and a haploid (n) stage

 Producing haploid (n) gametes prevents the


chromosome number from doubling in every
generation.

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Figure 8.12B

MEIOSIS I

INTERPHASE

MEIOSIS II

Sister
chromatids
2

A pair of
homologous
chromosomes
in a diploid
parent cell

A pair of
duplicated
homologous
chromosomes

Figure 8.12B How meiosis halves chromosome number

8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number


from diploid to haploid
 ____________ is a type of cell division that
produces haploid gametes in diploid organisms.
 Two haploid gametes combine in fertilization to
restore the diploid state in the zygote.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number


from diploid to haploid
 Meiosis and mitosis are preceded by the duplication
of chromosomes. However,
meiosis is followed by two consecutive cell divisions
mitosis is followed by only one cell division

 In meiosis, one duplication of chromosomes is


followed by two divisions, producing _____ daughter
cells, each has a __________ set of chromosomes.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 8.13_left

MEIOSIS I: Homologous chromosomes separate

INTERPHASE:

Chromosomes duplicate
Centrosomes
(with centriole
pairs)

Prophase I

Metaphase I

Sites of crossing over

Spindle microtubules
attached to a kinetochore

Centrioles

Anaphase I
Sister chromatids
remain attached

Spindle

Tetrad
Nuclear
envelope

Chromatin

Sister
chromatids

Fragments
of the
nuclear
envelope

Centromere
(with a
kinetochore)

Metaphase
plate
Homologous
chromosomes
separate

Figure 8.13_right

MEIOSIS II: Sister chromatids separate


Telophase I and Cytokinesis

Prophase II

Metaphase II

Anaphase II

Telophase II
and Cytokinesis

Cleavage
furrow

Sister chromatids
separate

Haploid daughter
cells forming

Figure 8.13_1

MEIOSIS I

INTERPHASE:
Chromosomes duplicate
Centrosomes
(with centriole
pairs)

Prophase I
Sites of crossing over

Centrioles

Spindle

Tetrad
Nuclear
envelope

Chromatin

Sister
chromatids

Fragments
of the
nuclear
envelope

Figure 8.13_2

MEIOSIS I
Metaphase I
Spindle microtubules
attached to a kinetochore

Centromere
(with a
kinetochore)

Anaphase I
Sister chromatids
remain attached

Metaphase
plate
Homologous
chromosomes
separate

Figure 8.13_3

Telophase I and Cytokinesis

Cleavage
furrow

Figure 8.13_4

MEIOSIS II: Sister chromatids separate


Prophase II

Metaphase II

Anaphase II

Sister chromatids
separate

Telophase II
and Cytokinesis

Haploid daughter
cells forming

8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number


from diploid to haploid
 Meiosis I Prophase I

Chromosomes coil and become compact.


Homologous chromosomes come together as pairs by
____________.
Each pair, with four chromatids, is called a ________.
Nonsister chromatids exchange genetic material by
_______________.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number


from diploid to haploid
Applying Your Knowledge
Human cells have 46 chromosomes. At the end
of prophase I
How many chromosomes are present in
one cell?
How many chromatids are present in one
cell?
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8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number


from diploid to haploid
 Meiosis I Metaphase I
_________ align at the cell equator.

 Meiosis I Anaphase I
_________________ separate and move toward
opposite poles of the cell.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number


from diploid to haploid
Applying Your Knowledge
Human cells have 46 chromosomes. At the end of
Metaphase I
How many chromosomes are present in
one cell?
How many chromatids are present in one
cell?

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number


from diploid to haploid
 Meiosis I Telophase I
Duplicated chromosomes have reached the poles.
A nuclear envelope re-forms around chromosomes in
some species.
Each nucleus has the haploid number of
chromosomes.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number


from diploid to haploid
Applying Your Knowledge
After telophase I and cytokinesis
How many chromosomes are present in one
human cell?
How many chromatids are present in one human
cell?

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number


from diploid to haploid
 Meiosis II follows meiosis I without
chromosome duplication.
 Each of the two haploid products enters
meiosis II.
 Meiosis II Prophase II
Chromosomes coil and become compact (if
uncoiled after telophase I).
Nuclear envelope, if re-formed, breaks up again.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number


from diploid to haploid
 Meiosis II Metaphase II
Duplicated chromosomes align at the cell
equator.

