Engleza 2

CONTENTS
I. The present continuous...................................................................................................................................................................2

Form..............................................................................................................................................................................................2
The spelling of the present participle..............................................................................................................................2
Uses of the present continuous tense.............................................................................................................................3
Verbs not normally used in the continuous tenses.....................................................................................................4
II. The simple present tense................................................................................................................................................................6
Form..............................................................................................................................................................................................6
Spelling notes...........................................................................................................................................................................6
The simple present used to express................................................................................................................................6
Seminar 1- present tense simple & continuous..................................................................................................................................8
BUILDING COMPONENT - THE PODIUM.................................................................................................................................10
III. The simple past tense.................................................................................................................................................................12
Form............................................................................................................................................................................................12
Spelling notes.........................................................................................................................................................................12
Irregular verbs: form............................................................................................................................................................12
Use..............................................................................................................................................................................................13
IV. The past continuous tense...........................................................................................................................................................13
Form............................................................................................................................................................................................13
Seminar 2. The Simple Past and the Past Continuous......................................................................................................................14
BUILDING COMPONENT - THE FRAME...................................................................................................................................19
V. The present perfect tense.............................................................................................................................................................20
Form............................................................................................................................................................................................20
Use..............................................................................................................................................................................................21
VI. The present perfect continuous tense.........................................................................................................................................23
Form............................................................................................................................................................................................23
Use..............................................................................................................................................................................................23
Seminar 3 Present Perfect Simple & Present Perfect Continuous................................................................................................24
BUILDING COMPONENT - THE ENVELOPE............................................................................................................................28
VII. The past perfect tense...............................................................................................................................................................30
Form............................................................................................................................................................................................30
Use..............................................................................................................................................................................................30
VIII. The past perfect continuous tense...........................................................................................................................................31
Form............................................................................................................................................................................................31
Use..............................................................................................................................................................................................31
The Past Perfect and the Past Perfect Continuous....................................................................................................31
Seminar 4 Past Perfect Simple & Contiuous.................................................................................................................................32
BUILDING COMPONENT - THE MACHINERY.........................................................................................................................35
IX. The future...................................................................................................................................................................................37
9.1. The simple present used for the future................................................................................................................37
9.2. Future with intention...................................................................................................................................................38
9.3. The present continuous..............................................................................................................................................38
9.4. The be going to form...................................................................................................................................................39
9.5. The future simple..........................................................................................................................................................41
9.6. The future continuous tense....................................................................................................................................43
9.7. The future perfect Form.............................................................................................................................................44
9.8. The future perfect continuous.................................................................................................................................45
Seminar 5 The Future....................................................................................................................................................................45
BUILDING COMPONENT THE INFILL...................................................................................................................................49
X. The sequence of tenses................................................................................................................................................................51
XI. The conditional..........................................................................................................................................................................55
The present conditional tense..........................................................................................................................................55
Conditional sentences.........................................................................................................................................................56
Conditional sentences type 1: probable.......................................................................................................................56
Conditional sentences type 2...........................................................................................................................................57
Conditional sentences type 3...........................................................................................................................................58
Seminar 6 - Conditional sentences...................................................................................................................................................60
Conditional sentences: type 1..........................................................................................................................................60
I. The present continuous

Form
The present continuous tense is formed with the present tense
of the auxiliary verb be + the present participle:
Affirmative
I am working
you are working
Negative
Interrogative
I am not working
am I working?
you are not working
are you working?
he/she/it is working he/she/it is not working

we are working
we are not working
is he/she/it working?
are we working?
you are working
you are not working
are you working?
they are working
they are not working
are they working?
Negative interrogative: am I not working? are you not working? is he not

working? Contractions: the verb be can be contracted, so the present
continuous of any verb can be contracted:
Affirmative
Negative
I'm working
I'm not working
Negative interrogative
aren't I working?
Note the irregular contraction aren't I? for am I not?

The spelling of the present participle
1. When a verb ends in a single e, this e is dropped before ing:
argue arguing
hate hating
love loving
Exceptions :
age ageing
singe singeing
dye dyeing
agree agreeing
see seeing
2. When a verb of one syllable has one vowel and ends in a single
consonant, this consonant is doubled before ing:
hit hitting
run
running
stop
stopping
2
3. Verbs of two or more syllables whose last syllable contains only one
vowel and ends in a single consonant double this consonant if the stress
falls on the last syllable:
admit
admitting
begin
beginning
prefer
preferring
4. Exceptions
budget
budgeting
enter entering (stress not on the last syllable).

5. A final 1 after a single vowel is always doubled:
Signal
signalling
travel
travelling except in American English.
6. ing can be added to a verb ending in y without affecting the spelling

of the verb:
carry carrying
enjoy
enjoying
hurry hurrying
Uses of the present continuous tense

For an action happening now
It is raining.
I am not wearing a coat as it isn 't cold.
Why are you sitting at my desk?
For an action happening about this time but not necessarily at

the moment of speaking:
I am reading a play by Shaw. (This may mean 'at the moment of

speaking' but may also mean 'now' in a more general sense.)
He is teaching French and learning Greek. (He may not be doing either at
the moment of speaking.)
When two continuous tenses having the same subject are

joined by and, the auxiliary may be dropped before the second
verb, as in the above example.
3
For a definite arrangement in the near future:

I'm meeting Peter tonight.
Are you doing anything tomorrow afternoon? ~ Yes, I'm playing tennis with
Ann.
With a point in time to indicate an action which begins before

this point and probably continues after it:
At six I am bathing the baby. (I start bathing him before six.)

With always:
He is always losing his keys.
This form is used, chiefly in the affirmative, for a frequently repeated
action, usually when the frequency annoys the speaker or seems
unreasonable to him:
Tom is always going away for weekends
For an action which appears to be continuous:
He's always working
Verbs not normally used in the continuous tenses
The continuous tenses are chiefly used for deliberate actions. Some
verbs are, not normally used in the continuous and have only one
present tense, the simple present. These verbs can be grouped as
follows:
Verbs of the senses (involuntary actions): feel, hear, see, smell; also
notice and observe (= notice), and feel, look, taste used as link
verbs
Verbs expressing feelings and emotions, e.g. admire (= respect),

adore, appreciate (= value), care for (= like), desire, detest,
dislike, fear, hate, like, loathe, love, mind ( = care), respect,
value, want, wish.
Verbs of mental activity, e.g. agree, appreciate (= understand),

assume, believe, expect (= think), feel (= think), feel
sure/certain, forget, know, mean, perceive, realize, recall,
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recognize, recollect, remember, see (= understand), see

through someone (= penetrate his attempt to deceive), suppose,
think ( = have an opinion), trust (= believe/have confidence in),
understand.
Verbs of possession: belong, owe, own, possess:
How much do I owe you?
appear (= seem), concern, consist, contain, hold, keep (=
continue), matter, seem, signify, sound
It concerns us all. This box contains explosives.
feel, look, smell and taste used in the continuous forms
- feel, when followed by an adjective indicating the subject's emotions or
physical or mental condition, e.g. angry/pleased, happy/sad, hot/cold,
tense/relaxed, nervous/confident, is normally used in the simple tenses
but can also be used in the continuous:
How do you feel/are you feeling? ~ I feel/am feeling better.
- feel meaning 'touch' (usually in order to learn something) can be used
in the continuous:
The doctor was feeling her pulse.
- Similarly, feel for meaning 'try to find something by touching':
He was feeling for the keyhole in the dark. But feel is not used in the
- look
The continuous is not used with look used as a link verb, e.g. That cake
looks good, or with look on (= consider), look up to (= respect) and
look down on (= despise). But look (at), look for/in/into/out and
look on (= watch) are deliberate actions and can be used in the
continuous tenses:
He is looking for his glasses.
I'm looking out for a better job.
- smell
5
The continuous is not used with smell meaning 'perceive a scent/, e.g. I
smell gas, or with smell used as a link verb, but can be used with smell
meaning 'sniff at':
Why are you smelling the milk? Does it smell sour?
- taste
taste as a link verb is not used in the continuous:
This coffee tastes bitter, (has a bitter taste)
But taste meaning 'to test the flavour of' can be used in the continuous:
She was tasting the pudding to see if it was sweet enough.
think, assume and expect used in the continuous forms
- think can be used in the continuous when no opinion is given or asked
for:
What are you thinking about?
I ' m thinking about the play we saw last night. But
What do you think of it? (opinion asked for)
/ don't think much of it. (opinion given)
- assume can be used in the continuous when it means 'accept as a
starting point':
I'm assuming that you have time to do a lot of research. assume
power/control of a country or organization can also be used in I the
continuous:
The new government is assuming power at once.
- expect can be used in the continuous when it means 'await': I'm
expecting a letter. She's expecting a baby in May.
II. The simple present tense

Form
In the affirmative the simple present has the same form as the infinitive
but adds an - s for the third person singular.
Affirmative
Negative
I work
I do not work
Interrogative
you work you do not work
Negative interrogative
do I work?
do I not work?
do you work?
do you not work?
he/she/it he/she/it does does he/she/it does he/she/it

works
we work
not work
work?
we do not work do we work?
not work?
do we not work?
you work you do not work
do you work?
do you not work?
they work they do not work
do they work? do they not work?
Spelling notes
1. Verbs ending in ss, sh, ch, x and o add es, instead of s alone, to form
the third person singular:
I kiss, he kisses
I box, he boxes
I rush, he rushes
I do, he does
I watch, he watches I go, he goes

2. When y follows a consonant we change the y into i and add es:
I carry, he carries I copy, he copies I try, he tries but verbs ending in y
following a vowel obey the usual rule:
I obey, he obeys I say, he says
The simple present used to express
1. The main use of the simple present tense is to express habitual
actions:
He smokes. Dogs bark. Cats drink milk.
This tense does not tell us whether or not the action is being performed
at the moment of speaking, and if we want to make this clear we must
add a verb in the present continuous tense:
He's working. He always works at night.
7
My dog barks a lot, but he isn 't barking at the moment.

2. The simple present tense is often used with adverbs or adverb
phrases such as: always, never, occasionally, often, sometimes, usually,
every week, on Mondays, twice a year etc.:
How often do you wash your hair?
I go to church on Sundays. It rains in winter.
or with time clauses expressing routine or habitual actions. whenever
and when (= whenever) are particularly useful:
Whenever it rains the roof leaks.
When you open the door a light goes on.
3. It is used, chiefly with the verb say, when we are asking about or
quoting from books, notices or very recently received letters:
What does that notice say? It says, 'No parking.'
What does the book say? It says, 'Cook very slowly.'
4. It can be used in newspaper headlines:
MASS MURDERER ESCAPES PEACE TALKS FAIL
5. It can be used for dramatic narrative. This is particularly useful when
describing the action of a play, opera etc., and is often used by radio
commentators at sports events, public functions etc.:
When the curtain rises, Juliet is writing at her desk. Suddenly the window
opens and a masked man enters.
6. It can be used for a planned future action or series of actions,
particularly when they refer to a journey. Travel agents use it a good
deal.
We leave London at 10.00 next Tuesday and arrive in Paris at 13.00. We

spend two hours in Paris and leave again at 15.00. We arrive in Rome at
19.30, spend four hours in Rome etc.
7. It must be used instead of the present continuous with verbs which
cannot be used in the continuous form, e.g. love, see, believe etc., so
that we can say I love you but not I am loving you.
Seminar 1- present tense simple & continuous
EXERCISE
1. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Present or
the Present Continuous tense:

1. They (want) .. to see you for a minute. 2. He (walk)
.. to hospital every day. 3. She (move) .. her
books into her new bookcase. 4. He usually (speak) .. his
mother tongue, but today he (speak) .. English. 5. You
(drink) .. coffee or tea? 6. You (understand) ..
the Present Tenses in English? 7. He (play) .. the piano like a
professional musician. 8. You can't speak to Mary now; she (sleep)
... 9. I (not hear) .. what you (say) .. .
10. It's autumn. The leaves (turn) .. yellow and (fall)
.. down. 11. I (wear) .. a raincoat because it
(rain) ... 12. Something (burn) .. in the oven; I
(see) .. that smoke (come) .. out of it. 13. We
(not drink) .. tea with milk in our country. 14. We (spend)
.. next week with our parents; we (go) .. on a
trip with them. 15. You (go) .. to town this afternoon?
EXERCISE
2. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple or
Continuous Present:
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1. My friend (come) .. to see us next month. 2. Apricots

(ripe) .. in early summer. 3. Here (come) .. our
long waited for teacher! 4. I (see) .. her occasionally, as she
(open) .. the windows in the morning. 5. I (walk)
.. to school every day, but today as I am late I (go)
.. by bus. 6. "I (see) .. that you (wear)
.. your best clothes. You (go) .. to a party?" "No,
I (go) .. to a wedding." "And who is the unhappy man who
(throw) .. away his freedom?" You must tell him I (feel)
.. sorry for him." "He (speak) .. to you now!" 7. I
(see) .. what you (mean) .. ! You can't join us
today as you (feel) .. ill. (See) .. the doctor this
afternoon? 8. Still waters (run) .. deep. 9. Stop making a fool
of yourself! You again (forget) .. your manners! 10. Egg
plants (not grow) .. on trees. 11. Don't get off the bus till it
(stop) .. ! 12. How he (feel) .. now? You (think)
.. of going to see him at the hospital ? 13. She always
(complain) .. about something. 14. Why you (not stay)
.. indoors for a change? 15. Although he is unhappy with his
mark, he (deserve) .. it as he hasn't laid hands on a book
this term. 16. We constantly (see) .. you outside the cinema.
17. However late it may be, my father never goes to bed until I (come)
.. back home.
EXERCISE
3. Translate into English:
1. Nu este politicos s. te uiti la oameni cind maninca.

