DEFINITION OF DATA COMMUNICATION

>Exchangeable of digital data coding between two devices via some form of tx
medium.
>The system consists of group up the data, processing the data and tx the
data using a specified comm channel
-->Data : number, alphabet or symbol processed by computer.
-->Computer data: binary digit (0s and 1s binary).--> Information:
data, voice, image, character and code has been processed in a form that
can be use and understand by rx. -->Code : message that can be read and
has a meaning that can be understood by the end user (machine or
human)
IMPORTANCES OF DATA COMMUNICATION
--->Electronic communication:- email, videocon, --->Internet access: email, chat, download.
--->Public access- JPN, JPJ
ADVANTAGES OF DATA COMMUNICATION:
1) Safety: digital sys is much safer becoz it can be encode to a code that is
only knew by the sender and rx. 2) Small error: digital system has smaller
error compare to analogue system.
3) Low cost: digital sys has low cost compares to analogue sys. 4) Small
interruption: interruption did not affect data tx because digital data can be
regenerate at each repeater station. 5) Easy to interface: digital circuit is
easier to interface because data digital only consists of two levels, which are
1 and 0 bit.
APPPLICATION OF DATA COMMUNICATION
1)E-mail, 2) Teleconferencing ,3) Fax, 4) Banking, 5) Internet, 6) Egovernment.
COMMUNICATION CODES
1.Morse code, 2.Boudot code, 3.EBCDIC code, 4.ASCII code
Definition * coding is a representative set of symbols using that used before
being processed.
*Coding is rule for converting a piece of information into another form or
representation in order to make it the system could read the information.
1.Morse code --->The earliest code established. -->The simplest code, just
tx characters for telegraphic process. -->Is a method of tx textual info of on-off
tones,light or click.
2.Baudot code -->First fixed-length character code develop for machines.
--The first code is created for computer. -->Using the number 0 and 1 to
represent the character. -->Each character contains 5 bits
3.EBCDIC Code --->Extended Binary coded Decimal Characters Information. ->8 bit characters created by IBM. -->often used in IBM. --> there are 256
different combination.
4.ASCII Code --->American Standard Character Info Interchange. -->Consists
of 7 bit character.
-->Has 128 different character combination. -->ASCII was established to
achieve compatibility between various types of data processing equipment.
APPLICATION OF COMMUNICATION CODES
Morse code -->amateur radio operators . -->identification of navigational
radio beacon and land mobile transmitters, plus some military communication,
including flashing-light semaphore communications between ships in some
naval services .
Boudot code --> Application for low speed teletype equipment such as
TWX/Telex system, radio teletype. -->used extensively in telegraph systems.
EBCDIC code --->used mainly on IBM mainframe and IBM midrange computer
operating systems. --->used for data communication, processing and storage
ASCII code --->most popular code for serial data communications today.
-->used as the data code for keyboards in computers.
BASIC DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM--->TX /source/ sender. -->TX
Medium. --->Repeater. -->Receiver /sink @ DTE(terminal)-->DCE(modem)->TELE NET -->DCE-->DTE
DTE --->A subscriber eq or users device for data comm. -->Consists of a
source of data or rx data or both. --->These tools may include an error control,
sync and identification capabilities of the station. -->ex. of DTE is computers,
logical control, visual display units and work station.
DCE --->Provided by authorities or by client comm network itself. --->>DCE is
capable of implementing, operating and terminate a data comm, exchanging
signals and coding needed to make the relationship between the DTE and data
circuits. --->Internal or external parts of a computer. --->Example: a modem or
data set.
Bit : --->A Bit is a digit in the binary number system. It can have two values, 0
or 1 (basic digital symbol)
Bit Rate : --->The number of bits transmitted in one second and expressed in
bits per second (bps).
The rate of change of a digital signal which usually binary.
Baud Rate : --->The number of symbols tx during one second and is
expressed in symbols per second. -->The rate of change of a signal on the tx
medium after encoding and modulation have occurred. -->>Sometimes is
written tx rate, modulation rate or symbol rate.
Bandwidth (BW), unit: Hz : -->the range of frequencies contained in a
composite signal of frequency spectrum. --->the difference between the
highest and lowest frequencies contained in the information. -->Indicates the
capacity of data.
Shannons Limit
S

