Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
months. The new version will include new sections on celestial mechanics, a chapter on
bridging QGD properties and units with conventional measuring properties and units, and
further clarifications of key concepts. If you wish to be notified by email when it becomes
available, leave message at info@quantumgeometrydynamics.com
Introduction
To
Quantum-Geometry Dynamics
by
Daniel Burnstein
2010-2014
Space-Matter Interactions section revised November 20th 2014
Table of Contents
Hilberts 6th problem .................................................................................................. 6
Two Ways to do Science ............................................................................................. 8
Axiomatic Approach ........................................................................................................ 9
About the Source of Incompatibilities between Theories ............................................ 10
Quantum-Geometry Dynamics ..................................................................................... 11
Internal Consistency Necessary but Insufficient ........................................................... 12
Quantum-Geometrical Space ........................................................................................... 15
The nature of Space ...................................................................................................... 15
Theorem on the Emergence of Euclidian Space from Quantum-Geometrical Space
................................................................................................................................... 19
Propagation ................................................................................................................... 21
Interaction ..................................................................................................................... 21
Experimental verification .............................................................................................. 22
Principle of Conservation of Space and the Finite Universe ......................................... 23
Conservation of Preons(+) and their Intrinsic Properties of Mass and Energy .............. 23
Constancy of the Speed of Preons(+) ............................................................................. 24
Emerging Space and the Notion of Dimensions............................................................ 26
Exclusion Extra Dimensions ...................................................................................... 26
Conservation of Space ................................................................................................... 26
The fundamental particle of matter; the preon(+) ............................................................ 29
Recapitulation and Implications.................................................................................... 30
Mechanisms of Formation of Particles ......................................................................... 30
Neutrino Formation .................................................................................................. 31
Photon Formation ..................................................................................................... 32
Mechanism of Electron or Positron Formation ........................................................ 33
Matter and Anti-matter (or the quantum-geometrical dynamics of electrons and
positrons and the electromagnetic effect. ............................................................... 36
Cosmological Implications of Structure of Neutrinos and Photons .............................. 36
Dark Matter Effect .................................................................................................... 36
1
I wish merely to point out the lack of firm foundation for assigning any physical reality to the
conventional continuum concept. My own view is that ultimately physical laws should find their
most natural expression in terms of essentially combinatorial principles, that is to say, in terms of
finite processes such as counting or other basically simple manipulative procedures. Thus, in
accordance with such a view, should emerge some form of discrete or combinatorial space-time.
Roger Penrose, On the Nature of Quantum-Geometry
observations of physical phenomena. What is less evident is how to determine when the
propositions chosen by physicists to be the basis of a theory are really axioms.
While in mathematics one can arbitrarily chose any consistent set of axioms as a basis of
an axiomatic system, the axioms in a physics theory must represent fundamental
aspects of reality. This raises the essential question: What constitutes a fundamental
aspect of reality?
As we will see in this book, quantum-geometry dynamics proposes that reality obeys a
principle of strict causality. From the principle of strict causality, it follows that an aspect
of reality is fundamental if it is absolutely invariable. That is, regardless of interactions
or transformations it is subjected to, a fundamental aspect of reality remains
unaffected.
Now that we established what we mean by a fundamental aspect of reality, two
presuppositions need to be accepted in order to answer Hilberts 6 th problem. First, we
must assume that the Universe is made of fundamental objects having properties which
determine a consistent set of fundamental laws. Second, that it can be represented by a
complete and consistent axiomatic system. That is, the Universe has a finite set of
fundamental components which obey a finite set of fundamental laws. These two
presuppositions are essential for the construction of any true axiomatic system.
In addition to the two presuppositions, there is also the question of the minimum axiom
set necessary to form a complete and consistent axiomatic theory.
To determine that value, we need to remember that the number of constructs that can
be built from a finite set of fundamental objects is always greater than the number of
objects in the set.
If, for example, the number of objects in the fundamental set is equal to , and the
number of ways they can be assembled by applying laws of combination is equal to
then the number of objects that can be formed is equal to
l n! j
where is the maxim number of objects which can be combined. From this, we can see
that the closer we get to fundamental reality, the lower becomes, the simpler reality
becomes; with reality being at its simplest at the fundamental scale. What this implies is
that any axiomatic theory of reality will have less fundamental components than
constructs. It follows that a theory must allow for an exponentially greater number of
composite structures than it has elementary particles.
7
In plain language, reality at the fundamental scale is simpler, not more complex.
So what is the smallest possible set of axioms an axiomatic theory of fundamental
physics can have?
Before answering this question, quantum-geometry dynamics first asks: What does
everything in the Universe have in common? What does every single theory of physical
reality ever thought of have in common?
The answer: space and matter. Space and matter are aspects of reality shared by
everything, all phenomena, all events in the Universe. So any axiomatic theory of
physical reality must minimally account for space and matter. So, the smallest number
of axioms an axiomatic theory of physics can have is two; a space axiom and a matter
axiom. Quantum-geometry dynamics, the theory discussed in the book, is founded on
the following two axioms.
Space made of discrete particles, preons , and is dimensionalized by the repulsion
From an axiomatic standpoint, there are two only two ways to do science. The first aims
to extend, expand and deepen an existing theory; which is what the overwhelming
majority of theorists do. This approach assumes that the theory is fundamentally
correct, that is, the axiom set it is based is on are thought to correspond to fundamental
aspect of reality.
The second way of doing physics is to start with an entirely new axiom set and derives
from it a theory. Distinct axiom sets will lead to distinct theories which, even if they are
mutually exclusive may still describe and explain phenomena in ways that are consistent
with observations. There can be a multiplicity of such correct theories if the axioms are
made to correspond to observed aspects of reality that are not fundamental but
emerging. For instance, theories have been built where one axiom states that the
fundamental component of matter is the atom. Such theories, though it make describe
very well some phenomena at the molecular scale will fail in explaining of number of
phenomenon at smaller scales. In the strict sense, premises based on emergent aspect
of reality are not axioms in the physical sense. They can better be understood as
theorems. And as mathematical theorems in mathematics can explain the behavior of
mathematical objects belonging to a certain class but cannot be generalized to others,
8
physical theorems can explain the behavior of class of objects belong to a certain scale,
their explanations cannot be extended to others scales or even to objects of other
classes of objects in the same scale.
Axiom sets are not inherently wrong or right. By definition, since axioms are the starting
point, they cannot be reduced or broken down. Hence, as such, we cannot directly
prove whether they correspond to fundamental aspects of reality. However, if the
models that emerge from an axiom set explain and describe reality and, most
importantly, allows predictions that can be tested, then confirmation of the predictions
become evidence supporting the validity of the axiom set.
Axiomatic Approach
It can scarcely be denied that the supreme goal of all theory is to make the irreducible
basic elements as simple and as few as possible without having to surrender the
adequate representation of a single datum of experience.
Albert Einstein
The dominant approach in science (and a hugely successful one for that matter) is the
empirical approach. That is, the approach by which science accumulates data from
which it extracts relationships and assumptions that better our understanding of the
Universe.
The empirical approach is an essential part of what one which we might call
deconstructive. By that I mean that we take pieces or segments of reality from which,
through experiments and observations, we extract data from which we hope to deduce
the governing laws of the Universe. But though the deconstructive approach works well
with observable phenomena, it has so far failed to provide us with a consistent
understanding of fundamental reality.
Of course, when a theory is equationted that is in accord with a data set, it must be
tested against other data sets for which it makes predictions. And if the data disagrees
with predictions, the theory may be adjusted so as to make it consistent with the data.
Then the theory is tested against a new or expanded data set to see if it holds. If it
doesnt, the trial and error process may be repeated so the theory becomes applicable
to an increasingly wider domain of reality.
The amount of data accumulated from experiments and observations is astronomical,
but we have yet to find the key to decipher it and unlock the fundamental laws
governing the Universe.
9
Also, data is subject to countless interpretations and the number of mutually exclusive
models and theories increases as a function of the quantity of accumulated data.
result from the unification of the standard model and relativity, for instance, them being
based on mutually exclusive axiom sets. This is why one of the biggest concerns, when
working on QGD, was to abide to the initial axiomatic set rigorously so as to avoid
coercing the theory into agreeing with any other theory. In other words, I wanted to let
the theory develop in a manner consistent with its axiom set. So even though, for
example, Newtons law of universal gravity and = have been derived from QGD,
they naturally followed from its axiom set.
But what if fundamental reality is unobservable? Would science ultimately fail to
provide an axiomatic theory of the Universe, a theory of everything? Not necessarily
(see article On Measuring the Immeasurable).
We will show that fundamental reality is unobservable, but that does not imply that an
axiomatic theory is impossible. It may be possible to devise a complete and consistent
set of axioms to which interactions at all scales of reality can be reduced to. This means
that even if the fundamental scale of reality remains unobservable, an axiomatic theory
would make precise predictions at scales that are.
Quantum-Geometry Dynamics
Quantum-geometry dynamics, the theory discussed in this book, favours a constructive
approach instead of the deconstructive approach generally taken by science. What that
means is that quantum-geometry dynamics is a theory developed from a small set of
axioms.
If, as we assume, the axiom set of QGD is complete, then the theory derived from will
hold true for all physical phenomenon and all scales of reality from the fundamental to
the cosmological.
11
A number of now prevalent theories do not fulfill the above requirements. The Standard
Model, for one, describes the behavior of subatomic particles but fails to provide
explanations and makes probabilistic predictions which, it can be argued arent really
any more predictions than predicting the probability that an ace may be pulled out at
random from a deck of cards.
General Relativity, on the other hand, does better in that it describes gravity and makes
deterministic predictions, but it does not explain the cause of gravity.
Some theories are what we call effective theories. These theories describe physical
phenomena without providing any mechanisms by which they occur. Some of the
dominant theories are effective theories. The standard model of particle physics, for
instance is such a theory. But though it can make probabilistic predictions, it does not
explain the reasons why particles behave the way they do. Because it doesnt provide
any mechanisms from which to make the predictions, it cannot be deterministic and
must instead be probabilistic. According to those theories physical phenomena happen
because it has been observed that under certain conditions, there is a probability that
they will. This is not an explanation. So the standard model of particle physics, since it
doesnt explain, is an effective theory; which is another way of saying that the theory is
incomplete.
A physics theory is required to describe, explain and predict. Nothing less, nothing more.
The politics surrounding the physics industry (see Lee Smolins The Trouble with
Physics) and other sociological factors will determine whether a theory will be accepted
or rejected, or come into favour, even rise to become dominant only to fall out of favour
when new experimental results come up. I will try here to stir away from the politics of
physics and write about what makes a theory scientifically successful (as opposed to
sociologically successful).
12
A physics theory must describe a certain class of phenomena, explain them satisfactorily
and make predictions which can be experimentally or observationally confirmed.
I received an email a few years ago from a German physicist who was quite disturbed by
the fact that, as he puts it, quantum-geometry dynamics goes against much of the
dominant theories of physics. Not only does it not fit with dominant theories, it
approaches the problem of developing a fundamental theory of reality axiomatically
rather than empirically.
He was right of course. QGD does question a number of notions and concepts which we
have come to accept (often unconsciously) as absolute truths. For example, all dominant
theories are based on the axiom of continuity of space.
QGD is founded on the axiom of discreteness of space. Not only does QGD consider
space to be discrete, it proposes that space be the result of the interactions between
preons ; one of only two types fundamental particles the theory admits. Thus space is
dimensionalized by preons .
are, according to the QGD model, composite particles. Even photons, are shown to be
composite particles made of preons . Thus QGD is in opposition with the standard
model.
Finally, since a direct implication of space being quantum-geometrical is that the
Universe evolved from an isotropic state rather than a singularity, it is also doesnt sit
well with the Big Bang theory.
Given the examples above, I must concede that QGD disagrees with the dominant
theories in physics. That said, agreeing with any theory, however successful it may be, is
not a requirement. A theory must describe, explain and predict. In other words, a theory
is only required to agree with reality. That said, the only entity that needs to be
13
convinced of the validity of a theory is Nature herself. Regrettably, many feel that not
only doesnt she need to be convinced, she doesnt even have a say in the matter.
When working on QGD, one of my biggest concern was to follow the initial axiomatic set
rigorously so as to avoid coercing the theory into agreeing with any other theory. In
other words, I wanted to let the theory develop in a manner consistent with its axiom
set. Also as important as avoiding coercing the QGD to agree with another theory, it was
essential to avoid contriving it to agree with experimental and observational data (which
is another mistake science makes), but instead only compare explanations and
predictions which have first been rigorously derived from the axiom set.
All a theory of physics is required to do is describe, explain and predict the behaviour of
physical systems. So the only question that matters when it comes to quantumgeometry dynamics is: Does it agree with reality?
QGD, which follows from the axiom of discreteness of space, forces us to rethink some
assumptions we have come to make about physical reality; even basic notions such as
that of mass, energy, momentum come into question. Choosing the axiom of
discreteness of space instead of that of continuity of space has profound consequences
for all of physics. Virtually all physics theory assume that space is continuous, so its not
surprising that a physics theory based on discreteness of space provides descriptions of
physical systems that are radically different from continuum based theories.
Letting go of foundational concepts is difficult, especially for professional physicists. This
is understandable and even more difficult when these foundational concepts are the
basis of successful theories reinforced by decades of study, research and models which
are often supported by experimental data.
It is also understandable that physicists will evaluate new ideas from within the
framework of the theories they use to make sense of reality. Yet, as I insisted earlier, a
new theory doesnt need the validation of other even well established and tested
theories any more than nature requires science to exist.
No theory can be validated from within the framework of another theory when they are
based on mutually exclusive axiom sets. Theories issued from mutually exclusive axiom
sets are mathematically bound to disagree. So my advice to all readers is to study QGD
for itself and outside the framework of any other theory and to check it for internal
consistency and most importantly for consistency with physical reality. Thus the validity
of a theory can only be determined by observation and experimentation.
14
Quantum-Geometrical Space
Let me say at the outset that I am not happy with this state of affairs in physical theory.
The mathematical continuum has always seemed to me to contain many features which
are really very foreign to physics. [] If one is to accept the physical reality of the
continuum, then one must accept that there are as many points in a volume of diameter
1013 cm or 1033 cm or 101000 cm as there are in the entire universe. Indeed, one must
accept the existence of more points than there are rational numbers between any two
points in space no matter how close together they may be. (And we have seen that
quantum theory cannot really eliminate this problem, since it brings in its own complex
continuum.)
Roger Penrose, One the Nature of Quantum-Geometry
symbol p( ) , and the force between any two preons is the fundamental unit of n-
15
It is important here to remind the reader that what exists between two preons is the
n-gravity field. There is no space in the geometrical sense between them. The force of
the field between any two preons , anywhere in the Universe, is equal to g .
represent preons which are all at one unit of distance from it. As we can see, distance
different from the measure of the distance using Euclidian space; the distance between
16
two points or preons being equal to the number of leaps a preon would need to
through space, they are space. Since preons are fundamental and since QGD is
founded on the principle of strict causality, then the n-gravity field between preons
has always existed and as such may be understood as instantaneous. N-gravity (or pgravity for that matter) does no propagate. It just exists.
The following figure shows another examples of how the distance between to preons
is calculated. So although the Euclidian distance between the green preon and any
one of the blue preons are nearly equal, the quantum-geometrical distances between
17
Also interesting the above figure is that if a is the orange side, b the red side and c the
blue side (what would in Euclidian geometry be the hypotenuse, then a c b . That is,
the shortest distance between two preons is not necessarily the straight line.
But we evidently live on a scale where Pythagorass theorem holds, so how does
Euclidian geometry emerge from quantum-geometrical space. The figure below shows
the preons through which two objects of similar size go through but in different
directions.
18
Here, if we consider that the area in the blue rectangles is made of all the preons
through which the object goes through, we see that as we move to larger scales, the
number preons contained in the green rectangle approaches the number of
a b .
d
between them, and given that the average distance d is equal to
i 1
, then as n
distance, but that below that scale, the closer we move towards the fundamental scale,
the greater the discrepancies between Euclidian and quantum-geometrical
measurements of distance.
In the figure above, if n1 , n2 and n3 are respectively the number of parallel trajectories
n1
di
1
n1
n2
,b
d
1
n2
and
n3
d
1
n3
sides of any two of the three squares above, Pythagorass theorem can be used to
calculate an approximation of a the length of the side of the third. Also, the greater the
values of n1 , n2 and n3 the closer the approximation will be to the actual unknown
length. That is lim a 2 b 2 c 2 .
n1
n2
n2
20
Propagation
Simply put, propagation implies motion; the displacement of matter ( preons ) through
space. That is, a preon must move by a succession of single leaps between adjacent
preons along its trajectory. So the preonic leap, or leap, must be the smallest unit of
motion. The speed at which this leap occurs will be shown to be equal to the speed of
light (we will see later that QGDs definition of speed differs fundamentally from its
classical definition).
Note that from the description of gravitational interaction which we will introduce later
we can deduce the following.
Theorem of Adjacency
We will discuss this further in the present and following chapters, but for now, lets just
remember that, according to quantum-geometry dynamics, the constancy of the speed
of light is a consequence of the structure of space.
Interaction
Interactions, gravity for example, do not require the displacement of matter. So unlike
propagations, interactions are not mediated by quantum-geometric space ( preons ).
and, as we will see later, so must be gravity; the resultant effects of n-gravity and pgravity.
That interactions are instantaneous also implies that fluctuations in the interactions are
also instantaneous.
Thus, the gravitational interaction between two objects changes instantaneously as a
function of mass and distance. The changes in mass themselves are not instantaneous
21
Experimental verification
For QGD to be a valid theory, the instantaneity of gravity must be experimentally
verifiable. A simple experiment:
QGD proposes that all objects in the Universe are gravitationally interacting with only
the magnitude in the interactions varying in accordance to the gravitational interaction
equation (this will be introduced in the chapter titled Forces, Effects and Motion).
