Chapter 5

Blackbody Radiation
5.1

Background Information

The origins of quantum mechanics arose from the failure of classical methods to explain the spectral distribution of light from hot objects. The experimental model system is a hot cavity such as an oven with walls at
a uniform temperature T . A small hole is cut into an oven wall to allow a small fraction of the electromagnetic radiation to escape. Such light is called blackbody radiation. Surprisingly, the spectra of hot bodies such
as the Sun or a lamp filament are very close to that of an idealized black body. Even the cosmic microwave
background radiation has a blackbody spectrum corresponding to a temperature of 2.725 K. (See, for example,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic microwave background radiation). Statistical mechanics plus classical electromagnetism predicted a spectral distribution called the Rayleigh-Jeans Law, which can be written as:
dI
2f 2
2
= 2 kT = 2 kT
(5.1)
df
c
where dI
df is the power emitted per unit surface area and per unit frequency at frequency f (or wavelength ) by an
object at temperature T . Although the derivation of this formula is beyond the scope of this course, the form can be
easily explained. In classical statistical mechanics, every possible degree of freedom should acquire an average energy
of 1/2kT . For example, a monatomic gas molecule has energy 3/2kT because it can move in three independent
directions. The number of independent modes of oscillation in a cavity scales like f 2 , for reasons similar to the
relationship of the area of a sphere to its radius. The total intensity per unit frequency at a given frequency is the
product of the number of modes available and the average energy in each.
We may rewrite the same equation in terms of wavelength.
dI
2c
2f 4
= 4 kT = 3 kT.
d
c

(5.2)

From a theoretical point of view, these equations are not satisfactory. As the frequency f becomes large (hence
becomes small, as in the ultraviolet region), the predicted intensity increases without limit, even for objects at modest
temperature. This is called the ultraviolet catastrophe. On the other hand, at low frequencies (hence large (i.e.,
at the red and infra-red wavelengths), the formula gave accurate predictions of the experimental results, indicating
that at least some aspects were basically correct. The problem was solved in two steps. Since these equations lead to
an infinite radiation rate, another approach must be found to compute the total intensity emitted by a hot object.
Boltzmann found a thermodynamic argument to show that the total radiation intensity, i.e. dI
df integrated over all
frequencies, is given by
35

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CHAPTER 5. BLACKBODY RADIATION

I = T4

(5.3)

where is a constant of nature and T is the absolute temperature (in K). See derivations in your textbooks. This
agreed with earlier experimental measurements by Stefan. This equation is called the Stefan-Boltzmann Law. The
unusually rapid increase in radiation with temperature is a consequence of the mass-less nature of photons, the
carriers of electromagnetic energy. (The same kind of behavior governs phonons, the quanta of acoustic energy in
solids and liquids.) Although the Stefan-Boltzmann law correctly describes the total power emitted per area, it
does not predict the actual form of the spectral distribution. That step was taken by Planck who postulated that
electromagnetic energy was emitted in discrete units or quanta, each with an energy given by hf , where h is the
Planck constant, 6.6256 10 34 Joule-second. For photon energies with hf > kT , it would no longer be possible
to populate each mode with kT average energy since a fraction of hf is no longer allowed. The consequence is an
additional factor of
hf /kT
ehf /kT

(5.4)

that reduces the spectral distribution given by the very first equation above. This factor approaches unity for small
f , preserving the long wavelength Rayleigh-Jeans behavior, while avoiding the ultra-violet divergence. The result is
the Planck spectral distribution:
dI
2hf 3
1
=
df
c2 ehf /kT

(5.5)

If we rewrite this in terms of power per area and wavelength interval at a given wavelength, we obtain for the Planck
distribution in terms of :
dI
2hc2
1
=
5
hf
/kT
d
e

(5.6)

This distribution (Figure 5.1) has a maximum at the wavelength given by Wiens Law:

max

hc 1
2.898 106 nm K
=
.
4.965 kT
T

(5.7)

By integrating the above equations over all frequencies or wavelengths, one can recover Stefan-Boltzman equation
and, in addition, find that the constant, , is explicitly given by:
2 5 k 4
= 5.67 10 8 W/m2 K4 .
15h3 c2
It turns out that hot bodies such as the sun or a lamp filament behave much like a canonical blackbody.
=

(5.8)

The equipment you are going to use to study blackbody radiation is manufactured by PASCO Scientific (Model
OS-8542). The manual is appended here as well. Please follow the instructions in the manual as closely as possible,
especially the calibration procedure.
Questions:
1. Make sure that the determination of the wavelength from the angle is clear to you. Reproduce these steps in
detail in your logbook.

5.1.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

37

2. Determine the temperature of the light source as described in the manual (page 4, part B).
3. Make sure the plots you make are in your logbook (Light intensity it vs wavelength, light intensity vs angular
position, voltage vs time and temperature vs time).
4. How dos changing temperature of the bulb aect the wavelength or light intensity? Is there a pattern?
5. The prism centered in the setup may be replaced by a grating. Would that be a good thing to do?
6. In your logbook, draw a diagram showing the position of the reference angle, measured angle and spectral lines.
Do the spectral lines converge or diverge? Do the light rays overlap?
7. What happens if you remove the collimating lens?
8. Can you use a dierent light source and repeat the experiment? What would be a good light source to try?
9. What is special about the light sensor you use? How do you characterize its response to dierent wavelengths?
Can something else be used in place of it?
10. Explain in your own words in your logbook what blackbody radiation is and why it is important in physics
today.

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CHAPTER 5. BLACKBODY RADIATION

13

4.5

x 10

5000 K
4

3.5

Power Emitted

2.5

2
4000 K

1.5

1
3000 K
0.5

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8
1
1.2
Wavelength [m]

1.4

1.6

1.8

2
6

x 10

Figure 5.1: Blackbody radiation spectrum at T = 5, 000, 4, 000 and 3, 000 o K. Units are in SI.