I B log 2 1
N
or
S

I 3.32 B log 10 1
N

.> higher signal-to-noise ratio, better performance

and higher the information capacity
>I = information capacity (bits per second) > B = bandwidth
(Hz)
>S/N = signal to noise power ratio (unit less)
DATA ENCODING --Encoding Techniques

1) Digital data Digital signal

.>2)Digital
data Analog signal.
3.)Analog data Digital signal.
>4)Analog
data Analog signal.
LINE CODING --->Unipolar (NRZ). --->
Polar(NRZ, RZ, BIPHASE/MANCHESTER,
DIFFERENTIAL MANCHESTER).
--->Bipolar(AMI, PSEUDOTEMARY).
--->Multilevel(2B1Q, 8B6T, 4D-PAMS).
--->Multitransition(MLT-3)
DIGITAL DATA TO DIGITAL
SIGNALS
1)NRZ - UNIPOLAR
2)Non Return to
Zero Level - polar
Non Return to Zero
Invert - polar
3)Return to Zero (RZ)

4)Manchester Code > Also known as Biphase Encoding(page

belakang)
5.)Bipolar AMI(Alternate Mark Inversion)
>This code is used in long distance.
>This code reduces/ no the DC(Direct Current) content from the line
6.)High Density Bipolar Order 3 Encoding (HDB3): --->Commonly used
outside of North America. --->is a bipolar signaling technique.
DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE ENCODING --->Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) the amplitude (V) of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal.
--->Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) - the frequency (f) of the carrier is varied
proportional to the information signal. --->Phase Shift Keying (PSK) - the
phase () of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal.
--->Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) - both amplitude (V) and
phase () are varied proportional to the information signal.
ANALOGUE TO ANALOGUE ENCODING 1.)AM Amplitude Mod. 2.)FM
Frequency Mod.
3.)PM Phase Mod
ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL ENCODING
1.)PCM

1.) Parity Checking -->simplest error-detection schemes. -->refers to the use

of parity bits to check that data has been tx accurately. -->1-bit error detection
with parity. -->Every code word has an even or odd number of 1s.
-->limitations - It cannot detect an error when an even number of bits change
in the same data unit. 2) Cyclic Redundancy Checksum --->simplest errordetection schemes. -->treats the packet of data to be tx as a large polynomial.
-->The quotient is discarded but the remainder is attached to the end of the
message. -->The tx takes the message polynomial and using polynomial
arithmetic, divides it by a given generating polynomial.
Interfaces -->set of wire that connect
DTE and DCE. --> is required in order to
DTE and DCE comm each other.
-->Interface enable the data & control
info to be exchanged between DTE &
DCE.
1.)RS232-C/V.24 -->serial interface.
-->to connect DTE and DCE. -->Mech
Spec(DB25 & DB - male for DTE - female for DCE) -->Elect Spec(single ended
unbalanced - 50 ft - 20kbps max.)
-->Functional Spec (Specifies role of individual circuits. - Data circuits in both
dir allow full-duplex comm. - circuit can be group into categories of data,
control, timing & ground. - Timing signals allow for sync tx.) -->Pin config(P2
TX Data & P3 RX data - signal gen by DTE & rx by DCE.
>P4 RTS - When DTE ready to tx data to DCE, RTS turned ON. After RTS is
asserted, the DCE must assert CTS b4 comm can commence. >P5 Clear to
Send - use w RTS to provide handshaking between DTE & DCE. After the DCE
sees an asserted RTS, it turns CTS ON when it is ready to begin comm. >P6
Data Set Ready - signal is turn on by DCE to indicate that it is conn to the
telecom line. >P8 Data Carrier Detect - signal is turn ON when DCE is rx a
sig from DCE which meets its sig criteria. This sig remains ON as long the
carrier sig can be detected. >P20 Data Terminal Ready - indicates
readiness of the DTE. This sig is turn ON by DTE when ready to tx or rx data
from DCE. DTR must be ON b4 DCE can assert DSR. >P22 Ring Indicator indicates ringing sig is being rx on the comm channel.
2.)RS-422/V.11 -->balanced data comm iface using 2 separate wires for each
sig 2 tx & 2 rx.
-->Data tx higher speeds and longer dist than EIA-232. -->Use in p2p comm.
-->4000 ft @ 100 kbps
-->10 Mbps @ 50 ft
COMPARE RS232/v.24 & RS422/v.11 --> RS232(Sig Lines - On lines which
share a common zero; Connection to Receiver - design to serve 1 rx; Cable
Length - iface between pc, printers & terminals w modems.) ---> RS422(Sig
Lines - Each signal line consists of two wires, twisted to reduce noise;
Connection to Receiver - Line driver can serve up to ten receivers in
parallel.;
Cable Length - Direct connection of intelligent devices, without the need of
modems.)
RJ45 -->network cable -->T-568A & T-568B -->cross pin 1& 3, pin 2 & 6.
10BaseT/100BaseT Ethernet -->use twisted pair cable max 100m -->use
baseband tx methods.
USB -->to standardize conn of pc peripherals -->USB 2.0 480 Mb/s, USB 1.0
12 Mb/s -->USB 3.0: up to 5 Gbit/s -->4-wire p2p -->can provide power for
external hardware.
Modems -->devices which allow dig data sig to be tx across an analogue link
importance of MODEM -->data need to be convert to tx on analog tele sys.
-->higher quality and faster transfer data.-->give good quality of graphics for
big app.-->for creating LAN for homes or offices.-->to comm remote places by
pc.
BASIC MODEM DIAGRAM