Changes in the mass of two objects or changes in distance will instantly affect the
magnitude of the gravitational interaction between them. Instantaneity implies that
there is no propagation and that gravity has no speed. In other words, gravitational
interactions simply exist. Since gravity has no speed, QGD predicts that any experiment
designed to measure the speed of propagation of gravity is bound to fail.
But though we cant measure instantaneity, we can design an experiment which takes
advantage of the fact that we can measure variations in the gravitational interaction to
prove instantaneity.
The experiment would require two spheres, a and b , in space, having large enough
mass for the gravitational interaction between them to be measurable.
Sphere a would contain a powerful explosive, a detonator and an accelerometer.
Sphere b would carry an accelerometer calibrated to match that of the sphere a and a
data recording device. The experiment would measure the acceleration of the spheres
towards each other in accordance to QGDs law of gravity. The detonator, linked to the
accelerometer of sphere a would be set so that when it reaches a speed va (which
speed can be used to calculate the gravity and distance between the spheres), it would
detonate the explosive. Note that the structure of sphere a would need to allow for a
non-symmetrical scattering of its fragments. There are two possible outcomes to this
experiment:
If the gravitational interaction is instantaneous, then the rate of acceleration of the
second sphere would change instantaneously when it reaches the exact speed at which
22
the detonation of first sphere a occurs. So if va is the speed at which the detonation of
sphere a is set to explode and vb is the speed it reached when the rate of acceleration of
b changes, then vb va 0 .
But if, contrary to QGDs prediction, gravity did propagate, then we would find that
vb va 0 .
preons must obey the law of conservation by which nothing fundamental can be
destroyed or created. This implies that there must be a finite number of preons . And
if there is a finite number of preons then the Universe must also be finite (though
constant, then the size Universe is invariable. It also means, as we will show later, that
we live, not in an expanding Universe, but in a locally condensing Universe (see chapter
on QGD Cosmology). We will show that a locally condensing universe is indistinguishable
from an expanding universe.
According to QGD, preons form particles, which form massive structures which
evolve into galaxies and galaxy clusters which progressively collapse toward their center
of gravity, increasing the distance between the peripheries of galaxies and giving the
impression that the Universe is expanding.
This leads to a prediction that though the distance separating the edges of galaxies
increase, the distances between the centers of galaxies remain constant; a prediction
that will be shown to be consistent with observations.
preons
trajectories a region will have. Since preons are kinetic particles, there
must be less preons in quantum-geometric region than the number of preons that
generate it.
This prediction is evidently in contradiction with the Big Bang theorys prediction that
the Universe evolved from a singularity. That said, QGD avoids the problems of infinities
associated with the Big Bang Theory.
In fact, according to QGD Cosmology, the universe didnt start from a singularity as the
Big Bang Theory proposes, but from an isotropic state in which preons were evenly
chapter, formed increasingly massive and complex structures that ultimately led to the
universe we now live in.
The QGD Cosmologys model of the evolution of the universe explains the isotropy of
the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR). The QGD mechanisms by which
structures are formed is not only consistent with the CMBR, it produces it. The CMBR
corresponds to the phase in the evolution of the Universe that follows its initial isotropic
phase.
constant.
The fundamental unit of motion is the preon leap. There is no smaller unit of distance
than the distance between two preons . It follows that there is no faster motion than
the preon leap and no distance shorter. The fastest possible speed is thus the speed of
preons , which we will show is also the speed of photons. Photons are formed
Hence, the speed of photons (the speed of light) is equal to the speed of preons .
So when a beam of light leaves an object, the photons that compose it travel away from
it at the fundamental speed of preons . This speed is imposed by the structure and as
such is independent of the speed or direction of the source; hence the constancy of the
speed of light is solely attributable to the discrete structure of space.
24
Since, according to QGD, the constancy of the speed of light is a consequence of the
quantum-geometric structure of space itself and the limit it imposes on propagation,
then it follows that the relativistic concept of time dilation, which explains the constancy
in continuous space becomes unnecessary.
As we mentioned earlier, Special Relativity is founded on two stated axioms and an
implied third axiom. The third axiom, which is implicit of most current theories, is that
space is continuous. If space is continuous, then time dilation is the inevitable
consequence of the constancy of the speed of light. The axiom of continuity of space is
necessary if the theory is to hold because without it, if space is quantum-geometrical,
not only is the mechanism of time dilation unnecessary but, as explained in the chapter
on titled A Brief Discussion on the Concept of Time, time is non-physical, so the
merging of it with space, which is physical, is inconsistent.
The above conclusion may appear to contradict the observed difference between the
decay rates of fast muons produced by cosmic rays and slow muons observed in
laboratory (a difference attributed to the relativistic time dilation). But the difference in
decay rate is well explained by 1. QGDs strict causality principle, 2. the mechanisms of
particle decay which explain that that particle decay is not a spontaneous phenomenon
but the results from internal interactions between components particles and 3. The
quantum-geometrical slowing down of internal mechanisms as a function of speed (note
that the slowing down of internal mechanisms is not the same as slowing down of time).
Getting back to the constancy of the speed of light, we will show that all massive
structures are made of preons ) and that before they are emitted, usually in the form
of photons, they moved within the structure they were bound within at the speed of
light, but in closed paths. The emission of photons, we will see, results from events that
cause changes the trajectories of bound photons, but does affect their speed. So the
speed of the emitted photon is the same as that of the bounded preons that
compose it.
We will discuss events in detail in a chapter dedicated to subject but for now we simply
define an event as an action that results in changes in direction and structure.
25
dimensions (the mutually orthogonal directions from any point in physical space) are similar,
motion in all along all existing dimensions must be possible and observable. Hence, if space is
quantum-geometrical as defined by QGD, there cant be any hidden or otherwise inaccessible
dimensions.
Let us assume for a moment that space consists of more than three dimensions. If space has
3 n dimensions then, since all emergent dimensions must be physically similar, it should be
possible to draw sets of 3 n mutually orthogonal lines through any point in physical space (
preon ). And, we should be able to move along any of the 3 n physical dimensions. But,
observation and experiments confirm that we cant create sets consisting of more than three
mutually orthogonal lines so it follows that n 0 , and space has only three dimensions.
So, because all physical dimensions within our physical reality must be equally visible and
since there can be only three visible dimensions, quantum-geometrical space, hence the
Universe, must be tridimensional.
That said, extra dimensions are not entirely excluded (we certainly possess the mathematical
models to describe them), but should they exist, their existence cannot be inferred from any
interactions within the physical geometry of our universe. Hence, it does not matter whether
extra dimensions exist. Their existence, if space is quantum-geometrical, is irrelevant to the
physics of our reality.
Of course, string theory proposes strong arguments to the contrary and I encourage readers to
review them as well.
Conservation of Space
That quantum-geometrical space is not infinitesimal also implies that geometric figures
are not continuous either. For example, a circle in quantum-geometric space is a regular
convex polygon whose form approaches that of the Euclidian circle as the number of
preons defining its vertex increases. That is, the greater the diameter of the polygon,
the more its shape approaches that of the Euclidean circle (a similar reasoning applies
for spheres).
26
vertex.
Since both the circumference of a polygon and its diameter have integer values, the
ratio of the first over the second is a rational number. That is, if we define as the ratio
of the circumference of a circle over its diameter, then is a rational function of the
circumference and diameter of a regular polygon.
This implies that in quantum-geometric space the calculation of the circumference or
area of a circle or the surface or volume of the sphere can only be approximated by the
usual equations of Euclidian geometry.
The surface of a circle would be equal to the number of preons within the region
a n / 2a
lim a
a
where n is the number of sides of the polygon and is a very large number of the
order of the quantum-geometrical diameter of a circle at our scale (QGD doesnt allow
infinities).
So within quantum-geometrical space, the geometrical is a rational number that
corresponds to the ratio of two extremely large integers. In fact, the size of the
numerator and denominator are such that the decimal periodicity of their ratio is too
large for any present or future computers to express.
27
28
gravity or g . But while n-gravity is a repulsive force acting between preons to form
As we will show in the section about the formation of particles, p-gravity is the force
which bounds preons into particles and higher structures which mass QGD defines as
In addition to carrying the fundamental force of p-gravity, preons are strictly kinetic
that is, it never changes. The fundamental speed of the preon can be deduced from
its momentum using QGDs definition of speed and shown to be equal to the speed of
light. This will be discussed in detail in the following chapters.
We recall that the preon moves by leap from preon to preon and so transitorily
must pair with a preon . And since preons and preons are fundamental, that is,
they and their intrinsic properties are conserved, the preon / preon pair must carry
29
their numbers must be constant and so must be the number of all n-gravity interactions
and p-gravity interactions in the Universe are constant and equal. But since there must
be more preons than preons (otherwise the preons couldnt be kinetic and the
+ =
where k is a proportionality constant relating the magnitudes of the fundamental unit pgravity to the fundamental unit n-gravity. This constant, which can be referred to as
QGDs gravitational constant. The constants k and c are the only constants of
quantum-geometry dynamics; both of which are natural.
The gravitational constant k is used in the QGD equation for gravitational interaction
which will be introduced in the chapter Forces, Effect and Motion.
it contains.
It is strictly kinetic and its speed is constant and equal to c ; the speed of light,
It carries the fundamental attractive force of n-gravity
all particles which current theories consider to be elementary must be composite. These include
neutrinos, photons, electrons, positrons and even photons, which, since mass is defined as the
number of preons
an object contains, must also have mass. The famous observation of the
bending of starlight in proximity of the sun is explained in QGD by the gravitational interaction
between the sun and the photons composing starlight.
The formation of particles follows the laws of motion which will be appropriately introduced
after the forces and effects have been explained.
We will now explain here the mechanism at work in the formation of the simplest neutrino,
photon and the electron or positron.
30
Neutrino Formation
The above figure shows the different states leading to the formation of a neutrino. Here we
have two preons
moving on collision course. From the position where they are close enough
for the gravitational interaction to be binding, their trajectories will gradually align until they
move as one particle along one trajectory. This dynamic structure, consisting of two preons
is the simplest neutrino possible, but neutrinos can be formed that have much greater number
of preons
31
Photon Formation
The figure above shows the formation of a particle from two coplanar preons
represented in
blue and red. The blue and red dots represents transitional positions of two preons
as they
come in close enough for the gravitational interaction between them, G a; b , to become
binding. The red and blue arrows represent their momentum vectors of the red and blue
preons . As per the definition of QGD, only the directions of momentum vectors of the two
preons changes while their magnitude, the fundamental constant c , remains unchanged.
no component of the momentum vectors along the axis connecting the preons
, the
gravitational interaction will pull them closer until they reach a distance of exactly one leap(
d 1 ). This raises one the question: What prevents the two preons from occupying the
same preon
32
by which a preon
. So a leap to a preon
in
is already occupied by
One of preon
of a
. More massive photons will have any number of such bounded pairs.
Preons on intersecting trajectories that are not coplanar will become bounded as shown in
33
components along the axis of direction the gravitational interaction vector. This non-zero
component will keep the component preons
where Pa a; b is the magnitude of the projection of the momentum vector of a vectors on the
axis connecting a and b (see figure below).
become bound in such a way that they behave as one particle. But even as they are
bound into particles and structures, preons continue to move at the same
fundamental speed c .
From the above, the motion of a preon
Pp Pp G pi ; p j
i
j 1
ma
and where G pi ; p j
j 1
where p is the
... G p ; p G p ; p ... G p ; p .
i 1
i 1
ma
34
G p
ma
; p j
j 1
is perhaps hundreds of
that connects a and b , which opposes the gravitational interaction. So, since ma mb 1 , for
d2 d
k 1 , it implies that c
2
k 1.
The reader will recall that k where g is the magnitude of the p-gravity interaction acting
g
between two preons
preons .
Also, as we will see in the chapter titled Forces, Effects and Motion, the momentum of an
electron is the magnitude of the sum of the momentum vectors of its component preons
or
c
i 1
electron, me is the mass of the electron and ci is the momentum vector of its i th preon .
m
c
i 1
always smaller than its energy, unless it is accelerated to c ; in which case, since the preons
m
c
i 1
ci and
i 1
Ee Pe . Thus, an electron or position accelerated to c will have the same structure as the
photon and since it is the helical motion of their component preons
35
If G a; b G a; b G a; b G a; b
there is only one kind of matter, preonic matter, then the notion that the electron and the
positron are respectively made from matter and antimatter must be wrong.
Such phenomenon as the electron-positron annihilation, which results in the emission of
photons, will be fully described and explained as the result of an interaction between the
electron and positron resulting in a changes in the way their component preons
are bound.
In the process of annihilation, mass and energy is conserved, but not momentum. The absolute
sum of the momentums of the resulting photons being larger than the sum of the momentums
of annihilating electron and positron. That is:
n
i 1
me me mi and Ee Ee mi c but Pe Pe Pi .
effect. A consequence of the structure of neutrinos described above is that though the dark
matter effect is mainly due to free preons
36
also contribute to the dark matter effect. The gravitational interaction between the dark
matter of a region R and an object a is given by
G RD ; a m p mCNB mCMBR
d2 d
where m p , mCNB and mCMBR are
ma k
2
between the centers of gravity of the region R and the object a . At the current phase of the
evolution of the Universe, the mass of free preons
matter effect, but that will change as more massive structures are formed.
Note that established physics theories consider photons to be massless and neutrinos to have a
negligible mass so that they are not taken into consideration when calculating gravitational
interactions at the cosmic scale. Also, since their model of matter does not explain the dark
matter effect, established theories assign it to some exotic matter. QGDs explanation does not
require exotic matter.
The dark matter effect is further discussed here.
The Preonic Field
Free preons
exist throughout quantum-geometrical space for the preonic field, and though
they interact weakly, over large enough regions and close enough distance, they collectively
interact significantly with matter.
One important interaction is that between so-called charged particles and the preonic field. The
free preons
and doing so, somewhat polarize the preonic field. The preons
absorbed and reemitted by the charge particle. When absorbed, the preons
moment to the charged particle creating the effect who know as the electromagnetic effect. We
will discuss the electromagnetic effect in the chapter titled Forces, Effects and Motion.
37
A first order representation is one that has a direct correspondence to physical reality. The
measurement of displacement of an object a is a first order representation. The ratio of the
displacement of an object over the displacement of another is a second order representation.
38
Clocks
The fact is: clocks do not measure time. They never have. Clocks are counting devices. What
they count is the recurrences of a particular physical state of its inner mechanism, which itself is
causally related to all preceding and successive states. This means that there are identifiable
physical mechanisms that causally link a clock's different states. Unlike spatial measuring
devices, which relate to the physical aspect of reality we call space, there is no relation
whatsoever between clocks and a physical aspects of reality. Clock count the ticks of the clock,
nothing else.
Definition of an event:
Quantum-geometry dynamics defines an event as the interaction of two particles
which have come close enough to locally interact in a way that changes their structure
and direction.
An example of an event is the formation of an electron from two photons. Such an
event is characterized by two photons (the particles), the regions where the interaction
takes place (the preons which along the photons paths which intersect at a QGD
distance of), the formation of an electron (change in structure) and change in direction.
39
charged preons anywhere in the Universe is the same regardless of the quantum
existence of no other physical entities. The same is true of their associated force.
Now, according to QGD, the force acting between two preons is one of negative
metric distance. Metric distance is a purely mathematical concept. Since metric distance
has no physical reality, it has no influence on reality.
This means that any change in the structure of an object (which as we have seen are due
to systems of events) instantly changes the gravitational interactions between this
object and all other objects in the Universe.
Definition of Simultaneity
Two distinct events affecting two distinct objects are simultaneous if the objects interact
gravitationally as the events occur.
In other words, the events coexist. This definition of simultaneity makes use of the
nature of gravitational interactions, which, as we recall are instantaneous. This
definition of simultaneity, which requires that gravity be instantaneous, is independent
of the distance between the objects and is consequently observer independent.
The inclusion of an observer in the definition we get:
40
Three distinct events, affecting three distinct objects, one of which being an observer, if
the objects interact gravitationally as the events occur.
Precedence
Considering two events affecting one object, one event succeeds the other if the state
the object is in when experiencing the event is causally dependant on the state the
object is in when experiencing the other.
Also, considering two events E and E respectively affecting two distinct objects a and
a
41
Preons , the reader will recall, are particles which dimensionalize space and preons
42
gravity) but at non fundamental scales, they are in near equilibrium and very little force
is needed to break balance between p-gravity and n-gravity.
But at the fundamental level, where matter is a lot denser, p-gravity is not balanced by
n-gravity. As a result, the gravity effect is orders of magnitude greater than that
between objects at the non-fundamental scale.
This is the reason why it takes proportionally little force to escape the gravity of the
Earth compared to the energy needed pull an atomic nucleus apart.
We already established that the force acting between any two preons is the
fundamental unit of p-gravity, g , but the gravitational interaction between them must
also take into account the interactions between the preons between them.
For two preons , a and b , moving in the same direction on parallel trajectories at a
distance equal to d , the gravitational interaction between them, gravity, is given by:
d2 d
G a; b k
2
where the quantum-geometric distance d is equal to the number of preons on the
d2 d
and
is the count of all n-gravity interactions
2
between a and b .
The magnitude of the p-gravity interaction between the two preons expressed in n
Also, participating in the interaction, are the preons along the line connecting
preons a and b which interact with the preon s and with each other. The
magnitude of the n-gravity interactions between two preons is the number of such
interactions or
d2 d
n-gravity interactions.
2
43
So the gravitational interaction between two preons is the resultant of the n-gravity
and the p-gravity between them. To express this using single integer units, one has
simply to count the number of p-gravity interactions and the number of n-gravity
interactions, convert the p-gravity value in the equivalent n-gravity value using the
relation g kg , then add the results.
