1 Vector spaces

1.0 Vectors and scalars

Scalar:
Examples:
Vector:
Examples:
Vector notation:
Norm of a vector:
Equality of two vectors:

1.1 Geometrical representation of vectors

1.2 Vector operations

Addition (parallelogram rule):

Scalar multiplication:

1.2.1 Properties of vector addition

Commutativity:
Associativity:
Distributivity:
Zero vector (additive identity):
Negative vector (additive inverse):

1.2.2 Properties of scalar multiplication

Identity:
Distributivity:

Exercise 1: Given that kAk = 2kBk determine graphically A + 2(B C).

1.3 Angle and dot product

1.3.1 Angle between two vectors ~u and ~v

1.3.2 Dot product of two vectors ~u and ~v

Special case (i) = 2 :

Special case (ii) ~u = ~v :

1.3.3 Projection of ~u on ~v

1.3.4 Application: Work done by a force F~

Exercise 2: An object is pulled a distance of 100 m along a horizontal path by a constant force of
25N. The force is applied at an angle of 30 above the horizontal. Find the work done by the force.
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1.4 The n-space

1.4.1 2-space

1.4.2 3-space

1.4.3 n-space

1.4.4 Properties in n-space

Exercise 3: Let ~u = (1, 3, 0, 1), ~v = (2, 0, 1, 2), and w

~ = (3, 5, 2, 4). Find ~x if
2~u ~x = 2~v + w
~ 2~x.
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1.5 Dot product, norm, and angle in n-space

Suppose ~u = (u1 , u2 ), ~v = (v1 , v2 ) R2 .

Exercise 4: Let ~u = (1, 0) and ~v = (2, 2). Find , the angle between ~u and ~v .

Exercise 5: Let ~u = (2, 2, 4, 1) and ~v = (5, 9, 1, 0). Find , the angle between ~u and ~v .

1.5.1 Properties of dot product

1.5.2 Properties of norm

Exercise 6: Expand (2~u ~v ) (w

~ + 2~u).
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1.6 Schwarz inequality and triangle inequality

1.6.1 Schwarz inequality (or Cauchy-Schwarz inequality)
For any two vectors ~u and ~v , |~u ~v | k~ukk~v k.
Proof. (Optional)
For any R, observe that (~u + ~v ) (~u + ~v ) 0. I.e.,
k~uk2 + 2(~u ~v ) + 2 k~v k2 0.
Choose =

(1)

~u ~v
and substitute in (1) to obtain
k~v k2
k~uk2 2

(~u ~v )2 (~u ~v )2
+
0.
k~v k2
k~v k2

(2)

After simplifying (2) we get the desired inequality |~u ~v | k~ukk~v k.

1.6.2 Triangle inequality

For any two vectors ~u and ~v , k~u + ~v k k~uk + k~v k.
Proof. (Optional)
Consider
k~u + ~v k2 = (~u + ~v ) (~u + ~v )
= k~uk2 + 2(~u ~v ) + k~v k2
k~uk2 + 2|~u ~v | + k~v k2
k~uk2 + 2k~ukk~v | + k~v k2 by the Schwarz inequality
= (k~uk + k~v k)2
which gives the desired inequality k~u + ~v k k~uk + k~v k.

Exercise 7: Let ~u = (1, 2) and ~v = (0, 3). Verify Schwarz inequalty and triangle inequality
graphically and algebrically.

Exercise 8: Let ~u = (1, 2, 4, 0) and ~v = (3, 1, 2, 5). Verify Schwarz inequalty and triangle inequality.

1.7 Orthogonality
1.7.1 Perpendicular vectors

1.7.2 Orthogonal vectors

1.7.3 Orthogonal set

Exercise 9: Let u~1 = (2, 3, 1, 0), u~2 = (1, 2, 8, 3) and u~3 = (9, 6, 0, 1). Is {u~1 , u~2 , u~3 } an orthogonal
set?

1.8 Normalization
1.8.1 Normal vector

Exercise 10: Normalize ~u = (2, 3, 0, 1).

1.8.2 Orthonomal set

1.8.3 Kronecker delta function

Exercise 11: Let u~1 = (1, 0, 0, 0), u~2 = (0, 12 , 0, 12 ) and u~2 = (0, 12 , 0, 12 ). Is {u~1 , u~2 , u~3 } an
orthonomal set?

1.9 Generalized vector spaces

Exercise 12: Show that Rn is a vector space.

Exercise 13: Let u : [0, 1] R be continuous. The sum of two functions u and v is given by
u + v := u(x) + v(x) and scalar multiplication is given by u := u(x). Show that the function
space S = {u(x)|u : [0, 1] R} is a vector space.

1.9.1 Inner product (dot product)

1.9.2 Norm

1.10 Span
1.10.1 Linear combination of vectors

1.10.2 Span of vectors

Exercise 14: Find the span of {~u = (2, 3)}.

Exercise 15: Find the span of {~u = (2, 3), ~v = (4, 6)}.
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1.11 Subspaces

Exercise 16: Let u~1 = (5, 1) and u~2 = (1, 3). Is span{u~1 , u~2 } = R2 or a subspace of R2 ?

1.12 Linear independence and dependence

Exercise 17: Let u~1 = (1, 0), u~2 = (1, 1) and u~3 = (5, 4). Is {u~1 , u~2 , u~3 } linearly independent or
linearly dependent?

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Exercise 18: Let u~1 = (1, 0), and u~2 = (1, 1). Is {u~1 , u~2 } linearly independent or linearly dependent?

Exercise 19: Let u~1 = (2, 1), u~2 = (0, 1) and u~3 = (0, 0). Is {u~1 , u~2 , u~3 } linearly independent or
linearly dependent?

1.12.1 Theorem (Test for linear independence)

Exercise 20: Let u~1 = (2, 0, 1, 3), u~2 = (0, 1, 1, 1) and u~3 = (2, 2, 3, 0). Is {u~1 , u~2 , u~3 } linearly
independent or linearly dependent?

Exercise 21: Let u~1 = (1, 0, 1), u~2 = (1, 1, 1), u~3 = (1, 1, 2) and u~3 = (1, 2, 1). Is {u~1 , u~2 , u~3 , u~4 }
linearly independent or linearly dependent?

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1.12.2 Propositions

1.13 Basis

1.13.1 Theorem (Test for basis)

Exercise 22: Let e~1 = (2, 1), and e~2 = (2, 4). Is {e~1 , e~2 } a basis for R?

Exercise 23: Expand ~u = (6, 2) in terms of the basis vectors e~1 = (2, 1), and e~2 = (2, 4).

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1.14 Dimension

1.14.1 Theorem (Test for dimension)

1.14.2 Orthogonal basis

Exercise 24: Expand ~u = (4, 3, 3, 6) in terms of orthogonal basis vectors e~1 = (1, 0, 2, 0), e~2 =
(0, 1, 0, 0), e~3 = (2, 0, 1, 5), and e~4 = (2, 0, 1, 1) of R4 .

1.14.3 Orthonormal basis

Exercise 25: Expand ~u = (4, 3, 3, 6) in terms of orthonormal basis vectors in R4 .

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