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called the sinoatrial (SA) node located in the posterior wall of the
right atrium near the superior vena cava. The SA node consists of
specialized cells that undergo spontaneous generation of action
potentials at a rate of 100-110 action potentials ("beats") per minute.
This intrinsic rhythm is strongly influenced by autonomic nerves, with
the vagus nerve being dominant over sympathetic influences at rest.
This "vagal tone" brings the resting heart rate down to 60-80
beats/minute. The normal range for sinus rhythm is 60-100
Specific Arrhythmias:
relatively slow Ca++ currents instead of by fast Na+ currents. There are,
in fact, no fast Na+ channels and currents operating in SA nodal cells.
This results in a slower action potentials in terms of how rapidly they
depolarize. Therefore, these pacemaker action potentials are
sometimes referred to as "slow response" action potentials.
statements can be made for leads II and III in which the positive
electrode is located on the left leg. For example, a wave of
depolarization traveling toward the left leg produces a positive
deflection in both leads II and III because the positive electrode for
both leads is on the left leg. A maximal positive deflection is recorded
in lead II when the depolarization wave travels parallel to the axis
between the right arm and left leg. Similarly, a maximal positive
deflection is obtained in lead III when the depolarization wave travels
parallel to the axis between the left arm and left leg.
and then the electrode would measure a negative voltage as the wave
moved away from the electrode to the right edge. The sixth rule takes
into consideration that at any given point in time during depolarization
in the atria or ventricles there are many separate waves of
depolarization traveling in different directions relative to the positive
electrode. The recording by the electrode reflects the average,
instantaneous direction and magnitude (i.e., mean electrical vector) for
all of the individual depolarization waves. The seventh rule simply
states that the amplitude of the wave recorded by the ECG is directly
related to the mass of the muscle undergoing depolarization or
repolarization. For example, when the mass of the left ventricle is
increased by hypertrophy, the voltage amplitude of the QRS complex,
which represents ventricular depolarization, is increased in certain
leads.
Electrocardiogram Augmented Limb Leads (Unipolar)
In addition to the three bipolar limb leads described above, there are
three augmented unipolar limb leads. These are termed unipolar leads
because there is a single positive electrode that is referenced against a
combination of the other limb electrodes. The positive electrodes for
these augmented leads are located on the left arm (aVL), the right arm
(aVR), and the left leg (aVF). In practice, these are the same electrodes
used for leads I, II and III. (The ECG machine does the actual switching
In addition to the three standard limb leads and the three augmented
limb leads that view the electrical activity of the heart from the frontal
plane, there are six precordial, unipolar chest leads. This configuration
places six positive electrodes on the surface of the chest over different
regions of the heart in order to record electrical activity in a plane
perpendicular to the frontal plane (see figure at right). These six leads
are named V1 - V6. The rules of interpretation are the same as for the
limb leads. For example, a wave of depolarization traveling toward a
particular electrode on the chest surface will elicit a positive
deflection.
The chest leads overlie the following ventricular regions:
Lead
Ventricular
s
Region
V1-V2 anteroseptal
V3-V4 anteroapical
V5-V6 anterolateral
This placement of chest leads produces the following normal ECG
tracings:
The mean electrical axis is the average of all the instantaneous mean
electrical vectors occurring sequentially during depolarization of the
ventricles. The figure to the right depicts the sequence of
depolarization within the ventricles. The septum and free left and right
ventricular walls are shown. In this model, each of the four vectors is
depicted as originating from the top of the interventricular septum just
below the AV node. The electrode placement represents lead II.
During ventricular activation, impulses are first conducted down the
left and right bundle branches on either side the septum. This causes
the septum to depolarize from left-to-right as depicted by vector 1
(Panel A). This vector is heading slightly away from the positive
electrode (to the right of a line perpendicular to the lead axis) and
therefore will record a small negative deflection (Q wave of the QRS).
About 20 milliseconds later, the mean electrical vector points
downward toward the apex (vector 2), and is heading toward the
positive electrode (Panel B). This will produce a very tall positive
deflection (R wave of the QRS). After another 20 milliseconds later, the
mean vector is pointing toward the left arm and anterior chest as the
free wall of the ventricle depolarizes from the endocardial to the
epicardial surface (vector 3, Panel C). This vector will record a small
positive voltage in lead II. Finally, the last regions to depolarize will
result in vector 4 (Panel D), which will cause a slight negative
deflection (S wave) of the QRS.
The shape of the QRS complex is different for each of the limb leads
because each of the leads will "see" the sequence of depolarization
vectors from a different perspective (see axial reference system). The
animated figure to the right shows how the QRS complex appears for
leads aVF and aVL. The positive electrodes for these two leads are at
+90 and -30, respectively. In this illustration, the mean electrical
axis (see below) is about +45. Note that aVF shows a large net
positive QRS. There is no Q wave because septal depolarization is not
directed away from the lead (see ECG rules). The R wave is very
positive because early ventricular depolarization is largely directed
toward this lead. The S wave is also present because the terminal
depolarization of the upper wall of the left ventricle is directed away
from aVF. In contrast, aVL shows an initial Q wave (septal depolarization
is directed away from the lead) followed by a moderately positive R
wave.