In our example, if k (d 2 d ) / 2 then the net gravitational interaction or gravity is null
and the preons will have no effect on their respective trajectories.
affected and they will move toward each other in accordance to the QGD law of motion
described later in this chapter.
Finally, if k (d 2 d ) / 2 , then the preons will move away from one another at a rate
mb
ma
G a; b ma mbk
i 1
j 1
d i2, j d i , j
2
equation describes gravity at all scales. But larger scales we find that
mb
ma
i 1
j 1
d i2, j d i , j
2
d2 d
ma mb
, where d is the distance between the centers of gravity of
2
ma mb d 2 d
2
d2 d
) though it is
This last equation can be written simply as G a; b ma mb (k
2
important when using this form to remember the combinatorial origin of the equation.
The gravitational effect equation G a; b ma mb (k
axioms of QGD bares some comparison to F
d2 d
) , which is derived from the
2
GM 1M 2
, Newtons Law of Universal
d2
44
Gravitation. Both describe the magnitude of gravity between two bodies as being
proportional to the product of their masses. There are also some important differences.
The first is that Newtonian gravity is a fundamental force whence the QGD equation
implies that gravity is the resultant effect of the two fundamental forces; p-gravity
which is a fundamental attractive force carried by preons and n-gravity, the
The second is that the Newtonian gravity implies that space is continuous and that it is a
passive medium while, according to QGD, space is discrete (quantum-geometrical) and
is generated by the n-gravity field of preons . Therefore preons dynamically
d2 d
or a negative
2
d2 d
d2 d
, that is , where p2
mb
ma
G a; b ma mbk
d i2, j d i , j
2
i 1
j 1
scales and particularly when describing the motions of particles and applying it to
mb
ma
i 1
j 1
G a; b ma mb (k
d i2, j d i , j
2
ma mb
d2 d
, the form
2
d2 d
) is a close approximation and should be used.
2
Preons possess two intrinsic properties. The first is that they are strictly kinetic.
Preons are always in motion. Their speed is fundamental and equal to c . The speed
of preons is constant whether they are free or bound within a composite particle or
preon . The preonic leap is fundamental unit of distance. Since there is no smaller
distance than the preonic leap, there is no faster motion than that of a preon .
The second intrinsic property of preons is that they interact with each other through
p-gravity, which is an attractive force acting between them. The p-gravity interaction
between two preons is the fundamental unit of p-gravity or g .
46
Mass
Quantum-geometry dynamics considers mass to be an intrinsic property of matter. It
follows that since preons are the fundamental particle of matter, their mass must be
the fundamental unit of mass. It follows that the mass of an object should be
understood as being equal to the number of preons it contains. So when we write
/2 preons
to r which has achieved maximum density, then its maximum mass would be equal to
2 r 3
3
preons . As for all measure of distance in QGD, the value of r is given in preons(=). The
maximum mass given here is an upper boundary based on the maximum theoretical density.
The actual mass of a black hole should be lower by orders of magnitude.
See the section Black Holes and Black Hole Physics for a detailed discussion about black holes.
Energy
Energy is an intrinsic property of preon . The fundamental unit of energy corresponds
ma
From the above, we can define the total energy of an object as Ea ci ma c where
i 1
QGD defines the speed of a body as the ratio of its momentum to its mass or
va
1
ma
ma
c
i 1
numerically equivalent to its speed, momentum and speed are two distinct properties.
They are numerically equivalent in special cases, but physically distinct.
47
preons that compose it. In mathematical terms the relationship between energy and
the QGD equation expresses a proportionality relation between mass and energy, not
an equivalence relation. So according to the QGD model, mass can never be converted
to energy, nor energy be converted to mass. Mass and energy are two distinct
properties of matter.
At first glance this may appear to contradict observations. For instance, nuclear
reactions result in a certain amount of mass being transformed into energy. What the
QGD model suggests is that during a nuclear reaction, mass is not transformed into
energy, but rather, bound particles become free from the structures they were bound to
and carry with them their momentum. There is no conversion of mass into energy, but
only the release of particles having momentum. We will see in the next section how
kinetic energy is the only kind of energy that exists.
Momentum
That mass and energy are intrinsic properties of preons implies that unless a
composite particle or massive structure loses or acquires preons , its mass and energy
remains constant regardless of its speed. This is in disagreement with dominant physics
theories which define the energy of an object has the sum of its intrinsic energy, also
known as its energy at rest, and its kinetic energy or momentum; a relation that is
expressed by the equation E mc2 mv where mc 2 is the energy of the body at rest, c
the speed of light, and mv ,the product of the its mass by its speed v ,its kinetic energy
or momentum.
48
The accepted definition of the energy of a body is logically correct. The reasoning
behind it is simple. In order to accelerate an object, one needs to impart energy to it.
Thus it makes perfect sense that the accelerated object carries this added energy, which
we call kinetic energy, with it. So the assumption that the total energy of body must be
equal to the energy it had prior to acceleration plus the kinetic energy that is imparted
to it is perfectly logical. However, we will show here that using the axioms of QGD we
arrive at different descriptions and explanations which, though in disagreement with
dominant physics theories, are consistent with observations.
According to QGD, there is only one kind of energy known as kinetic energy or
momentum.
As explained earlier, the momentum of a preon is constant, hence its speed is
constant and equal to c . It follows that the total energy of a particle or massive
structure must be equal to the sum energy of its constituents. This is described by the
equation Ea ma c .
From this point we will use vectors to represent momentum and direction. We will, for
example, associate the vector c to the momentum of a preon so that c c . The
energy of a preon is thus the magnitude of its momentum vector. This distinction
Ea ci ma c and Pa
i 1
ma
c
i 1
.
To illustrate this, let's consider the simple
particle made of two bound preons as
into account the bounding force G p1 ; p2 . This magnitude of this vector is equal to
c.
In this example, the interaction between the preons are strong enough to deviate
them from what would be their free trajectories, which would coincide with their
momentum vector.
If the composite particle in our example is not subjected to any other force, then
ma
ma
c
i 1
p1
ma
i 1
v . Since max
ma
i 1
ma
particle or structure is achieved when the momentum of a particle is equal to its energy
or Pa Ea . This is evidently the case for photons, but that shouldnt be confused with
current idea that light is pure energy. The energy of a photon is still that of its
component preons . The same applies to any structure when the trajectories of all its
component preons are parallel and oriented in the same direction. In such special
ma
Pa ma c
50
and momentum are always equal include photons and neutrinos but theoretically any
structure regardless of its mass can achieve c if it is submitted to a strong enough force.
is fundamental and
ma
c
i 1
c
i 1
ma
. From these equations, it follows that the maximum possible speed of an object a corresponds
to the state at which all of its component preons
have
ma
ma
i 1
i 1
ci ci ma c and va
ma c
c . Note here that
ma
ma
c
i 1
corresponds to the
energy of a so the maximum speed of an object can also be defined at the state at which its
momentum is equal to its energy.
From the above we see that the speed of an object must be between 0 and c while all its
component preons
Now whatever speed a clock may travel, the speed of its component preons is always equal
to c . And since a clocks inner mechanisms which produces changes in states depend
fundamentally on the interactions and motion of its component preons , the rate at which
any mechanism causing a given periodic state must be limited by the lowest inner motion which
is transversal speed of its component preons
Simple vector calculus shows that the transversal speed of bound preons
is given by
c 2 va2 where va is the speed at which a clock a travels. It follows that the number of
recurrence of a state, denoted t for ticks of a clock, produced over a given reference distance
d ref is proportional to the transversal speed of component preons , that is
51
t
d ref
c 2 va2 . It is thus easy to see that as the speed at which a clock travels is increased,
the rate at which it produces ticks slows down and that becomes 0 as its speed approaches c .
We have thus explained the observed slowing down of periodic systems without resorting to the
concepts of time or time dilation.
So though the predictions of special relativity in regards to the slowing down of clocks (or any
physical system whether periodic or not, or biological in the case of the twin paradox) are in
agreement with the predictions QGD. QGD explanation however is based in fundamental
aspects of reality. Also, since according to QGD, mass, momentum, energy and speed are being
intrinsic properties of matter, their values are independent of any frame of reference thus
avoiding the paradoxes, contradictions and complications associated with frames of reference.
However, though both QGD and special relativity predict the effect of speed on clocks, there are
important differences in their explanation of the phenomenon and the quantitative changes in
rate. While for special relativity the effect is caused by a slowing down of time, QGD explains
that it is a slowing down of the mechanisms clocks themselves.
If t and t are the number of ticks counted by two identical clocks counted travelling
respectively at speeds va and va over the same distance d ref then QGD predicts that
t t
c 2 va' 2
c 2 va2
1
c v2
2
However, it is important to note that the two predictions of the QGD and the special relativity
equations cannot be directly compared. The speed in the relativist equation is the relative speed
of the clocks while the QGD equation makes uses the distinct and intrinsic speed of the clocks.
Slowing Down of Clocks due to Gravity
Since va
Pa
ma
then
t
d ref
c 2 va2 c 2
Pa
ma
that we know that the rate of a clock a at a given distance d1 from a massive body b , that is
Pa
t1
c2
. Then moving the clock to either closer or further from b to d 2 , we will
d ref
ma
find that
Pa G a; b
t2
c2
where G a; b G a; b | d1 G a; b | d 2 .
d ref
ma
As we can see, the greater the gravitational interaction between a clock and a body, the slower
will be its rate. This prediction is also in agreement with general relativitys prediction of the
slowing down of clocks by gravity.
52
t
d ref
c2
Pa G a; b
ma
speed and gravity on a clock. Thus, if QGD is correct, the predictions of SR and GR are
approximations of particular solutions of the QGD equation.
We will see later how QGD can predict the behaviour of binary pulsar systems and explain and
predict the decay of atmospheric muons, both phenomenon supporting special relativity and
general relativity.
The decay of muons is particularly significant as provides indirect evidence in support QGDs
prediction that they (and all other elementary particles) have structure and are composed of
preons .
force vector G p ; a , its direction changes while its speed, hence its energy remains
constant and equal to c . The momentum of a preon
direction.
If c is the momentum vector of a preon
change in direction cause by attractive force, then c c ' c . The momentum is conserved
in accordance to the equation c '
c
c G
force G (note: this is a solution of the directional sum introduced earlier where Pa c ).
When a preon
c
n
c Gi
c Gi . Also, because
i 1
i 1
the momentum vector of a particle or massive structure is the resultant of the sum of the
53
ma
i 1
i
particle as a whole when it is subjected to a force. Then using the momentum vector Pa for the
particle a can have Pa ' Pa G a; b where G a; b is the gravitational interaction between
G a; b
a and b and G a; b
ma
G a; b
Similarly G b; a
.
mb
directional component of the total energy along the axis of motion. As such, the kinetic energy
of body is already included in the intrinsic energy of an object, itself the sum of the kinetic
energy of its preons
are
kinetic, there is no such thing as rest mass. But there can be, as we saw earlier, nonfundamental structures in which the momentum vectors cancel out resulting in a null net
momentum.
As the reader can see, the equation E mc naturally emergences from the axioms of quantumgeometry dynamics.
Understanding how energy is conserved under acceleration is a simple shift with important
impact in physics. In cosmology, for example, a universe which undergoes an accelerated
expansion does not violate the law of conversion of energy the way relativistic acceleration
does. The energy of the galaxies undergoing acceleration does not change (except from the
variations of their masses). This also implies that the mass and energy of the Universe is
conserved.
Note: We will see in the coming article about gravity how the effect attributed to dark energy
can be attributed to negative a negative solution of QGDs gravitational interaction equation
force (where n-gravity interactions exceed p-gravity interactions). We will also show why dark
energy cannot be detected by instruments.
understood is that the discovered particle also possesses properties that are in conflict
with the predictions. But what we really mean by no Higgs is that whatever particle
has been or will be found, it does not convey mass through though the Higgs
mechanism or in any other way. Why?
Because QGD considers mass to be a fundamental property of matter, that is, it is an
intrinsic property of preons .. Thus the mass of an object, expressed in fundamental
units, is simply the number preons it contains (and energy, the number of preons .
times the fundamental unit of kinetic energy or momentum). So since mass is a property
of the preons and all matter are made from preons then particles of matter do not
require the existence of the Higgs boson or anything similar to the Higgs mechanism to
convey mass. In fact, unlike gauge theories where many physical properties are
extrinsic, fundamental properties displayed by each of the two fundamental particles
are intrinsic to them.
That said, as mentioned earlier, the validity of a theory cannot be established from
within the framework of another when they are based on mutually exclusive axiom sets.
So, QGD can no more invalidate the Standard Model than the Standard Model can
invalidate QGD. Nature is the only arbitrator when it comes to the truth of a theory.
, denoted p
force vector G p ; a , its direction changes while its speed, hence its energy remains
constant and equal to c . The momentum of a preon
direction.
If c is the momentum vector of a preon
change in direction cause by attractive force, then c c ' c . The momentum is conserved
in accordance to the equation c '
c
c G
force G .
When a preon
c
n
c Gi
c Gi . Also, because
i 1
i 1
the momentum vector of a particle or massive structure is the resultant of the sum of the
55
ma
i 1
i
particle as a whole when it is subjected to a force. Then using the momentum vector Pa for the
particle a can have Pa ' Pa G a; b where G a; b is the gravitational interaction between
G a; b
a and b and G a; b
ma
directional component of the total energy along the axis of motion. As such, the kinetic energy
of body is already included in the intrinsic energy of an object, itself the sum of the kinetic
energy of its preons
are kinetic, there is no such thing as rest mass. But there can be, as we saw earlier, nonfundamental structures in which the momentum vector cancel out resulting in a null
momentum.
As the reader can see, the equation E mc naturally emergences from the first principles of
quantum-geometry dynamics.
Understanding how energy is conserved under acceleration is a simple shift with important
impact in physics. In cosmology, for example, a universe which undergoes an accelerated
expansion does not violate the law of conversion of energy. The energy of the galaxies
undergoing acceleration does not change (except from the variations of their masses). This also
implies that the mass and energy of the Universe are conserved.
Given a system S having n unbound particles, the heat of the system is equal to Pi ,
i 1
nt
i 1
VolS
.where VolS is
the volume of the system measured in preons , the fundamental and discrete particle
which forms and dimensionalizes quantum-geometrical space. The total energy of the
56
system being equal to mi c , it follows that if we define entropy in the classical sense,
i 1
i 1
i 1
n2
i 1
i 1
n1
i 1
i 1
difference in heat depends on the speed of interacting electrons and is at the lowest
when electrons achieve the speed of light; in which case H 0 .Note that from the
QGD model, when electrons achieve c , internal motion stops, so that component
motion stop at speed c , the electron moving at that speed must lose their electric
charge.
Also worth nothing is that
m
i 1
mass and energy are conserved. This holds for all closed systems. So though it is
believed that a nuclear reaction results in the conversion of mass into energy,
according to QGD, it results in the freeing of bound particles which carry with them
57
momentum, hence increase the heat of the system. Aside from the reaction
mechanism, the only difference between exothermic chemical and nuclear reactions
is in the type of particles that become free. For chemical reactions these particles are
molecules, atoms and photons and for nuclear reactions, nuclei and other subatomic
particles.
Application to Cosmology
In the initial state of the Universe, QGD theorizes that all preons were free. That
means that the energy of the Universe was equal to its heat. So if that its entropy was
n
preons
and since all preons are free mU n . It follows that the temperature of
mU c
.
VolU
Though the Universe as evolved, its total energy remains mU c , but as particles and
structures are formed its heat decreases resulting in an increase in entropy according. In
n
state and to the only two constants of QGD; c the kinetic energy of the preon and k
the proportionality constant between the n-gravity and p-gravity, are related by the
c
equation T0
.
k
The coming article will discuss how gravity emerges from the interactions between
preons.
58
gives them what classical physics calls their electric charge. But the
dynamic structure of the charged particles alone doesnt explain the observed effects of
attraction of opposite charge and repulsion of negative charge.
In order to understand the electric repulsion and attraction effects, we must take into account
free preons
,which as we know permeate the entire universe and form what we will call the
preonic field. We will show that the effects of electric attraction and repulsion results from the
interaction of charged particles with neighbouring regions of the preonic field.
In quantum-geometrical space, preons
The blue arrows represent part of the directions taken by a component preon
or a positron. The red and grey arrows represent free preons
representing those free preons
component preons
of an electron
moves on an helical path. Now, if there were only one component preon
path, the number of free preons
moving in such a
59
only the gravitational interactions between the electron and the neighboring preonic region
much greater, but there is always there preons
Objects at larger scales are made of a great number of atoms, each made of bound preons
When orientation of the electrons of the object is random, all free preons
randomness of their directions is not affected. But when the electrons in the object are
arranged in such a way that the directions of the electrons are aligned, the only the preons
that are moving in the same general direction as the bound preons
affected by the gravitational interaction so as to change their direction. The larger the number
of aligned electrons in a structure, the greater will be the number of preons
of the preonic
region neighbouring affected by the structure. This explains why some materials are magnetic
while others are not.
Ive mentioned that for free preons
gravitational interaction over a long enough distance. We understand from the above what we
mean by over a long enough distance but what does within significant gravitational
interaction mean exactly?
A object a is within significant gravitational interaction of an object b when G a; b xma
where G a; b is the gravitational interaction between a and b , ma is the mass of a in
interaction necessary to affect direction of an object (we will discuss this in detail in the chapter
on optics).
From the above definition we see that the more massive an electron is or the more of them
there are, the greater the gravitational interaction and the larger will be the preonic region
affected. The gravitational interaction between a preon
gravitational interaction equation. Substituting p
()
G p ; e
d2 d
where d is understood as the average distance of
me k
2
60
d2 d
we can write G p ; e m k
. From this equation and we can see the
gravitational interaction drops proportionally to the square of the distance, and that the
gravitational interaction is significant at a relatively close distance from the electron. This
explains the short distance range of the electromagnetic force.
