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Dipartimento di Ingegneria Elettrica Gestionale Meccanica (DIEGM), Universit di Udine, via delle Scienze 208, 33100 Udine, Italy
Dipartimento di Chimica Fisica e Ambiente, Universit di Udine, via del Cotonicio 108, 33100 Udine, Italy
c
F.I.S.A. Fabbrica Italiana Sedili Autoferroviari S.r.l., via G. De Simon, 33010 Osoppo, Udine, Italy
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 24 December 2013
Accepted 5 May 2014
Available online 13 May 2014
Keywords:
Laser-welded lap joint
Low carbon steel
Microstructure
Micro-hardness
Static strength
a b s t r a c t
This paper presents a microstructural and mechanical characterisation of laser-welded lap joints in low
carbon steel thin sheets. Different combinations of steel types (DC05, S355MC) and thickness values are
used to assemble welded specimens with linear and circular weld bead. Metallurgical observations and
micro-hardness tests are used to characterise the weld microstructure. Mechanical response in tensile
test is then used to evaluate the static strength, rotation angle of weld bead and failure mode of welded
specimens. Lap-joints with circular weld showed a lower rotation angle compared to linear welds. The
fracture in all tested specimens occurred at the base metal, far away from the weld. A simplied mechanical model is nally proposed to derive theoretical formulae for estimating the tensile strength of welded
joints as a function of material properties and weld geometry. The analytical results are in good agreement with experimental ndings and they estimate an increased strength for circular welds, compared
to linear weld with same lateral width. A design chart is also derived to allow a design of laser-welded
joints with virtually equal strength of base metal and weld zone.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Laser welding is becoming an attractive and economically
advantageous joining technique in several engineering elds. The
main advantages are low process cost, high welding speed and
concentrated heat power, which gives reduced distortions and
narrow weld bead with limited microstructure changes in the
heat-affected zone. Laser welding has largely been applied, for
example, in the automotive industry to manufacture parts of car
such as doors, front and side panels, side beams and wheel arches
[1]. Applications of laser welding are partly documented also in
railway industry, as possible replacement of resistance spot welding to increase surface quality of welded assembly on rail vehicle
side panels [2].
A lap joint is a geometry commonly adopted in various welded
assemblies and its characteristics have been investigated in the
literature. Experimental studies of laser-welded lap joints, with
various combinations of metals and alloys, have been focused on
microstructural and metallurgical characteristics [35], as well as
on mechanical strength under static [613] and fatigue loadings
[5,14,15]. For example, Sokolov et al. [3] presented an experimental
Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 (0) 432 558048; fax: +39 (0) 432 558251.
E-mail address: denis.benasciutti@uniud.it (D. Benasciutti).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2014.05.005
0261-3069/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
206
The strength of welded joints has been investigated by theoretical and numerical approaches, as well as by experimental studies.
For example, Ha and Huh [6] carried out experimental tests to
formulate an analytical failure criterion for laser weld under combined normal and shear loading. Their study pointed out also the
change in failure mechanism (from base metal to interfacial failure), as a function of the loading angle. Ono et al. [7] presented
an experimental characterisation of static and fatigue strength of
laser-welded lap joints in thin steel sheet. They also proposed a
simple analytical model to estimate the strength and fracture position, based on weld joint properties. Miyazaki and Furusako [8,9]
developed a similar model to estimate static failure evaluation,
which also included the failure in the portion adjacent to the weld.
Numerical simulations with nite elements were also
attempted to evaluate the weld strength under tensile loading.
For example, Terasaki and Kitamura [10] adopted an elasticplastic
nite element model to check whether the equivalent plastic strain
can be used to estimate the static tensile strength of lap joints.
Comparison with experimental results showed that the equivalent
plastic strain is only suitable to estimate base metal failure, while
weld shear failure has to be assessed by conventional failure theories that assume a constant shear stress. Pan and co-workers
[11,12,15] proposed a non-homogeneous elasticplastic model to
simulate the mechanical response and failure mode of lap joints
in high strength low alloy (HSLA) steel. Results from nite
elements analysis were in good agreement with experimental
observations. The main limitation of nite elements modelling,
however, is that numerical simulation can continue until numerical instability occurs. Therefore, the simulated loaddisplacement
curves are monotonically increasing, without any maximum load
that can be used to dene the joint strength.