The Mean Electrical Axis
In the above illustration, the mean electrical axis will be the sum of
all of the mean electrical vectors. The mean electrical axis is depicted
by the red arrow in the figure above and in the figure to the right,
which is the same figure superimposed upon the axial reference
Membrane Potentials
Note: An 18 minute mini-lecture on this topic can be viewed
at the end of this page.
If a voltmeter is attached to the two terminals of a battery, a voltage
difference will be measured across the two terminals. Likewise, if a
voltmeter is used to measure voltage across the cell membrane (inside
versus outside) of a cardiomyocyte, it will be found that the inside of
the cell has a negative voltage (measured in millivolts; mV) with
respect to the outside of the cell (which is referenced as 0 mV). Under
resting conditions, this is called the resting membrane potential.
With appropriate stimulation of the cell, this negative voltage inside
the cell (negative membrane potential) may transiently become
positive owing to the generation of an action potential. Membrane
potentials result from a separation of positive and negative charges
(ions) across the membrane, similar to the plates within a battery that
separate positive and negative charges.
Membrane potentials in cells are determined primarily by three factors:
1) the concentration of ions on the inside and outside of the cell; 2) the
permeability of the cell membrane to those ions (i.e., ion conductance)
through specific ion channels; and 3) by the activity of electrogenic
Cardiac cells, like all living cells, have different concentrations of ions
across the cell membrane, the most important of which are Na+, K+, Cl-,
and Ca++ (see figure to right). There are also negatively charged
proteins within the cell to which the cell membrane is impermeable. In
a cardiac cell, the concentration of K+ is high inside the cell and low
outside. Therefore, there is a chemical gradient for K+ to diffuse out of
the cell. The opposite situation is found for Na+ and Ca++ where their
chemical gradients (high outside, low inside concentrations) favor an
inward diffusion.
Potassium ion
To understand how a membrane potential is generated, first consider a
hypothetical cell in which K+ is the only ion across the membrane other
than the large negatively charged proteins inside of the cell. Because
the cell has potassium channels through which K+ can move in and
out of the cell, K+ diffuses down its chemical gradient (out of the cell)
because its concentration is much higher inside the cell than outside.
As K+ (a positively charged ion) diffuses out of the cell, it leaves behind
negatively charged proteins. This leads to a separation of charges
across the membrane and therefore a potential difference across the
membrane. Experimentally it is possible to prevent the K+ from
diffusing out of the cell. This can be achieved by applying a negative
charge to the inside of the cell that prevents the positively charged K+
from leaving the cell. The negative charge across the membrane that
would be necessary to oppose the movement of K+ down its
concentration gradient is termed the equilibrium potential for K+
(EK; Nernst potential). The Nernst potential for K+ can be calculated
as follows:
(where [Na+]i = 20 mM and [Na+]o = 145 mM; and z=1 because Na+ is
monvalent)
The positive ENa means that in order to balance the inward directed
chemical gradient for Na+, the cell interior needs to be +52 mV to
prevent Na+ from diffusing into the cell. At a resting membrane
potential of -90 mV, there is not only a large chemical driving force, but
also a large electrical driving force acting upon external Na+ to cause it
to diffuse into the cell. The difference between the membrane potential
and the equilibrium potential (-142 mV) represents the net
electrochemical force driving Na+ into the cell at resting membrane
potential. At rest, however, the permeability of the membrane to Na+ is
very low so that only a small amount Na+ leaks into the cell. During an
action potential, the cell membrane become more permeable to Na+,
which increases sodium entry into the cell through sodium
channels. At the peak of the action potential in a cardiac cell (e.g.,
ventricular myocyte), the membrane potential is approximately +20
mV. Therefore, while the resting potential is far removed from the ENa,
the peak of the action potential approaches ENa. Because a small
amount of Na+ enters the cell at rest, and a relatively large amount of
Na+ enters during action potentials, a Na+/K+-ATPase pump is required
to transport Na+ out of the cell (in exchange for K+) in order to maintain
the chemical gradient for Na+.
Similar to Na+, there is a large Ca++ concentration difference across the
cell membrane. Therefore, Ca++ diffuses into the cell through calcium
channels. Applying the Nernst equation to external and internal
calcium concentrations of 2.5 mM and 0.0001 mM, respectively, results
in an equilibrium potential of +134 mV as shown below.
This value also includes that the fact that Ca++ is a divalent instead of a
monovalent cation; therefore, the -61 constant in the above equation is
divided by 2 because z = 2 (z = number of charges). Because the
equilibrium potential is much more positive than the resting membrane
potential, there is a net electrochemical force trying to drive Ca++ into
the cell, which occurs when the calcium channels are open.