Preonic Polarization of a Region and the Effects of Attraction and Repulsion
We have seen how the directions of the free preons
of a region of quantum-geometrical
space are affected. This effect leaves most of the free preons
charged particle unaffected, but when to charged particles (or larger magnetic object) are in
close proximity, a much greater portion of free preons
interaction of either or both particles. The result is the polarization of the small region defined
as that which preons
When a structure is within a polarized preonic region, it can absorb free preons
in
accordance with the mechanism of particle formation we introduced earlier. Thus a structure
can acquire, through absorption, the momentums of free preons
preons , the structure can absorb them if the resulting change of momentum is permitted.
That is, if
c
i 1
xma where x N .
In the case of single electron or positron (which is
one that is at distance from other particles such
that the gravitational interactions with them is
insignificant). In the figure on the left, the blue
arrows represent the component preons
of
c
i 1
0.
61
When two charged particles are in close proximity to each other, there are two possible
patterns of polarization. One where the two particles have the same helical direction (same
charge) or they have opposite helical directions (opposite charge).
The Effect of Repulsion of Like-Charged Particles
In the figure above we see the effect two electrons in close proximity have on the preonic field.
The blue arrows represent the bound preons
preons that are moving in the same general direction of the bounded preons and the
x , where
distance is such that G p ; e xm or, since m p 1 , G p ; e
p
x N . Note that all other free preons in the vicinity of the electrons, having no effect on
the motion of the electrons, have been omitted. As we can see, the polarization effect of the two
electrons are additive so that in the regions Ra and Rb the number of preons bombarding
a and b respectively are much higher than the number of preons in regions Ra and Rb
bombarding ea and eb .
In accordance to the laws of motion we described earlier in this book, the momentum of
electron ea will change if the net effect of the sum of the momentum vectors of the preons
is absorbs is greater than its mass. That is, if na and na are respectively the number of red
preons in regions Ra and Ra , then Pe PRa PRa xme where x N and, as per
a
na
c
i 1
and PRa
na
i 1
62
In our example of the polarizing effect of two like charged particles in proximity is cumulative.
And since na na and nb nb when Pe xme and Pe xme , then ea and eb will move
a
away from each other. QGD explains by the above the effect of repulsion like-charged particles2.
The Effect of Attraction of Like-Charged Particles
The figures below illustrate how two particles of opposite charges, ea and eb in proximity of
each other polarize the neighbouring preonic region. For clarity, we chose to show the effects of
the electron and positron separately.
The standard model proposes that two like-charged particles repulse each other by exchanging photons.
This requires that the particles somehow can detect each other presences but the standard model doesnt
explain by what mechanism an electron, for example, can detect the presence of another electron.
63
When an electron and a positron are in close proximity, the free preons
directed towards the bottom so that na na and nb nb . Hence PRa PRa and
PRb PRb and, if Pe PRa PRa xme and Pe PRb PRb xme , the
a
momentum of e towards e will change by will change by Pe and the change in speed from
Pe
me
Pe
b
me
Also, as they become closer, the difference between na and na and that between nb and nb
will increase so that the rate of change in momentum, hence the acceleration, will increase. The
above explains the effect of repulsion between like-charged particles.
Now that we have explained the mechanism of the electromagnetic repulsion and attraction
effects, we will adopt the notation H a a; b to represent the resultant momentum of the
preonic field resulting from the interaction effect on a from between a and b .
H a a; b
mR
c
i 1
d2 d
is given by G a; pi ne k
where ne is the number
of aligned electrons of the structure. Thus, by comparison to that of an electron, the distance at
within which we have significant gravitational interactions is ne times greater. Or, from at a
comparable distance d , the gravitational interaction is ne times greater.
If in the electron-electron interaction figure above we pivot the second electron by 180 degrees
around any diagonal drawn through its center, we obtain the configuration of an electronpositron interaction. Now, in the figure, we assumed that that in an electron-positron
interaction that the particles are moving parallel to each other so they interact over distance. If
an electron and a positron would approach each other from opposite directions, the distance of
interaction would be too short to be significant. But things are different for bound electrons.
Since they move within closed trajectories, the distance between the aligned electrons of each
of the two structures can be maintained and as long as they are in proximity the gravitational
interactions between them will be significant.
64
which is
given by:
Pa PRa PRa xma where x N and PRa is the resultant momentum of the free
preons moving in direction of b , the second object, and PRa the resultant of those
moving away from it. So, if na number interaction preons is region Ra and na , the number
of interacting preons
Pa
na
na
i 1
i 1
na
ci and PRa
i 1
na
c
i 1
ci ci .
This explains why magnets can attract or repel each other even only electrons orbit the atoms at
their both magnetic poles. Or why a magnetic field, which two poles are generated by electrons
(not one with positrons and the other with electrons) can attract or repulse a beam of electrons
passing through it depending on the orientation of motion of the electrical current (electrons)
generating the magnetic field. It also explains why a strong magnetic field is generated when
passing an electrical current through a coil. The coil simply multiplies the number of surface
electrons that are aligned. All of these are phenomena that dominant physics theories can
describe but have yet to explain.
Electromagnetic Effect of Neutron Stars
Though the QGD model of the electromagnetic effect easily describes the interaction between
the bound preons
within a neutron star and the neighbouring preonic field, which explains
its intense magnetic field, it will be most valuable when used to reinterpret existing
observational data and to interpret new observations. Such exercise would no doubt provide
significant information about the internal structure of these neutron stars.
Reverse Electromagnetic Effects of Attraction and Repulsion
We have seen above that, within a system consisting of two charged particles, if we change the
direction of the first particle by 180 degrees, the motion of its component preons
relative to
the second particle will be reversed and, consequently, the first particle will interact with the
preonic field and the second particle as if it were its antiparticle. For example, in a system
consisting of two electrons, respectively tagged a and b , if we reverse the direction of the a
relative to b , then a will interact with b as if it were a positron.
Here is when it gets interesting. The effect of such change in the direction of a charged particle
not only holds for electrons and positrons, but for all charged particles. For instance, a proton
65
will then behave relative to the system as if it were an antiproton. So QGD predicts that two
protons will attract each other if they are moving in opposite direction.
preons .
form all other particles, including photons. Individually, they interact orders of magnitude more
weakly than the even the least massive photons, which is why no instruments can detect them
directly, but over sufficiently large regions of space, their collective mass is sufficient to
gravitationally interact with and affect the behavior of light and mass structures.
Dark matter, contrary to beliefs, is not dark. Dark, by definition is said of something that does
not emit light. QGD contends that dark matter has been observed and studied for nearly five
decades. You see, according to QGD, the only matter that existed in the primordial universe was
in the form of preons
space. Well call this state, the isotropic state, one in which nothing existed but dark matter.
During the isotropic state, preons
them, started to form the simplest of all structures; the photons. And because preons
were
distributed isotropically, so were these newly formed photons. These isotropically distributed
photons have been discovered in 1964 by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson and called the comic
microwave background radiation.
A number of theories can satisfactorily describe physical phenomena and at the same time be
coherent, consistent with reality and mutually exclusive. Mutually exclusive theories cant all be
right so the ultimate test, the only valid test of a theory is the predictions that it makes that are
original to it and can be verified experimentally or observationally. So what original predictions
can be drawn from QGD that can be tested in the real world? And how do can we know that
QGD is correct in its description of dark matter?
66
One of the most obvious implications of QGD is that sufficiently large regions of quantumgeometrical space (minimally the size of a small galaxy) should contain the same amount of
preons , or, since the preons is the fundamental unit of mass, have the same mass. That
is, mR1 mR2 where R1 and R2 are regions of the same volume (the volume being defined
quantum-geometrically as the number of preons
it contains).
Also, the mass of any regions of space is the sum of its free preons
, p
preons , p , that is: mRi m p m p where m p and m p are respectively the mass of
i
free preons
give an example, a region which may appear to be empty must have the same mass as a region
of comparable size that is occupied by a galaxy or galaxies. The difference being that in the latter
a great number of preons
QGD Prediction
From the above, since the intensity of the CMBR within a region of space must be proportional
to the number of free preons
matter, the more visible matter a region contains, the weaker the CMBR should be. QGD
predicts an inverse correlation between the amount of visible matter and the intensity of the
CMBR. Thus, a sufficiently detailed CMBR map is expected to provide a snap shot of the
distribution of free preons
Supporting Observations
Interested readers may find some the descriptions of supporting observations in the following
articles.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_surface_brightness_galaxy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIRGOHI21
http://arxiv.org/abs/1010.5783
For who is willing to do a little bit of research, there is an enormous amount of observational
data that supports the QGDs explanation and predictions about the dark matter effect.
67
all matter is made of preons this implies that antimatter does not exist.
QGD suggest that nucleons are themselves composed of successive layers of orbiting
electrons or positrons kept at a specific distance thanks to the balance between the
gravity and the electromagnetic repulsion effects between them. According to this
model, because the net charge of the proton is equal to the charge of a positron, we can
assume that the proton has one more positron than it has electrons. That extra positron
would occupy the outer orbit of the proton.
Similarly, the neutron would have an equal number of electrons and positrons, which
would account for it neutral electric charge, but with electron occupying its outer orbit.
So when an electron collides with a proton, the electron and the outmost positron can
annihilate and produce a two photons and a neutron. Similarly, when a positron collides
with a neutron, the positron and the outmost positron can annihilate to produce one
antiproton and two photons.
In order to discuss the forces that bind particles into nucleons and nucleons into nuclei,
it will be useful at this point to introduce a system of notation that will describe
appropriately the structure of particles.
a
Particles will be represented by using the matrix form where the top expression
b
represents the structures outmost particle, the one that interacts with external
particles or structures. The bottom expression represents the core of the particle, which
doesnt directly interact. The core is itself a composite particle.
e
For example, in the table below, represents the proton as a neutron at its core and
n
e
a positron on its outmost orbit and represents the neutron having an anti-proton at
p
its core and a positron on its outmost orbit.
68
Particle
Symbol
Structure
preon
neutrino
photon
xp
Massive photon
electron
e or e
positron
e or e
p
x
p
proton
p or p
antiproton
p or p
e e
or
n n
e e
or
n n
neutron
n or n
antineutron
n or n
p
x
p
i p
x
p
p
x
p
e e
or
p p
e e
or
p p
Table 14.1
In order to predict the outcome of an interaction we will use the operator , which is
understood to mean interacts and results into. Below are a few examples showing
how the notation and operator will be used.
Example 1: proton-antiproton event
e
and the anti-proton
n
e
by . When a proton and an antiproton collide, the particles on their outmost orbit,
n
represented by the top components of the expressions, will interact. If they are of
opposite sign (or using the preferred notation on the right, if the arrows are in opposite
69
directions) then the components they will annihilate into their fundamental
components.
In our example, the interacting components of the proton and antiproton are an
p
p
electron and a positron which structures are respectively x and x so we
p
p
have:
e
n
e
n
p
x
p
p
p
n n x x x n n 2 3
p
p
p
x
p
e
n
e
n
n n 2 .
That is, the collision between a proton and an antiproton results in a neutron, an
antineutron and two photons (it can also produce four neutrinos instead of two
photons).
Example 2: Neutron-proton event.
The neutron-proton event is particularly important in that it helps explain the role
neutrons plays within in the atomic nucleus (this will be discussed under the topics of
particle decay and island of stability). The neutron-proton event is described as follows:
e
n
e
p
n p 2
70
resolution
p
x
p
outcome
2 photons
p p
x x 2
p p p
x
p
e
n 2
n
e
Proton, electron
Proton, antiproton
e
n
e e
2
e p p
n
Proton, neutron
e
n
e
p
Neutron, positron
n p 2
e
p 2
p
e
1 neutron + 2 photons
1 neutron, 1
antineutron, 4 photons
1 neutron, 1 proton + 2
photons
1 proton + 2 photons
71
Neutron, antineutron
e
p
e
p
Antiproton, positron
Antiproton, antineutron
e
n 4
n
e
e
n
e
p
Antineutron, electron
p p 2
n p 2
e
p 2
p
e
1 proton + 1 antiproton+
2 photons
1 antineutron + 2
photons
1 antineutron + 1
antiproton + 2 photons
1 antiproton + 2 photons
Table 14.2
It is understood that though the events respect the law of conservation, the law of
conservation alone does not explain the outcome of the events. A photon may have
enough mass to form an electron-positron pair, for example, but its quantum-geometric
structure forbids such an event. According to quantum-geometry dynamics, an electronpositron pair can only be formed by two neutrinos or four gamma photons.
In the above figure, we have the configuration of two protons and two neutrons. Acting
between them is gravity and the electromagnetic effect of repulsion. The
electromagnetic effect of repulsion is generated not only between protons (positron in
outmost orbit) or between neutrons (electron in outmost orbit), but between protons
or between neutrons.
Considering that protons and neutrons have particles of opposite charge (according to
classical physics must attract each other), how can they polarize the preonic field to
create an electromagnetic effect of repulsion? The answer is that, as explained in the
on the electromagnetic effect, reversing the direction of a charged particle change the
polarity of interaction with other particles to that of their antiparticle. According to
QGD, protons will attract protons moving in opposite direction, or positrons can attract
positrons in the same way. The electron-electron attraction is a commonly observed
phenomenon. It explains why free electrons moving within in a magnetic are attracted
to the positive pole, which is created by the electrons moving in opposite direction.
Going back to the structure of the nucleus, that a particle is stable implies that the
gravity and electromagnetic repulsion effects are in a state of equilibrium. That is:
73
nai
c G a ; a m
i 1
j 1
ai
ai , A is the number of nucleons contained in the nucleus (also called the mass number)
and where if i j then G ai ; a j 0 . And since, at the nuclear and smaller scales, the
nai
i 1
j 1
since nucleons have similar mass, ma is nearly constant. For the rest of this discussion,
i
we will substitute the constant rs for the term on the right so that the equation, which
from here on we will call the nuclear equilibrium equation, becomes
nai
i 1
j 1
ci mai ma j k rs .
The nuclear equilibrium equation implies that a nucleus or particle is stable when
rs
nai
i 1
j 1
gravitational and electromagnetic repulsion effects must be within the interval rs ...rs .
It follows that closer the combined effects of gravity and electromagnetic repulsion is to
zero, the more stable the nucleus or particle will be. Inversely, as the nuclear the closer
they are to the limits of the stability interval, the more instable the nucleus or particles
will become. And when the combined effects are outside the stability interval, the
nucleus or particle becomes highly unstable. Those are unlikely to be found in nature.
We will now discuss what happens when a nucleus or a particle becomes unstable and
the events such disequilibrium triggers that will bring it back to a state of equilibrium.
That, at nuclear and smaller scales, n-gravity is negligible explains the gravitational interactions between
nucleons are orders of magnitude greater than the gravitational interactions at large scales where the ngravity component is important.
74
Gamma Decay
A
When
m
j 1
ai
ma j k
nai
c
i 1
F rs ,
e
n
e
p
n p 2 .
Such events, when occurring within an atoms nucleus, would result in the emission of
two gamma photons5 while the atomic number and mass number of the atom remain
unchanged (although mass is changed by an amount equal to the masses of the emitted
photons).
The mass of the
interacting proton and
neutron is reduced by
2m (the mass of the
emitted photons) and this
in turn reduces the
gravitational interaction
within the nucleus,
Such events can also emit neutrinos or a combination of neutrinos and photon, but this will be discussed
in a more advanced treatise on quantum-geometry dynamics.
75
Beta decay, that is, the emissions of an electron or a positron are the results of a
sequence of three events. The first event is a gamma decay we have discussed in the
previous section. The second event is the formation of an electron-positron pair from
two gamma photons. The third event is the absorption of either the electron or positron
as it passes through the nucleus and the emission of the other (see following table).
1st event
2nd event
3rd event
e
p
e
e
n
e
p
resolution
Positron emission
A-1, Z
OR
n p 2
OR
e
n
e
Electron emission
A+1, Z
Here we have two possible resolutions. In the top resolution a positron is emitted and
the atomic number is increased by 1. In the bottom resolution, an electron is emitted
and the atomic number is reduced by 1.
Alpha Decay
76
77
Electromagnetic repulsion
increases by a factor of s eject
an alpha particle. The integrity of
the alpha particle is unaffected
because of its stable two protons
two neutrons structure. The
differential in the interaction
between the alpha structure and
the nucleus is nearly
instantaneous and as a result so is
its change in momentum.
After the emission of the alpha
particle, the increased attraction
between the protons and the
neutron cluster causes proton-neutron events (grey arrows) to form a more table nucleus (A-2,
Z-4).
78
nai
c m
i 1
j 1
ai
diametrically opposed, a pair of opposing protons will be brought in close proximity resulting on
the annihilation of their outmost electrons (since their direction are opposite, one behaves like
an electron and the other like a positron).
The annihilation results in gamma
or/and beta decay and transforms
the two interacting protons into
neutrons forming the structure
represented in the following
figure.
The structure here represented
here is that of the nucleus of an
atom of helium. This structure is
known to be stable, hence within
the equilibrium range. That is
79
na j
nai
c m
rs
i 1
j 1
ai
ma j k rs .
nai
c m
i 1
j 1
na j
nai
c m
i 1
j 1
ai
ma j k rs and
ma j k 0 . There are two ways to obtain a neutron from a proton. The first
ai
it by combining it with an electron which will it occupy the outmost orbit. The second it
to have it a positron interact with the electron in its outmost orbit so that they
annihilate. The annihilation transforms the proton into an neutron with an electron in
its outmost orbit.