In the context of previous literature studies, this work presents
the preliminary results of a research project aimed to characterise
the microstructure and the mechanical strength of laser-welded
lap joints in steel sheets, to assess their possible application in railway industry. The interest is focused on laser welds made of thin
low carbon steel sheets with different thickness and chemical composition. A deep drawing DC05 steel and S355MC high strength
structural steel, with thickness values in the range of 1.0
1.5 mm, are considered. Two different weld geometries (linear
and circular) are also compared, see Fig. 1. The linear weld has a
straight weld bead, perpendicular to specimen longitudinal axis.
A circular weld, instead, has a weld bead that forms a circumference located at the specimen centre.
Metallurgical analyses, micro-hardness measurements and
mechanical tensile tests were carried out to characterise the microstructure and mechanical properties of laser-welded lap joints
with different weld geometry. The proposed experimental characterisation suggests that laser welding of dissimilar low carbon thin
steel sheets could be a suitable joining technique for structural
applications in railway industry.
2. Materials and experimental procedure
Microstructure and mechanical properties of laser-welded lap
joints are investigated. Microstructure is characterised by metallurgical analysis and micro-hardness measurements. Mechanical
behaviour is studied by tension tests, which provide the tensile
strength, longitudinal deformation and rotation angle of the weld
bead, as well as typical failure mechanisms.
2.1. Base materials and laser-welded lap joints
Two types of steel (DC05, S355MC) are used in welded
joints. The DC05 material (EN 10130:2006 [16]) is a cold rolled,
(a)
linear weld
(b)
circular weld
Fig. 1. Geometry of laser-welded lap joint with (a) linear and (b) circular weld
geometry.
non-ageing low carbon steel especially suited for deep drawing and
other demanding forming applications. The S355MC steel (material
n. 1.0976) (EN 10149-2:2013 [17]) is a thermo-mechanically rolled
steel with high yield stress and high impact strength properties.
Table 1 lists the nominal mechanical properties and chemical
compositions of DC05 and S355 steels used in this study.
The laser-welded lap joints were obtained by welding two overlapping thin sheets with a bre laser. The welding parameters are
summarised in Table 2. No post-weld heat treatment was applied
after welding.
Several preliminary tests were performed to arrive at the optimised welding parameters given in Table 2. In fact, previous
parameters [18] gave unsatisfactory welded specimens, characterised by incomplete penetration, inhomogeneous microstructure
and insufcient mechanical strength compared to base metal
(e.g. failure occurred at weld bead). On the other hand, it is not
the aim of the present work to further investigate the correlation
between welding parameters and weld properties.
Fig. 1 shows the geometry and Fig. 2 a top-view of the welded
specimens considered in this study. Different combinations of
sheet thickness and metal types were used (see Table 3): a thickness of 1.0 and 1.2 mm for DC05 steel, 1.5 mm thickness for
S355MC steel.
Specimens were shaped by laser cutting after welding. The
overlapped welded sheets prior to laser cutting had a rectangular
geometry, with same width and length as nal welded specimens:
length 231 mm, width 30 mm (linear weld) and 35 mm (circular
weld). Two different weld geometries (linear and circular) were
considered, both positioned at the overlap centre. The central
straight portion of the specimen with reduced cross section has a
length of 100 mm, while the width is 15 mm (for linear weld)
and 20 mm (for circular weld). The linear weld has a length equal
to the sheet width and is positioned transversely to the longitudinal specimen axis. Instead, the diameter of circular weld (15 mm)
is lower than sheet width, which assures that the weld is
completely inside the metal sheet and it is not cut during specimen
shaping by laser cutting. The overlap length is 100 mm. Two doublers, 40 mm long, were positioned at both ends of the welded
207
Elongation, A (%)
Mn
Si
Al
Ti, V
DC05
S355 MC
163
369
283
457
42
30
0.056
0.096
0.057
0.326
0.269
0.040
0.007
0.006
0.011
0.005
0.022
0.060
Table 2
Welding parameters used in the present study.
Laser power (kW)
Welding speed (m/mm)
Feeding bre diameter (lm)
Collimation (mm)
Focal length (mm)
Focal point position (mm)
Shielding gas
2
2
100
110
200
190
Nitrogen
Fig. 2. Top views of laser-welded lap joint with (a) linear and (b) circular weld
geometry.