...
2. Nu, nu ma deranjezi, privesc doar apa cum izbete malul.
3. Poti sa te asezi, este scaunul pe care il folosesc eu cind am musafiri.
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4. Astzi ma simt mai bine. Dar arati mai rau.

.
5. Ce s-a intimplat? Nu mai mergi la teatru?
.
6. Esti cam slab, George, oare maninci destul?
..
7. John se indreapta spre celalalt colt al camerei, si isi toarna un pahar
cu apa. E evident insetat (indicatii scenice).
.
8. Asteapta-ma, vreau sa-ti vorbesc! Am incredere in tine; vin la tine de
indata ce imi termin serviciul.
9. Inchide geamurile. Simt c trage. Zau ca simt.
10. Cind se dicteaza, trebuie sa se vorbeasca clar.

..
BUILDING COMPONENT - THE PODIUM
Although the basic technology of the podium remained essentially
unchanged until the latter part of the nineteenth century, different
civilizations made varying use of the spaces made possible by podium
construction. The Parthenon in ancient Athens used a simple stone base
to distribute the compressive forces transmitted down through the
columns into the ground. The foundations of Winchester Cathedral are
representative of the Gothic era in the Middle ages, and show little
advancement beyond the technology of the Parthenon. At Winchester,
maximum compressive forces are accommodated at points or lines
under piers or walls by rubble fill foundations made by filling trenches
11
with rough-cut stones bound in mortar. As in the Parthenon, little use of

subterranean space is evident.
Between the Greek and the Gothic periods, the Romans exploited their
technical aptitude with arches by constructing below-grade spaces, as at
the Colosseum. With the fall of the empire, this technology fell into
disuse. It was rediscovered during the Renaissance, after which
extensive use of subgrade spaces became commonplace.
The modern podium technology is different. The effects of reinforced
concrete are clearly visible. The podium is now a rigid structural skeleton
that transmits the loads from the building above into the soil below. The
mass of material used in earlier ages is gone; subgrade floors are
virtually as open as the typical office floor. Only the grade-level slab is
massive, since it is used as the staging area for construction and thus
must hold trucks, stored materials, and so forth. As significant as the
introduction of reinforced concrete was, the invention of the elevator
was even more consequential. The development of high-rise buildings,
made possible by elevators, has affected the podium. Special structural
accommodations are needed at grade level, and these are often taken
care of in the construction of the podium. Such accommodations are
needed for the major interchanges of the machinery of the building
horizontal runs, usually at grade level, connect the major mechanical,
electrical, and plumbing equipment below with the vertical chases that
supply services to the building above. Such accommodations are also
needed because the ground level is normally the interchange between
the vertical transportation within the building and the ground-level
transportation outside. Thus, the podium may be the starting point for
the movement of large numbers of people. Since the subterranean
levels are often used for parking or other secondary uses, the grade
level may also serve as the interchange between two different
occupancy types within a building.
12
In summary, the podium of a major building has undergone a

transformation from a simple underlayment to distribute the structures
weight into the earth to a multilayered open frame that now distributes
not only loads but people as well.
13
III. The simple past tense

Form
The simple past tense in regular verbs is formed by adding - ed
to the infinitive: Infinitive: to work Simple past: worked
Verbs ending in e add d only: Infinitive: to love Simple past: loved
The same form is used for all persons:
I worked; you worked; he worked etc.
The negative of regular and irregular verbs is formed with did not
(didn't) and the infinitive:
I did not/didn 't work
you did not/didn't work etc.
The interrogative of regular and irregular verbs is formed with did I

subject + infinitive:
did I work? did you work? etc.
Negative interrogative: did you not/didn't you work? etc.
Spelling notes
The rules about doubling the final consonant when adding ing apply when
adding ed:
admit admitted
travel travelled
stop stopped
Verbs ending in y following a consonant change the y into i before adding
ed:
carry carried
try tried
but y following a vowel does not change: obey obeyed.

Irregular verbs: form
These vary considerably in their simple past form:
Infinitive: to eat, to leave, to see, to speak
Simple past: ate, left, saw, spoke
The simple past form of each irregular verb must therefore be learnt, but
once this is done there is no other difficulty, as irregular verbs have no
inflexions in the past tense.
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Use
1. for a past action when the time is given:
I met him yesterday. Pasteur died in 1895.
2. when the time is asked about:
When did you meet him?
3. when the action took place at a definite time although this time is not
mentioned:
The train was ten minutes late. How did you get your present job?
4. The simple past tense is used for an action whose time is not given but
which (a) occupied a period of time now terminated, or (b) occurred at a
moment in a period of time now terminated.
He worked in that bank for four years. (but he does not work there now)
She lived in Rome for a long time, (but she is not living there now)
5. The simple past tense is also used for a past habit:
He always carried an umbrella.
They never drank wine.
IV. The past continuous tense
Form
The past continuous tense is formed by the past tense of the
verb to be + the present participle:
Affirmative
I was working
you were working
Negative
I was not working
Interrogative
was I working?
you were not working
he/she/it was working he/she/it was not working
were you working?

was he/she/it
working?
we were working
we were not working
were we
working?
you were working
you were not working
were you working?
they were working
they were not working
were they working?
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Negative contractions: I wasn 't working, you weren 't working etc.
Negative interrogative: was he not/wasn't he working? etc.
The past continuous is chiefly used for past actions which continued
for some time but whose exact limits are not known and are not
important.
1. Used without a time expression it can indicate gradual development:
It was getting darker. The wind was rising.
2. Used with a point in time, it expresses an action which began before
that time and probably continued after it. At eight he was having
breakfast implies that he was in the middle of breakfast at eight. It
means that he had started it before eight. He had breakfast at eight
would imply that he started it at eight.
We use the continuous tense in descriptions.
A wood fire was burning on the hearth, and a cat was sleeping in front of
it. A girl was playing the piano and (was) singing softly to herself.
The past continuous with always:
He was always ringing me up. He was always working.
Past continuous as an alternative to the simple past
The past continuous can be used as an alternative to the simple past
to indicate a more casual, less deliberate action:
I was talking to Tom the other day. The past continuous here gives the
impression that the action was in no way unusual or remarkable. It also
tends to remove responsibility from the subject. In the above example it
is not clear who started the conversation, and it does not matter. Note
the contrast with the simple past tense, I talked to Tom, which indicates
that I took the initiative.
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Seminar 2. The Simple Past and the Past Continuous

EXERCISE
1. Supply the Past Tense form of the irregular verbs
given in brackets:
1. I (fall) .. down a well and (break) .. a leg. 2.
The smell of the garden (creep) .. into the room. 3. He (win)
.. her over by his gentleness. 4. They (kneel) ..
down and (bind) .. the man tight. 5. The cat (overthrow)
.. an inkpot, and (spill) .. the ink onto his
papers. 6. She (fling off) .. her night-gown, and (fly)
.. into her bath. 7. She (hold) .. out her arms. 8.
If nostalgia ever (sweep) .. over him, he (thrust)
.. it back.10. She (bring) .. in an outsider It. We
all (drink) .. tea. 12. They (wind) .. up the
evening with a song. 13 The Jignt m his bedroom (shine) ..
over the court each night. 14. He (keep) .. oDen house for
us each Thursday. 15. They (weave) .. cotton into cloth. 16.
One day an idea (strike) .. Ann. 17, It (cost) ..
me a lot. 18. She (shrink) .. from society. 19. He (seek)
.. power. 20. They (feed) .. the baby by turns.
21. His leg (bleed) .. and (swell) .. 22 His knee
(hurt) .., his head ached. 23. He (burst) .. into
tears! 24. The police (speed) .. to the scene of the crime.
25. Our blood almost (freeze) .. in our veins. 26. A dog (bite)
.. it and an elephant (tread) .. on it. 27. Thev
(fling) .. the door shut, and rushed to their cars. 28. He
(tear) .. his hair, (wring) .. his hands and
(swear) ... 29 It (teach) .. him a bitter lesson. 30.
I (know) .. the bus-route Mke the back of my hand. 31. You
(run) .. into debt. 32. We (set) .. the blankets
ablaze. 34 He (lend) .. her his attention for a while. 35.
Then he (shoot) .. uneasy glances towards her mother. 36.
17
That war (breed) .. misery and diseases. 37. He (catch)

.. my eve 38. Miss Tramp (forget) .. names. (39.
The news (come) .. as a total shock. 40 The panthers (spit)
.. at all who ventured near them. 41. My voice (ring out)
.. jubilantly from the hall. 42. Luke (cut) .. her
short. 43. They (swing) .. from one extreme to the other. 44.
I (burn) .. the paper in the grate. 45. That wall (shut off)
.. my view of the sea. 46. The house (smell) .. of
flowers all through the early summer 47. Then he (feel) .. a
complete release. 48. Tom (throw) .. the whole of his nature
into his work. 49. She (stride off) .. with a triumphant look in
her eyes. 50. Davids heart (sink) .., but Paul's spirits (rise)
... 51. I (weep) .. with rage. 52 When he (see)
.. his father drawing near, he (steal away) ... 53.
We (choose) .. him ourselves 54. He (bear) .. it
valiantly. 55. He (read) .. very slowly. 56. I (hold)
.. the umbrella over her head as she shuffled along. 57. The
wind (blow) .. down the streets umbrellas were (bend)
.. to meet it. 58. He (lay) .. bare his heart about
her. 59. He (light) .. shy of a scene. 60. Mr. Peel (withdraw)
.. from the election a week ago. 61. Heavy clouds (hang)
.. over the roofs. 62. Those words (spell out) ..
bad news. 63. The attackers (beat) .. him up. 64. He (stick)
.. to his advantage. 65. She (give away) .. his
secret. 66. The experiment (bear out) .. his theory. 67. My
husband (cut out) .. smoking. 68. He (put) .. his
watch back an hour. 69. The car (draw) .. to the kerb. 70.
They soon (make) .. it up. 71. He (pay) .. her
back for her rudeness. 72. The policeman (let) .. her off with
a fine. 73. The committee (deal) .. with the question of
housing several times. 74. He (sleep off) .. the headache.
18
75. The tramp (take) .. her in with his lies. 76. I (wake)
.. early. 77. He (spread) .. the sheets of paper
on the counter. 78. Most people (eat) .. with zest. 79. I
(have) .. her by the shoulder, but she (shake) ..
me off. 80. He (speak) .. of his aims. 81 He (play)
.. games each Sunday. 83. He (lie) .. in bed all
morning. 84. She (lie) .. to me.
EXERCISE
2. Answer the questions, using the Past Continuous in your
answers
MODEL:
When did she meet her brother? (walk in the park). She met her
brother when she was walking in the park.