In the first scenario, the net electromagnetic interaction of the neutron is smaller than
nai
nai 1
i 1
i 1
ci
mass of the particle is the equal to the mass of the neutron plus the mass of the
positron, the gravitational interactions within the neutron is greater than the
na j 1
m
j 1
ai
na j
ma j k mai ma j k . The
j 1
combination of the lower electromagnetic effect and higher gravitational effect is such
that rs
nai 1
na j 1
i 1
j 1
ci
ai
ci
i 1
na j 1
m
j 1
ai
nai
c
i 1
and
na j
80
nai
c
i 1
nai 1
c
i 1
na j
na j 1
j 1
j 1
mai ma j k
ai
ma j k and we have rs
nai 1
c
i 1
na j 1
m
j 1
ai
ma j k ,
which again leads to beta decay resulting in a proton and the emission an electron.
Not only models above explain why neutrons are unstable but they also provide an
explanation of why protons cannot not decay. The may interact with other particles
which would transform them into other particles, but, of itself, QGD predicts, they can
never decay.
81
fundamental particles: The preon , which dimensionalizes space, and the preon , the
fundamental particle of matter. What distinguishes quantum-geometry dynamics from
dominant theories of fundamental physics, collectively known as the standard model, is that all
properties of elementary particles are intrinsic. Essentially, this means that no additional
particles and their properties are necessary to explain interactions not only at the fundamental
scale but at all scales.
According to QGD, every particle or material structure is made of preons . That includes,
without exception, all particles we currently consider to be elementary. Electrons, positrons,
neutrinos and even photons are thus composed of preons
preons possess two intrinsic properties. The first is that they are strictly kinetic. preons
are always in motion. Their speed is constant, hence their kinetic energy is constant and equal
to c . The speed of preons
to
preon . The preonic leap is fundamental unit of distance. Since there is no smaller distance
than the preonic leap, there is no faster motion than that of a preon
The second intrinsic property of preons is that they interact with each other through pgravity, which is an attractive force acting between them. The p-gravity interaction between two
Speed Redefined
The reason this section is given the title Space-Matter-Light Interactions and not the more
common Matter-Light Interactions is that, according to QGD, quantum-geometrical space
interacts dynamically with matter and light in all optical phenomena. In this following sections
we will discuss optics, which will be found to be part of the more general subjects of preonics.
We will use the principles we have introduced earlier describe and explain the phenomena of
light absorption, light reflection and the photoelectric effect.
We will also examine the relation the fundamental forces that govern the motion of bodies
which determine how they interact with light. We will therefore reinterpret Newtonian laws of
motion and show how they are founded in fundamental reality. But first, we need to look at
QGD's definition of a concept central to all dynamics, that is, the notion of speed.
82
Pa
where Pa
ma
ma
c
i 1
fundamental and equal to c . Therefore, the speed of an object is defined using two physical
quantities; the magnitude of the vector sum of the kinetic energy vectors of its component
preons and its number of preons , its mass. We now have a working definition of speed
83
Special cases:
As we have explained, the energy of any particle or structure is given by Ea
momentum by Pa
ma
c
i 1
and the
ma
c
i 1
ma
ci
i 1
ma
energy of such particles or structures are equal quantities (but not equal qualities).
This is evident for a single preon
c
i 1
c1 c .
Pa
mc
, we have va a c. This explains, amongst other things, the
ma
ma
constancy of the speed of light without invoking time or the mechanism of time dilation.
The equality Pa Ea also holds for any structure whose component preons have
trajectories are parallel regardless of its mass (see here). Such particles include the photon and
the neutrino, but theoretically, any particle or structure can achieve a speed equal to c if is
subjected to strong enough interactions. And since the maximum momentum any object can
have is equal to ma c , its energy, the maximum speed is c .
c
The speed of a body a is defined as
i 1
ma
ma
c
i 1
vectors of its component preons ; its momentum . Thus speed is intrinsic quantity or,
bringing a and b to positions s1 and s2 . We can add the distance between s1 and s1 to
the distance between s2 and s2 then subtract the result from d to know the distance
separating the photons at s1 and s2 .
Also, since the classical measurement of the speed of a body really compares the
distance it travels while the distance travelled by a reference object (see On Measuring
the Immeasurable) then we can compare the sum of the distance travelled by the two
photons to the distance travelled by the distance travelled by either a or b . So the
classical speed being a function of distance, the distance travelled by two photons
would be twice the distance travelled by one photon, when the classical speed at which
the photons approach each other would be twice the classically defined speed of light.
Similarly, two photons moving in diametrically opposite directions would be receding at
from each other at a classical speed of twice the classically defined speed of light.
That said, since time is not a property of physical reality, classically defined speed,
including the speed of light, doesnt have the physical meaning we attribute it.
85
Space-Matter Interactions
One of the fundamental assumptions of quantum-geometry dynamics is that space is not
continuous, but discrete, made of fundamental particles we call preons and that
spatial dimensions emerge from the repulsive interactions between them (n-gravity). This
has already been discussed in detail in previous articles (see here. here and here).
In previous articles, we have seen that the gravitational interaction between two particles
d2 d
or material structures is described by the equation G a; b ma mb k
where
2
,k
is the proportionality constant relating between n-gravity and p-gravity and d is the
number of preons
equation accounts for the contribution of the two fundamental forces that make up
gravity; that is, p-gravity and n-gravity. This is made more apparent when we know that
d2 d
the equation is the simplification of G a; b kma mb ma mb
where the
2
d2 d
respectively represents the magnitudes of the p2
gravity force and the n-gravity force between a and b .
components kma mb and ma mb
d2 d
But while we have so far been using the equation G a; b ma mb k
to
2
calculate the gravitational interaction between two material particles or structure, it can
be used to calculate the interaction between matter and space itself. We know that p-
preon / preon pairs. The preon part of the preon / preon pair interacts with
the preons
because it has an effect opposite of p-gravity, we can think of the mass of preons
as
d2 d
, the negative sign can be
2
interpreted as attributing a different meaning to the values ma and mb which now
being negative mass so that, for the component ma mb
represent the number of preons
86
mass of a , we can by analogy interpret ma as being its negative masses. It follows that
all particles and material structures have both positive and negative masses.
From the above, we understand that in the p-gravity component of the equation we must
use the positive masses of, the number of preons
the region b contains no preons , then mb 0 and kma mb 0 . For the second
component of the equation, ma and mb represent the negative masses of a and b , that
is, the number of preons
in
the region b or mb . It follows that the force acting between an object a and an empty
d2 d
region of quantum-geometrical space b is given by G a; b ma mb
. This
2
explains that, for an object to change direction, it must overcome the force exerted by
space itself. Resolving the equation for a change equal to one unit of distance in one
given direction, that is where mb 1 and d 1 , the n-gravity that must be overcome by a
is G a; b ma .
87
Lets consider the simple case of an object b interacting gravitationally with an object a . As we
will understand from QGDs description of the second law of motion, the only allowable changes
in momentum must be a multiple integer of its mass. That is, Pb xmb where x N . This
implies that changes in momentum of an object b due to gravitational interactions occur at
positions that are at distances from the center of gravity of a such that
interaction equation, G a; b ma mb k
d2 d
, we see that the spacing between the
2
mb which
corresponds to
changes in speed
that are equal to
Pb mb Pb
1 .
or
mb
mb
It follows that the
speed of b between
two subsequent
transitional positions
pi and pi 1 is
constant and equal
to
P b /i
mb
88
position, the previous or subsequent locations of b can be calculated from an arbitrarily chosen
initial position pi . It is important to remember that classical time being a notion that has no
physical meaning the distance b travels is relative not to the mathematical dimension of time
but relative to a chosen number of preon
chosen as reference.
The time reference is therefore replaced by a distance reference. For example, we do not talk
about the distance an object b travels over n units of time, but rather the distance it travels will
over l preon
vb
l where d is the distance travelled, vb the speed of b , l
c
that the although the reference we have used here plays a role similar to that of the classical
notion of time has played in physics, it differs from it in that is based on a fundamental aspect of
physical reality; the preon
dimension, even a conceptual one, is unnecessary. Reality can be fully described without the
concept of time or the purely mathematical dimension of time.
d 2 dq
d r2 d r
rmb ma mb k q
m
m
k
a b
and since d q 0
2
2
d r2 d r
d 2 dr
rmb ma mbk ma mb k r
m
m
a b
, the speed at pq is equal to
2
2
d 2 dr
vr r ma r
. Thus the rate acceleration of a body is proportional to the mass of a
2
(the body towards which it is accelerated) and to the square of the distance of between its initial
position and the center of gravity of a , but is independent of the mass of b , which explains why
two bodies will have the same acceleration regardless of their mass. This is consistent with
89
Newtons law of gravity, which at the scale it is applied to, distances in leaps are large enough so
d r2 d r d r2
that
. Newtons law of gravity emerges naturally from the principles of QGD and
2
2
corresponds to an approximation of its gravitational interaction equation.
The distance between two successive transitional positions is proportional to the difference
between the square of their distances from the center of gravity. This is also consistent with the
inverse square of the Newtonian equation (see figure).
As we have seen, according to QGD, an object interacting gravitationally doesnt go through the
infinite number of infinitesimal speed increments implied by Newtons gravity equation and
General Relativity. An object accelerates only at transitional positions. At non-fundamental
scales, the relative distance between transitional positions is small and the acceleration of an
object appears continuous. But the closer we get to the fundamental scale, the more evident it
becomes that the acceleration is discrete rather than continuous. This is consistent with
observation (see quantum leap).
Experimental Prediction
Based on the notions we have introduced in this section, the discrete acceleration of objects at
transitional positions should be observable. Data from a free fall experiment using an object
coupled with a precise enough accelerometer should show that the speed of an object changes
at transitional positions and that between them, their speed remain constant.
90
G a; x
i 1
0 Pa 0
This is a state in which that all external forces acting on a cancel each other. These
forces include the interactions with other particles and material structures, as described
by the QGD gravity equation, as well as the effect of quantum-geometrical space on it.
Thus an object moving at a constant velocity may be understood as one where the
external forces acting on it are in equilibrium.
91
Expressed in QGD terms, Newton's second law of motion simply says that if
x
G a; x
i 1
0 then Pa 0 .
G a; x
i 1
To illustrate we'll examine the simplest case. That is, when all interactions acting on two
objects cancel each other except for the interaction between them . In this simple case
d2 d
. Since all QGD units are integers (and natural), we
Pa G a; b ma mb k
2
know that changes in momentum from interactions will also be integer; that is Pa xma
where x N 0 .
This is consistent with QGD when you consider that for a body of mass ma to change
momentum in a particular direction, each of its component preons must overcome an
integer part of the n-gravity force exerted on it, as we have seen earlier.
could leap in
Optics
The theoretical interpretations of observations of the behaviour of light indicate that it possess
the mutually exclusive properties of the wave and the particle; a paradox that is known as the
particle/wave duality. That light may have wave properties was hypothesized following
observations of how light behaves in diffraction experiments, particularly in interference
experiments such as the double-slit experiment where light produces diffraction and
interference patterns that appear similar with diffraction patterns produced from observable
waves in nature (such as waves on the surface of liquid). The similarities between the diffraction
patterns are thought to imply that light may fundamentally be a wave.
Yet, some experiments, particularly those using a Talbot-Lau interferometer, have shown that
material structures such as protons, neutrons, atoms, and even very large molecules display
wavelike behaviour, that is, they display optical properties in the form of diffraction patterns.
92
That calls the question: Does the wavelike behavior of light imply that it is fundamentally a
wave? In order to answer that question, we need to understand what a wave is.
First, it is important to note that waves which we have observed and which inspired the wave
model of light actually emerge from the motion of discrete structures; the motion of molecules
of air or the molecules of water, for example. Thus the mathematical representation we call
wave function models the motion and distribution of discrete particles that constitute a medium
and describes the absorption and transfer of perturbation energy to other molecules of the
medium, which create the waves which will eventually restore the state of equilibrium that
existed prior to the perturbation (as when a stone is thrown in a pond, causing the displacement
of water molecules).
Thus waves emerge from the interactions between discrete particles. That brings the questions:
Is there really a wave-particle duality? Considering the above the answer is obviously "no."
Waves can be understood as the change in distribution in space of particles under the influence
of a perturbation (kinetic energy) (and gravity for liquids submitted to Earths attraction). The
wave properties are emergent, thus they cannot be fundamental.
Consider this: When studied under a powerful microscope, waves disappear leaving nothing but
the motion of molecules. So would it make sense that we attribute to water molecules the
fundamental property of the wave? Of course not! So why do we attribute the fundamental
wave property to light? A property cannot at the same time be fundamental and emergent. And
if were going to use the wave model for light, then isnt not possible that its wavelike behavior
is also emergent? Couldnt waves emerge from the discrete interactions between photons and,
for instance, the material slits are cut into to create the familiar diffraction or interference
patterns? QGDs answer to the question is unequivocally yes.
We will show that the diffraction and refractions patterns of particles, including that of photons,
are actually scattering patterns that can be fully explained in terms of gravitational interactions
between photons and the experimental apparatus. Therefore, diffraction experiments with
larger particles dot not show that they possess wave properties similar to that of light, but the
opposite. That is, light shares the discrete structures of larger particles so that diffraction
patterns of light, too, emerge from the discrete gravitational interactions between photons and
the blocking material in which slits are cut. In other words, the diffraction and refraction
patterns can be fully explained without invoking any intrinsic or fundamental wave properties.
As a consequence, it can be argued that light is singularly corpuscular and the diffraction
patterns and interference patterns are simply scattering patterns of discrete particles caused by
gravitational interactions and the structure of quantum-geometrical space.
QGD proposes that all that is not space must be made of preons
we currently believe to be elementary, even photons. QGD also proposes that energy is an
intrinsic property of preons
93
Note that unlike Einstein's interpretation, E=mc is not an equivalence equation, but a
proportionality equation. In QGD, energy is an intrinsic property of matter and so cannot exist
without it. So energy can never be converted into matter nor matter be converted into energy.
Thus nuclear reactions are not events in which matter is converted into energy, but ones in which
bound particles are separated and carry with them their momentums.
Imagine two massive spheres in space, in absence of gravity, each equal in mass and moving at
high speed but attached by a string forcing them to orbit each other. Imagine that the system
consisting of orbiting spheres, taken as a whole, is at rest. Then, the momentum of the system is
equal to zero. Now, imagine that we suddenly cut the string. Taken as a whole, the energy of the
system does not change, but the spheres now move freely. The energy of each sphere hasn't
changed, but the sphere being free, they carry with them their momentum. Now, can we
conclude that part of the mass of the spheres changed into energy?
No, since they number of preons
This in essence is what happens in a nuclear reaction. Photons and other particles composing the
nuclear material which are bounded into a structure become free as a result of a nuclear
reaction and carry with them their momentum (in the special cases of photons and neutrinos, the
momentum is equal to the energy). The number of preons
of a system is unchanged by
nuclear reactions, so mass and energy do not change either. The only difference is that
previously bounded particles are now free to interact with other systems, imparting them with
their momentums.
Now back to our subject; the singularity of light.
When distance is very short, as when light passes through a physical medium or comes very
close to it, applying the QGD motion equation shows that the interaction between photons and
the matter of the apparatus produces diffraction patterns identical to those observed in
diffraction experiments.
Consider the simple apparatus
shown on the left in which
light from a single source
passes near a massive
structure and hits the screen.
Using the equations for
gravitational interaction and
94
G a; xm
95
The allowed deflection and forbidden deflection produce the well-recognised optical fringe
patterns classically associated with wave interference. In the above image, the light is assumed
to be composed of photons having the same mass.
When light is composite, the gravitational effect will separate photons according to their mass
(see image below)
96
Refraction of Light
In the previous section, we examined how photons interacting with matter can create the
diffraction patterns current physics associates with wave interference. It was shown that this
behavior of light can be fully explained using the QGD purely corpuscular model of light.
1. Photons are singularly corpuscular (so no wave-particle duality necessary)
2. Photons are composite particles made of preons
therefore
3. Photons have mass and that mass is equal to the number of preons that form it
4. Space is quantum-geometrical, that is, it has a discrete structure.
Hence, to predict the deflection of the trajectory of a photon, all we need to do is calculate the
gravitational interaction between it and whatever matter it interacts so that
P G a; xm
97
Below are a few examples of the application of the equation to refraction of light.
The image above illustrates the path of a
single photon. The red circles represent
positions of the photon. The green circles
represent the radius of gravitational
interaction significant enough to affect the
trajectory of the photon. The regions
highlighted in color represent the regions
or parts of the lens the photons
gravitationally interacts with. As we can
see, the yellow regions are significantly
smaller than the purple regions. The yellow
regions contain less matter than the purple
region, so the gravitational interaction
between the photon with and the purple
regions is greater than that with the yellow
regions and results in a net interaction
towards the purple region. The difference
in volume, hence mass, of the regions evidently depends on the shape of the lens. The lens in
this example is convex, which as we know will bend light towards a focal point.
Pb G R1; b G R2 ; b
and
Pb G R1; b G R2 ; b
Since mR2 mR1 , the
photon at the entry of
the lens will be
deviated towards R2 .
Similarly, at exit point,
mR2 mR1 , the photon
will be deviated
towards R2 . The next
image illustrates the path of a photon through a concave lens.
98
Pb G R1; b G R2 ; b and
Pb G R1; b G R2 ; b but
here we have mR2 mR1 .
Therefore the photon at the entry
of the lens will be deviated
towards R1 . Similarly, at exit
point, mR2 mR1 , the photon will
As one can see from the examples
given above, QGD provides not
only describes of optical effects
but provides an explanation for
the phenomena. In the case of refraction, QGD optics show that the changes in trajectory of
light passing through a lens depend on the lenss geometry which determines the shapes and
volumes (hence masses) of the regions of the lens photons will interact with.
In the above examples, we examined the refractions of a photon of arbitrary mass. But, as the
equation indicates, the degree of refraction is also a function of the photon's mass. Photons
having different masses will be refracted differently. Everything else being equal, the more
massive the photon, the greater the deflection from the otherwise rectilinear trajectory will be.
