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CONFLICT AT WORK
CHAPTER SCAN
Conflict at work is normal and inevitable, yet many people are unskilled at managing it. This
chapter describes functional and dysfunctional conflict, and reviews the major causes of conflict in
organizations. Defense mechanisms are natural reactions to interpersonal conflict. Both effective
and ineffective techniques for managing conflict are described. Conflict management styles include
avoiding, competing, accommodating, compromising, and collaborating.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
KEY WORDS
Chapter 13 introduces the following key terms:
conflict
functional conflict
dysfunctional conflict
jurisdictional ambiguity
interorganizational conflict
intergroup conflict
intragroup conflict
interpersonal conflict
intrapersonal conflict
interrole conflict
intrarole conflict
personrole conflict
fixation
displacement
negativism
compensation
identification
rationalization
flight/withdrawal
conversion
fantasy
nonaction
secrecy
administrative orbiting
due process nonaction
character assassination
superordinate goal
distributive bargaining
integrative negotiation
Conflict is any situation in which incompatible goals, attitudes, emotions, or behaviors lead to
disagreement or opposition between two or more parties. Most organizational members will admit
that conflict is inevitable, and that not all conflict is negative. Studies have confirmed that
individuals typically avoid conflict. Other studies have revealed that even when the "devil's
advocate" provides creative, innovative ideas, he or she is the first individual to deselect from
groups.
A.
Estimates suggest that managers spend about 21 percent of their time dealing with
conflict. Conflict management skills are a major predictor of managerial success and are
related to emotional intelligence (EQ). Stimulating functional conflict can result in better
decisions and more innovative thinking.
B.
Conflict causes are categorized into structural factors and personal factors.
A.
Structural Factors
Personal Factors
Personal factors include skills and abilities, personalities, perceptions, values and ethics,
emotions, communication barriers and cultural differences. Communication barriers can be
physical or value-related.
IV.
Hofstede's cultural differences study is useful analyzing conflict approaches globally. Cultures high
in individualism, like the United States, would have a natural conflict tendency with countries that
are more collectivism-oriented. Even within countries, cultures have distinct differences. Research
shows that some ethnic groups in the United States are more willing to cooperate than compete,
which would resemble collectivist traditions.
V.
Interorganizational Conflict
Intergroup Conflict
Intergroup conflict occurs between groups or teams. It can have both positive and
negative effects within each group.
C.
Intragroup Conflict
Intragroup conflict occurs within groups or teams. Functional intragroup conflict can help
groups avoid groupthink.
D.
Interpersonal Conflict
Interpersonal conflict occurs between two or more individuals. The conflict varies with
the power relationships among individuals.
E.
Intrapersonal Conflict
VI.
INTRAPERSONAL CONFLICT
To avoid intrapersonal conflict (i.e., conflict within an individual), individuals should learn as
much as they can about the values of the organization and they should utilize role analysis.
INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT
Power Networks
Power relationships include equal versus equal (a horizontal balance of power), high
versus low (powerful versus less powerful), and high versus middle versus low (conflicts
typically felt by middle managers).
B.
Defense Mechanisms
Over fifty percent of responses to criticism are defensive. Defense mechanisms are
common reactions to frustration associated with conflict. They are categorized as
aggressive (fixation, displacement, negativism), compromise (compensation, identification,
rationalization), and withdrawal (flight, conversion, fantasy) mechanisms. Fixation refers
to a situation in which an individual continues a dysfunctional behavior that obviously will
not resolve the conflict. Displacement means directing anger toward someone who is not
the source of the conflict. Negativism is active or passive resistance. Compensation
occurs when an individual tries to make up for an inadequacy by putting increased energy
into another activity. Identification occurs when one individual patterns his or her
behavior after anothers. Rationalization is trying to justify ones behavior by
constructing bogus reasons for it. Flight is the act of physically escaping a conflict, while
withdrawal involves psychological escape. Conversion is a process whereby emotional
conflicts become expressed in physical symptoms. Fantasy is an escape by daydreaming.
VIII.