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FUNCTION -->Clock >gen timing ref require for all tx or rx operation.->Scrambler/ Descrambler >
change the data from random sig to the ori
sig & vice versa.-->Phase Mod/Demod >the data will be mod.-->ADC/ DAC
> change analog signal to digital signal & vice versa.-->Equalizer >Increase
and stabilize the signal to high frequency.
APPL OF SYNC AND ASYNC MODEM -->Conn a host computer to remote
terminals that are polled using async polling protocols -->Conn SCADA host
computers to RTU's -->Conn host computers to terminals using sync financial
industry protocols (HDLC, SDLC, etc) -->Collect data from multiple data
sources into a single remote port.

Data efficiency devices -->Front End Processor -->MULTIPLEXING

Front End Processor -->a type of pc use in a network to help the main host
computer manage other conn pc -->to help the main pc from having to perform
all the processing -->take over process of managing data tx going from host to
nodes, back to host & out to other places & reports directly to host -->a small
pc that is closely coupled to central computer -->Advantage FEP : central
processor need to involved only when a data message has been rx or sent.
Polling and Selecting ---> Polling -(process of a host pc asking an
intelligent terminal if it has any data to send to the host pc. typically
accomplished by a front-end processor, which handles all the routine comm
procedures for the host pc.)-->Selecting -(occurs when a host pc or a FEP
sends data to a terminal after the terminal indicates that it is ready to accept
data.)
MULTIPLEXING -->for improving data comm efficiency ; minimize the number
of tx line required.
-->set of techniques that allows the simultaneously tx multiple sig across a
single data link and then recovering the separate sig at the rx end.
2.)M-ary Coding
Data efficiency techniques -->FDM -->TDM --> Synchronous Time Division
Multiplexing
(STDM) & Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM)
2 n M n log 2 M
-->Data Compression: Run length encoding, LZW (Lempel-Ziv_Welch), Huffman
coding.
n = number of bits, M = number of
FDM -->analog multiplexing technique that combine analog sig -->Multiple sig
conditions, levels or
combinations possible with n bits
share the common bandwidth of a single comm ch --> Each sig is allocated a
Advantages: > Required transmission rate is low (bit rate/M). >Low
different freq band. -->common applications is cable television -->Advantages
bandwidth. Disadvantages: >Low signal to noise ratio (due to multiple
;(>User can be added to sys by adding another pair of tx mod & rx demod.
amplitude pulses).
>support full duplex information flow. >Noise problem for analog comm has
3.)Quadrature PSK (QPSK) >A phase modulation technique that transmits
lesser effect.)-->Disadvantages;(>initial cost is high. This may include the
two bits in four modulation states. >Using phases for representation of
cable between the two ends and the associated connectors for the cable.> a
messages. >2 bits per symbol is used with four different phases.
problem for one user can sometimes affect others. > each user requires a
4.)QAM > combination of ASK and PSK so that a maximum contrast between
precise carrier frequency. )
each signal unit is achieved. >widely used to transmit digital signals such as
TDM -->combining several low-rate ch into 1 high-rate ch.-->Each sig occupy
digital cable TV and cable Internet service, >Have amplitude levels
the entire bandwidth of the ch.--> each sig is tx for only a brief period of time.->Depending on type. i.e 16-QAM,64-QAM,256-QAM
FUNCTION --->UART > TX: Parallel data from pc change to serial data. RX:
>multiple signals take turns tx over a single ch.-->may be use with digital &
THE IMPORTANCE OF TIMING AND FRAMING > Data can be rx
reverse process.
analog sig.-->tx between nodes must be digital and is formatted into serial
appropriately w/o any error
-->MOD/ DEMOD Circuit > mod: change data from digital data to analog
data words.-->assigns each terminal a dedicated time slot.