This explains why white light can be separated into photons of different masses (colors). by
gravitational or optical lensing For example, since blue photons are deviated more than red or
yellow photons, then red photons must be more massive than either red or yellow photons.
And since photons in QGD are singularly corpuscular, this implies that photons of have different
colors because they have different masses. Color depends on mass, not frequency.
That said, since the energy of a photon is given E
c
i 1
with classical wave optics that the energy of the more massive photons (towards the blue part
of the spectrum of the wave model) is greater than the energy of the less massive photons
(towards the red part of the spectrum). Thus the wave model can be understood as an
approximation of the QGD optics.
We will now use QGD optics to explain the phenomena of reflection of light and the
photoelectric effect. We will also explain how the two are caused by the same underlying
mechanisms.
99
Reflection and
the
Photoelectric
Effect
In the case where
mbc
x and
ma
mbc
1 , the
ma
momentum of the photon b is less than the minimum possible change in the momentum
of a . In this case of the proverbial unstoppable force meeting an immovable object, the
principle that comes into play is that of conservation of momentum of the system
consisting of a and b . If the photon cannot be absorbed then it can do two things. Pass
through a if it is transparent (this is discussed here) or, if a is not transparent, and the
momentum of the system is to be conserved, then b must be reflected.
As we have seen earlier, QGD predicts that the preons
100
mbc
mc
x and b 1 , the momentum of b is greater than the
ma
ma
mb c
being a nonma
integer, a can only absorb b by emitting a particle b such that Pb rb where rb is the
remainder of the Euclidian division
mb c
. It is here obvious here that rb , the momentum
ma
of b , if this particle is a photon, is also equal to its energy. The reflected photon will
have a lower momentum and then the incident photon (which we perceive has having a
different color). But b can be a particle other than a photon as long as its momentum is
equal to rb .
For instance, instead of a photon a can emit an electron. Though the emitted electron
from the photoelectric effect may have a much greater mass than that of the incident
photon which caused its emission, it possesses the same momentum.
QGD Optical Transistor
Using the notions we have introduced, we see that the optical properties of a transparent
structure can be changed predictably by bombarding it with photons having momentum
that is equal to or greater than the structure's mass. Such photons will be absorbed by the
structure and will change its mass which in turn will change the allowed value for the
momentums of incident photons, thus allowing photons that pass through it to do so and
vice versa. QGD optics may be applied to create logical gates using only optical
components making the theoretical optical transistor a possibility.
101
Pe
c
i 1
i 1
me
is the directional sum, Pe A; e is the projection of the momentum vector Pe along the
max
at of e d F 0 d d F
max
and R3 , all
In QGD, spheres correspond to convex polyhedron which sides are equilateral triangles have sides length
equal to 1. Geometrical spheres or Euclidian spheres exist in continuous space but not in quantumgeometrical space. Euclidian spheres are thus approximation of quantum-geometrical spheres.
102
Applying to QGDs laws of motion to the simplest atomic system, the hydrogen atom, we can
see that given there no other acting forces than those we described in the example, the
electrons trajectory will in the orbital region defined as all the preons
the sphere7 which distance to the nucleus is d F 0 . In this state of equilibrium, the motion of
0
Pe A; e G A; e A; e 0
The electron will remain on the d F 0 orbit indefinitely long as there are no other forces acts on
0
the system.
0 , which
negative value indicates is a repulsive force compensating the gravitational interaction and
be A; e
Since true spheres do not exist in quantum-geometrical space, what we call a sphere is a regular
polygon, which surface are made equilateral triangles having sides equal to one leap. The surface
approaches that of a geometrical sphere as the distances two diametrically opposite summits increases.
8
Based on QGDs model of the structure of particles, the electromagnetic effect between an electron and
a proton may be attractive or repulsive depending on the direction of the electron relative to motion of
the components of the proton.
103
For simplicity, let us first consider a single photon interacting with the electron of an
unbound hydrogen atom. As we have shown earlier, we know that when m c me , then the
photon will be reflected while if m c xme or m c xme then photon or part of the photon
will absorbed. Since an electron will absorb only photons which have specific discrete
momentums, the part of a photon that is absorbed is that which corresponds to xme , where x
is the quotient of the Euclidian division
m c
me
photon, with have a momentum equal xme , where x is the remainder of the Euclidian
division.
Note: In quantum-geometry dynamics, only integer quantities have physical meaning. In the case
of interactions, the quotient and remainder have distinct physical meaning. Also, since division
P ; A is the projection of the photons momentum vector on the axis connecting the
electron at point of absorption to the nucleus. Similarly, the figure on the right shows that when
the photon is absorbed from within the orbital region of the electron then P ; A 0 .
Let us assume that the electron moves within the d F orbital region, which is comprised all the
0
104
the electron. When the electron absorbs a photon such that m c xme , the electrons
momentum vector changes so that Pe Pe P Pe and consequently the interaction
P ; A Fmax then the electron will reach a region where G e ; A dominates and will
pull the electron back towards equilibrium, at which point it will reemit the absorbed photon .
In the cases where P ; A Fmax , then G e ; A will not dominate and cancel out the
move closer to the nucleus up to a region where e ; A will dominate and will push back the
electron towards the region of equilibrium. The electron will remit the absorbed photon which,
if m c xme , may be reemitted as x photons, each carrying momentum P
m
x
c .
In all cases except where P ; A Fmax , the electron will reemit the absorbed photon
and return to state of equilibrium in the orbital regions which, as we have seen earlier,
corresponds to all preons
Pe e ; A G e ; A e ; A 0 .
When P ; A Fmax the electron will be accelerated away from the atom at a rate
ve
Pe A; e G A; e A; e
me
Pe
me
for the photoelectric effect and photovoltaic effects. Also note that we have only considered the
simple case where an electron absorbs one photon and either going back to the state of
105
equilibrium by reemitting it or escaping the atom if the momentum imparted by the absorbed
photon is sufficient. It is however possible for an electron to absorb two or more photons, either
simultaneously or successively. It such case, we would need to consider the effect combined
momentums of the photons.
The mass of the electron which escapes its atom is me me m where me is the initial
1
mass of electron and m is the mass of the absorbed photon. Since the mass of the electron is
greater, then so will be the minimum momentum of absorbable photons. A photon can be
absorbed by e1 only if m c xme where x N .
1
Also, for the electron is that of an atom that is bounded into a structure a and P ma , and
P Fmax , then the photon cannot impart its momentum to the structure, so though it may
be absorbed by an electron. The resolution of the interaction requires that the photon absorbed
by the atomic electron be reemitted, which will restore the equilibrium.
106
Pe ei ; A G ei ; A
i
i 1,n
j 1,i 1
G ei ; e j ; A ei ; A
i 1,n
j 1,i 1
i 1,n
H e ; e ; A
j 1,i 1
i 1,n
0,
P e ; e ; A represent
G ei ; e j ; A and
j 1,i 1
respectively the projection along the e ; A axis of the combined gravitational and
electromagnetic interactions between a particular electron ei and the other n 1 electrons.
The number of electrons necessary for an atom to achieve equilibrium, what we understand as
stability, must then be equal to the maximum number of electrons for which the all the
equations of the equation set holds. That is, if n nmax where nmax is the maximum number of
electrons that will satisfy the orbital regions equation set then, the adding an nth 1 electron,
we must have
Pe
n 1
j 1
n 1
th
electron will be ejected by the atom. Note that if the expression on the left was not smaller than
Fmax , then there would be an nth 1 orbital region which would contradict the initial
assumption that n is the maximum number of electrons for which the equation set is satisfied.
Also, it is possible that more than one electron move within the same orbital region as long as
the equation set is satisfied, but we have yet to see how the actual value of nmax determined.
It also follows that if the number of electrons is less then n electrons then
Pe ei ; A G ei ; A
i
i 1,n
j 1,i 1
G ei ; e j ; A ei ; A
i 1,n
H e ; e ; A
j 1,i 1
xme and
the atom will attract and capture electrons that come in proximity until it reaches equilibrium.
107
It follows that as the universe evolves, its atoms will gradually satisfy the equilibrium. This
implies that arrangements that do not satisfy the equilibrium equation set are not stable and
will necessarily transform into arrangements that do. This mechanism acts a form of natural
selection were only stable arrangements will persist.
For the hydrogen atom, it would appear that there are no solutions for n 2 .
Proton-Particle Interactions
Since generally m c
particles) so photons are reflected by nucleons in accordance to the laws of optics we have
discussed earlier.
What is interesting here is that a photon reflected by a nucleus may interact with an electron
orbiting it; imparting its momentum the electron which will always add to the repulsive effects
between the nuclei and the electron.
Nucleon and Nucleus Equilibriums
The equilibrium equation set for atomic electrons are a special case of the equilibrium equation
sets that apply for all structures. All stable structures are described by solutions to similar
equilibrium equation sets. The motions of nucleons within a nucleus is subjected to the same
effects which determine the motion of bound electrons, the equilibrium states of a composite
nucleus is described by a set of equations having the form
Pa Ai ; Ai Fmax .
If F b; Ai \ b Pa Ai ; Ai and Pa mb , then if Pa b; A Fmax , then the fission
solution is Ai b and Ai A \ b . That is, the nucleon b will be ejected.
Note that as before, a structure can only absorb a particle or part of a particle which momentum
is an integer multiple of its mass, that is Pa xmAi where x N , so if
108
x 1 mA
Pa xmAi , then a part of a which will call a for which Pa xmAi will be
Pa Ai ; Ai Fmax ) but all forms of nuclear decay. Nuclear decay, as all forms of decay, are
not probabilistic events but causal events which is the result of the interaction of a nuclei with a
particle. The stability of nuclei is then directly proportional to Fmax .
Quantum Thermodynamics
According to QGD, what is classically referred to as the temperature of an object is not the
objects temperature as such but the temperature of a region of quantum-geometrical space
which boundaries coincide with the boundaries of the object.
We have defined the heat and temperature of a region of quantum-geometrical space R
nR
respectively as heatR
nR
P
i 1
and tempR
P
i 1
VolR
i th particle of the from the set of nR unbound particles contained within R and VolR is the
volume of R measured in preons
nR
P
i 1
nRa
and tempRa
P
i 1
VolRa
VolRa density p c
VolRa
mR
then
VolR
the minimum heat and temperature of an object correspond to the heat and temperature of the
109
vacuum. It follows a value of zero for heat and temperature of Ra is only possible for the very
special cases when VolRa
1
.
density p
Thermodynamics of a Body
The temperature of an object a , which we have defined as the temperature of a region Ra
nRa
P
i
i 1
vector of the i th of the nRa unbound particles within in Ra . The heat and temperature of a will
change as the value nRa and this value will change as photons enter or exit Ra and as photons
are absorbed or emitted by a . Thus nRs a 1 nRs a emita absa absRa emitRa where emita are
the photons emitted by a , absa are the photons it absorbs, absRa are the photons absorbed
from outside Ra , emitRa are the photons escaping Ra and s and s 1 are two successive
causality dependant states of Ra .
So the variation in heat and temperature between two successive states s and s 1 are
nRs a1
nRs a
nRs a1
nRs a
P P
i 1
j 1
VolRa
i 1
j 1
We can use the above definitions to describe what is classically called absorption, emission and
propagation of heat from and within an object, which in QGD are reinterpreted as the
absorption, emission and propagation of photons of a region which boundaries coincide with
the object. In order to do so, it may be simpler to divide the region Ra containing the object
into sub-regions Rai . The way Ra should be divided depends on the shape a and direction and
number of photon sources outside Ra .
Let us consider the simple example on the following page. The region containing the object a is
divided into sub-regions Ra1 , Ra2 and Ra3 . The figure shows the causally linked states which a
will go through after the being bombarded simultaneously by a number of photons. Well
assume here that the electrons of a are at equilibrium, all have the same mass and are
components of the same element, and that the photons i have the same momentum such that
m i c me .
110
The photons that hit a sub-region are either absorbed, reflected or refracted. The maximum
number of photons that can be absorbed at a given state is equal to the number of photons
simultaneously hitting the sub-region minus the number electron which are at equilibrium. So
given there are enough photons that hit the sub-region simultaneously and the maximum
number of absorbed photons is reached, the rest of the photons will be either reflected or
refracted. The distribution of heat, which is really the distribution of photons, will follow a
pattern similar to that of our example.
When atom electrons of a structure absorb photons, they move away from their proton and
since the repulsive magnetic effect is proportional to their mass, the net force between the
atoms decreases. Given enough photons are absorbed, the increase in repulsive
111
electromagnetic effect will break the atom bonds and lead a change in the physical state of the
structure.
Note: In a sense, electrons store heat, which they release when the photons are reemitted. It
stores by lengthening the trajectories of the photons. So the slowing down of the photons
moving through a medium is caused by the lengthening of their trajectories in two different
ways. By the helical trajectories it adopts within the electron and by the trajectory of the
electron it becomes bound to. For two photons fired at the same time, one through vacuum and
the other through a medium, the difference between the distances traveled by the two photons
will be equal to the lengthening of the second photons trajectory as it was absorbed and
remitted successively by the atomic electrons it interacted with. Thus structures store photons
temporarily by bounding them to electrons which trajectories they must follow. In essence, they
delay the passage of light.
Modes of Photon Absorption and Emission
If m c xme , the equilibrium may be restored though the successive emissions of n less
massive photons instead of the single photon . This is possible only if
m
i 1
m so that
1
m i c xme and if m i c xi me 1 where me is the mass of the electron prior to the
i
0
c
i 1
n
emission of the i th photon. This type of restoration of equilibrium explains, for example, why
phosphorescent materials will absorb photons and emit less massive photons over a longer
period. Considering the rates at which a structure will absorb or emit photons, it will take n
times as many emission events to restore equilibrium through multiple photon emissions as it
would take if equilibrium was restored through single photon emissions. Thus phosphorescence
i
1
will occur when m i c xme and m i c xi me 1 with n being the greatest when
0
c
i 1
xi 1 (which is the greatest duration of reemission.
n
We can also have the reverse effect when the electrons absorb several photons simultaneously
or successively before returning to equilibrium by emitting a single photon. Photons that are
absorbed simultaneously can be treated as if it were a single photon of equivalent resultant
n
momentum. If
m c
i 1
m c
i 1
photons. The modes of absorption and emission of photons will vary depending on the structure
of the atom as described by its orbital region equation set.
112
113
reflected by Rb . Hence, if PR1 and PR2 are respectively the resultant momentum of the
preons hitting Ra from R1 and R2 , then we must have PR1 PR2 . And, if
PR1 PR2 xmRa , then net momentum imparted to Ra will be PRa xmRa . In other
words, if Ra was free, it would be pushed towards R2 and its speed will increase by
PR PR
2
1
mRa
PR PR
2
. Similarly, R3 would move towards R2 at vRb 3
mRa
It is important to note that, If QGD is correct then the Casimir effect must affect all objects
which divides quantum-geometrical space asymmetrically. It follows that the Casimir effect
must affect objects at the cosmic scale as well; pushing cosmic structures towards each other
and contributing to the dark matter effect.
114
calculated by comparing the difference in luminosity between the observed source and the
reference source and by taking into account the difference in luminosity between the stages of
evolution of the observed and reference sources.
Since the mass of electrons of a emission source increases exponentially as the source evolves,
n
1
that is me me 1 where n is the number of photons absorbed by me , the
0
n
0
c
1
c
is given by z m a m b or z
me me
a
Since the average mass of the photons from a source directly depends directly on its stage of
evolution, we can attribute a numerical value it in the following manner.
s
1
A source is at stage s of its evolution if me me 1 where me is the minimum mass
s
s
0
c
of the electrons of a particular element of the source, me the mass of initial electrons.
0
z m s m s where sa and sb are respectively the stage of evolution at which the sources a
a
b
and b where at the momentum they emitted the photons we are comparing.
Distance Between Observed and Reference Sources of Photons
115
And sb sa 0 then the observed increase in the redshift effect will be larger than which
that can be attributed to the evolution of a and b which implies that a is moving away from b
and va ;b 0 .
That said, since the rate at which a source evolves from one stage to next is not constant (it
depends on the density of free absorbable photons corresponding to each stage) then actual
distance can only be roughly approximated from the observed redshift. Distance can be better
approximated by comparing the luminosity of observed source to the reference source.
We will see later, that the only way to get the actual distance of an object is to measure the
gravitational interaction between the observed source and a reference object.
d
where d
t
is the distance an object will travel during a time interval t , both of which expressed in
standardized but arbitrarily defined units. But QGD considers time to be non-physical and so
offers a definition of speed that does not make use of the concept of. We have seen that QGD
Speed is classically defined as the ratio of the distance of displacement over time or
defines the speed of a body a as the ratio of its momentum over its mass or
understanding that ma is the number of preons
Pa
with the
ma
defined as the resultant of the momentum vectors of each of its component preons
or
116
ma
c
i 1
where ci c all of which are expressed in fundamental units which by definition are
c
i 1
mb
i 1
ci mbc so that vb
c
i 1
mb
mb
mbc
c . Note that ci is the energy of b so that for
mb
i 1
c
.
va
That said; no experiments will ever the measure absolute speed of light or, for that matter, the
absolute speed of any other object. Since the measured speed of light is relative to the speed of
the reference object, and vice versa, there is no way to isolate c or va from the ratio
c
so that
va
neither can be known. But what if we designed an experiment based, not on the classical
117
definition of speed, but on QGDs definition; that is, design an experiment which aims to
measure the speed of light (or any object) against quantum-geometrical space.