Conflict may be managed through either cooperative or competitive strategies. One of the best
known approaches to conflict management is the winlose analogy. The cooperative (winwin)
strategy is the most time consuming. The competitive approach (winlose) often results in damage
to both parties.
Ineffective Techniques
Most individuals do not deal directly with conflict in the work situation. The nonaction
approach is to do nothing, hoping that the conflict will disappear. Secrecy, or trying to
keep a conflict out of view of most people, only creates suspicion. Administrating
orbiting is delaying action on a conflict by buying time. Due process nonaction is a
procedure that is set up to address conflicts that is so costly and time consuming, or even
personally risky, that no one will use this avenue. Character assassination is attempting
to label or discredit one's opponent.
B.
Effective Techniques
Avoiding
Accommodating
Accommodating is the style that is most frequently used with family and friends. It
involves concern that the other partys goals be met but relatively little concern with
meeting ones own goals. Accommodating may be appropriate when you find you are
wrong or when you are attempting to create an obligation for future reciprocation.
C.
Competing
D.
Compromising
The compromising style involves each party giving up something to reach a solution to the
conflict. Compromises are not optimal solutions.
E.
Collaborating
Collaborating is the winwin style that involves open and thorough discussion of the
conflict to arrive at a solution that is satisfactory to both parties.
X.
Dean Tjosvold proposes that organizations should build and create an environment for conflict
positive situations. He views this approach as adding a creative and innovative edge that is needed
in organizations. This approach involves four steps: (1) value diversity and confront differences;
(2) seek mutual benefits, and unite behind cooperative goals; (3) empower employees to feel
confident and skillful; and (4) take stock to reward success and learn from mistakes.
XI.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Conflict management skills are keys to management success. The manager's task is to
stimulate functional conflict and prevent or resolve dysfunctional conflict.
Structural causes of conflict include specialization, interdependence, common resources,
goal differences, authority relationships, status inconsistencies, and jurisdictional
ambiguities.
Personal factors that lead to conflict include differences in skills and abilities, personalities,
perceptions, or values and ethics; emotions; communication barriers; and cultural
differences. The increasing diversity of the workforce and globalization of business have
potential to increase conflict arising from these differences.
The levels of conflict include interorganizational, intergroup, interpersonal, and
intrapersonal.
Individuals engaged in interpersonal conflict often display aggressive, compromise, or
withdrawal defense mechanisms.
Ineffective techniques for managing conflict include nonaction, secrecy, administrative
orbiting, due process nonaction, and character assassination.
Effective techniques for managing conflict include appealing to superordinate goals,
expanding resources, changing personnel, changing structure, and confronting and
negotiating.
In negotiating, managers can use a variety of conflict management styles, including
avoiding, accommodating, competing, compromising, and collaborating.
Managers should strive to create a conflict-positive organization one that values
diversity, empowers employees, and seeks winwin solutions to conflicts.
conflict affects organizational members. Intragroup conflict occurs within an organizational group,
where there are differences in goals or approaches. Interpersonal conflict occurs between two or
more individuals, and intrapersonal conflict occurs within a single individual.
4. What defense mechanisms do people use in interpersonal conflict?
Common aggressive defense mechanisms are fixation, displacement, and negativism. The three
compromise mechanisms are compensation, identification, and rationalization. Withdrawal
mechanisms include flight or withdrawal, conversion, and fantasy.
5. What are the most effective techniques for managing conflict at work? What are some
ineffective techniques?
Superordinate goals encourage groups to work through conflicts and resolve issues. Expanding
resources allows problem solvers to devote more energy to solving the problem. By changing the
personnel or structure, the problem receives a fresh, open look. Nonaction is an ineffective
technique that is rarely successful because most problems do not simply melt away. Secrecy
eventually mushrooms, like Watergate, and the Exxon spill. Administrative orbiting buys time, but
leads to frustration among those who are truly interested in resolution of the problem.
Occasionally due process results in nonaction. The lengthy process established to "hear" a
problem often defeats the individuals who are most concerned.