1. When did you break your leg? (come down the stairs) 2. When did he
compose the symphony? (have a holiday) 3. When did they learn
French? (live m France) 4. When did you hear the news? (listen to the
wireless) 5. When did the man hurt himself? (ride a horse) 6. When did
she find the book? (do the house) 7. When did they lose their child ?
(walk about town) 8. When did lie pay you a visit? (have lunch) 9. When
did John notice the flaw? (inspect the vase) 10. When did he ask her
that? (talk about their future)
EXERCISE
3. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Past or the
Past Continuous:
1. When he (enter) .. the room, the children (play)
.. with their toys. 2. He (write) .. his essay when
somebody (knock) .. at the door. 3. The players (train)
.. the whole day yesterday. 4. While she (listen)
.. to the concert, her brother (play) .. with a
noisy toy car. 5. He (stand) .. a long time in the darkest
corner of the room. 6. When the doorbell (ring) .. she (sleep)
.. . 7. The young man (jump) .. on to the bus
19
while it (run) ... 8. The little boy (help) .. himself

to another slice of cake when his mother (not look) ... 9.
When the train (arrive) .. many travellers (wait)
.. on the platform. 10. The electric power (go off)
.. while they (listen) .. to the radio programme.
11. The fire (burn) .. brightly when the hikers (reach)
.. the chalet. 12. They (realize) .. they (travel)
.. in the wrong direction. 13. She (clean) .. the
mirror when it (break) ... 14. While he (drive) ..
the lorry, a tyre (burst) .. . 15. The guests (enjoy)
.. themselves when the landlady (tell) .. them
they (have) .. to leave the house.
EXERCISE
4 Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Past or the
Past Continuous:
1. The track (lead) .. us through the thick jungle where the
trees (hang) .. over us forming a dark roof. Although the sun
(shine) .. its rays (fail) .. to penetrate the heavy
green foliage. 2. While I (pump) .. up my bicycle tyres, a
man (look) .. in over the wall and (ask) .. me the
way to the police-station. 3. While we (stay) .. in London the
dome of St. Paul's (be repaired) .. . It (be repaired)
.. still when I (return) .. to London a year later.
4. Towards dusk we (come) .. to a little inn which (stand)
.. on the outskirts of the village. Some church bells (ring)
.. and smoke (rise) .. from numerous cottage
chimneys. The inn itself (be) .. most pleasant. The landlord
(show) .. us into a large room where a cheerful fire (burn)
.. . 5. Napoleon III (live) .. in England when he
(die) .. . 6. I (see) .. your aunt yesterday. She
(wear) .. a white hat and (carry) .. a blue bag. 7.
20
It (rain) .. . I (put) .. on my mackintosh, (go)

.. out of the front door and (cross) .. the road to
catch the bus which (wait) .. there. The driver (smoke)
.. a cigarette and (talk) .. to the conductor. 8. By
the time they (arrive) .. it (rain) .. hard. 9. The
bricklayers (go) .. on strike on Tuesday morning. When I
(look) .. out of the window, they all (stand) ..
about in the street with their hands in their pockets. They (wait)
.. for the mass meeting that was to take place that
afternoon. 10. He (put) .. the kettle on and while he (wait)
.. for it to boil he (ring) .. up the Regal Cinema
to find out what film they (show) .. .
EXERCISE
1. Mi-am luat servieta si am alergat afara din hotel. Marina ma astepta

afara. Soferul citea un ziar.Am urcatsi m-amasezat. Servieta am
aruncat-o pe scaunul de alaturi.
.
2. Drumul serpuia usor printre iruri de case care cu greu se
puteauvedeadin cauza cetii de dimineata. Am observat insa in curind
ca ceata se ridicase astfel puturam vedea ca in fata noastrase
intindeaunul din cele mai frum'oase parcuri pe care le vazusem
vreodata.
3. Din copacii care margi-leau drumul picura apa incontinuu.
4. Cararea care ducea la cabana era aco-perita de zapada. Mai continua

sa ninga, dar deja se putea vedea soarele care isi trimitea razele
palide din spatele unui nor cenusiu.
21
..
BUILDING COMPONENT - THE FRAME
One of the components most radically altered by industrialization was
the structural frame. Until the mid-nineteenth century, load-bearing
masonry construction was the only technology available for large
buildings. On occasion, other materials worked in tandem with masonry.
For example, iron chains have been used at least since the Renaissance,
iron clamps were known to the Romans, and other metal devices were
used to reinforced masonry construction even earlier. Construction
before the steel age, however, depended primarily on the compressive
strength of stone masonry to make a building frame.
In addition to acting as the structural support of the building, the frame
was also the enclosure for the interior environment, excepting the small
areas taken up by glass and doors. The frame provided divisions
between different interior spaces as well. The sheer mass required in
masonry buildings also helped to modify the interior environment, since
the extremes of temperature on the outside were not transmitted rapidly
through the thick walls.
A large expense in masonry construction was carpentry. This was due to
the large amount of wood centering, or formwork, that was erected to
enable workers to place the stones until an entire arch was completed.
This is similar to the construction of modern reinforced concrete
structures, where carpenters still build formwork.
One of the most significant occurrences in the history of building took
place in London in 1851. In that year Joseph Paxton designed and
constructed the Crystal Palace. An exhibition hall made completely of
prefabricated iron and glass pieces, it was the first significant structure
to divorce the structural frame from the building envelope entirely. No
22
longer did the frame keep out the elements or enclose interior spaces. It
was an independent component used solely to support the other
components of the building.
It was not until the twentieth century, however, that the conception of a
building as a set of independently manufactured and assembled pieces,
each with a specific function, would be accepted. Figure 1 10 illustrates
the AT & T Building a recent example of a structural frame that is an
independent component in the building. In this building the steel frame
provides all structural support for the buildings component parts.
Interesting as the frames appearance is, it is in no way visible and is
hardly reflected in the architectural expression of the building.
In summary, the frame has evolved from an exposed massive stone
structure that served many purposes to a steel or reinforced concrete
skeleton with none save the structural function. The non-load-bearing
purposes that the frame once fulfilled have been assumed by an
expanding envelope, machinery, and infill.
23
V. The present perfect tense

Form
The present perfect tense is formed with the present tense of
have +
the past participle: I have worked etc.
The past participle in regular verbs has exactly the same form as the
simple past, i.e. loved, walked etc.
In irregular verbs, the past participles vary. The negative is formed by
adding not to the auxiliary.
The interrogative is formed by inverting the auxiliary and subject.
Affirmative
Negative
I have worked
you have worked
I have not worked
Interrogative
have I worked?
you have not worked
have you
worked?
he/she/it has worked
he/she/it has not worked
has he/she/it worked?
we have worked
we have not worked
have we worked?
you have worked
you have not worked
have you worked ?
they have worked
they have not worked
have they
worked?
Negative interrogative: has he not worked ? etc.
Use
This tense may be said to be a sort of mixture of present and past. It
always implies a strong connection with the present and is chiefly used in
conversations, letters, newspapers and television and radio reports.
1. The present perfect used with just for a recently completed action
He has just gone out = He went out a few minutes ago. This is a special
use of this tense, just must be placed between the auxiliary and the
main verb. This combination is used chiefly in the affirmative, though the
interrogative form is possible:
24
Has he just gone out? It is not normally used in the negative.

2. The present perfect is used for recent actions when the time is not
mentioned:
I have read the instructions but I don't understand them.
Have you had breakfast? ~ No, I haven't had it yet.
Have you seen my stamps? Yes, I have/No, I haven't or
Yes, I saw them on your desk a minute ago.
3. Recent actions in the present perfect often have results in the
present!
Tom has had a bad car crash. (He's probably still in hospital.)
The lift has broken down. (We have to use the stairs.)
I've washed the car. (It looks lovely.)
4. Actions expressed by the present perfect + yet usually have results in
the present:
He hasn 't come yet. (so we are still waiting for him)
5. It can also be used for actions which occur further back in the past
provided the connection with the present is still maintained:
I have seen wolves in that forest implies that it is still possible to see
them, and
John Smith has written a number of short stories implies that John Smith
is still alive and can write more. If, however, the wolves have been killed
off and John Smith is dead we would say:
I saw wolves in that forest once/several times or
I used to see wolves here and
6. The present perfect used for actions occurring in an incomplete period
An incomplete period may be indicated by today or this morning/
afternoon/evening/week/month/year/century etc.
(at 11 a.m.) Tom has rung up three times this morning already.
(at 2 p.m.) Tom rang up three times this morning.
(at 4 p.m.) I haven't seen Tom this afternoon.
(at 6 p.m.) I didn't see Tom this afternoon.
25
7. The present perfect used with an incomplete period of time implies that
the action happened or didn't happen at some undefined time during this
period:
Have you seen him today? (at any time today)
Yes, I've seen him today
8. lately, recently used with the present perfect also indicate an
incomplete period of time.
In the sentences Has he been here lately/recently? and He hasn 't been
here lately/recently, lately/recently means 'at any time during the last
week/month etc.'; and in He has been here recently,
recently means 'at some undefined time during the last week/month
etc' lately is less usual with the affirmative, except for actions covering
periods of time:
There have been some changes lately/recently.
He's had a lot of bad luck lately/recently.
9. The present perfect can be used similarly with ever, never, always,
occasionally, often, several times etc. and since + a point in time
ANN: Have you ever fallen off a horse?
TOM: Yes, I've fallen off quite often/occasionally.
10. The present perfect used for an action which lasts throughout an
incomplete period. Time expressions include for, since, all
day/night/week, all my etc. life, all the time, always, lately, never,
recently.
The action usually begins in the past and continues past the time of
speaking in the present:
He has been in the army for two years. (He is still in the army.)
I have smoked since I left school. (I still smoke.) We have waited all day.
(We are still waiting.)
VI. The present perfect continuous tense
Form
This tense is formed by the present perfect of the verb to be +
the present participle:
26
Affirmative: I have been working, he has been working etc.

Negative: I have not/haven't been working etc.
Interrogative: have I been working? etc.
Negative interrogative: have I not/haven't I been working? etc.
Use
1. This tense is used for an action which began in the past and still
continuing:
I've been waiting for an hour and he still hasn't turned up.
I'm so sorry I'm late. Have you been waiting long?
2. Comparison of the present perfect simple and continuous
An action which began in the past and is still continuing or has only just
finished can, with certain verbs, be expressed by either the present
perfect simple or the present perfect continuous. Verbs which can lie
used in this way include expect, hope, learn, lie, live, look, rain, sleep, sit,
snow, stand, stay, study, teach, wait, want, work:
How long have you learnt English?
How long have you been learning English ?
He has slept for ten hours.
3. A repeated action in the simple present perfect can sometimes be
expressed as a continuous action by the present perfect continuous:
Ive written six letters since breakfast.
I've been writing letters since breakfast.
Note that the present perfect continuous expresses an action which is
apparently uninterrupted.
4. There is, however, a difference between a single action in the simple
present perfect and an action in the present perfect continuous:
I've polished the car means that this job has been completed.
I've been polishing the car means 'this is how I've spent the last hour'. It
does not necessarily mean that the job is completed.
Note also that a single action in the present perfect continuous continues
up to the time of speaking, or nearly up to this time:
27
He's been taking photos (he's probably still carrying his camera) but He
has taken photos. (This action may or may not be very recent.)
28
Seminar 3 Present Perfect Simple & Present Perfect