Since the absolute speed of an object a can be understood as its speed against quantumgeometrical space, it va can be calculated by comparing the distance it travels with the distance
traveled by reference free preon
d a va
d
so that a c va
db c
db
. The problem here is that we cant know va without first knowing c which requires that we
measure the speed of a preon
so we get
or photon then d a d b
db
c c or c c . It may appear that this statement is trivial, but what it means for
db
physics is that any experiment that will attempt to measure the speed of an object against
quantum-geometrical space will always come down to the physical tautology that the speed of
light is equal to the speed of light. Hence, motion against quantum-geometrical space cannot be
detected or measured. This is one of several reasons that explains the failure of the MichelsonMorleys and similar experiments that attempted to measure the speed of the Earth against the
aether (the Michelson-Morley experiment suffers from other interesting theoretical problems,
which well discuss in the addendum at the end the present section).
Now, you would be justified to ask: if it is impossible to measure the absolute speed of an
object, hence impossible to detect quantum-geometrical space, how can we prove it exists?
How can we prove the existence of preons
produces the effect of gravity? Ultimately, how can we know quantum-geometry dynamics is a
valid theory when we cant test one of its defining axioms?
Though it is true that we will never be able to detect quantum-geometrical space, the
assumption of its existence allows QGD to provide descriptions and explanations of observable
phenomenon but, most importantly, to make unique predictions that can be tested at
observable scales of reality.
it
contains, but an experiment which will attempt to measure this will require that we know the
118
is
Similarly, it can be shown that all experiments that aim to absolutely measure other aspects of
reality such as the absolute distance between two preons
gravitational interaction, etc., all are tautological. All follow the theorem.
Fundamental reality is the absolute limit of the experimental method.
What the theorem implies is that if something is truly fundamental; it cannot be absolutely
measured and/or observed. That is: any and all measurements are inherently relative.
119
sphere a occurs. So if va is the speed at which the detonation of sphere a is set to explode and
Conclusion
We have seen in this series how light-matter interactions can only be understood when taking
into account the effect of quantum-geometrical space on matter and light. And once we accept
that light, like all material structures, is made of preons
matter-space interactions. Thus since optical phenomena are special cases of matter-space
interactions, they are governed by the same general laws that govern the motion of all matter.
Contrary to classical space, quantum-geometrical space is not a passive medium in which
physical events and interactions occur, but an active component in all events and interactions.
The effects of quantum-geometrical space are as tangible as the effects of matter.
120
Finally, it is important to remember that the examples given in this illustrate specific
mechanisms which in nature do not act in isolation. The photons that compose the beam of light
that hits an object can be partly absorbed and/or reflected and/or refracted and/or diffracted all
at once depending on the properties of the matter they interact with.
The mechanisms we described also explain how the mass of photons change as they travel from
a distant source. Photons emitted by a star, for example, will lose mass which equates into loss
of momentum (or, since for photons momentum and energy are equal, less energy). This wellknown and observed phenomenon is called the redshift effect. The variation in the mass of
photons provides some indication of the distance from the source (the larger distance it travels
the more likely they are to interact with interstellar matter), but though there is a correlation
between the distance and the amplitude of the redshift effect, the correspondence is not
necessarily proportional.
121
preons will become part of the electrons structure). And finally, if Pb xma , the electron
Pb
ma and will an electron b such
ma
Pb
ma and mb mb n and with momentum and energy equal to nc .
ma
that Pb Pb
The above not only explains the absorption lines of an atom, but also the emission lines since
emitted photons must definite momentum (see spectral line).
The reader may wonder what the above has to do with collision physics at our scale. What the
law of motions at the fundamental scale got to do with the physics that govern how a baseball
will transfer momentum to a ball or how the balls of poll transfer momentum to each other?
We will show in the chapter that all physical phenomena are governed by the same forces and
effects and that the physics at our scale being observable consequence of fundamental
interactions and as such should be describable using the same equations as those used for
fundamental phenomena.
Baseball Physics
A postulate of quantum-geometry dynamics is that space is fundamentally discrete (quantumgeometrical, to be precise). Of course, proving this using our present technology may appear to
be beyond difficult especially if, as QGD suggests, the discreteness of space exists at a scale that
is orders of magnitude smaller than the Planck scale. The task of proving that space is made of
fundamental reality lies beyond the limit of the observable. That said, in the same article I
9
The reader will remember that in the special case of photons and neutrinos, momentum is equal to energy so that
Pb
mb
c
i 1
mb
ci mbc
i 1
where
ci
b.
122
existence implies consequences and effects that must be observable at larger scales.
This implies that we already observed consequences of space and matter being quantumgeometrical but only lacked the theory capable of recognize them. It then makes sense to reexamine observations which, when interpreted by QGD, may provide proof of that space is
quantum-geometrical. And this is exactly what we will do in the present article. But before doing
so, we need to explain how QGDs explanation of the law of conservation of momentum at the
fundamental scale can be used to explain the conservation of momentum at our scale.
According to QGD, the momentum of a particle or structure is given by Pa
ma
c
i 1
where
Pa
ma
Pa
ma
ci and Pb
i 1
mb
c
i 1
Pa
ma
and vb
Pb
mb
. We also know
that saw that, if space is quantum-geometrical, any change in momentum of an object must an
exact multiple of it mass. That is : Pa xma . As a consequence, unless the mass of the bat is
an exact multiple of the mass of the ball, it cannot transfer all of its momentum to it. Then
Pb
x
ma
Pb
and Pa
ma
123
Both bat and ball cannot occupy the same region of quantum-geometrical space, nor can they
move through each other; which is prevented by the preonic exclusion (a preon
occupied by only one preon
can be
electrons of the ball and the bat. In short, the balls momentum along the axis of impact is not
allowed. Similarly, the momentum of the bat along the perpendicular axis that passes through
the point of impact is also not allowed. We will show that the momentums of the ball and the
bat at impact must momentarily become is zero.
To resolve the impact event and at the same time conserve momentum, the ball and the bat
must emit particles that carry with them the forbidden momentums and which bring their
momentum along the axis of impact down to zero. If ai is one of na particles emitted by the
na
P
i 1
nb
P
i 1
bi
ai
Pa a; b and
ball and the bat along the axis of impact (in gray in see figure below).
Now we know from observation of such
mechanical systems that the ball and the
bat will transfer part their forbidden
momentums to each other. What happens
is that the bat will absorb the particles ai
emitted by the ball and the ball will absorb
the particles bi which have been emitted
by the bat at impact. For a perfectly elastic
collision, the momentums of the ball and
the bat after impact, respectively Pa and
Pa Pa Pa a; b Pb a; b and
Pb Pb Pb a; b Pa a; b . These equations provide a sufficiently precise description of the
dynamics of momentum transfer at our scale, but they differs significantly from reality when we
examine the impact at the microscopic scale at which, as we have seen in earlier posts, space is
not continuous but quantum-geometrical.
If are to remain consistent with the axioms of QGD, then the momentum particles or structures
(here the ball and the bat) can only change by discrete values which must be integer multiples of
their mass; which QGD defines simply as the number of preons
124
nb
na
nb
Pbi
this means that Pa xma , where ma ma mai mbi and x i 1 ; the quotient
ma
i
i
of the Euclidean division of the sum of the momentums of the emitted particles over the mass
nb
Pbi
of the ball after absorption of the particles so that Pa Pa Pa a; b i 1 ma . This
ma
implies that given the remainder of the above Euclidian division must correspond to sum of the
momentums of the particles emitted by the bat but which the ball is forbidden to absorb. That
nb
nb
nb
Pbi
is; Pbi Pbi i 1 ma where i is the unique cardinal number attributed to one of nb
ma
i 1
i 1
particles that are absorbed or one of the nb particles which absorption by the ball is forbidden
and nb nb nb .
If the impact preserves the physical integrity of the ball, the momentum that is not transferred
to it will be radiated away carried by photons (mostly as infrared). If the impact is such that
physical integrity of the ball is not preserved, then the particles could also be electrons, atoms
or molecules.
Similarly, the bat will absorb photons from the ball and its momentum after impact will be
na
na
P
nb
nb
Pai
ai
Pb Pb Pbi i 1 mb and Pb Pb Pbi i 1 mb .
mb
mb
i 1
i 1
Using QGDs definition of speed we find that the speed of the ball after impact is va
Pa
with
ma
nb
Pbi
P a; b
va a
i 1 . So if the momentum of the ball along the impact axis is less than
ma
ma
that of the bat, then the ball after impact will have greater momentum, hence speed. If the
momentum of the ball along the impact axis is greater than that of the bat, then the ball will
have less momentum and speed after impact.
125
The physics of baseball bat hitting a baseball illustrates the fundamental mechanisms
responsible for transfer of momentum. It is an example of how the physics at quantumgeometrical scale determines the behaviour at larger scales. For instance, it can be shown that
much of the same equations we used to describe the physics of baseball can be used to describe
nuclear fission. This is not surprising since, according to QGD, the same forces and laws apply at
all scales.
Newtons Cradle
Everyone is familiar with Newtons Cradle, a simple mechanism which is thought to demonstrate
the law of conservation of momentum. Paradoxically, the physics of Newton struggles to
describe and explain the behaviour of this simple system of steel balls. In fact, even the full
power of continuous mathematics can only provide an approximation of the behaviour of such a
system and even that must be at the cost of undesirable and awkward complications.
The reader may ask why, today, anyone should bother trying to explain such a trivial device
when there are so many exciting phenomena to which quantum-geometry dynamics can be
applied. Let me ask this question: How can Newtons cradle be a device demonstrating
Newtons laws of motion when Newtons laws of motion cannot explain its behaviour? Also,
since quantum-geometry dynamics claims to explain the dynamics of motion at all scales (and
do so in as a simple and straightforward way), applying it successfully to Newtons cradle should
be easy. Not to mention, an excellent opportunity to test its validity. It also doesnt hurt that
building any version of Newtons cradle is considerably less expensive than, lets say, a particle
accelerator.
The first thing we must do is equationte the problem in QGD terms. Given a Newtons cradle
system having n steel balls, when lifting then dropping subset consisting of x numbers of balls,
the impact with set y number of balls will in motion. The problem will be to predict and explain
which balls will be set in motion from the impact as well as determine their momentum and
speed.
We have explained earlier articles that QGD defines the momentum of an object a as
Pa
ma
Pa
i 1
ma
momentum and speed are intrinsic properties independent of the frame of reference.
We also know that the preons
126
) is such that
P
i 1
ai
Pa j
where
P
i 1
j 1
ai
and
j 1
aj
are
respectively the momentum of a group of x balls pulled and released together and the
momentum of the group of balls set in motion after impact.
y
P
j 1
aj
yzma or
aj
j 1
zma and
since
i 1
Pai Pa j then
j 1
ai
i 1
integer multiple of the mass of a ball. This all we need to explain and predict the behaviour of a
Newtons cradle system from initial conditions are known. Lets examine now a few examples
showing how the above applies.
In the example shown in the figure on the left, x 3 which leave 2 balls on the right. Now, we
know that the momentum can only be transferred in integer multiples of ma , and since the
three balls carry an integer multiple of ma (equivalent to an integer number of balls), if it were
to be transferred to the remaining two balls, the resulting change of momentum for each ball
would be a non-integer. Non-integer changes in momentum are forbidden by structure of
quantum-geometrical space.
So the total momentum that can be transferred to the two red balls is 2 Pa , 1 Pa each, but
since the total momentum of the blue balls is 3 Pa that leaves us with 3 Pa 2 Pa 1 Pa .
Since the remaining momentum cannot be transferred, it will be kept by the blue balls. But here
127
again, it cannot be divided between the three blue balls, which would imply them having
momentums that are non-integer multiples of ma . The remaining momentum will be kept by
one of the balls, which evidently is the blue ball on the right. The result will be as shown in the
figure on the left.
The example above shows a configuration where x 4 , leaving one ball. Applying what weve
learned above, we see that four is divisible by one. Then the entire momentum of the blue balls
can be transferred to the red ball. Using QGD definitions we gave at the beginning of this article,
we find that the speed of red ball is four times that of the speed of the group of blue balls.
Now, lets make thing a little more complicated by using a cradle where the balls are of different
mass.
128
The cradle above is made using balls having different mass. With the large balls being exactly
twice as massive as the smaller balls. In the figure above, x will not represent the number of
balls pulled, since we have balls of two different masses, but the equivalent number of small
balls. So here x 3 . Using the same logic as above, the momentum of the blue balls will be
transferred in its entirety to one ball.
Now, some readers may ask why cant the momentum of the blue balls be transferred to three
red balls instead since such change in momentums are integer multiples of ma (here ma is the
mass of a small ball). The answer is that if a ball can transfer its momentum it will. Transfer of
momentum is compulsory if possible and in the example above, the successive balls from impact
can transfer the momentum and so they do. The last red ball has no other ball to transfer the
momentum to, so it must carry it. And its speed will be three times that of the group of blue
balls before impact.
Allow me one last example using the cradle above.
129
In the above figure x 7 , but the momentum cannot be transferred completely to the red
balls. 6 Pa can be transferred to the six red balls on the left, leaving us with 1 Pa . But 2 Pa
is required to move the large red ball and fractional changes in momentum being forbidden, the
remaining momentum cannot be transferred to it. As a result, it must be kept by one of the blue
balls. The blue ball that will carry the remaining 1 Pa with be the one on the left. And since it
cannot move towards the right, to conserve momentum, it will have to be reflected back to the
left (see figure below).
I leave it to the reader to figure out what in this last example when the blue ball on the left and
the group of red balls on the right swing back to impact the remain balls. But that shouldnt be
difficult using the notions presented in this article.
130
What we have shown here is that Newtons cradle can be used to demonstrate at our scale
QGDs concepts of speed, momentum and conservation of momentum which we have used so
far to describe the motion of particles and structures at the fundamental scale. It follows that
the laws of motion at all scales are consequences of the fundamental scale interactions. As in
the previous article, A Remarkably Simple Proof of the Discreteness of Space, we have shown
that physics at our scale is the observable consequences of physics at the fundamental scale.
Readers may be interested in reading Rocking Newtons Cradle by S. Hutzler, G. Delaney, D.
Weaire and F. McLeod) as an example of how complicated it can be to describe even this simple
system using classical physics.
Pai
s 1
G ais ; a js 1
j 1
Gs1 ai|s1; a j|s1 G ai|s1; a j|s1 G ai|s ; a j|s and s and s 1 are successive states of
the system (a state being understood as the momentum vectors of the bodies of a
system at given co-existing positions of the bodies) and ai|s x is the body ai and its
position when at the state s x . The position itself is denoted ai |s x .
In order to plot the evolution in space of such a system, we must choose one of the
bodies as a reference so that the motions of the others will be calculated relative to it. A
reference distance travelled by our reference body is chosen, d ref , which can be as
small as the fundamental unit of distance (the leap between two preons or preonic
leap) but minimally small enough as to accurately follow the changes in the momentum
vectors resulting from changes in position and gravitational interactions between the
bodies.
So given an initial state s , the state s 1 corresponds to the state described by the
positions and momentum vectors of the bodies of the system after the reference body
travels a distance of d ref . For simplicity, we will assign a1 to the reference body.
131
G
a1|s ; a j|s 1 | a1|s 1
a1|s
a1|s 1
j 1
s 1
...
|
... (5)
n
Pa Pa G an|s ; a j|s 1 | a |s 1
n|s
n
j 1
n|s 1
Using the state matrix, the evolution of a system from one state to the next is obtained
by simultaneously calculating the change in the momentum vectors from the variation
in the gravitational interaction between bodies resulting from their change in position.
Changes in the momentum vectors have are as explained earlier. Changes in position
va d
are given by ai |s 1 ai |s i ref Pai . The distance travelled by ai from s to s 1 is
va1 Pai
vai
va1
d ref (for j 1 , the distance becomes simply d ref ) and distance between two bodies
d 2 ai ;ai |s 1 d ai ;a j |s 1
d 2 ai ;ai |s d ai ;ai |s
ma ma k
ma ma k
,
2
2
ma ma k ma ma k
0
the variation in the gravitational interaction between a body with itself is equal to zero,
which implies that its momentum vector will remain unchanged unless n 1 and
n
G an|s ; a j|s 1 0 . This is the QGD explanation of the first law of motion.
j 1
132
133
1. The Universe is the sum of all preons and preons , which implicitly includes
energy or
EU mU c .
Virtually all of physics considers space to be an amorphous expanse in which physical systems
exist and interact. As a consequence all physics theories are theories of matter (or matter and
energy to be precise). Quantum-geometry dynamics too is a theory of matter, but it is also a
theory of space. Also, according to QGD, not only is space quantum-geometrical and emergent,
it also determines the very structure of all matter.
134
From QGDs First Principle of Cosmology, it follows that in order to gain some
understanding of how the Universe evolved all one needs to understand the
fundamental laws of physics, its mechanisms and the conditions that prevail now.
The fundamental laws of physics are those which govern the two fundamental particles
and their associated forces. The mechanism by which matter forms are axiomatically
derived from the fundamental properties of preons and preons . Also derived from
the fundamental properties is how particles and physical structures interact to produce
the gravity effect and the electromagnetic effects and all forces and yet to be discovered
known.
Principle of Strict Causality:
Given any two types of physical objects where the objects of the first type are
constituents of the objects of the second type, then the pre-existence of the objects of
the first type is an essential and necessary condition to the formation of the objects of
the second type.
The principle of strict causality being based on properties of physical reality, it offers the
possibility of understanding the evolution of the Universe as sequences of events that
are causally connected. The principle of strict causality effectively replaces the relational
concept of time.
The principle of strict causality implies is that the Universe does not evolve with time,
but changes from state to state as a consequence of concurrent series of events causally
related.
The reader will notice that the Principle of Causality is non-relativistic and neither calls
upon the concept of time nor the concept of observer. It only takes into account the
quantum-geometric structures of the physical objects and their movement within
quantum-geometric space.