FRAME STRUCTURE ---->HEADER - consists of physical address. --->DATA.
signal. Demod: reverse process. -->TX/ RX Filter > Filtering sig before tx / rx. Synchronous TDM -->Time Slot and Frames -->Interleaving-->Empty Slots---->TRAILER - consists of error detection
-->Buffer > Create a standard tx sig level and impedance appropriate to
>Data Rate
tele.--->Carrier Tracer > Trace the data input and inform to the pc.
-->management -->Frame Synchronizing -->Digital Signal Service -->T Lines
Types of Modem -->ext(Channel Service Unit (CSU)/Digis Service Unit (DSU), -->E Lines
Digital Modems, Optical Modems, Short Haul Modem) -->int -->wireless -->pc Statistical TDM --> Addressing --> Slot Size --> No Synchronization Bit -->
Signal timing repetition signal (clock) used to control timing operations.
card
DATA TRANSMISSION --->Parallel --->Serial - (*asynchronous,
Bandwidth
Analog Modem -->Acoustic Coupler Modem -->Smart Modem
*synchronous, *isochronous)
Data Compression - Lossless methods -->Run length encoding (RLE)
Types of modulation -->Analogue mod(AM, FM, PM) -->Pulse Mod -->Digital
ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION --->Avoid timing prob by not send long
-->Lempel-Ziv_Welch (LZW )
stream of bits. --->Data is tx 1 character at a time. --->rx can sync at beginning mod(ASK,FSK,PSK)
-->Huffman coding - Lossy method(image audio video) -->jpeg-->mpeg-Asynchronous Modem -->Random transmission -->No sync clock --> number >mp3
of each new character. --->NRZ-L signalling is common for async tx. --->The
of character bits are acknowledged -->Every data tx needs start bit, stop bit
beginning of the character is signalled by a start bit. --->This is followed by a
RLE -->original contents 'aaaa' would be coded as '4a
character of 5 or 8 bits long. --->The bits of the character are tx beginning with and parity bit --> operate in FSK mod.
Lempel-Ziv -->LZ77 -->LZSS -->LZ78 -->LZW
--> Operate in slow and moderate rates , up to 1800 bps -->Less efficient due
the least significant bit. --->A parity bit is added for the purpose of error
Huffman coding -->to generate a binary code tree -->.mp3 and .jpg file
to high number of control bits -->Advantages : easy control of data errors.
detection.
formats
Synchronous Modem -->Use sync clock -->More efficient due to low number DATA SECURITY -->protecting a database from destructive forces and the
SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION --->Block of data bits are transmitted as a
of control bits -->The usual mod methods are PSK or QAM --> equalizers are
frame. --->Clocks must be synchronized. --->Need to indicate start and end of
unwanted actions of unauthorized users.-->keeping data protected from
used, in order to offset the misfit of the tele lines. -->Operates at higher rates , corruption and unauthorized access.
block of data. --->More efficient (lower overhead) than asynchronous
between 2400 bps & 56000 bps over standard telephone
TYPE OF ERROR. --->single bit -->multiple bit. --->burst
IMPORTANCE OF DATA SECURITY -->Determining who has access
1.)single bit --> jarang berlaku pd serial data tx. Sering berlaku pd parallel tx.
-->Protecting data from unauthorized use and sabotage -->Protecting data
2.) multiple bit --> The condition when more than one bit is in error in a
from physical harm.
given number of bits. 3.)burst --> two or more bits from a data unit such as
ENCRYPTION AND DECRYPTION -->a process of converting a plaintext into
byte change from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.
enciphered text or ciphertext & vice versa
--> Length of burst is measured from the first corrupted bit to last corrupted
Encryption And Decryption Techniques -->Caesar Cipher --> Mapping -->
bit. -->happen in serrial tx. -->no of bits effected depend on the data rate &
Data Encryptions Standard (DES) --> Rivest-Shamir-Adelman(RSA)
duration of noise.
Caesar Ciphers/substitution cipher -->Caesar Cipher replaces each letter
ERROR CONTROL / DETECTION
by the letter that appears k positions later to the right in the alphabet.