Continuous
EXERCISE
1. Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Perfect or
the Present Perfect Continuous. Specify where both tenses may

be used:
1. He not (be) .. to this restaurant for years. 2. She must tell
us what she (read) .. since her last exam. 3. I (look)
.. for the pen everywhere, but (not find) .. it. 4.
You (run) .. too fast. Stop and rest a little. 5. She (sit)
.. in that armchair since you left. 6. I (know) ..
him since he was a child. 7. My friend (teach) .. in that
school since 1966. 8. They (build) .. that block-of-flats for
several months, but (finish) .. only half of it. 9. He not
(come) .. yet but his wife already (arrive) ... 10.
This tower (stand) .. here for two hundred years. 11. You
(not buy) .. me flowers for years. 12. I (not play)
.. much chess lately, I (be) .. too busy. 13. We
(not speak) .. since we quarrelled. 14. Somebody (smoke)
.. in this room, it smells of cigarettes. 15. He (waste)
.. his time instead of learning.
EXERCISE
2. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences by using
for or since.
1. He has been away . . . three years. 2. She hasn't worn that dress ...
she was a girl. 3. He has been working . . . ten years. 4. They have been
climbing ... half an hour. 5. We have forgotten the language ... we left the
country. 6. He has been gathering strawberries ever sunrise. 7. She
has been ill .. . a fortnight. 8. Have you read many articles ... I gave you
the newspaper? 10. They have been here ... 2 o'clock. 11. I've been
trying to tell you . . . you came. 12. It has been raining ... . two days.
29
EXERCISE
3. Use the Present Perfect Simple or Continuous. Note
that with verbs such as to learn, to lie, to live, to rest, to sit, to

stand, to stay, to study, to wait, etc., the Present Perfect
Continuous is more often used than the Present Perfect Simple:
1. So there is something in the stories that (go round) .. ? 2. I
think the time (come) .. to explain where we stand. 3. My
position (not alter) .. since last May. 4. "I (want)
.. a word with you, Lewis." 5. "During the past year I (have)
.. many interesting talks upon the future of the college." 6.
"Did you know that Nightingale (try) .. to coerce young
Luke?" 7. "I (not forget) .. it for an instant this afternoon." 8.
"I (everywhere, look for) .. you," he said. "Why didn't you
leave word where you'd gone?" 9. "He (only say) .. one
word. He (keep) .. unnaturally still." 10. "I (live and feed)
.. pretty well at the lab, ever since". 11. "In one office or
another you (guide) .. our department all your life". 12.
"People here (never show) .. me the slightest consideration."
13. No one (ever do) .. me so much harm before. 14. "I (try)
.. to collect my thoughts, but it's not a very pleasant
process."
EXERCISE
4. Translate into English, using the Present Tense or the
Present Perfect Tense, Simple or Continuous:

1. Sora mea isi face bagajele de azi dimineata, dar inca n-a terminat.
..
2. Discuta aceasta chestiune de cind esti aici si inca nu au ajuns la nici o
concluzie definitiva.
..
3. Aceasta este casa in care locuiesc; locuiesc aici din copilarie.
.
30
4. Ai pierdut ceva? Da, stiloul. L-ai cautat peste tot? De cind il

cauti?
..
5. Ninge tare de cinci ore asa ca n-am iesit din casa toata ziua.
..
6. N-am mai vazut-o de cind s-a maritat. N-am mai vazut-o de cind e
maritata.
..
7. Ea e de obicei punctuala, dar in dimineata asta nu a sosit inca.
..
8. Unde ti-ai petre-cut vacantain vara asta?
..
9. Barbatul care vorbeste cu sotia mea este vecinul nostru care locuieste
alaturi.
..
10. Ce faci? N-a raspuns fratele tau? De cit timp incerci sa iei legatura
cu el?
..
11. Va declar sot si sotie.
..
12. Nu-mi place sa stau aici in aceasta perioada a anului. Ploua
incontinuu.
..
13. Copilasul a ince-put sa plinga si mai plinge inca, desi rareori plinge
noaptea.
..
14. Citesti carti englezesti in original? Ce citesti acum?
..
15. Unchiul meu e scriitor. De doi ani scrie un roman, dar nu Ta terminat
inca. Nu a strins inca tot materialul necesar si acum isi petrece timpul
la tara.
31
..
..
The Present Perfect and the Past Tense
EXERCISE
the Past Tense, depending on the given alternatives:

1. They (try) . to speak only English (lately, last night). 2.
She (have) . a lot of work (today, in January). 3. I
(practise) . for three hours (today, before I came here).
4. He (complete) . his work (yesterday, this morning, for
a long time now). 5. My grandparents (live) . in the
country (since the war, until the war). 6. Who(m) you (speak)
. to (just now, all this time)? 7. I (dislike)
. mathematics (when I was a pupil, always). 8. We (live)
. here (for three years, three years ago). 9. John (hear)
. about your arrival (yesterday, just). 10. The weather
(change) . (since this morning, as I left the house).
EXERCISE
the Past Tense:

1. He (write) two pages so far. 2. She (forget)
to take her book with her. 3. They (leave) the village
last week. 4. Ann (live) in Bucharest from 1968 to
1970. 5. They not (play) football since last week. 6.
John (start) to learn French last October. 7. Father not
(come) home yet. 8. I cannot tell you where she is, as I
not (see) her. 9. When you (receive) the
letter from them? 10. They (become) very well-known
now. 11. Much progress (be made) lately in nuclear
science. 12. She never (teach) grammar before. 13.
Years ago he (work) here but now he (move)
32
to another factory. 14. This novelist (write)

some very good plays too, he (write)
them in his youth. 15. The play (begin) half an hour
late last night so we (be) late for dinner.
BUILDING COMPONENT - THE ENVELOPE
Historically, the importance of the envelope as an independent component in the
building has depended on several factors, not the least of which is the technology of
glass. Although glass was known to the Romans, it was little used in their buildings.
After the collapse of the empire, glass but disappeared until its resurgence in Venice
in the middle ages. Stained glass flourished during the gothic period of architecture,
to be superseded by the development of the crown glass during the renaissance. The
visual advantages of clear glass in large panes doomed the use of stained glass, the
crown glass made this possible. In the late nineteenth century, industrialization
revolutionized the manufacture of glass, and large sheets of clear plate glass, such
as those used at Paxton Crystal Palace, became commonplace.
As influential as glass technology was, the evolution of the frame probably had a
more immediate impact on what happened to the envelope in the modern age.
Before iron and steel were mass-manufactured in structural shapes, there was no
real impetus for the development of independent envelope technologies such as
plate glass. As long as the frame remained massive, it assumed the role of an
enclosure.
In small structures, the roof is the most prominent element of the envelope and here
there has been remarkably little change even to this day. In all homes through the
ages roofs have been constructed of timber, with a layer of thatch, tiles, shingles, or
metal to form the protective membrane. Where wood lath attached to the rafters
once formed the substrate for attaching the roofing, plywood sheathing is now likely
to be used. Today, layers of water-resistant felt are laid on top of the sheathing
before the roofing material is applied. Although thatch roofs have largely
disappeared in our civilization, tiles, sheet metal, and shingles are just as likely to be
used today as they were in ancient Rome. Industrialization, however, has made it
possible to imitate these with less expensive and lighter materials. Thus, concrete
tiles are likely to be used instead of clay; asphalt composition shingles are often used
instead of wood; and sheet metal aluminum has replaced lead.
33
As with major buildings, advances in glass, masonry, and insulation technologies

have affected the evolution of the residential envelope. Plate glass has brought
about a significant lightening of the wall surfaces. As the stone veneer has become
more costly in masonry look-alike homes, the amount of glass used has increased to
offset the expense of the veneer. The masonry veneer has evolved in much the same
way in small building as in large ones it has become a thin mask anchored to
the frame. The production of insulating materials in this century, especially glass
fiber or mineral fiber blankets sized to fit between wood studs, has encouraged the
development of this mask. Recent developments have made possible a combined
sheathing and insulating material.
Other important factors in the development of the envelope were sheet metal,
insulation, and exterior stone veneer technologies. These evolved as builders
searched for lighter and more thermally resistant enclosures for the structure.
Prior to the industrial age, the principal means of architectural embellishments was
the shaping of the mass and surfaces of the masonry structure. Glass was used only
as an interstitial filler between structural members and became a decorative feature
itself. One may trace the relative importance of glass and hence the entire envelope.
The degree of prominence of the envelope has historically been inverse to the mass
of the frame.
When steel and iron began to see extensive use in the structure of the building,
architectural style did not immediately adapt. In the era of the historical revival
styles of the late 1800s, masonry envelopes were constructed to resemble the
structural frame common in preindustrial times. Ironically, glass was used as an
interstitial filler between other envelope elements that simply gave the illusion of
being frame members.
In the twentieth century, architects can design building enclosures that exhibit little
relationship to the frame at all. The envelope is now an independent structure
attached to the frame with point connections of miscellaneous steel. These
connections may be in various locations on the columns or perimeter beams of the
building.
One result of this technology is that the envelope has become akin to a mask
similar to those used in earlier cultures that projects an image of ritual, social, or
aesthetic significance, while satisfying minimal visual or ventilation need for those
behind it.
34
In summation, the envelope has evolved from glass used as a filler between the
massive frame elements to a thin veneer that may completely wrap the insides of
the building, giving little or no indication of the physical make-up of the building
VII. The past perfect tense

Form
This tense is formed with had and the past participle:
Affirmative: I had/I'd worked etc.
Negative: / had not/hadn't worked etc.
Interrogative: had I worked? etc.
Negative interrogative: had I not/hadn't I worked? etc.
Use
The past perfect is the past equivalent of the present perfect. Present:
Ann has just left. If you hurry you'll catch her. Past: When I arrived Ann
had just left.
Present: I've lost my case. Past: He had lost his case and had to borrow
Tom's pyjamas.
1. The past perfect can be used for an action which began before the
time of speaking in the past, and was still continuing at that time or
stopped at that time or just before it.
2. for an action which stopped some time before the time of speaking
Bill was in uniform when I met him. He had been a soldier for ten
years/since he was seventeen, and planned to stay in the army I ill he was
thirty.
The old oak tree, which had stood in the churchyard for 300 years/since
before the church was built, suddenly crashed to the ground.
3. The past perfect is also the past equivalent of the simple past tense,
and is used when the narrator or subject looks back on earlier action from
a certain point in the past:
Tom was 23 when our story begins. His father had died five years before
and since then Tom had lived alone. His father had advised him not to get
35
married till he was 35, and Tom intended to follow this advice. I had just
poured myself a glass of beer when the phone rang. When
VIII. The past perfect continuous tense
Form
This tense is formed with had been + the present participle. II
IS
therefore the same for all persons:

I had/I'd been working
They had not/hadn 't been working
Use
The past perfect continuous bears the same relation to the past perfect
as the present perfect continuous bears to the present perfect
1. When the action began before the time of speaking in the past, and
continued up to that time, or stopped just before it, we can often use
either form :
It was now six and he was tired because he had worked since dawn =
It was now six and he was tired because he had been working since dawn.
2. A repeated action in the past perfect can sometimes be expressed
continuous action by the past perfect continuous
He had tried five times to get her on the phone. He had been trying to get
her on the phone.
3. But there is a difference between a single action in the simple past
perfect and an action in the past perfect continuous
By six o'clock he had repaired the engine. (This job had been completed.)
He had been repairing the engine tells us how he had spent the previous
hour/half hour etc. It does not tell us whether or not the job was
completed. Another difference is that an action in the past perfect
continuous continues up to, or beyond, the time of speaking in the past.
The Past Perfect and the Past Perfect Continuous
The basic function of the Past Perfect is to express the priority of an
action to a given moment in the past.
36
e.g. He had studied French thoroughly before he went to Paris. She had
read much and could tell beautiful stories.
The Past Perfect may also serve to express an action which began before
a given past moment and continued into it or up to it. With this meaning
it is parallel to the Past Perfect Continuous. In the choice of the Past
Perfect or the Past Perfect Continuous we observe the same indications
as those mentioned in the case of the Present Perfect Continuous.
e.g. He had been a teacher for three years before he became a novelist.
But: He had been teaching in that school for three years before he left it.
In negative sentences the Past Perfect is preferred to the Past Perfect
Continuous:
e.g. They had not met for many years.
37
Seminar 4 Past Perfect Simple & Contiuous

EXERCISE
1. Join the following pairs of sentences using the Past
Perfect Tense. Use the conjunctions in brackets:

MODEL:
They went out to play. They finished their tasks (after). They went
out to play after they had finished their tasks.