6. Identify and discuss five styles of conflict management.
Avoiding is low on assertiveness and cooperativeness. The accommodating style shows concern
for others goals but not your own. Competing is assertive and uncooperative. Compromising
requires that both sides give up something to resolve the issue. The collaborating style is assertive
and cooperative and focuses on achieving a winwin solution to the conflict.
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Students can examine and discuss the types of conflict and conflict management techniques they
have experienced in groups of which they have been members.
13.2 WHAT IS YOUR CONFLICT-HANDLING STYLE?
Following completion of the challenge, students could be put into groups in class based on their
primary conflict-handling style. In the groups have students discuss how they typically handle
conflict, encourage them to use specific examples of conflict situations they have experienced.
Each group can share with the class a summary of its typical approach to handling conflict.
Discuss the similarities and differences between groups as you cover class material on the conflicthandling styles.
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
13.1 CONFLICTS OVER UNETHICAL BEHAVIOR
Instructor's Notes:
This exercise provides a list of behaviors that employees might engage in when working for a
company. Students are requested to answer each of the 18 questions in terms of the best indicator
of the frequency with which they would engage in the behavior. After this is completed, they are
to re-examine the questions in light of their beliefs about whether their coworkers would engage
in the behavior, and put an X next to that category. The third time they review the questions, they
should indicate with a check mark if management should monitor this category of behavior. It is
useful to ask students for the extremes in their check marks between their own and what they
believe their coworkers would do. Another way to gather issues is to ask for the categories that
were checked either number 1 or number 5. Remind students to be as honest as possible, rather
than answering the way they believe they should answer.
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Variations:
1. To increase collaboration, the design may be altered as follows: (a) reduce the number of
moves in each round to five; (b) require negotiation after each move; or (c) increase the
penalty for an attack.
2. To increase competition, the design may be altered as follows: (a) increase the number of
moves in each round to ten; (b) make negotiations more difficult and costly by assessing a fee;
(c) remove the penalty for an attack; or (d) multiply the payoff threefold for move four, and
fivefold for the final move.
3. To focus on the negotiation process, all negotiations may take place in a neutral location in the
presence of all parties to the negotiation, e.g., both teams may observe. The number of
negotiators may also be increased to two from each team.
Limitations: This game sometimes generates feelings of betrayal and resentment that disrupt
relationships and affect subsequent classes. These issues should be addressed directly and there
should be ample opportunity for persons to talk through their feelings.
WORLD BANK BANKER'S INSTRUCTION SHEET
As banker, your tasks during this experiment are to synchronize the timing between your two
teams and to monitor the rules set forth in the World Bank General Instructions.
1. After each one and a half minute move, call for a private report from each team's
representative.
2. Thirty seconds later, indicate the beginning of the next move, announce a three-minute
negotiation session, or signal that an attack has been declared. (An attack immediately ends
each round).
3. Following moves three and six, direct the negotiators to a prearranged site out of view of both
teams for a compulsory negotiation session. (This session must be limited to a maximum of
three minutes).
4. At the end of a round (after the seventh move or an attack), give each team's recorder the
information needed about the status of the other team's weapons to complete the records for
that round and prepare for the next round. (Note that there may be an attack after the seventh
move also).
5. Have team members complete the World Bank Questionnaire at the end of the game.
As banker, you have the following responsibility:
1.
2.
3.
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There have been complaints recently about Fred among several of his coworkers for wasting their
time by dropping by their office and engaging them in "conversations" (actually Fred does most of
the talking) about various things (usually not work-related). It is difficult to interrupt one of his
stories, and he usually takes vaguely polite hints that "the conversation is over" as an expression
of interest in what he is saying. ("Well, Fred, that's great. Let me know how that new bowling
ball works out."----"Yeah, I've already bowled a couple of games with it. I went Sunday
afternoon. You should see all the professional people who go bowling on Sundays. I met this one
guy ....etc.."). Even you endure these interruptions from time to time. Fred's work is generally
good in quality, and adequate in quantity. He puts in a full workday, but doesn't work as many
hours per week as some of the others in the department.
Discuss the pros and cons of confronting Fred in each of the following ways:
For each rejected item, substantiate your opinion by referencing Chapter 13 of your text.