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Mapping Cipher/transposition cipher -->reorders symbols in a block of

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it has rx data.-->The sender station unmarks the token and passes token along
to the next station in the topology
ADVANTAGES-->Ensure token arrivals, maximum round trip time-->each
DEFINITION OF LAN -->A group of pc that shared hardware, software or data station has message to send every time it owns the token, the real round trip
-->Covers a small area for example, a computer laboratory, school or a building time is less than the max value
-->Usually owned, used and organized by a private organization
DISADVANTAGES-->Not suitable for net where few stations generate traffic
NETWORK -->A sys that allows a group of users to comm with each other
burst while other station idle-->Damages at any station in the net disturbs tx
-->Each net appli has different requirements in term of message, speed,
and reception of token
acceptable, cost and ability to add new users
TOPOLOGY-->is an arrangement or physical layout of pc, cable and other
network components
TYPES OF TOPOLOGY -->Logical(how the media is accessed by the hosts)
-->Physical(how the nodes of the network are physically connected.)>STAR
>BUS>RING>HYBRID>MESH
BUS TOPOLOGY -->Advantages(>Cheapest topology >Easy to add station
>Less cable usage
>Well functioning for small network)-->Disadvantages(>Any problem at
nodes will interrupt net >A beginner and closure is required for backbone
>Hard to handle problem >Response rate is low)
--->Only one pc can send sig or data in a period of time. -->pc in bus topology
Logical Link Control (LLC) -->responsible to manage and ensure the
only hear the network line to ensure whether there is data to send.
integrity of data tx -->several net protocol to be transported over the same net
STAR TOPOLOGY -->Advantages(>Conn process is easy >Installation and
medium, and optionally provides flow control, acknowledgment, and error
elimination process will not interrupt net sys >Any damages to net sys can be notification-->provides addressing and control of the data link
detected )--->Disadvantages (>Requires longer cable than bus topology >If
hub break downs, all nodes cannot functioned in the net
ISDN-->simultaneous carrying of digitized voice and a variety of data traffic
>Cost is higher compares to bus topology)
on the same digital tx links -->Provides digital comm and supports wide
RING TOPOLOGY -->Advantages (>No collision >Data transferring using
services; such as delivering of data, voice, image, facsimile and others at high
high speed >Easy to detect problem ) -->Disadvantages (>Only one device
speed and quality-->delivered over regular copper wires
can tx data on the net at a time >Any damages on conn will interrupts the
ISDN Importance -->Provides efficient services -->Deliver information fast
whole sys >Seldom used >Required many cables
and accurately 230kbps-->Accommodate variety of services-->Connection
HYBRID TOPOLOGY -->Advantages (>Reliable and scalable >Flexible
quality is satisfied and economical
>Effective in combination and the speed is consistent) -->Disadvantages
ISDN CHANNELS -->Bearer (B) channel-->Delta (D) channel--> Hybrid (H)
(>Complexity of design >Highly cost of hub and infrastructure >Installation
channel
and configuration is difficult)
1.)Bearer (B) Channel -->user channel at 64 kbps.-->Carries data and
MESH TOPOLOGY -->FULL MESH -->PARTIAL MESH -->Advantages
digital voice -->digital info in duplex-->Carries info, for example voice or data
(>Data can be tx from different devices simultaneously >If one components
in a circuit switched or packet switched format
fails there is always alternative >Expansion and modification in topology can
2.)Delta/ data (D) Channel -->ch that carries control and signaling info.-->16
be done easily) --> Disadvantages (>High chances of redundancy in many
kbps or 64 kbps rate
net conn >Overall cost of this net is way too high >Setup and mtce of net is
-->carries signaling info for B ch using common-ch signaling CCS-->carries the
difficult .
info needed to connect or disconnect calls and to negotiate special calling
TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUES
parameters
1.)BASEBAND -->unmodulated digital sig -->Digital data is applied directly to 3.)Hybrid (H) Channel-->Provides user info tx at higher data rates -->384
medium and entire bw of medium used by sig -->short dist up to a few km
kbps (H0), 1536 kbps (H1) or 1920 kbps (H12) rate, implied for high rate app
-->bidirectional so that a baseband sys can both tx and rx sig simultaneously-- such as video, videocon, facsimile-->provides a high bit tx hi-speed fax, video,
>single ch for the whole bw --> using TDM -->use digital tx which does not
hi-speed data and hi-quality audio.
required modem, however for voice, modem is required -->Max tx is 10Mbps
ISDN Access Mode->Basic Rate Interface(BRI)-->Primary Rate Interface(PRI)-BASEBAND ADVANTAGES-->Baseband technique is less expensive and
>Hybrid Interface (HI)
easier to install.
ISDN Devices
2.)BROADBAND -->data sig mod at higher-freq carrier -->analog methods are 1.)Terminal Adapter (TA) (device that converts standard electrical sig into
use to tx digital data -->bw up to 300 to 450 MHz.-->sys more complex &
the form used by ISDN)