Table 3
Combination of sheet thickness and steel type in laser-welded lap joints analysed in
this study.
Specimen code
Thickness
(steel type)
Thickness
(steel type)
Weld geometry
1.5_1.0_L
1.2_1.0_L
1.5_1.2_C
1.5_1.0_C
1.5 mm
1.2 mm
1.5 mm
1.5 mm
1.0 mm
1.0 mm
1.2 mm
1.0 mm
Linear
Linear
Circular
Circular
(S355MC)
(DC05)
(S355MC)
(S355MC)
(DC05)
(DC05)
(DC05)
(DC05)
208
Fig. 3. Specimen geometry used in tensile test of base metals. Thickness is 1.2 mm
for DC05 steel and 1.5 mm for S355MC steel.
Fig. 4. (a) Optical micrograph of the etched cross section of a 1.5 mm/1.0 mm laser joint with linear weld (top sheet: 1.5 mm, S355MC steel; bottom sheet: 1.0 mm, DC05
steel) and (b) microstructure of FZ, HAZ and BM.
209
Fig. 5. (a) Optical micrograph of the etched cross section of a 1.2 mm/1.0 mm laser joint with linear weld (top sheet: 1.2 mm, DC05 steel; bottom sheet: 1.0 mm, DC05 steel)
and (b) microstructure of FZ, HAZ and BM.
Fig. 6. (a) Optical micrograph of the etched cross section of a 1.5 mm/1.0 mm laser joint with circular weld (top sheet: 1.5 mm, S355MC steel; bottom sheet: 1.0 mm, DC05
steel) and (b) microstructure of FZ, HAZ and BM.
210
450
250
1.2_1.0_L (top)
400
1.2_1.0_L (bot)
1.5_1.0_L (top)
200
bottom (DC05)
1.5_1.0_L (bot)
175
150
125
100
S355MC steel
350
stress (MPa)
Micro-hardness, HV200
225
top (S355MC)
300
250
200
DC05 steel
150
100
top (DC05)
50
75
0
0.00
bottom (DC05)
50
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1.5
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
strain (-)
Fig. 9. Engineering stressstrain curves for DC05 and S355MC base metals.
7
1.2 mm (DC05)/1.0 mm (DC05) - linear weld
200
6
5
1.5_1.2_C (bot)
force (kN)
Micro-hardness, HV200
1.5_1.2_C (top)
175
150
top (S355MC)
125
4
B
75
0
bottom (DC05)
50
-10
-5
sample A
sample B
sample C
DC05 (t=1.2 mm)
DC05 (t=1.0 mm, L=50 mm)
2
100
10
(a)
5
20
(a)
30
40
50
displacement (mm)
10
6
200
175
force (kN)
Micro-hardness, HV200
1.5_1.0_C (top)
1.5_1.0_C (bot)
150
top (S355MC)
4
B
sample A
sample B
sample C
DC05 (t=1.2 mm)
DC05 (t=1.0 mm, L=50 mm)
125
1
100
bottom (DC05)
75
10
20
(b)
30
40
50
displacement (mm)
(b)
50
-10
-5
10
Fig. 10. Loaddisplacement curves for welded specimens with linear weld: (a)
1.2 mm/1.0 mm sheets and (b) 1.5 mm/1.0 mm sheets. The tensile curve (grey
continuous) of DC05 steel and the scaled tensile curve Fnor/DLnor (grey dashed) are
also shown.
tion and rotation angle at fracture. The maximum load per unit
sheet width is also calculated, to allow a comparison between linear and circular welded specimens that have different width Ws of
metal sheet.
In all welded joints, the fracture occurred at base material, far
away from the weld. This conrms that a full penetrated bead,
characterised by an increased micro-hardness and thus by an
increased yield strength compared to base metal, is the strongest
part of the welded specimen. As expected, welded specimens in
two steels S355MC/DC05 failed at the weakest metal (DC05), while
9
1.5 mm (S355)/1.2 mm (DC05) - circular weld
8
7
force (kN)
5
4
DC05 (t=1.2 mm)
sample A
sample B
sample C
DC05 (t=1.2 mm)
DC05 (t=1.2 mm, L=50 mm)
2
1
0
10
20
(a)
30
40
50
displacement (mm)
7
6
C
force (kN)
5
A
4
B
3
sample A
sample B
sample C
DC05 (t=1.2 mm)
DC05 (t=1.0 mm, L=50 mm)
2
1
0
10
20
(b)
30
40
50
displacement (mm)
Fig. 11. Loaddisplacement curves for welded specimens with circular weld: (a)
1.5 mm/1.2 mm sheets and (b) 1.5 mm/1.0 mm sheets. The tensile curve (grey
continuous) of DC05 steel and the scaled tensile curve Fnor/DLnor (grey dashed) are
also shown.
