RIGID MOTIONS AND HOMOGENEOUS TRANSFORMATIONS

Homogeneous transformations : This combine the operations of rotation and

translation into a single matrix multiplication to
derive the forward kinematic equations of rigid
manipulators.

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REPRESENTING POSITIONS
Synthetic approach
One reasons directly about geometric entities (e.g., points or
lines)
Analytic approach
Represents these entities using coordinates or equations, and
reasoning is performed via algebraic manipulations

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Figure: Two coordinate frames, a point p, and

two vectors v1 and v2.
Inferences from synthetic approach
x0 is perpendicular to y0
v1v2 defines a vector that is
perpendicular to the plane containing v1
and v2

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REPRESENTING ROTATIONS
Rotation matrix (rotation in the plane)

where

are the coordinates in frame

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Alternative Approach to represent ROTATIONS

Since dot product of two unit vectors gives the projection of one onto
the other. Therefore
dot product of two unit vectors
====================

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Columns represents the Direction cosines of the coordinate axes

This means that direction of x1 relative to the
frame o0x0y0
To describe the orientation of frame o0x0y0 with respect to the frame o1x1y1

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Prove that are of unit length and mutually

orthogonal (det = 1)
Hence they are also referred to as Special Orthogonal SO(n) group of
order n.

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Rotations in three dimensions

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Rotation about z0 by an angle theta

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Basic Rotation Matrices

From now onwards we will define

as

Prove the following properties of the Basic Rotation Matrices

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Basic rotation matrices representing rotations

about the X axes and Y axes respectively

Note: Please note the difference (-sin term) in the column of the Basic
rotation matrix about Y axes
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Problem

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ROTATIONAL TRANSFORMATIONS
Consider a rigid object S to which a coordinate frame o1x1y1z1 is attached

Let the coordinates of point p with respect to the frame o1x1y1z1 P1

Let the coordinates of

satisfy the equation

To obtain an expression for the coordinates p0 by projecting the point p onto

the coordinate axes of the frame o0x0y0z0

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Similarity Transformations
It is the matrix representation of a general linear transformation is transformed from one frame to another
For example, if A is the matrix representation of a given linear transformation in o0x0y0z0 and B is the representation of
the same linear transformation in o1x1y1z1 then A and B are related as

Suppose frames o0x0y0z0 and o1x1y1z1 are related by the rotation(This can be also
analysed in terms of coordinate transformation between frames)

Let B is a rotation about the z0-axis but expressed relative to the frame o1x1y1z1

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COMPOSITION
OF
ROTATIONS
Rotation with respect to the current frame

Rotation with respect to the fixed frame

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COMPOSITION OF ROTATIONS
Rotation with respect to the current frame

Consider a third coordinate frame o2x2y2z2 related to the frames o0x0y0z0 and o1x1y1z1 by rotational transformations

Where p0, p1, p2 are the represented by coordinates

specified with respect to any of these three frames o0x0y0z0, o1x1y1z1, o2x2y2z2

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Example

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Please Note : Rotational transformations do

not commute(multiplication of matrices are not
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commutative.)

Proof of Rotational transformations do not commute

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Problem

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Problem

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Rotation with respect to the fixed frame

In this case is simply to multiply the successive rotation matrices in the reverse order

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Rotation with respect to the fixed frame

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Problem

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Example of Rotation about Current/Fixed Axes

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PARAMETERIZATIONS OF ROTATIONS

Euler angle representation

Roll-pitch-yaw representation
Axis/angle representation.

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PARAMETERIZATIONS OF ROTATIONS
Since columns of a rotation matrix are unit vectors

Where rij are the 9 elements in a general rotational transformation R

Also columns of a rotation matrix are mutually orthogonal

These constraints define six independent equations with nine unknowns(9 elements), which implies that there
are three free variables

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Euler Angles
Eulers rotation theorem requires successive rotation about three axes such that no two successive
rotations are about the same axis. There are two classes of rotation sequence: Eulerian and
Cardanian, named after Euler and Cardano respectively(All in all there are 12 possibilities)
Eulerian type involves
repetition, but not successive,
of rotations about one particular
axis:

The Cardanian type is characterized

by rotations about all three axes:

XYX
XZX
YXY
YZY
ZXZ
ZYZ

XYZ
XZY
YZX
YXZ
ZXY
ZYX

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The ZYZ sequence

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Euler Angles
Method of specifying a rotation matrix in terms of three independent quantities

First rotate about the z-axis by the angle Phi .

Next rotate about the current y-axis by the angle Theta.
Finally rotate about the current z-axis Psi by the angle .
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Z Y Z-Euler Angle Transformation

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Problem:
Where

CASE 1:
First, suppose that not both of r13, r23 are zero

If not both of r13, r23 are zero then

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(property of rotational matrix that det(R)=1)

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Where

For eqn 2.29

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For eqn 2.30

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Trigonometry Basics Atan(x,y)

The function = Atan(x, y) computes the arc tangent function, where x and y are the cosine and sine,
respectively, of the angle theta
computes the arc tangent function is defined for all (x,y) not equal to (0,0)
This function uses the signs of x and y to select the appropriate quadrant for the angle .

Note that if both x and y are zero, Atan is undefined

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CASE 2:

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Roll(x0), Pitch(y0), Yaw(z0) Angles

Yaw about x0 through an angle Psi ,
Pitch about the y0 by an angle theta,
Roll about the z0 by an angle Phi.
As successive rotations are relative to
the fixed frame(Please mind the matrix multiplication,
since w.r.t FIXED FRAME so premultipication done in
this case), the resulting transformation matrix is given by

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Axis/Angle Representation
Let

Rotation about an arbitrary axis in space

Method: Define the vector
k along the z-axis
be a unit vector defining an axis in any arbitrary frame. following the rotational
transformation
representing a rotation of angle theta about this K axis.

Rotation about the axis k can be computed using a similarity transformation as

Let

representing a rotation of theta about this axis

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Axis/Angle Representation

Given an arbitrary rotation matrix R with components rij , the equivalent angle theta and equivalent axis k are
given by the expressions
where Tr denotes the trace of R
Note: Trace of a matrix = Sum of the
diagonal elements of the matrix.

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Prove that if Theta= 0 then R is the identity

matrix and the axis of rotation is undefined.

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Problem

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Problem

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RIGID MOTIONS
A rigid motion is a pure translation together with a pure rotation.

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HOMOGENEOUS TRANSFORMATIONS
Rigid motions can be represented in matrix form so that composition of rigid motions can be reduced to matrix
multiplication as was the case for composition of rotations

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HOMOGENEOUS TRANSFORMATIONS (Cont.)

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Translation and Rotation about the x, y, z-axes

respectively

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Problem

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Assignment (Last Submission date 10/02/2015)

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Quaternion(denoted by letter Q)
Fundamental formula of quaternion algebra

Basic Properties of a Quaternion:

Quaternions are not commutative
They are associative
Quaternion can also be written as a linear combination

multiplication table

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Quaternions can also be represented using the

complex (2 * 2) matrices

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Quaternions can also be represented using the

complex (4 * 4) matrices

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Algebraic operations on Quaternions

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Algebraic operations on Quaternions(Cont..)

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Problem

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