expensive becoz modems are required at each node.-->enormous number of
2.)Terminal Equipment Type 1 (TE1) Equipment that compatible with the
high speed ch can be created-->long dist up to 10 mile on coaxial cable -->bw ISDN network
is divided into ch to provide sub ch for comm & enables info transferring in
3.)Terminal Equipment Type 2 (TE2) Not compatible with the ISDN network,
parallel.
the existing non-ISDN equipment
-->use FDM -->usually called as modem RF -->involved mod and demod
4.)Network termination type 1 (NT1) connection point between the local
process, and freq filtering.
loop and ISDN network
-->unidirectional - can only tx or rx at 1 time.
5.)Network termination type 2 (NT2) device that connects with NT1
BROADBAND ADVANTAGES -->can accommodate many ch, for example 20
ISDN Network Topology -->Users Level: This level allows terminal
to 30 ch per cable TYPES OF MAC: -->CARRIER SENSE MULTIPLE
equipment connection to network using local switching system. -->Local
ACCESS/COLLISION AVOIDANCE (CSMA/CA)
Switching level: This level enables communication between sender and
--> CARRIER SENSE MULTIPLE ACCESS/COLLISION DETECTION (CSMA/CD)-receiver (activate connection between users). -->Network switching
>TOKEN PASSING
level:This level involves delivering and switching between different network,
IMPORTANCE OF MAC -->describes how devices share access to the LAN
next activate connection between isolated local switch
-->independent devices can start sending data at same time.-->allows user
Comparison between PSTN and ISDN
from different types of data processing equipments to enter the network
ISDN -->ISDN lines are digital.-->used for bigger companies.-->2, 10, 20 or 30
without having problem of compatibility
channels that could be run with a single line.-->better voice quality-1.)CSMA/CA -->Each device listens to media for transmissions. When media is >integrates both speech and data in the same line-->allowed two
clear, device sends an intent to transmit signal. As this signal is small, chances simultaneous connection
of collision are minimized
PSTN --> PSTN lines are analogue.-->used for small companies.-->used as
CSMA/CA PROCESS-->station will counts start of sending time for a data to
single lines for firms or companies that need ADSL-->lower voice quality.-minimize the probability of 2 stations rx (or use) net at 1 time -->Every station >speech and data in the same line is not available-->not allow two
must check the carrier (at channel) before executing a tx -->If ch is not use,
simultaneous connections
thus station can send data. If ch is used, then station will wait until ch is free
B-ISDN -->A service requiring tx ch capable of supporting rates greater than
ADVANTAGES-->Cheaper than CSMA/CD-->Effective in avoiding data collisions the primary rate. Any service inquiry with a speed greater than 1.544 Mbps is
-->A reliable data transmission service
defined as broadband, and any comm based on this speed are called
DISADVANTAGES--->Inappropriate for large or active networks.-->Distance
broadband comm -->Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
limitations-->Slow
-->carry both synchronous voice and asynchronous data services on the same
2.)CSMA/CD-->Each device listens to media for tx. When media is clear,
transport. --> designed to handle high-bandwidth applications.-->155 to
initiates tx and listens for collision.--> If collision occurs, device waits for
622Mbps
random amount of time before attempting tx again.--> Commonly used on
physical networks.
Data Network Definition -->is an electronic communications process that
CSMA/CD PROCESS-->Station A will detects line before tx to check line bz or
allows for the orderly transmission and receptive of data
not -->if bz, will wait & check again -->if line clear, station A start send & vice
Value Added Network Definition -->adds value to the services or facilities
versa for rx.
provided by a common carrier to provide new types of communication services
ADVANTAGES-->Relatively fast bcoz no need to wait -->reliable data tx
Packet Switching Network Definition -->digital comm network which
service
operates by dividing each piece of info to be sent into discrete packets. These
DISADVANTAGES-->Inappropriate for large or active networks-->Distance
packets are then sent individually
limitations
Circuit Switching -->Data is tx as stream of bits, no packetizing needed.-TOKEN PASSING-->Method of controlling access to multiple equipments
>dedicated comm path between 2 stations -->3 phases: ( >Circuit
-->Token is send around the network-->usually used for ring topology
establishment >Data transfer >Circuit disconnect )
TOKEN PASSING PROCESS -->a specific packet of data, called token,
Public Circuit Switched Network ada gambar
circulated around the ring from station to station, in the same direction-Subscribers: the devices that attach to the network.
>must first posses the token b4 tx data, then fills it with address of destination Subscriber loop: the link between the subscriber and the network.
station & data & marks the token-->Each station, in turn, acquires the token
Exchanges: the switching centers in the network.
and examines the data frame-->When destination station reads the message,
End office: the switching center that directly supports subscribers.
it sends message back to sender station with an acknowledgement to say that