1. He threw the letter away. He wrote it (as soon as).
2. He recovered. He was very ill (before).
3. She didn't know the truth. He explained it (until).
4. I reached the bus-stop. The bus started (when).
5. He left the room. I switched on the TV set (as soon as).
6. We had breakfast. We went for a walk (after).
7. They didn't call on us. We dressed for the trip (until).
8. He was an actor. He became a stage director (before).
EXERCISE
2. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Past or the
Past Perfect Tense:

a) 1. They not (get) a reply, so they (decide) to
spend their holidays at home. 2. We (have) to go back, it
(rain) for two hours and the ground was water-logged. 3. How
long he (live) there when the war (break) out ? 4.
Only a long time after that he (find) out what (happen)
. 5. He (know) where I (live) but he
never (be) to my flat. 6. He (listen) to her story for
two hours and (think) it boring. 7. Nobody (know)
38
he (disappear) . 8. She had (stay) at the seaside for

more than a week when the weather (grow) cold. 9. He
(laugh) at her hair and she (be) angry with him.
10. They (wonder) what (become) of their
luggage. 11. The hotel (be) much cheaperthan he (think)
at first. 12. We (tell) him that his house (burn
down) . 13. The explorers (travel) for weeks without
enough food and water. 14. They asked her why she (lie) to
them. 15. He (be pushed) out of the room, before he (be able)
to speak.
b) 1. I (not, yet, translate) the letter when he (come back)
. 2. As soon as I (pay) for the bulb I (say)
good-bye to Mr. Hobbs. 3. Mr. Smith, who (never, fire) a
revolver in his life, (slip) it gingerly into his pocket. 4. Report
(go) that he (be maimed) in his youth. 5. Pieces
(come off) so that the walls (look) awful.
There (be)
a ripping sound. The sidecar (come loose)
from the motorcycle. It (be) very sudden. Though

for many years she (have) pains on and off.
EXERCISE
1. Saptamina trecuta ne-am mutat din casa in care am locuit 10 ani.
2. Cind ne-am intors in cele din urma acasa, calatorisem 2000 de km.
3. Anul trecut m-am urcat pe Vezuviu. Fusesem fascinat de vulcani de

cind am vazut un film despre ei.
4. Cind s-a facut ora 11 si ea nu venise inca, am inceput sa ma intreb

daca nu avusese cumva vreun accident.
39
5. Mi-a spus ca 1-a intilnit seara trecuta si ca se schimbase asa de mult

incit era de nerecunoscut.
6. I-am putut afla numele doar dupa ce a plecat.
7. M-am supiirat foarte tare cind mi s-a spus ca trenul a plecat deja si 1am intrebat pe chelner de ce nu m-a anuntat din vreme si de ce a
continuat sa-mi serveasca bautura.
EXERCISE
4. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Past Perfect
Tense or the Continuous Past Perfect Tense:

1. When I visited him in Berlin I discovered that he (paint) just
the same stale things that he (paint) for years in Rome. 2. He
was laughing heartily at a story which he (tell) Gabriel on the
stairs. 3. While he (be) full of memories of their secret life
together, she (compare) him in her mind with another. 4. By
the time he (speak) for five minutes the spirit (go)
out of us all. 5. Once he nearly got, run overlay a bus. He (collect)
bits of evergreens. 6. They (talk) , as they saw me
at the gate there was a hush. 7. His composure (return) when
he and Chrystal called on me after the hall. 8. He (do) two
men's work for months. His fundamental work (not, receive)
the attention that he looked for. 9. Mrs. Jago welcomed us with a greater
assumption of state than ever; she (tell) herself that no one
wished to see her. 0. I asked him if he (see) Jack recently.
40
EXERCISE
5. Fill in the blanks with the correct past tense:
1. Andrew (be) the first to come. It was Gristine herself

who (open) the door for him. Later Watkins and his wife
(come) in apologizing for being late. And almost at once
they (sit) down to supper. After the skumpy meals he
usually (have) it (be) a great treat to Andrew
to find hot appetizing food before him. Though plain, every dish
(be) good and there (be) plenty of it.When
Andrew (praise) her landlady's cooking, Watkins who
(observe) how Andrew (devour) his food,
suddenly, (laugh) out loud. "That's a good one". He
(turn) to his wife "(Hear) him? He says old
Mrs. Herbert's a marvellous cook!" Christine (colour)
slightly. She (beg) Andrew not to pay attention to
Watkins; It (be) the nicest compliment she (ever have)
because he (not mean) it as such. She (cook)
the supper.
BUILDING COMPONENT - THE MACHINERY
The most significant development in the history of buildings has
undoubtedly been the introduction of electrical and mechanical devices
that actively control and alter the interior environment. Additionally,
advances in plumbing equipment and fixtures have made possible the
extension of sanitary systems to the farthest reaches of buildings.
Moreover, life-safety measures have recently been incorporated into
buildings; sprinkler and alarm systems are now regular features in large
structures.
Today, the machinery is likely to be the single most expensive
component of the building. Prior to the nineteenth century, plumbing
was the only real environmental machinery, and its cost was relatively
insignificant. Water supply and drainage existed in Rome but virtually
41
disappeared as the empire disintegrated. Water and sanitary systems

were present in some medieval buildings such as monasteries, but they
were limited and primitive. It was not until major public works projects
were undertaken by the British, French, and other continental
monarchies that an extensive public water supply began to reappear in
the 1900s. In the latter part of the eighteen-century the water closet was
invented, heralding the birth of the modern toilet room with its various
sanitary accommodations. Modern plumbing systems were basically
invented by the middle of the 1800s.
Before 1900 thermal environments in buildings were actively modified by
a few means. The hearth or fireplace was used for heating interior
spaces, as were cast iron boilers an innovation of the 1700s. Both were
also used for food preparation. Since there is no reliable way to
distinguish the percentage of the cost of the a masonry fireplace that is
attributable to nonstructural purposes, its cost is included wholly in the
frames. And since cast iron boilers were primarily used for cooking, they
are more correctly considered appliances, not building-cost elements.
Until this century, lightening in buildings had always been provided by
fire. As late as 1817, major buildings in the United States were still using
candlelight. In the early 1800s, gas lightening became widespread in
England. Gas became an economical and popular means of lighting in
Europe and in U.S.A. and was a strong competitor to electricity until the
second decade of the 1900s.
Figure 1-14 shows buildings in the stage between the introduction of
electricity. Gaslight and then electric light made larger floor areas in
buildings possible, since natural light was no longer so crucial for
illumination. Ceiling heights remained high in order to facilitate air
movement. Ventilation shafts penetrated the cores of large buildings to
allow cross-ventilation inside. Light fixtures were attached directly to the
surfaces of walls and ceilings in much the same manner that candelabra
and chandeliers had been mounted in the past. The National City Bank
42
building in figure 1-14 was completed in 1909 but hardly represents

twentieth-century technology. Plumbing for water supply and sanitary
disposal was the only element of modern environmental systems
present. Lightening was probably achieved with pendant-mounted
incandescent fixtures. The ceiling was attached directly to the underside
of the floor structure, creating interior office spaces nearly eleven feet
high, thus expediting air movement.
43
IX. The future

There are several ways of expressing the future in English. The
forms are listed below and will be dealt with in the order in
which they are given.
1. The simple present
2. will + infinitive, used for intention
3. The present continuous
4. The be going to form
5. The 'future simple' will/shall + infinitive
6. The future continuous
7. The future perfect
8. The future perfect continuous
9.1. The simple present used for the future
This tense can be used with a time expression for a definite
future arrangement:
The boys start school on Monday. I leave tonight. instead of the more
normal present continuous tense:
The boys are starting school on Monday. I'm leaving tonight. The
difference between them is:
The simple present is more impersonal than the continuous. I'm leaving
tonight would probably imply that I have decided to leave, but / leave
tonight could mean that this is part of a plan not necessarily made by
me.
The simple present can also sound more formal than the continuous. A
big store planning to open a new branch is more likely to say Our new
branch opens next week than Our new branch is opening next week.
9.2. Future with intention
When we say that a form expresses future with intention we
mean that it expresses a future action which will be undertaken
44
by the speaker in accordance with his wishes, will + infinitive

and the be going to form can be used in this way. When we say
that a form expresses future without intention we meat) that it
merely states that a certain action will happen. We don't know
whether it was arranged by the subject or by some other person
and we don't know what the subject thinks of it.
9.3. The present continuous
The present continuous tense in the second or third person
conveys no idea of intention, though there may be a hint of
intention when the first person is used.
The present continuous as a future form
The present continuous can express a definite arrangement in the near
future: I'm taking an exam in October implies that I have entered for it;
and Bob and Bill are meeting tonight implies that Bob and Bill have
arranged this.
But with verbs of movement from one place to another, e.g. arrive,
come, drive, fly, go, leave, start, travel, verbs indicating position, e.g.
stay, remain, and the verbs do and have (food or drink), the present
continuous can be used more widely. It can express a decision or plan
without any definite arrangement.
What are you doing next Saturday? (This is the usual way of asking
people about their plans.) Possible answers:
I'm going to the seaside.
I'm not doing anything. I'm staying at home. I'm going to write
letters. {I'm writing . . . would not be possible.)
9.4. The be going to form
The present continuous tense of the verb to go + the full
infi nitive I'm going to buy a bicycle. She is not going to be there. Is he
going to lecture in English?
For intention
45
For prediction
The be going to form used for intention
The be going to form expresses the subject's intention to perform a
certain future action. This intention is always premeditated and there is
usually also the idea that some preparation for the action has already
been made. Actions expressed by the be going to form are therefore
usually considered very likely to be performed, though there is not the
same idea of definite future arrangement that we get from the present
continuous. The following points may be noted:
As already shown, be going to can be used for the near future with a
time expression as an alternative to the present continuous, i.e. we can
say:
I'm/I am meeting Tom at the station at six.
I'm/1 am going to meet Tom at the station at six. But note that I'm
meeting Tom implies an arrangement with Tom. I'm going to meet Tom
does not: Tom may get a surprise!
be going to can be used with time clauses when we wish to emphasize
the subject's intention:
He is going to be a dentist when he grows up.
What are you going to do when you get your degree? Normally, however,
the future simple (shall/will) is used with time clauses.
be going to can be used without a time expression:
I 'm going to play you a Bach fugue. He is going to lend me his bicycle. It
then usually refers to the immediate or near future.
Comparison of the use of be going to and will to infinitive to express
intention
The chief difference is:
The be going to form always implies a premeditated intention, and often
an intention + plan.
will + infinitive implies intention alone, and this intention is usually,
though not necessarily, unpremeditated.
46
If, therefore, preparations for the action have been made, we must use
going to:
I have bought some bricks and I'm going to build a garage. If the intention
is clearly unpremeditated, we must use will:
There is somebody at the hall door. ~ I'll go and open it.
When the intention is neither clearly premeditated nor clearly
unpremeditated, either be going to or will may be used:
I will/am going to climb that mountain one day.
I won 't/am not going to tell you my age.
As already noted, will + infinitive in the affirmative is used almost entirely
for the first person. Second and third person intentions are therefore
normally expressed by be going to:
He is going to resign.
Are you going to leave without paying?
be going to, as already stated, usually refers to the fairly immediate
future, will can refer either to the immediate or to the more remote
future.
What are you doing with that spade? ~ I am going to plant apple trees.
She has bought some wool; she is going to knit a jumper.
The be going to form used for prediction
The be going to form can express the speaker's feeling of certainty. The
time is usually not mentioned, but the action is expected to happen in
the near or immediate future:
Look at those clouds! It's going to rain.
Listen to the wind. We 're going to have a rough crossing.
Comparison of be going to (used for prediction) with will (for probable
future)
will is a common way of expressing what the speaker thinks, believes,
hopes, assumes, fears etc. will happen:
It will probably be cold/I expect it will be cold.
47
Tomatoes will be expensive this year/I'm sure tomatoes will be