F nor
W 1 t1
F
W 0 t0
DLnor
50
DL
100
211
In the above expression, W0 = 15 mm and t0 = 1.2 mm are, respectively, the width and thickness of base metal sheet. Instead, width
W1 and thickness t1 refers to welded specimens and they depends
on weld geometry (see second and third column in Table 4): in
linear welds W1 = 15 mm and t1 = 1.0 mm, while in circular welds
W1 = 20 mm and t1 = 1.2 mm (for 1.5_1.2_C) and t1 = 1.0 mm (for
1.5_1.0_C). Note that in linear welds only the thickness t1 is
changed, while in circular welds both thickness t1 and width W1
are different compared to base metal specimen.
As shown in Figs. 10 and 11, all tested welded joints showed a
high ductility at failure, with values, however, that are lower than
base metal. Similarly to strength, also the elongation of welded
specimens cannot be directly compared to base metal. This can
be explained by the overlap length of 100 mm in welded joints,
212
Table 4
Experimental results of tensile tests on lap joints with linear and circular weld bead.
a
b
Specimen
code
Thickness, t
(mm)a
Width, Ws
(mm)
Sample
1.5_1.0_L
1.0
15
1.2_1.0_L
1.0
1.5_1.2_C
1.5_1.0_C
Experimental data
Maximum load
(kN)
Deformation at fracture
(mm)
A
B
C
4.41
4.13
4.60
28.7
28.7
27.9
12
21
16
294
275
307
15
A
B
C
4.51
4.50
4.10
30.4
30.5
30.5
33
32
32
301
300
273
1.2
20
A
B
C
7.37
7.82
7.78
22.1
22.7
20.2
5
4
4
368
391
389
1.0
20
A
B
C
5.43
5.34
6.23
24.7
22.7
23.6
3
4
3
271
267
312
The ultimate (or limit) load for failure at base metal sheet under
tensile loading is:
F BM ru;b W s t
2
2
F sin h
rw;lin W
N=mm2
w tw
F cos h
sw;lin W w tw N=mm2
where the weld has thickness tw (mm) and length Ww (mm), while h
is the rotation angle under the applied force F. The thickness tw is
the weld size (weld width), which depends on laser welding parameters; it can be measured, for example, by metallurgical observations on welded joint samples. Stress components can be
assumed, with reasonable accuracy, as uniformly distributed over
the weld, as conrmed by nite element simulations [6]. The
strength condition against weld fracture is:
F p
HV w
sin 2 h 3 cos 2 h 6 ru;w 9:8
W w tw
3
4
HV w W w tw
F w;lin 3:267 p
sin 2 h 3 cos 2 h
h
rw;cir Fpsin
N=mm2
dtw
h
sw;cir Fpcos
N=mm2
dt w
213
b
haz
w,lin
w,lin
Fig. 14. Stress state at each part in a lap joint with linear weld. The weld has
thickness tw and width Ww (orthogonal to load direction).
Fig. 12. Typical failures in tensile test of welded samples with linear weld.
Thickness values: (a) 1.5 mm/1.0 mm and (b) 1.2 mm/1.0 mm. Arrows indicate the
location of failure.
Fig. 13. Typical failures in tensile test of welded samples with circular weld.
Thickness values: (a) 1.5 mm/1.2 mm and (b) 1.5 mm/1.0 mm. Arrows indicate the
location of failure.
where d (mm) is the diameter of the weld line and tw (mm) the
thickness of weld bead. After calculating the equivalent stress req,
the limiting condition req = ru,w gives the following ultimate load
for failure at the circular weld:
HV w pdtw
F w;cir 3:267 p
sin 2 h 3 cos 2 h
h 45; 000
F 1:5
0:5
W 1:5
w tw t
r2:75
u;b
The experimental results in this study show a maximum rotation angle at failure of about 30 for linear welds and 34 for circular welds, see Table 4. Other studies in literature report rotation
angles of about 4550 for completely failed specimens [12], while
angles less than 25 are reported in [7]. Instead, larger angles (of
about 38.8) are estimated by Eq. (8) for linear weld. Fig. 15 shows
a typical trend of angle h calculated by Eq. (8) for a linear and
circular weld. In circular welds the angle h in Eq. (8) has been calculated by taking tw = d, to account for the much wider overlap
region where metal sheets are joined together, compared to linear
weld. Accordingly, a much lower rotation angle is estimated for
circular weld, as it also observed experimentally.