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Trunks: the branches between exchanges. using either FDM or synchronous

TDM
Message Switching -->no need to establish a dedicated path between two
stations -->the destination address is appended to the message -->message tx
through the network, from node to node -->Each node rx the entire message,
stores it then tx the message to the next node.-->is called a store-and-forward
network.-->Application : Mail Delivery
Packet Switching -->a solution to combine the advantages of message and
circuit switching
-->A station breaks long message into packets. Packets are sent out to the
network sequentially, one at a time and can even follow different routes to its
destination. Once all the packets forming a message arrive at the destination,
they are recompiled into the original message.
COMPARISONS BETWEEN CIRCUIT SWITCHING, MESSAGE SWITCHING,
PACKET SWITCHING.
Circuit switching -->dedicated tx path -->continuous tx of data -->operates
in real time
-->messages not stored -->path established for entire message -->call setup
delay
Message switching -->no dedicated tx path -->tx of messages -->not real
time -->messages stored -->route established for each message -->message
tx delay
Packet switching -->no dedicated tx path -->tx of packets -->near real time
-->messages held for short time -->route established for each packet -->packet
tx delay
Packet Switching Network 1.)Datagram 2.)Virtual circuit
1.)Datagram -->
Connectionless service :No handshaking, each packet is
sent and routed independently and can follow different paths to reach to the
destination -->No setup delay
-->Packets are not guaranteed to arrive in the order of send -->Robust: If a
router crashes only packets inside the router will be lost, other packets can
follow other path -->Example: Internet
2.)Virtual circuit -->Connection-oriented : A connection (handshaking)
between the sender and the rx is established and complete path for packets to
reach the destination is determined before tx of any packets.-->each packet is
the sequence number of the virtual circuit called Virtual Circuit Identifier (VCI)
-->No dedicated path -->Data is packetizied before tx -->Packets guaranteed
to arrive in the order sent -->virtual circuit has to be terminated after all
packets arrived -->If the virtual circuit router crashes all virtual circuits are
terminated and paths are lost -->Frame relay
Virtual Circuits vs Datagram --> Virtual Circuits (>Network can provide
sequencing >Packets are forwarded more quickly >Less reliable) --->
Datagram (>No call setup phase >More flexible)
PACKET SWITCHED SERVICES 1.)X.25 2.)Frame Relay 3.)Asynchronous
Transfer Mode (ATM)
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Advantages IPv6 -->Larger address space-->Reduce end-to-end delay