 Meiosis II Anaphase II
Sister chromatids separate
chromosomes move toward opposite poles.
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8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number


from diploid to haploid
 Meiosis II Telophase II
Chromosomes have reached the
poles of the cell.
A nuclear envelope forms around
each set of chromosomes.
With cytokinesis, four haploid cells
are produced.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number


from diploid to haploid
Applying Your Knowledge
After telophase II and cytokinesis
How many chromosomes are present in one
human cell?
How many chromatids are present in one human
cell?

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

8.14 Mitosis and meiosis have important


similarities and differences
 Similarities:
begin with diploid parent cells that
have chromosomes duplicated during the previous
interphase.

 However the end products differ.


Mitosis produces 2 genetically identical diploid somatic
daughter cells.
Meiosis produces 4 genetically unique haploid
gametes.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 8.14
MEIOSIS I

MITOSIS
Parent cell
(before chromosome duplication)

Prophase

Duplicated
chromosome
(two sister
chromatids)

Chromosome
duplication

Site of
crossing
over

Prophase I

Tetrad formed
by synapsis of
homologous
chromosomes

Chromosome
duplication
2n = 4

Metaphase I

Metaphase
Chromosomes
align at the
metaphase plate

Tetrads (homologous
pairs) align at the
metaphase plate

Anaphase I
Telophase I

Anaphase
Telophase
Homologous
chromosomes
separate during
anaphase I;
sister
chromatids
remain together

Sister chromatids
separate during
anaphase

Daughter
cells of
meiosis I
MEIOSIS II

2n

2n
Daughter cells of mitosis

No further
chromosomal
duplication;
sister
chromatids
separate during
anaphase II

n
n
n
Daughter cells of meiosis II

Haploid
n=2

Figure 8.14_1

MEIOSIS I

MITOSIS
Prophase

Parent cell
(before chromosome duplication)

Chromosome
duplication

Prophase I
Site of
crossing
over

Chromosome
duplication
2n = 4

Metaphase

Tetrad
Metaphase I

Chromosomes
align at the
metaphase plate

Tetrads (homologous
pairs) align at the
metaphase plate

8.14 Mitosis and meiosis have important


similarities and differences
Which characteristics are similar for mitosis and
meiosis?
Ans: ______ (no. of) duplication of chromosomes
Which characteristics are unique to meiosis?
Ans:
_____ (no. of) divisions of chromosomes
P_________g of homologous chromosomes
Exchange of genetic material by ________
_______
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8.15 Independent orientation of chromosomes in


meiosis and random fertilization lead to
varied offspring
 Genetic variation in gametes results from
independent orientation at metaphase I
random fertilization
crossing over

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

8.15 Independent orientation of chromosomes in


meiosis and random fertilization lead to
varied offspring
 Independent assortment at metaphase I
Each pair of chromosomes independently aligns at the
cell equator.
There is an equal probability of the maternal or
paternal chromosome facing a given pole.
The number of combinations for chromosomes
packaged into gametes is 2n where n = haploid number
of chromosomes.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Animation: Genetic Variation


Right click on animation / Click play
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 8.15_s3

Possibility A

Possibility B
Two equally probable
arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I

Metaphase II

Gametes

Combination 1

Combination 2

Combination 3

Combination 4

Figure 8.15 Results of the independent orientation of


chromosomes at metaphase I

 Separation of homologous chromosomes can lead


to genetic differences between gametes.
Homologous chromosomes may have different versions
of a gene at the same locus.
One version was inherited from the maternal parent and
the other came from the paternal parent.
Since homologues move to opposite poles during
anaphase I, gametes will receive either the maternal or
paternal version of the gene.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 8.16

Coat-color
genes

Eye-color
genes

Brown
C

Black
E

Meiosis
c
White

e
Pink

Tetrad in parent cell


(homologous pair of
duplicated chromosomes)

Chromosomes of
the four gametes

Brown coat (C);


black eyes (E)

White coat (c);


pink eyes (e)

Figure 8.16 Differing genetic information (coat color and eye color)
on homologous chromosomes

8.15 Independent orientation of chromosomes in


meiosis and random fertilization lead to
varied offspring
 Random fertilization
The combination of each unique sperm with each
unique egg increases genetic variability.