Table 5
Tensile strength (per unit width of metal sheet) at each joint portion, estimated by the theoretical model described in Section 4.
Specimen code
1.5_1.0_L
1.2_1.0_L
1.5_1.2_C
1.5_1.0_C
190
175
160
160
BM
HAZ
WM
BM
HAZ
WM
WM (small h)
283
283
283
283
452
427
403
403
621
572
523
523
283
283
340
283
292
290
482
402
372
340
712
711
358
330
711
708
283
283
340
283
50
100
150
200
250
300
Eqs. (5) and (7), combined with Eq. (8), require a numerical
solution to compute the strength Fw of weld bead. However, the
assumption of a small h allows Eqs. (5) and (7) to be simplied
to the following closed-form expressions:
with an error of about 4% for h 20 and 18% for h 45 compared to Eqs. (5) and (7), respectively. This means that expressions
(9) are on the safe side, because they estimate a lower strength
compared to the exact solutions (5) and (7).
The ultimate load FHAZ for failure at the heat-affected zone
under bending moment can be estimated by the modelling
approach proposed in [8,9], which has been shown to provide
results in reasonable agreement with experiments. The approach
is briey summarised in Appendix A.
The maximum bending stress rhaz,max at the outermost surface
in the metal sheet:
rhaz;max
n
t=2 d
E
6 ru;haz
Ri t=2 d
10
Rm
Ri
Re
r
F
rlin
F 0w;lin
F BM
(r)
haz,max
HV w
p
3HV BM
Ww
tw
tw
c1 c2;lin
Ws
t
t
11
rcir
F 0w;cir
F BM
HV w
p
3HV BM
tw
tw
c1 c2;cir
Ws
t
t
pd
12
2.5
bisector
tw,lim
2
1.5
base metal
failure
1
0.5
line
weld
metal
n=
10
rli
20
w
ith
30
lin
e
40
214
LINEAR
WELD
weld
failure
base metal
failure
weld failure
with
r cir=
CIRCULAR
WELD
5. Conclusions
This paper presented a microstructural and mechanical characterisation of laser-welded lap joints in thin low carbon steel.
Welded specimens with linear and circular weld bead were studied. Characterisation was based on metallurgical observations,
micro-hardness measurements and tensile tests, which gave information on the ultimate tensile strength, rotation angle of the weld
bead and fracture mode of welded specimens. The main ndings of
this study can be summarised as follows:
Micro-hardness proles in all tested joints conrmed an increment of hardness in the weld zone and heat-affected zone.
All tested specimens fractured in the base metal, far away from
the weld zone. This means that the overall joint strength is controlled by base metal strength, which is consistent with a fullpenetrated weld zone characterised by higher micro-hardness
(and hence higher static strength) compared to base metal.
215
er
r Re
Re
13
Ri
14
n1 )
n (
n1
W wE
1
t
t
F
d
d
n 1 Ri t=2 d
2
2
15
The expressions (8), (14), and (15) can be used to compute the rotation angle h, curvature radius Ri and distance d for each value of the
applied force F. Both h and d are monotonically increasing functions
of F, while Ri is a decreasing function of F (when F = 0, it is d = 0 and
Ri = 1).
The bending stress at position r is calculated as r(r) = Ee(r)n,
where E is the modulus of elasticity (Youngs modulus) and n is a
work hardening exponent. They are estimated as E = ru,haz(e/n)n,
n = ln (1 + uel,haz), based on the uniform elongation uel,haz (which
is the average between the uniform elongation of base metal and
weld metal) and tensile strength ru,haz (e is the base of natural
logarithm).
The maximum bending stress occurs at the outermost surface of
the sheet (where r = Ri + t):
rhaz;max E
n
t=2 a
Ri t=2 a
16
216
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