Faults - short circuits:

Contacts made between conductors bypassing the load are known as faults.
If the contact is made between phase conductors (In 3 phase circuits) or
between phase and neutral conductors bypassing the load extremely high
currents can flow. These are called short circuits. Over currents caused by
short circuits are called short circuit currents.
Earth Fault
Earth is a very good conductor offering practically no resistance to flow of
current. Since the neutral point is already earthed, if a phase conductor
accidentally makes contact with earth, the current will flow through the earth
to the neutral point bypassing the load. Metal parts in contact with earth will
also help to carry these currents. The value of current varies depending on
the resistances of the contacts. Therefore if a current carrying conductor
makes contact with such metals fault currents could result. Such fault
currents are called earth fault currents. When contact between the metal
part and earth is not perfect (where the resistance between the two is more
than zero) metal part could gain a voltage due to the earth fault current. If a
person touches such a metal part he could get an electric shock.
Current rating of a fuse is the maximum current, which can continuously flow
in the circuit, and not the current at which the fuse will blow off. A fuse
normally blows off almost immediately at around 3 times the rated current.
This value is known as the fusing current.
The most common socket-outlets found in domestic wiring in Sri Lanka are
either 5A or 15A. Also there are 13 A socket-outlets and fused plugs which
can be used in place of both 5A and 15A socket-outlets with suitable
selection of the fuse in the plug. In a ring circuit components of the circuit
are arranged in a ring and both ends of the ring are connected to a single

point of supply. If the socket-outlets are arranged in a chain with only one
point connected to the supply point, it is known as a radial circuit.

Diversity:
In normal use it is very unlikely to switch on all the lamps and other current
consuming appliances (such as electric oven, hot plate, kettle, water heater,
iron, toaster, water pump, etc.) at the same time. Therefore it is not
necessary to provide cables and switchgear large enough to supply the
maximum possible load. Thus, it is possible to reduce the size of cables and
switchgear to cater to the maximum likely load. This is known as allowing for
diversity.
Looping in system
An opening in cable insulation always makes a weak point and reduces the
insulation resistance. It is also necessary to minimise the number of joints in
an electrical installation since in addition to the aforementioned, the
effective current carrying capacity of the cable reduces at the joint. In
practise this is achieved by avoiding midway joints and making them only at
switches, socket-outlets, ceiling roses, lamp holders and similar accessories.
This will require more length of cables than if midway joints are allowed, but
extra cost is justifable in the long run. This is called the looping in system.
The term, looping in, gives the erroneous impression that one length of cable
is bared at intervals and looped in at switch and lamp terminals. It is not
practicable. In practice, when wiring in conduit, necessary numbers of cables
are drawn through the conduits and the joints are made at the switches,
lamps or other terminals. (Note: In ring circuits it is necessary to keep the
loops avoiding joints as much as possible, in order not to reduce the current
carrying capacity of the cables.)

Voltage drop calculation

In calculating the voltage drop in the cables in the following example, it is
assumed that the circuits are wired from the distribution board which is
located at the origin of the installation. If there is a long length of sub-main
cable from the origin of the installation, then the voltage drop along the submain cable also has to be calculated in a similar manner and added to the
voltage drop of the circuit wiring. The total voltage drop from the origin to
the end of the circuit should not exceed 4% of the nominal voltage to comply
with the 16th Edition of the Regulations. For 230V supply this amounts to
9.2V. The voltage drop in a circuit is ascertained by frst multiplying the
length of the run in the circuit in metres by the current in the circuit in
amperes. This gives a product in Metre Amperes. When 9.2V is divided by
this product, the maximum allowable voltage in volts per ampere per metre
is found. As the values in the table are given in millivolt the result should be
multiplied by 1000to select the cable. The smallest cable having the voltage
drop per ampere per metre value less than the fgure arrived from the
calculations should be selected. (The normal practice would be to tentatively
select the cable on the basis of current carrying capacity and calculate the
voltage drop at the rated current. If the voltage drop is excessive a larger
cable is selected using the aforementioned calculation method.)
Example:
f
Find a suitable cable to carry a current of 20A in a circuit with a length of 25
metres connected to 230V supply. The metre-ampere fgure will be 20*25 =
500. Therefore maximum allowable mV/A/m will be 9.2 * 1000 / 500 = 18.4.
From the table for two wire single phase wiring in conduits the smallest cable
satisfying the requirement will be 2.5 mm 2 (1/1.78 or 7/0.67) having a
voltage drop of 17 mV/A/m. The voltage drop when carrying rated current will
be 17*20*25 = 8.5V. (Before using this value it has to be checked whether it