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8.17 Crossing over further increases genetic


variability
 _____________________ is the production of
new combinations of genes due to crossing over.
 Crossing over is an exchange of corresponding
segments between nonsister chromatids on
homologous chromosomes.
Nonsister chromatids join at a ___________ (plural,
chiasmata), the site of attachment and crossing over.
Corresponding amounts of genetic material are
exchanged between maternal and paternal (nonsister)
chromatids.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Animation: Crossing Over


Right click on animation / Click play
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 8.16Q

Sister chromatids
Sister chromatids

Pair of homologous
chromosomes

Figure 8.16Q Diagram distinguishing homologous chromosomes


from sister chromatids

Figure 8.17A

Chiasma

Tetrad

Figure 8.17A Chiasmata, the sites of crossing over

Figure 8.17B

Figure 8.17B
How crossing
over leads to
genetic
recombination

e
1

Breakage of homologous chromatids

e
2

Tetrad
(pair of homologous
chromosomes in synapsis)

Joining of homologous chromatids


E

Chiasma
c

e
3

Separation of homologous
chromosomes at anaphase I

C
c

e
E

e
4

Separation of chromatids at
anaphase II and
completion of meiosis

Parental type of chromosome


Recombinant chromosome
Recombinant chromosome

Parental type of chromosome


Gametes of four genetic types

Coat-color
genes
C

Eye-color
genes
E

e
1

Breakage of homologous chromatids

e
2

Tetrad
(homologous pair of
chromosomes in synapsis)

Joining of homologous chromatids


E
Chiasma

E
Chiasma
e

c
3

Separation of homologous
chromosomes at anaphase I

Separation of chromatids at
anaphase II and
completion of meiosis

Parental type of chromosome


Recombinant chromosome
Recombinant chromosome
Parental type of chromosome

Gametes of four genetic types

8.19 CONNECTION: An extra copy of


chromosome 21 causes Down syndrome
 Trisomy 21
involves the inheritance of three copies of chromosome
21 and
is the most common human chromosome abnormality.

FYI
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 8.19A

 Trisomy 21, called Down


syndrome, produces a
characteristic set of symptoms,
which include:
mental retardation,
characteristic facial features,
short stature,
heart defects,
susceptibility to respiratory
infections, leukemia, and
Alzheimers disease, and
shortened life span.
FYI

Figure 8.19B

Infants with Down syndrome


(per 1,000 births)

90

 The incidence increases with the


age of the mother.

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
20

25

30
35
40
Age of mother

45

50

FYI

8.20 Accidents during meiosis can alter


chromosome number
 Nondisjunction is the failure of chromosomes or
chromatids to separate normally during meiosis.
This can happen during
 Fertilization after nondisjunction yields zygotes with
altered numbers of chromosomes.

FYI
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 8.20A_s3

MEIOSIS I

Nondisjunction

MEIOSIS II

Normal
meiosis II

Gametes
Number of
chromosomes

n+1

n+1

n1

Abnormal gametes

n1

FYI

Figure 8.20B_s3

MEIOSIS I

Normal
meiosis I

MEIOSIS II

Nondisjunction

n+1

n1

Abnormal gametes

Normal gametes

FYI

Table 8.21

FYI

Can you identify the mitotic phases?

Figure 8.UN03

Mitosis
Number of chromosomal
duplications
Number of cell divisions
Number of daughter cells
produced
Number of chromosomes in
the daughter cells
How the chromosomes line
up during metaphase
Genetic relationship of the
daughter cells to the parent cell
Functions performed in the
human body

Meiosis

You should now be able to


1. Compare the parent-offspring relationship in asexual and
sexual reproduction.
2. Describe the stages of the cell cycle.
3. List the phases of mitosis and describe the events
characteristic of each phase.
4. Compare cytokinesis in animal and plant cells.
5. Describe the functions of mitosis.
6. Explain how chromosomes are paired.
7. Distinguish between somatic cells and gametes and
between diploid cells and haploid cells.
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

You should now be able to


8. Explain why sexual reproduction requires meiosis.
9. List the phases of meiosis I and meiosis II and describe the
events characteristic of each phase.
10. Compare mitosis and meiosis noting similarities and
differences.
11. Explain how genetic variation is produced in sexually
reproducing organisms.
12. Define the following terms: chiasma*, chromosome,
chromatid, centromere, crossing over, homologous
chromosome pair, and spindle*
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

The END

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