Law of Conservation:
Conservation of Space
QGD proposes that it be the repulsive force of n-gravity acting between preons
generates space (n-gravity being the fundamental force intrinsic to preons
that
). Since preons
are fundamental particles, they obey the law of conservation which states that nothing
fundamental can be created or destroyed. It follows that there must be a finite number of
preons , which in turn implies that there is a finite number of interactions, thus a finite
135
136
a film, a poem or a mathematical theory), it must be emergent and can theoretically be derived
from the fundamental axiomatic set.
The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
Quantum-geometry dynamics describes the initial state of the Universe as being one in which
preons were free and distributed uniformly throughout the quantum-geometrical space.
Following this initial state, low mass photons started to form in accordance to the mechanism
we have described earlier. When the photons produced were of sufficient mass (which
corresponds to the radio frequency in the wave model of light) , they formed what we call the
microwave cosmic background radiation; the isotropy of the CMBR being easily explained by the
isotropy of the preon
are still free today and still form photons (though at slightly the lower rate)
preons , the universe must contain low mass neutrinos which, because of the analogy to the
CMBR, we can call the cosmic neutrino background. But unlike the CMBR, which photons are
sufficiently massive to interact with instruments, the CNB neutrinos interact too weakly to be
detected directly.
Small Structure Formation
The strict causality principle, which requires the pre-existence of a structures components,
implies that photons and neutrinos formed electrons, positrons and neutrinos. In fact, the wellknown electron-positron annihilation is simply the reverse of the mechanism of particle
formation.
Large Structures
The formation of large structures also follows the principle of strict causality. It implies the
formation of larger particles, then nuclides (the components of the atomic nucleus) then light
atoms. These eventually formed planets, stars and galaxies. The formation of increasingly
massive structures (elements) continued in stars where the gravitational interactions are
sufficient for the formation of elements.
implies that
quantum-geometrical space imposes a limit to the density any structure can have. The density
137
enough space to keep in motion. It follows that black must have very large yet finite densities.
Angle between the Rotation Axis and the Magnetic Axis
The effect of the helical motions of the electrons in direction of the rotation of a body adds up
so that, at a large scale, the body behaves as a single large electron which though helical
trajectory around the body interacts with the neighbouring preonic region to generated a
magnetic field.
Since the magnetic field is the result of the polarization of free preons
helical trajectory, and since the inclination of these loops increases with the speed of rotation,
so does the angle between these loops and the axis of rotation inscreases. It follows that the
angle between the axis of rotation and the magnetic axis for bodies of given material
composition is proportional to the speed of rotation about its axis and its diameter.
This angle between the axis of rotation and the magnetic axis is small for slowly rotating bodies
but can never be so small that the axes coincide. From the above, it also follows that a faster
rotation not only implies a larger the angle between the rotation axis and the magnetic axis is,
but also a flattening of the magnetic field and an increase in its intensity.
The Inner Structure of Black Holes
To understand the structure of a black hole we will look at what happens to a photon when it is
captured by it the gravitational pull.
The model for light refraction that we introduced in earlier articles can be applied directly to
photon moving through a black hole. Since we assume that the black hole is extremely massive,
its trajectory will bring it towards the center of the black hole.
When moving along the magnetic axis of the black hole, the component preons
preon
of the
pairs of the photon are pulled away from each other, splitting the photon into free
preons which may or not recombine into neutrinos. This works as follow:
As we have seen earlier in this book, the force binding the preons
of a preon
pairs is
gravitational. The QGD gravitational interaction between particles at the fundamental scale is
G a; b mamb k
d2 d
and p2
of a preon
pair of a photon.
138
The regions R1 and R2 , on each side of the black hole axis are equally massive regions. If we
call R1 and R2 the regions each side of p1 when the photons trajectory is aligned with the
of preon
How do we that the gravitational forces within a black hole are sufficiently strong to cause the
photons to be broken down into preons
were not enough to breakdown the photons, then photons moving along a black hole axis would
escape into space making the black hole visible. Since black holes do not emit light, then the
gravitational interactions must be strong enough to break photons down into preons
and
neutrinos.
which because of the the electro-gravitational interactions move back toward the magnetic axis.
But, because the quantum-geometrical space occupied by the black holes is densely populated
by particles which affect randomly the trajectories of the single preons
arrive at the magnetic axis of the black hole at different positions. And if they are in close
enough proximity, the single preons
being made of preons
or neutrinos will move through the center of the black hole and will
139
exit it. Preons and neutrinos can escape the gravitation of the black hole because
momentums which, as we have seen in earlier articles is fundamental and intrinsic (the
momentum of a preon
).
It follows, that all matter that falls into a black hole will be similarly disintegrated into preons
and neutrinos, which will exit the black hole. The black hole will thus radiate preons
neutrinos, in jets at both poles of their magnetic axis of rotation. Since preons
and
and neutrinos
interact too weakly with instruments to be detected by our instruments, they are invisible to
them. In order to see the preons
detectors larger than our solar system. However, the jets can be observed indirectly when they
interact with large amount of matter when the polarized preons
impart it with their intrinsic momentum. It is worth noting that polarized preons and neutrinos
jets, as described by QGD, would contribute to the observed dark energy effect.
Based on QGDs model of the black hole, we can predict that the preons
form an extremely intense polarized preons
equivalent of a repulsive electromagnetic effect at both poles. The polarized preonic field would
repulse all matter on their path, which may explain the shape of galaxies.
From what we have discussed in the preceding section, we can define a black hole as an object
which mass is such that it can breakdown all matter, including photons, into preons
The QGD model of the physics of black hole has another important implication. The preons
and neutrinos resulting from the breakdown of a particle or structure are indistinguishable from
the preons
or neutrinos resulting from the breakdown of any other particle or structure. This
means, if QGD is correct, that all information about the original particle or structure is lost
forever. That said, since this consistent from QGDs axioms set and since, unlike quantum
mechanics, QGD does not require that information be preserved, the loss of information it
predicts does not lead to a paradox ( see this article for an excellent introduction to subject).
Neutron Stars, Pulsars and Other Supermassive Structures
When the mass of a structure is sufficient to bind photons, but insufficient to breakdown
photons, electrons and positron, we get a stellar structure which can emit these particles.
The internal gravitational interactions will redirect particles towards the magnetic axis of the
stellar structures where, when its trajectory coincides with an axis, the gravitational force from
the stellar object acting on the particles will cancel out and the particle will escape the object
into outer space. Such structures may correspond to what we call neutron stars. So what
140
and G p2 ; R1 G p2 ; R2 k 1 . That is, the gravitational force within the neutron star
which acts on particles is insufficient to breakdown photon, electron and positrons.
Another prediction is that distinguishes quantum-geometry dynamics is that neutron stars are
not composed of neutrons. The internal gravitational forces being such that they would break
down all particles into neutrinos, photons, electrons and positrons.
Pulsars
When a neutron star rotates at a sufficiently high rate, it interacts with the preonic field in such
a way that it creates an intense magnetic field. Such magnetic field will be sufficiently strong to
curve the trajectory of all neutrinos, photons, electrons and positrons that move past its surface
back into pulsar. Particles that move along its axis of rotation, along which the electromagnetic
force cancel out, will escape at the magnetc poles producing the known bidirectional emission
characteristic of pulsars.
Cosmological Consequences
The mechanism of emission of preons
been completely evaporated; which it will after it has absorbed all matter in its vicinity. By this
mechanism, preons
which had formed particles and structures are disintegrated into free
eventually leading to the formation cosmic structures and black holes. And later, due to
gravitational interactions, these cosmic structures will ultimately be absorbed by black holes,
which break down matter into preons
preons is constant, but within that space massive structures will gradually collapse towards
their center.
To the observer, a locally condensing universe is nearly indistinguishable from an expanding
universe. For instance, the distance between galaxies progressively increases in both locally
condensing universe (LCU) and expanding universe (EU). And in both the rates at which the
galaxies retract from each other increases, which indicates that galaxies retract at accelerated
rate in both the LCU and EU. So if both LCU and EU are nearly indistinguishable to the observer,
how do we know which is correct? Is there any evidence which would support LCU?
141
The observational evidence exists and has been known from some time as redshift anomalies.
The redshift is simply the shift of the frequency of light coming from a moving source (which is
understood to be analogous to the Doppler Effect for sound). Established theories belief that
the faster the relative speed of the source of light away from the Earth, the greater the redshift
of the light coming from that source. The magnitude of the redshift is used to calculate the
distance between galaxies and the rate at which they recede from each other.
QGD implies that the redshift effect is dependent on the speed of the emitter but independent
from the speed of the observer. This will be discussed in the section titled Mapping the
Universe.
According to the Big Bang theory, which is the dominant theory of the expanding universe, the
further away galaxies are, the faster they will recede from us. This implies that neighboring
cosmic structures (galaxies, quasars, etc.) would recede from us at the same rate, thus have the
same redshift. This is generally true, but there are an increasing number of observations that
show neighboring cosmic structures having significant differences in their redshifts. This would
indicate that the rate at which they recede from us differs by many orders of magnitude.
Redshift anomalies (and there are now thousands of them) are in direct opposition with the Big
Bang and other expanding universe theories.
Yet, redshift anomalies support the idea of a locally condensing universe. Not only do redshift
anomalies support QGD cosmology, they are predicted by QCD cosmology. Redshifts, according
to QGD, are not an indication of the rate at which they galaxies recede, but the rate at which
they collapse (which itself is a function of the density of the galaxy or cosmic structure). The
acceleration of the rate at which galaxies recede is also consistent with rate at which they would
collapse under the gravitational effect described by QGD.
The rate of collapse of cosmic structures follows the same laws of motion that have been
described in earlier chapters. As such it is affected by their mass and density, but also by the
gravitational interactions between them. Using the QGD gravitational interaction equation, the
rate of collapse between galaxies will be affected by dark energy or dark matter effects
depending on the distance between them. The dark energy and dark matter effect will also
determine the shapes of the interacting galaxies. Given certain distance exceeding a certain a
value, n-gravity will be dominant (the dark energy effect) resulting in a flattening of the galaxies
along the axis that connects them. While at distances lower than the equilibrium point, p-gravity
becomes dominant (the dark matter effect) and the shape galaxies will expand along the axis
connecting them.
The same principle explains why the material universe (that part of the universe where matter is
concentrated) is nearly flat (something that the Big Bang and other expanding universe theories
cant explain). Thus the universe should become flatter as it evolves.
142
143
Preons and preons , are fundamental. As such and in accordance with the
That is, preons and preons not only existed at the origin of the Universe. They are
Where mU is the mass of the preonic universe and VolU is the number of preons its
x
space is composed of. But since lim 2 0 , at the macroscopic scale, the relative
x x
value of mU and VolU become negligible and we can simply write10:
kmU2 / 2 VolU2 / 2
Also, from the QGD definitions of heat, temperature and entropy we know that, since in
the primordial universe contained only free preons , the heat it contained was equal
mU
mU c
and its entropy
VolU
being the difference between its energy and heat, and heat and energy being equal in
the preonic universe, its entropy was equal to zero.
Since QGD implies that all quantities are finite, even mathematical quantities, represents the largest
theoretical quantity of any physical property. In this equation it may be taken as the number of n-gravity
interactions in the universe.
10
144
Interestingly, since VolU kmU2 the temperature of the preonic universe is given by
mU c
kmU2
c
.
k
Hence, the temperature of the preonic universe is a ratio of c and k ; the two
fundamental constants of quantum-geometry dynamics.
145
146
In the figure above, we have the visible part of the hydrogen emission spectrum. Here the first
visible band correspond to a change in momentum of the electron a by emission of a photon
with momentum mbi c ima . Notice that the lowest possible value, which is at the far end of
the spectrum is given when i 1 . Each emission line corresponds to allowable emission of a
photon from an hydrogen atoms single electron. In agreement with the laws of motion
introduced earlier, each emitted photon has a specific momentum mbi c (hence, a specific mass
mbi ). For values of x i and x i 3 which are respectively towards the infrared and
ultraviolet; the momentum puts them outside the boundaries of visible light.
For an atom a having n components electrons ai in its outer orbits (the ones that will interact
most with external photons) where 1 i n and having mass mai the emission lines of its
component electrons ai corresponds to photons bi such that mbc xi mai and its spectrogram
is the superposition of the emission lines of all its electrons. An example of the superimposition
of the emission spectrums of the electrons of iron is shown in the illustration below. Note that
an electron can have only one change in momentum at the time, emitting or absorbing a photon
of corresponding momentum. So emission spectrograms are really composite images made
from the emission of a large enough number of atoms to display the full emission spectrum of
an element.
147
of electron ai belonging to an atom of an element from a distance source is smaller than the
mass of the corresponding electron ai belonging to the atom of the same element on Earth. In
the same way, the blueshift of the emission lines of the emission spectrum of an atom implies
that mai mai .
So, according to QGD, the redshift and blueshift effects imply that the electrons of the light
emitting source are respectively less and more massive than the local reference electron a .
Therefore, quantum-geometry dynamics does not attribute the redshifts and blueshifts effects
to a Doppler-like effect (which in the absence of a medium doesnt make sense anyway) and, as
a consequence, these effects are not speed dependant. Hence redshifts and blueshifts provide
no indication of the speed or distance of their source.
From the mechanisms of particle formation introduced earlier, we understand that though all
electrons share the same basic structure they can have different masses. As matter aggregates
though gravitational interactions, electrons absorb neutrinos, photons or preons
and
gradually become more massive. It follows that redshifted photons must be emitted by sources
at a stage of their evolution that precedes the stage of evolution of our reference source.
Similarly, blueshifted photons being more massive were emitted at a stage of their evolution
that succeeds that stage of evolution of our reference source. However, it cant be assumed that
sources of similarly redshifted photons are at similar distances from us unless they are part of a
system within which they have simultaneously formed. The sources of similarly redshitted
photons may be at greatly varying distances from us. Also, a source of blueshifted photons can
be at the same distance as a source of redshifted photons would be. Therefore, there are
important discrepancies between a map using QGDs interpretation of the redshift and blueshift
effects and one that is based on the classical wave interpretation of the same effects.
So though they provide no information about to the distance of their source (much less about
their speed), redshifted or blueshifted photons inform us of the stage of evolution of their
sources at the time they were emitted. Also, since sources of similarly redshifted (or similarly
blueshifted) photons have similar mass, structure and luminosity, it is possible to establish the
148
having higher mass (and energy). Hence, most photons coming from distant source will
blueshifted relative to their source. And the greater the distance the photons travel the more
likely will their mass. It is therefore possible that photons which were originally redshifted, if
they travel a long distance enough, become blueshifted by the time they reach us. That said,
because most interactions will be asymmetrical, photons which acquire mass by absorption of
other particles will most likely be scattered and will contribute to the cosmic background
radiation. Some of these photons which acquire enough mass may correspond to what is known
as fast radio bursts.
Cosmological Implications
The notion that the universe is expanding is based on the classic interpretation of the redshift
and blueshift effects, but if QGD is correct and redshift and blueshift effects are consequences
of the stage of evolution of their source, then the expanding universe model loses its most
important argument. The data then becomes consistent with the locally condensing universe
proposed by quantum-geometry dynamics.
149
150
151
This implies all other particles, even those which are now considered elementary, are
composite.
This means that the distance between two preons is created by n-gravity field
between them. And represents the unit n-gravity force acting between two
preons .
There are only two fundamental forces, each associated to one of the fundamental
particle. One is an attractive force, which we will call p-gravity, and the other, a
repulsive force, which we will call n-gravity.
What this implies is that all other forces, known and unknown, are effects resulting from
p-gravity and n-gravity.
Space is discrete.
This is probably the most impactful axiom of quantum-geometry dynamics. What it
means is that space cannot be infinitely subdivided in smaller and smaller parts. This
implies a limit beyond which space can no longer be subdivided. According to QGD,
there is a smallest possible distance.
Space emerges from the interactions between preons .
Space is finite
If space is generated by intrinsic force acting between fundamental particles, then, by
definition, these particles must obey the law of conservation. That is, there must be a
finite number of such particles. And as a consequence, space must also be finite.
While preons generate space by repelling each, preons on the other hand are
kinetic. In fact, preons are the fundamental kinetic particles. They are defined by
their continuous movement and do not exist at rest. Preons move by leaping from
preon to the next preon which implies that the preon leap is the fundamental
unit of movement.
152
Also, that preons are in continuous movement implies that there needs to be more
The magnitudes of n-gravity and p-gravity in the Universe as a whole are equal.
We will refer to k has the QGD gravitational constant. The gravitational constant is
based on the idea (a consequence the quantum-geometric structure of space) that the
Universe was originally isotropic. This implies n-gravity and p-gravity were in perfect
equilibrium. Thus
GU k GU
2
where + and are respectively the number of preons and the number of preons
in the Universe.
The relationship + = , where + is fundamental unit of p-gravity and the
fundamental unit of n-gravity, provides the means to calculate gravitational interactions
at all scales of physical reality; from the fundamental to the cosmological. Thus, the
gravitational constant links the fundamental and cosmic levels of physical reality.
The magnitude of the gravitational interaction between any two fundamental
particles of same type is the same, regardless of distance.
For example, the gravitational force between two preon is equal to g-, where is the
unit n-gravity charge. Geometrical space, suggests QGD, is immaterial. Hence, it has no
bearing on interactions.
The numbers of
This follows the fundamentality theorem which states that an aspect of reality is
fundamental if and only if it is absolutely invariable.
This implies not only that that the numbers of preons and preons remains
constant, but that they cannot transmute into any other particles. Hence their
properties, which are also fundamental, are invariable.
153
This also implies that none of the particles which have been observed to transform into
other particles, via for instance, particle decay or annihilation, are not fundamental.
Fundamental particles only interact with particles that share a same gravitational
charge.
This means that preons interact with other preons , that preons interact with
other preons .
In the transitional state between leaps, the preon / preon pair, which will call
simply preon, conserves the gravitational charges of both preon and preon .
Since preons possess both n-gravity and p-gravity charges, they can interact with both
155