expensive.
But there are two differences:
be going to implies that there are signs that something will happen,
will implies that the speaker thinks/believes that it will happen.
be going to is normally used about the immediate/fairly immediate
future; will doesn't imply any particular time and could refer to the
remote future.
The lift is going to break down implies that it is making strange noises or
behaving in a strange way; we had better get out on the next floor.
The lift will break down implies that this will happen some time in the
future (perhaps because we always overload our lifts, perhaps because it
is an XYZ Company lift and they don't last).
9.5. The future simple
There is no future tense in modern English, but for convenience
we often use the term 'future simple' to describe the form
will/shall + bare infinitive.
First person will and shall
Formerly will was kept for intention:
I will wait for you = I intend to wait for you and shall was used when
there was no intention, i.e. for actions where the subject's wishes were
not involved:
I shall be 25 next week.
We shall know the result next week. (It will be in the papers.)
Unless the taxi comes soon we shall miss our plane.
shall, however, is still used in the interrogative: In question tags after
let's: Let's go, shall we? In suggestions: Shall we take a taxi?
In requests for orders or instructions: What shall I do with your mail? In
speculations: Where shall we be this time next year
shall for determination
48
Determination is normally expressed by will. But sometimes public

speakers feel that to express determination they need a 'heavier' word, a
word not normally used much, and so they say shall:
(in a speech) We shall fight and we shall win. We will fight and we shall
win would be equally possible. shall used in this way sometimes carries
the idea of promise which we get in second person shall:
You shall have a sweet = I promise you a sweet.
In we shall win the speaker is promising victory. shall can be used in this
way in ordinary conversation:
I shall be there, I promise you. But will here is equally possible and less
trouble for the student. When in doubt use will.
Uses of the future simple
1. To express the speaker's opinions, assumptions. These may be
introduced by verbs such as assume, be afraid, be/feel sure, believe,
daresay, doubt, expect, hope, know, suppose. Hunk, wonder or
accompanied by adverbs such as perhaps, possibly, surely, but can be
used without them:
(I'm sure) he'll come back.
(I suppose) they'll sell the house.
The future simple can be used with or without a time expression. be
going to is sometimes possible here also, but it makes the action appear
more probable and (where there is no time expression) more immediate.
He'll build a house merely means 'this is my opinion', and gives no idea
when the building will start. But He's going to build a house implies that
he has already made this decision and that he will probably start quite
soon.
2. The future simple is used similarly for future habitual actions which we
assume will take place:
Spring will come again.
Birds will build nests.
People will make plans.
49
3. The future simple is used, chiefly in newspapers and news for formal
announcements of future plans.
NEWSPAPER: The President will open the new heliport tomorrow. The fog
will persist in all areas. Hut the average reader/listener will say:
The President is going to open/is opening . . . The fog is going to
persist/continue . .
4. won't can be used with all persons to express negative intention. So
He won't pay can mean either He refuses to pay or I don't think he '11
pay.
5. I/we will can express affirmative intention, but he/you/they will do
not normally express intention. They may appear to do so sometimes
in such sentences as My son/brother/husband etc. will help you, but
the intention may be the speaker's rather than the subject's.
9.6. The future continuous tense
This tense is made up of the future simple of to be + the present
participle. In the first person, will is more usual than shall,
except in the interrogative.
Affirmative I/we will/shall be working he/she/it/you/they will be working
Negative I/we will/shall not be working he/she/it/you/they will not be
working
Interrogative shall/will I/we be working? will he/she/it/you/they be
working?
Use
This tense has two uses:
It can be used as an ordinary continuous tense.
It can express a future without intention.
The future continuous used as an ordinary continuous tense
Like other continuous tenses it is normally used with a point m lime, and
expresses an action which starts before that time and probably
50
continues after it. This use is best seen by examples. Imagine a class of
students at this moment-9.30 a.m. We might say:
Now they are sitting in their classroom. They are listening to a tape. This
time tomorrow they will be sitting in the cinema. They will be watching a
film. On Saturday there is no class. So on Saturday they will not be sitting
in the classroom. They will be doing other things. Bill will be playing
tennis. Ann will be shopping. George will still be having breakfast. A
continuous tense can also be used with a verb in a simple tense:
Peter has been invited to dinner with Ann and Tom. He was asked to come
at eight but tells another friend that he intends to arrive at seven. The
friend tries to dissuade him: 'When you arrive they'll still be cooking the
meal!'
The future continuous used to express future without intention
Example: I will be helping Mary tomorrow.
This does not imply that the speaker has arranged to help Mary or that
he wishes to help her. It merely states that this action will happen. The
future continuous tense used in this way is somewhat similar to the
present continuous, but differs from it in the following points.
The present continuous tense implies a deliberate future action. The
future continuous tense usually implies an action which will occur in the
normal course of events. It is therefore less definite and more casual
than the present continuous:
I am seeing Tom tomorrow.
I'll be seeing Tom tomorrow. The first implies that Tom or the speaker has
deliberately arranged H meeting, but the second implies that Tom and
the speaker will meet In the ordinary course of events (perhaps they
work together).
9.7. The future perfect Form
will/shall + perfect infinitive for first persons, will + perfect
infinitive for the other persons.
51
Use
It is normally used with a time expression beginning with by: by then, by
that time, by the 24th:
By the end of next month he will have been here for ten years. It is used
for an action which at a given future time will be in the past, or will just
have finished. Imagine that it is 3 December and David is very worried
about an exam that he is taking on 13 December. Someone planning a
party might say:
We 'd better wait till 14 December. David will have had his exam by then,
so he'll be able to enjoy himself. Note also:
I save 50 a month and I started in January. So by the end of the year I
will/shall have saved 600.
9.8. The future perfect continuous
will/shall have been + present participle for the first persons,
will have been + present participle for the other persons.
Use
Like the future perfect, it is normally used with a time expression
beginning with by:
By the end of this year he'll have been acting for thirty years. The future
perfect continuous bears the same relationship to the future perfect as
the present perfect continuous bears to the present perfect, i.e. the
future perfect continuous can be used instead of the future perfect:
When the action is continuous:
By the end of the month he will have been living/working/studying here for
ten years.
When the action is expressed as a continuous action:
By the end of the month he will have been training horses/climbing
mountains for twenty years. But if we mention the number of horses or
mountains, or divide this action in any way, we must use the future
perfect:
52
By the end of the month he will have trained 600 horses/climbed 50

mountains.
53
Seminar 5 The Future

EXERCISE 1Complete the following sentences:
1. By this time next year, we ... 2. 11 lie \vas not yet begun, to study
he ... by tomorrow. 3. The flowers . . ., by the time the snow has come. 4.
A year hence I ... 5. This work is so vast, that... in a year's time. 6. By
the time you leave school... 7. I hope that when you are as old as I am . .
. 8. Perhaps scientists ... by the twenty-first century. 9. They believe that
they . . . before the year is over. 10. Before you leave this part of the
country you . . .
EXERCISE
2. Put the verbs in brackets into the Future Perfect, the
Future Perfect Continuous and the Present Perfect Tenses:

1. By the end of July he (teach) in this school for a year. 2. I
(look up) the word in the dictionary before you (remember)
it. 3. By the time you (come) back she (marry)
somebody else. 4. By next Sunday Bob (stay) in
the mountains for a month. 5. I hope the rain (stop) by six
o'clock. 6. I'll not speak to him again until he (apologize) for
his impoliteness. 7. Tomorrow I (live) in this flat for six weeks.
8. By the time you (come) back with the wine I (lay)
the table for both of us. 9. When (hear) the truth
you will understand why she ran away. 10. At 12 o'clock I (write)
for six hours. 11. When you (take) some of these
pills you will feel better. 12. Twenty minutes from now I (wash)
all the windows. 13. The child (eat) all the sweets before the
other children (arrive) . 14. I shall tell him everything when he
(recover) from his illness. 15. By the end of the year he
(learn) English for three years.
Exercise 3 : The present continuous and the future simple. Put
the verbs in brackets into the correct tense.
54
Tom: Where you (go) for your next holiday? (Where have
youarranged to go?)
Ann: I don't know yet but we probably (go) to Spain.
We (have) a drink with Peter tonight. (He has invited us.) It's
his last night; he (leave) tomorrow.
Ann: Do you think we (see) Bill tomorrow?
Mary: I hope so. He probably (look)
in on his way to the
airport.
I (see) my bank manager tomorrow. (/ have arranged this.)
I'm going to ask him for a loan but I expect he (refuse) .
I (know)
the result tomorrow. As soon as I hear, I (tell)
you.
Jack's mother: Jack (be)
ready in a moment. He is just
finishing breakfast.
Jack's father: If I wait for him any longer I (miss) my train. I
think I (walk) on; he probably (catch) me up.
I probably (come) to London some time next month. I (give)
you a ring nearer the time and tell you when I (come)
, (when I have decided/arranged to come)

Hotel Porter: You (get) a parking ticket if you leave your car
there, sir. If you (stay) the night (have arranged to stay) you
(have to) put it in the hotel garage.
Tourist: All right. I (move) it as soon as I've arranged about a
room.
Ann: I've scorched Bill's shirt. Whatever he (say) ?Mary: Oh, he
(not mind) . He just (buy)
another shirt. He has
plenty of money.
Peter: We'd better leave a message for Jack. Otherwise he (not know)
where we've gone.George: All right. I (leave)
note on his table.
55
Jack: I don't want to get married. I never (get)
married.
Mother: You think that now. But one day you (meet) a girl and
you (fall) in love.
Tom: I (go) to York tomorrow. (Ihave arranged to go.)
Ann: You (come) back the same day? (Have you arranged to
come back?)
Tom: No. I probably (have) to spend the night there.
Peter: You (walk) home? (Have you decided to walk?)Andrew:
Yes. It's too late for a bus.
Peter: But it's pouring. You (get)
soaked! Here, take this
umbrella. Andrew: Thanks very much. I (bring)
it back
tomorrow.
Exercise 4 : The present continuous and be going to. Put the
verbs in brackets into one of the above forms, using the present
continuous wherever possible.
Where you (go)
for your holidays? ~ I (go)
to
Norway. ~ What you (do) there?-1 (fish) .

Where you (go)
this evening? ~I (not go)
anywhere. I (stay) at home. I (write) some letters.

Take an umbrella; it (rain) .
How long you (stay) in this country? {Have you decided to
stay?) ~ Another month. I (go) home at the end of the month.
~ What you (do) then? I (try) to get a job.
I (dye) these curtains. ~ You (do) it yourself, or
(have) it done? ~ I (have) it done. Who should I
take them to?
I've seen the film, now I (read) the book. I've just got a copy
from the library. (/ haven't started the book yet.)
You (do) anything next weekend? ~ Yes, my nephews (come)
and I (show)
them round London. ~ You (take)

56
them to the theatre? {Have you booked seats?) No, they're

too young for that. I (take) them to the zoo.
We (start) early tomorrow. We (go) to Ben Nevis.
~You (climb) Ben Nevis? ~ Not me. Tom (climb) it.
I (sit) at the bottom and (do) some sketching.
You (not ask) your boss to give you a fire in your office? It
isn't worth while. I (leave) at the end of the week. ~ Really?
And what you (do)
then? You (have)
a holiday?
-No, I (start) another job the following Monday.

Exercise 5 : be going to and will + infinitive. Put the verbs in
brackets into one of the above forms.
Where are you off to with that ladder? ~ I (have) a look at the
roof; it's leaking and I think a tile has slipped.
We bought our new garage in sections and we (assemble) it
ourselves. ~ That sounds rather interesting. I (come)
and
help you if you like.