Modify, or write an approach that would be optimal, and list as many of the issues that you
can discover from the chapter.
1. Send Fred a memo stating that "some people have complained about him 'visiting' too much."
Admonish him to be careful to not waste his own time or anyone else's.
2. Call Fred into your office. Tell him that it has come to your attention that he's been "chatting"
with other people in the office a good bit. Tell him that everyone looks pretty busy right now.
Ask him if he's sure he is not taking up too much of their time.
3. Drop by Fred's office while walking around. Ask him how things are going. Make a big deal
about "I had better get out of here and let you get back to work. I know all of you guys have
a lot of work to do."
4. The next time Fred interrupts you with one of his stories, cut him off by saying "Fred, I hate to
interrupt your story, but I'm really busy right now. I run into this problem with you every now
and then. I'm reluctant to cut you off, but sometimes I need to let you know that I am in the
middle of something important."
5. Send around a memo saying, "It has come to my attention that some of the people in this
department are beginning to spend too much time "chatting" with each other during work
time. We are all very busy these days, so let me ask you all to take special care to not
interrupt one another unnecessarily."
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MBTI EXERCISE
Exercise Learning Objectives:
a. Ask students to explore the idea that the majority of conflicts are based on miscommunication.
b. Students should understand that conflict resolution will be different for different people.
Exercise Overview:
1. Students should have taken the MBTI or the short version in Chapter 3.
2. Students will be formed into "S" and "N" dyads where you have one "S" and one "N" student
in each dyad. In those cases where the class has more of one type than another, use the next letter
"T" or "F" to form the dyads. In this case, put one "ST" with an "SF" or one "NT" with an "NF".
3. The students in these dyads will individually write a set of instructions on a common issue and
then compare with their partner.
4. The instructor should review "S/N" differences in Myers-Briggs, paying particular attention to
the differences to the manner in which each type explains issues.
Exercise Description:
a. Form "S" and "N" dyads as described in the exercise overview. Form as many groups as you
need so that everyone is in a group. If after forming the dyads you have one "extra" student, you
may either have the student help you observe and report this group activity or form one team.
b. Each student should write a set of instructions on "how to register for fall classes." The
instructor should read the following instruction: "Each of you is to write a set of instructions for
an incoming freshman on how to register for fall classes." DO NOT amplify these instructions
and do not allow students to use any reference material--this is done from memory. DO NOT
give any clarification. If the instructor gives clarifying information, the major benefit of this
exercise will be lost--i.e., how we "hear" instructions. We suggest you allow 10 to 15 minutes for
this.
c. Ask students to read their instructions to their partner. Ask their partners to listen attentively.
Ask each student to read his or her instructions before you allow them to discuss the differences.
d. After reading the instructions to each other, ask the students to discuss these questions:
1. What, if any, differences are apparent in the two sets of instructions?
2. As the receiver of the other's instructions, what were the things that helped you? What were
the things that confused you? What other information would you need in order to register?
3. What recommendations would you give the writer to improve his or her communications?
e. Ask two students to be the recorders--one for large newsprint and one on regular notebook
paper.
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f. Depending on time, ask each person in the class to share their recommendations and have one
recorder list them on large flip chart paper and the other recorder list them on notebook paper.
What the instructor should expect:
a. "Ss" will most likely give very detailed step-by-step instructions. These instructions will most
likely be numbered and would generally be representative of the actual registration sequence.
b. "Ns" will most likely give less detailed instructions and may even skip several steps in the
process. Their instructions would most likely be representative of the process used but without
most of the actual steps.
Instructor's Summary:
One of the major issues involved in conflict is the actual discussion of the facts and circumstances
surrounding the situation in conflict. We've noticed in this exercise that we all gather and relate
information differently.
Misinformation or poor communication is the single largest reason for conflict. If we can take the
time to try to understand the "facts" as seen by the other person, we should be able to resolve
most of our conflicts and at the same time learn from each other.