-->Higher level of security
-->(IPSec Mandated, works End-to-End ) -->Mobility (Mobile IP with Direct
Routing)
-->No fragmentation -->Network autoconfiguration (Serverless,
Reconfiguration, DHCP)
Basic characteristics of NGN -->Packet-based transfer-->Separation of
control functions
-->Decoupling of service provision -->Support for a wide range of services
-->Broadband capabilities -->Interworking with legacy networks -->Generalized
mobility -->Unfettered access
NGN Services -->Voice Telephony -->Data services-->VPN
-->Multimedia services -->Distributed Virtual Reality -->Information
Brokering
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
+++++++++++++++++++++++
RS232-C/V.24 : Electrical Specifications
logical 1 Mark --> TX Voltage: -15V to -5V -->RX Voltage:-25V to -3V
logical 0 Space -->TX Voltage: +5V to +15V -->RX Voltage:+3V to +25V
RS-422/V.11
Transmitting --> low logic 0 : + 2 V to + 6 V --> high logic 1 : - 2 V to - 6 V
Receiving --> low logic 0 : + 0.2 V to + 6 V --> high logic 1 : - 0.2 V to - 6
V
MAC FRAME FORMATS -->Header--> Payload -->Trailer
HDB3 -->Four consecutive zero-level voltages are replaced with a sequence of
000V or B00V.
HDB3 RULES -->If the number of nonzero pulses after the last substitution is
odd, the substitution pattern will be 000V, which makes the total number of
nonzero pulses even. -->If the number of nonzero pulses after the last
substitution is even, the substitution pattern will be B00V, which makes the
total number of nonzero pulses even. *patent graf sama AMI -ada giliran bit 1
PCM
Sampling -The analog signal is sampled every Ts s, discrete in time.
-->Quantization - Makes the signal discrete in amplitude.-->Encode - Maps
the quantized values to digital words that are bits long
DATA EFFICIENCY-->is to transfer the highest possible volume of
accurate information through the network with the lowest cost.

HUFFMAN CODING

0
LZW

SONET -->a hierarchy of electrical signaling levels called Sync Transport Sig
STS -->SDH -Sync Transport Module STM; another appl of TDM -->a sync
Manchester Code >
sys controlled by master clock
SONET specification -->standard optical sig -->a sync frame structure for
multiplexing digital traffic
-->STS 1 STS 192 --> Optical Carrier OC-1, OC-3 -->STM 1 = STS 3
-->STS1=51.84Mbps
Frame = 810 octets * 8 = 6480bits
8000 frames/sec = 6480*8000 bits/sec = 51.84Mbps

Section - Connects two neighboring devices ; Line - Connects two

multiplexers (STS , Add/Drop)
Path - Connects two STS Mux/demux ; Layers likewise path, line, section
Photonic layers --> physical layer of the OSI model.--> optical fiber channel
Section layer --> responsible for the movement of a signal across a physical
section.
Line layer --> responsible for the movement of a signal across a physical line.
Path layer -->responsible for the movement of a signal from its source to its
destination.
NGN -->one net transports all info and services voice, data, and all sorts of
media -->commonly built around the Internet Protocol -->a packet-based
network -->provide services multiple broadband, QoS-enabled transport
technologies
Internet Protocol (IP) -->method or protocol by which data is sent from one
computer to another on the Internet.-->assigned a unique 32-bit address -->
IPV4 -->IPV6 ( 128 bits Ex: 1080:0:0:0:8:800:200C:417A )

Also known as Biphase Encoding

FDM

TDM
MAC

ISDN

Public Circuit Switched Network

SINGLE BIT ERROR

MULTIPLE BIT ERROR

BURST ERROR