Why do you want all the furniture out of the room? Because I
(shampoo) the carpet. It's impossible to do it unless you take
everything off it first.
Here are the matches: but what do you want them for?- I (make)
a bonfire at the end of the garden; I want to burn that big
heap of rubbish. ~ Well, be careful. If the fire gets too big it (burn)
the apple trees.
Have you decided on your colour scheme? Oh yes, and I've bought the
paint. I (paint) this room blue and the sitting room green.
Why are you asking everyone to give you bits of material? ~ Because I
(make) a patchwork quilt.
I wonder if Ann knows that the time of the meeting has been changed. ~
Probably not. I (look) in on my way home and tell her. I'm glad
you thought of it.
57
Leave a note for them on the table and they (see) it when
they come in.
I'm afraid I'm not quite ready. ~ Never mind. I (wait) .
Do you have to carry so much stuff on your backs? Yes, we do. We
(camp) out and (cook) our own meals, so we have
to carry a lot.
I've been measuring the windows. I (put) in double glazing.
You (wear) that nice dress in a dinghy? ~ Of course not! I (sit)
on the pier and (watch) you all sailing. I (not get)
all wet and muddy and pretend that I'm enjoying it!
BUILDING COMPONENT THE INFILL
Not until the first revolution of the nineteenth century the introduction
of steel had occurred, did the utilisation of nonstructural materials for
decorative ad space-dividing purposes become widespread. Unlike the
transformation of the frame, the development of the infill was a
following, not a leading innovation. And unlike the machinery, the infill
represented less a whiteshed in the advancement of technology than the
application of modern techniques to age-old construction methods.
The use of filler materials to divide space and create visually interesting
finishes has been a well-known technique for centuries. Vitruvius gave
detailed instructions in the use of wattle-and-daub, the precursor of the
modern drywall system. He also wrote about plaster and paint. In major
buildings, the extent of these materials was likely to be relatively
minimal. Except for painting. Since the masonry frame was so massive
and its elements so closely spaced, little need existed for a spacedividing technology independent of the structure. This may be seen in
the Roman Palazzo Farnese. Although plaster was applied to interior
spaces even during the Middle Ages, it was not fully resurrected until the
late Renaissance, during the baroque and rococo periods. I these
58
periods, flamboyant expressions in plasterwork were common, especially

in the ecclesiastical architecture of Mediterranean nations. The
plasterwork was applied to a backup that concealed the true
configuration of the structure. Plaster was often painted to resemble
stone masonry, with exquisite veining and jointing. Prior to plasters
revival in the Renaissance, interior ornamentation had been achieved by
the surface shaping of the stone frame. In this respect, decoration had
been more akin to the formed concrete or decorative concrete masonry
units of the twentieth century.
When the introduction of steel to buildings accelerated the development
of the skeleton frame, the need arose for some element that would
partition spaces. Technologies already existed that could fill this
requirement. Before 1800, an adaptation of the wattle-and-daub had
developed in North America. Wattle-and-daub consisted of vertical
wooden stakes with straw between them, all covered with plaster or
mud. By substituting brick for the straw and then covering the stakes
and bricks with clapboards to reduce thermal stress in the assembly,
American colonists invented the wood stud wall system. The brick was
eventually eliminated and advances in milling lumber coupled with the
mass production of iron nails in the early 1800s made possible a
lightweight partition system of standard size, easily transportable
elements.
Despite its early wide use in residential and other small constructions,
the stud wall system was not used effectively in major buildings until
well into the twentieth century. The combustible nature of wood and the
expense and complicated construction process involving plaster
mitigated against this partitioning system. After the mid-1800s ad until
1960s, partitioning was largely accomplished through he use of
prefabricated masonry units. Concrete blocks first appeared in the
1830s, and other masonry units, such as gypsum wall tiles, also came on
the scene. The relative ease of transporting and assembling these
59
standard units made them popular. In high-rise structures, masonry units

were fairly easy to lift to the upper stories during construction. These
units could be made of lightweight aggregate and with hollow cores in
order to reduce their weight. Ceilings continued to be made of plaster
after the onset of industrialization. The lath would be attached directly to
the underside of the floor structure. Suspended ceilings that concealed
mechanical equipment were used as early as 1906, but did not become
widespread utile the acoustical tile ceiling appeared I 1930s.
After WW II, open-plan office space became popular. The reasons for
this were twofold. First, masonry partitioning, both in itself and in the
structure required to support its weight, was expensive. Second, the
acoustical ceiling and broadloom wall-to-wall carpeting solved the noise
problems that the open office plan posed.
60
X. The sequence of tenses

Subordinate clauses
A sentence can contain a main clause and one or more
subordinate clauses. A subordinate clause is a group of words
containing a subjeet and verb and forming part of a sentence:
We knew that the bridge was unsafe.
He gave it to me because he trusted me.
He ran faster than we did.
This is the picture that I bought in Rome.
For other examples see under conditional sentences, relative pronouns
and clauses of purpose, comparison, time, result and concession. It is
not necessary for the student to make a detailed study of clauses or
even to be able to recognize the different kinds of clause, but it is
necessary for him to learn to know which is the main verb of a sentence
because of the important rule given below.
The sequence of tenses
When the main verb of a sentence is in a past tense, verbs in
subordinate clauses are normally in a past tense also. See the starred
sentences below.
Tense of
Tense of verb
verb in
in subordinate
main clause
Present
clause
He thinks that it will rain.
Past He thought that it would rain.*

Present
Future simple
Conditional
He sees that he has made a mistake. Pres. perf.
Past He saw that he had made a mistake. *

Present
Past perf.
/ work so hard that I am always tired. Present
Past / worked so hard that I was always tired. * Past

Pres. perf. He has done all that is necessary.
Present
Past perf. He had done all that was necessary. * Past

Present
He says that he is going to eat it.
Pres. contl
61
Past He said that he was going to eat it.* Past cont

Note that infinitive and gerunds are not affected by the above ml. He
wants to go to Lyons. He wanted to go to Lyons.
EXERCISE
1 Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense: the
Present Simple or Continuous, the Present Perfect Simple or

Continuous, the Past Tense Simple or Continuous, the Simple
Future, the Future Perfect and the Future in the Past:
1. I know, Jackson, and you've only told me one side of the story. I (hear)
the other from Sir John. You (be) a good friend,
too. I only hope that I (be) as lucky when my time (come)
to start a household of my own. 2. "Thank you", he said,
when the other (finish) . 3. We'll talk about that when I (do)
telephoning. 4. "What do you do about the next day's
orders?" "I (get) them when I (take) the whisky in
at ten. If there (be) anything after that, Sir John (ring)
for me. Yesterday, as a matter of fact, he (send)
me a message by Mr. Hastings that he (ride) in the morning
and (want) to be called early." 5. He saw them Miss
Smethurst and her young man as soon as he (get) here,
and (tell) you (come) and (let) them
know when you (want) them. 6. "When Jou last (see)
your master alive?" "Last night, sir. Sir John's secretary (dine)
with him and they (sit) in the study after dinner.
Mr. Hastings just (come) out of the study when I (get)
into the front hall, he (stop) in the door to talk to
Sir John. Sir John (sit) in that armchair next the door, smoking
and he (ask) Mr. Hastings if he (be) in the Row
tomorrow morning."
62
EXERCISE
2.
Translate into English:
1. De obicei ne intilnim de doua ori pe saptamina, insa cind sintem

ocupati nu ne intilnim de loc.
.
2. Auzi? Cineva cinta la pian si acum este ora 12.
3. Ce face Ana? Preg&teste prinzul in bucatarie; de obicei gateste

la ora aceasta.
.
4. Auzi ce spun, sau cinta radioul prea tare ?
5. Suna telefonul. Ma duc sa vad cine este.
6. In general ne petrecem vacanta la mare, insa anul acesta mergem la

munte.
7. Miine incepem un nou trimestru la scoala.
8. Acum ploua si noi nu jucam tenis decit daca terenul este uscat.
9. Priveste! Soarele rasare de dupa colina aceea.
10. Vezi vaporul de la orizont? Nu, nu vad nimic. Nu vad bine fara
ochelari.
11. Lacul a secat; a fost foarte cald vara aceasta.
12. Toata ziua a stat in aer liber si acum se odihneste.
63
13. Ai cumparat vreo carte buna in ultima vreme?
14. Ati locuit toata viata in aceasta casa veche?
15.Nu 1-am vazut de cind era copil.
16. Invatam engleza de patru ani.
17. De trei zile ninge mult, deci am stat in casa.
18. A pierdut multe lectii de cind s-a imbolnavit.
19. Nu-ti pot spune daca imi place filmul, intrucit nu 1-am vazut inca.
20. Aceasta este cea mai interesanta carte pe care am citit-o vreodata.
21. Uneori il intilneam la biblioteca cind invata pentru examen.
22. Venea cu buzunarele pline de daruri si le dadea copiilor.
23. Baiatul se juca in curte cind mama lui 1-a chemat in casa.
24. Unde te duceai cind te-am intilnit pe strada ieri?
25. El a platit la casa, dupa ce macelarul a cintarit carnea.
26. El citise toate cartile din biblioteca tatalui sau si nu mai stia ce sa
citeasca.
27. Au vizitat locurile unde au stat cu ani in urma.
64
28. Artistul picta tabloul de citeva luni, dar nu-1 terminase inca.
29. De la ultima lor intilnire ea se gindea tot timpul la propunerea lui.
30. Ne vom intoarce la hotel de indata ce vom vedea orasul.
31. Vrei sa ma ajuti sa-mi due bagajul?
32. Ce faci miine dupa amiaza?
33. Cind te vei intoarce de la studii vor fi trecut doi ani de cind te astept.
34. Sper ca te voi intilni mai tirziu.
35. Are de gind sa coseasca iarba azi dupa amiaza.
36. Luna viitoare se vor implini doi ani de cind locuiesc aici.
37. Pe ziua de 6 ale acestei luni se va implini un an de cind ne

cunoastem.
38. . Toata saptamina viitoare voi lucra la biblioteca.
65
XI. The conditional

The present conditional tense
This is formed with would/should + infinitive for the first person
and would + infinitive for the other persons.
Affirmative I would/I'd work or I should work you would/you'd work etc.
Negative Iwould not/wouldn 't work or I should not/shouldn 't work
you would not/wouldn't work etc.
Interrogative would/should I work? would you work? etc.
Negative interrogative should I not/shouldn't I work? would you
not/wouldn't you work? etc.
It is used:
In conditional sentences
1. In special uses of would and should
As a past equivalent of the future simple, would/should must be used
instead of will/shall when the main verb of the sentence is in the past
tense:
I hope (that) I will/shall succeed. I hoped (that) 1 would/should succeed. I
know (that) he will be in time. I knew (that) he would be in time. He
thinks (that) they will give him a visa. He thought (that) they would give
him a visa. I expect (that) the plane will be diverted. I expected (that)
the plane would be diverted.
The perfect conditional tense
This is formed with would/should and the perfect infinitive
It is used:
1. In conditional sentences
In special uses of would and should
As a past equivalent of the future perfect tense:
I hope he will have finished before we get back. I hoped he would have
finished before we got back.
Conditional sentences
Conditional sentences have two parts: the if-clause and the main clause.
In the sentence If it rains I shall stay at home 'If it rains' is the if-clause,
66
and 'I shall stay at home' is the main clause. There are three kinds of
conditional sentences. Each kind contains a different pair of tenses. With
each type certain variations are possible but students who are studying
the conditional for the first time should ignore these and concentrate on
the basic forms.
Conditional sentences type 1: probable
The verb in the if-clause is in the present tense; the verb in the main
clause is in the future simple. It doesn't matter which comes first.
If he runs he'll get there in time.
The cat will scratch you if you pull her tail. This type of sentence implies
that the action in the if-clause is quite probable.
Note that the meaning here is present or future, but the verb in the ifclause is in a present, not a future tense.
Conditional sentences type 2
The verb in the if-clause is in the past tense; the verb in the main clause
is in the conditional tense:
If I had a map I would lend it to you. (But I haven't a map. The meaning
here is present.)
If someone tried to blackmail me I would tell the police. (But I don't expect
that anyone will try to blackmail me. The meaning here is future.) There
is no difference in time between the first and second types of conditional
sentence. Type 2, like type 1, refers to the present or future, and the
past tense in the if-clause is not a true past but a subjunctive, which
indicates unreality (as in the first example above) or improbability.
Type 2 is used:
When the supposition is contrary to known facts:
If I lived near my office I'd be in time for work. (But I don't live near my
office.)
If I were you I'd plant some trees round the house. (But I am not you.)
When we don't expect the action in the if-clause to take place:
If a burglar came into my room at night I'd scream. (But I dont expect a
burglar to come in.)
67
If I dyed my hair blue everyone would laugh at me. (But I don't intend to
dye it.) Some if-clauses can have either of the above meanings:
If he left his bicycle outside someone would steal it. 'If he left his bicycle'
could imply 'but he doesn't' or 'but he doesn't intend to' . But the correct
meaning is usually clear from the text. Ambiguity of this kind can be
avoided by using were/was + infinitive instead of the past tense in type
2.
if he/she/it were can be used instead of if he/she/it was, and is
considered the more correct form:
If he were to resign . . . = I f h e resigned . . .
If I were to succeed . . . = If I succeeded . . . This construction with were
is chiefly found in fairly formal sentences. if he/she/it was + infinitive is
possible in colloquial English, but the past tense, as shown above, is
much more usual.
Sometimes, rather confusingly, type 2 can be used as an alternative to
type 1 for perfectly possible plans and suggestions:
Will Mary be in time if she gets the ten 0 'clock bus? No, but she'd be in
time if she got the nine-thirty bus or No, but she'll be in time if she gets
the nine-thirty bus. We'll never save 100! ~ If we each saved 10 a
week we'd do it in ten weeks or
If we each save 10 a week we'll do it in ten weeks. A suggestion in type 2
is a little more polite than a suggestion in type 1, just as would you is a
more polite request form than will you. But the student needn't trouble
too much over this use of type 2.
Conditional sentences type 3
The verb in the if-clause is in the past perfect tense; the verb in the main
clause is in the perfect conditional. The time is past and the condition
cannot be fulfilled because the action in the if-clause didn't happen.
If I had known that you were coming I would have met you at the airport.
(But I didn't know, so I didn't come.)
If he had tried to leave the country he would have been stopped at the
frontier. (But he didn't try.)
68
Possible variations of the basic form could or might may be used