Properly managed conflict is healthy because the creative tension that happens forces us to grow
and to learn. Conflict is in fact a normal part of life. Successfully managing conflict means that
you choose the right conflict management style appropriate to the situation. Most of us use only
one or two preferred conflict management styles and, unfortunately, that style only works in
certain cases.
Know how you collect and receive information and remember that other people may collect and
receive information differently. Clarify the facts, stay issue-focused, maintain an open mind and
you will learn, grow, and have more fulfilling relationships.
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1. In your opinion, how might Alan Lafley respond to the challenges of globalization, diversity,
technology, and ethics?
Lafley was described as a forceful leader with a unique ability to energize the organization to
achieve high goals. He has long been seen as a future P&G chief executive. He has led
virtually every key part of the companys business with distinction. Lafleys emphasis on
goals, his ability to energize people in the pursuit of those goals, along with his record of
successful leadership throughout all key aspects of P&Gs business, provide a strong signal
that he will be very proactive in addressing each of the challenges.
2. How could Procter & Gambles executive team use knowledge about power, conflict
resolution, and teamwork to deal with the challenge of global growth?
With the initial creation of the global business units, a significant shuffling of part of the
leadership hierarchy took place. Five of the seven top GBU leadership positions went to
people whose previous responsibilities had been in a different area of P&Gs operations. In
addition, three of the seven assumed dual leadership roles two GBU executives also headed
an MDO and one GBU executive also led one of the Corporate Functions. The remaining six
MDO chiefs headed areas that were closely aligned to their previous job responsibilities at
P&G. The top leadership position in each of the nine initial Corporate Functions as well as the
top position in the Global Business Services unit was assumed by the person who had been
responsible for that specific area prior to the Organization 2005 initiative. In late 2001, only
11 of the 22 executives who had led one or more of the original units of the four pillars
remained one the executive committee in late 2001. Some of these individuals were leading
different units than they had led originally.
Whether considering the initial structural arrangement of the Organization 2005 initiative or
its subsequent realignment, some of the executives picked up new responsibilities and some
continued with the same or similar responsibilities. Those who had new responsibilities may
have had somewhat different bases of power from which to operate. Those with the same or
similar responsibilities probably drew on their existing bases of power. All the leaders,
however, must effectively use their power bases in influencing other people to do whatever is
necessary for their organizational units to be successful.
Conflict will inevitably arise in a complex global business, even when operations are
streamlined. Some of the conflict may result from people learning to work and adapt to the
new structure. Part of the conflict may come from the interlocking interests of the GBUs and
MDOs as the company tries to be global while serving local target markets. Another source of
conflict could be the interface of global business services centers and corporate functions with
the GBUs and MDOs. In all cases, top leadership must be cognizant of the source and nature
of any conflict, and work vigorously to resolve the conflict in the overall best interests of
Procter & Gamble.
As noted in the previous paragraph, P&Gs structural design requires extensive interaction and
support among the four pillars (i.e., global business units, market development organizations,
global business services centers, and corporate functions). Consequently, effective teamwork
will be needed. The leaders of these different organizational units will need to model effective
teamwork behaviors for their followers. Additionally, they will need to create new and/or
refine existing policies, processes, and procedures to promote effective teamwork within their
own units as well as among their units and other units.
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When the organization operates globally, ethical attitudes and practices may vary from country
to country as well as across diverse populations. Thus, the leaders and followers must be
aware of local practices and customs while seeking to maintain consistent ethical standards
throughout the company.
This question also provides an excellent opportunity to explore the issue of an organization
having a universal ethical standard versus adapting to local customs. Some students may argue
that a global companys leaders should set uniform ethical standards for all their operations
throughout the world. Other students may favor an ethical approach that varies according to
the beliefs and practices of the host country. In such a case, the organizations leaders would
establish and model flexible ethical guidelines. These two perspectives capture a
fundamental ethical tension that leaders and followers will encounter in global business
operations that employ a diverse workforce. Students should explore how they feel about this
tension, and how, as followers and as leaders, they would likely react to it.
Role Plays
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Additional role plays relevant to the material in this chapter are located in Appendix A of this
instructor's manual.