instead of would:
If we had found him earlier we could have saved his life, (ability) If we had
found him earlier we might have saved his life, (possibility) If our
documents had been in order we could have left at once. (ability or
permission)
The continuous form of the perfect conditional may be used:
At the time of the accident I was sitting in the back of the car, because
Tom's little boy was sitting beside him in front. If Tom's boy I had not been
there I would have been sitting in front.
We can use the past perfect continuous in the if-clause:
I was wearing a seat belt. If I hadn 't been wearing one I'd have been
seriously injured.
A combination of types 2 and 3 is possible:
The plane I intended to catch crashed and everyone was killed. 1f I had
caught that plane I would be dead now or
I would have been killed, (type 3)
If I had worked harder at school I would be sitting in a comfortable office
now; I wouldn't be sweeping the streets. (But I didn't work hard at school
and now I am sweeping the streets.)
had can be placed first and the if omitted:
If you had obeyed orders this disaster would not have happened = Had you
obeyed orders this disaster would not have happened.
if + were and inversion of subject and auxiliary
if + were instead of if + was
Usually either can be used, were being more likely in formal English:
If she was/were offered the job she'd take it. If Tom was/were here he 'd
know what to do.
But were is a little more usual than was in the advice form If I were/
was you I would/should . . . :
69
'If I were you I would wait a bit,' he said. Were is also more usual in the
infinitive construction:
If Peter were/was to apply for the post he'd get it.
were, not was, is used when the auxiliary is placed first:
Were I Tom I would refuse. When if means 'since' was cannot be
replaced by were, were can replace was after if only and wish
if + subject + auxiliary can be replaced in formal English by inversion of I
auxiliary and subject with if omitted:
If I were in his shoes . . . = Were I in his shoes . . .
If you should require anything . . . =
Should you require anything. . .
If he had known . . . = Had he known . . .
70
Seminar 6 - Conditional sentences

Conditional sentences: type 1
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form.
I'll look for your notebook and if I (find) it I (give)
you a ring.
If you (smoke)
in a non-smoking compartment the other
passengers (object) .
I'll wash the glasses in this nice hot water. ~ No, don't. If you (put)
them into very hot water they (crack) .
If you (see) Tom tell him I have a message for him.
If he (win) he (get) 1,000; if he (come)
in second he (get) 500.
If you (feel) too hot during the night turn down the central
heating.
Tom: Jack is a translator; he translates 1,000 words a day and gets 100
a week, which he says isn't enough to live on.
If you (finish) with your dictionary I'd like to borrow it.
The lift wasn't working when I was here last. If it still (not work)
we (have) to use the stairs. I shan't wake unless I
(hear) the alarm.
If you'd like some ice I (get) some from the fridge.
He's only sixteen but he wants to leave school at the end of the term.
If he (leave) now he (be) sorry afterwards.
I expect it will freeze tonight. ~ If it (freeze) tonight the roads
(be) very slippery tomorrow.
That book is overdue. If you (not take) it back to the library
tomorrow you (have) to pay a fine.
Unless Tom (take) his library book back tomorrow he (have)
to pay a fine.
You'd better take the day off if you (not feel) well tomorrow.
If a driver (brake) suddenly on a wet road he (skid) .
If you (like) I (get) you a job in this company.
71
If you (like) a job in this company, I'll get you one.

My dog never starts a fight. He never growls unless the other dog (growl)
first.
You can use my phone if yours (not work) .
If you (not know)
the meaning of a word you may use a
dictionary.
If Jack (refuse) to help we'll have to manage without him.
If Jack (not help) we'll have to manage without him.
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form.
Of course I'm not going to give her a diamond ring. If I (give)
her a diamond ring she (sell) it.
If someone (say) , 'I'll give you 500 to go into court and swear
that this statement is true,' what you (do) ?
If we (work) all night we (finish) in time; but we
have no intention of working all night.
You must never blow out a gas light. Do you know what (happen)
if you (blow) out a gas light?
If I (see) a tiger walking across Hyde Park I (climb)
a tree. ~ That (not be) any use. The tiger (climb)
after you.
If I (come)
across two men fighting with knives I (call)
the police. ~ But this is a very peaceful area.

Ann: All your clothes are years out of date. Why don't you throw them
away?
Mary: Don't be ridiculous! If I (throw)
my clothes away I
(have) to ask my husband for 1,000 to buy new ones.

If someone (ring) my doorbell at 3 a.m. I (be) very
unwilling to open the door.
If I (see) a python in Piccadilly I (assume) it had
escaped from a circus.
72
We train the children to file out of the classroom quietly, because if a

whole class (rush) at the door someone (get) hurt.
Why don't you buy a season ticket?- Because I lose everything. If I (buy)
a season ticket I (lose) it.
Why don't you bring your car to work? If I (have)
a car I
(bring) it to work.
He is staying at the Savoy in London. ~Is he very rich? ~ I suppose he is.
If he (be) a poor man he (not stay) at the Savoy.
If I (have) heaps of money I (drink) champagne
with every meal.
If you (drink)
champagne with every meal you soon (get)
tired of it.
What time of year do you think it is in this picture? Summer? ~ No, it
must be winter. If it (be)
summer the people (not sit)
round that big fire.

If only we (have) a light! It's depressing waiting in darkness!
A university degree is a useful thing. If I (have) a university
degree I now (sit) in a comfortable office instead of standing
at a street corner selling newspapers.
I (be)
very grateful if you kindly (sign)
this
document and let me have it back as soon as possible.

Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses.
If he (not take) his gloves off he (not get) frost
bitten.
She was sent to prison only because she refused to pay the fine; if she
(pay) the fine she (not be) sent to prison.
He didn't tell me that he was a vegetarian till halfway through the meal.
If he (tell) me earlier I (cook) him something more
suitable.
73
I had no map; that's why I got lost. If I (had) a map I (be)

all right.
Why didn't you say that you were short of money? If I (know) I
(lend) you some.
It's lucky he had his torch with him. If he (not have) it he (fall)
down the cellar steps.
The job is much worse than I expected. If I (realise) how awful
it was going to be I (not accept) it.
It was the drug, not the disease that killed him. He would still be alive
today if he (not take) that drug.
This room's freezing because the fire has only just been lit. If it (be lit)
this morning, as I suggested, the room would be warm
enough to sit in now.

I overslept; that's why I'm half an hour late; and if my phone (not ring)
at nine o'clock I might still be in bed.
It was rather a dull game so I left before the end; if I (wait)
another five minutes I (see) Chelsea scoring a really exciting
goal.
The paraffin heater was perfectly safe. There (not be) a fire if
the children (not knock) it over.
It's a pity he never patented his invention. If he (patent) it he
(make) a lot of money.
The fog came down suddenly and I suppose they didn't know which way
to turn; if only they (have) a map and compass with them
they (not be) drowned.
He asked his parents for a loan but he didn't say what he wanted the
money for, so they refused. I think if he (tell) them that he
wanted to open a restaurant they (agree) .
The accident was mainly Tom's fault. He was driving much too close to
the car in front. If he (be) further away he (be able)
to stop in time.
74
The launching of the rocket was delayed half an hour by bad weather. If
the weather (be) good they (launch) it at 8.30
instead of at 9.00.
Why did you throw away those newspapers? I hadn't finished with them.
~ I'm sorry. If I (know)
you were still reading them I (not
throw) them away.

I'm sorry you didn't tell me that dogs were allowed in the hotel; if I
(know) I (bring) my dog. He (enjoy) the
walk.
Most people (attend)
the union meeting if they had had
longer notice of it.

He says he refused the job, but that this was nothing to do with the
salary. He (refuse) even if they (offer) him twice as
much.
The club secretary is useless. He never tells anybody anything. We (not
know) about this meeting if the chairman (not tell)
us.
When the director asked her to play the lead she agreed though she
didn't know anything about the play. I think that if she (read)
the play first she (refuse) the part.
The burglar made quite a lot of noise getting into the house; but
fortunately for him the family were watching a noisy TV play. If they
(play) cards they certainly (hear) him.
75

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CONTENTS

I. The present continuous...................................................................................................................................................................2

I. The present continuous

you are not working

are you working?

he/she/it is working he/she/it is not working

we are not working

you are working

you are not working

are you working?

they are working

they are not working

are they working?

Negative interrogative: am I not working? are you not working? is he not

I'm not working

Note the irregular contraction aren't I? for am I not?

enter entering (stress not on the last syllable).

travelling except in American English.

6. ing can be added to a verb ending in y without affecting the spelling

Uses of the present continuous tense

For an action happening about this time but not necessarily at

I am reading a play by Shaw. (This may mean 'at the moment of

When two continuous tenses having the same subject are

For a definite arrangement in the near future:

With a point in time to indicate an action which begins before

At six I am bathing the baby. (I start bathing him before six.)

Verbs expressing feelings and emotions, e.g. admire (= respect),

Verbs of mental activity, e.g. agree, appreciate (= understand),

recognize, recollect, remember, see (= understand), see

II. The simple present tense

you work you do not work

do you not work?

he/she/it he/she/it does does he/she/it does he/she/it

we do not work do we work?

you work you do not work

do you not work?

they work they do not work

do they work? do they not work?

I watch, he watches I go, he goes

My dog barks a lot, but he isn 't barking at the moment.

We leave London at 10.00 next Tuesday and arrive in Paris at 13.00. We

1. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Present or

the Present Continuous tense:

2. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple or

1. My friend (come) .. to see us next month. 2. Apricots

3. Translate into English:

1. Nu este politicos s. te uiti la oameni cind maninca.

3. Poti sa te asezi, este scaunul pe care il folosesc eu cind am musafiri.

4. Astzi ma simt mai bine. Dar arati mai rau.

9. Inchide geamurile. Simt c trage. Zau ca simt.

10. Cind se dicteaza, trebuie sa se vorbeasca clar.

with rough-cut stones bound in mortar. As in the Parthenon, little use of

In summary, the podium of a major building has undergone a

III. The simple past tense

you did not/didn't work etc.

The interrogative of regular and irregular verbs is formed with did I

but y following a vowel does not change: obey obeyed.

you were not working

he/she/it was working he/she/it was not working

were you working?

we were not working

you were not working