can safely carry 20A under installation conditions. Example is to show

voltage drop calculation only.
Lighting circuits
The major component of domestic wiring involves lamps which are normally
wired into 5A circuits using 1 mm 2 cable. As per the Regulations, each lamp
holder needs to be allowed 100 W. Therefore maximum number of lamp
points that can be allowed to a 5A circuit will be 11 Nos. Allowing for20% for
future use, only 8 o 9 lamp points can be connected to a circuit. Voltage drop
of a 1 mm2 cable is 37 mV per ampere per metre. Thus the maximum length
that is permissible for a 5A circuit is about 50 metres. This is applicable only
to fnal circuits from the main switchboard. For fnal circuits of sub
distribution boards, voltage drop along the sub-man cable also need to be
taken into account. Thus a lamp circuit in a house could consist of 8 lamp
points and wired up to a maximum length of 50 metres measured along the
cable path. Using this criterion the number of circuits to be wired and the
position of the distribution board can be decided. A ceiling fan also consumes
about 100 W and can be allocated to circuits on the same basis.

Socket-outlet circuits
If 13A socket-outlets are to be wired, a ring circuit using 2.5 mm 2 cable can
be provided for each 100 square metres of area. However, it would be better
to provide the kitchen with a separate circuit. 5A socket-outlets can be wired
with 1 mm2 cable protected by a 10A fuse/mcb with one or two outlets in the
circuit. Three 5A socket-outlets can be wired with 1.5 mm 2 cable protected by
a 15A fuse/mcb. The maximum length of the circuit will depend on the
number of outlets as the Regulations require us to assume a demand of 5A
for each outlet. 15A socket-outlets can be wired using 1.5 mm 2 cable up to
13metres and using 2.5 mm2 cable up to 21 metres. Cable sizes need to be
increased for longer lengths to compensate for the voltage drop. It is not

intended to mix 5A and 15A socket-outlets with 13A socket-outlets in the

same premises. Using air conditioners with 13A socket-outlets has been a
problem, due to the fuse being blown sometimes due to the starting current.
To overcome this problem a 20A DP switch can be incorporated to the ring
circuit to feed air conditioners.
Planning the Installation
As the frst step in starting wiring an installation one has to check from the
supply authority whether the required supply is available and whether there
are any temporary limitations on the load which can be connected.
Then it is necessary to fnd out, whether the service cable will be taken
underground or overhead, as this will inuence the position of the meter and
main switch. The meter and the main switch should be located so as to give
easy access at all times and also to avoid positions which cause
disfgurement.
For example a cupboard under the stairs does not always provide easy
access, whilst a meter and cut-outs mounted at the entrance look unsightly.
In deciding the position of the meter, the direction from which the service
lines of the supply authority are likely to enter the premises also must be
considered. It is also necessary to remember that the supply authority needs
the access at all times. Any apparatus used to control the supply in a house
should be readily accessible to the occupant because rapid disconnection
from the supply could be required in case of an emergency. The Regulations
require the main switch to be at the origin of the installation. The main
switch should be located inside the house as close as possible to the meter
cut-out, so that the meter tails are kept as short as possible. But the location
of the distribution board will depend upon the size of the installation and
other factors. For small houses it is preferable for the distribution board to be
near the main switch, but for larger houses it may be preferable for the
distribution board to be located centrally to enable all fnal circuits to be kept
as short as possible. This will be a matter of balancing the cost of sub-main

cable length against the saving of additional lengths of fnal circuit wiring.
Other factors which will help to decide the best position are the availability of
a suitable wall or stanchion, the ease with which circuits can be run to the
position chosen, accessibility for replacement of fuses, freedom from
dampness and adverse conditions etc. It must be remembered that the
regulations require that all equipment must be suffcient in size and power
for the work they are called upon to do. This specially applies to main
switchgear. The size and type of main switchgear to be installed will depend
on the anticipated load. To determine the size it is necessary to add up the
total connected lighting, heating and cooker loads and then calculate the
maximum current which will normally ow in the installation. This will depend
upon how the premises will be used, the number of people who will use the
premises, whether there are alternative or supplementary means of cooking
and many other considerations which can be learnt by experience. To
estimate the maximum load a schedule should be made of the lamps and
other current using equipment which are likely to be installed. From this
schedule it is possible to calculate the total demand using the
value given in the Table 5. Current demand to be assumed for points and
equipment which was given earlier. The diversity factor may be applied to
obtain the possible maximum demand of the installation. The applicable
diversity factors are given in Table 6. It must be remembered that the
diversity factors should be applied to the totals of the whole installation and
not to individual fnal circuits. Another 20% should be added to this to cater
to any future additions. Capacity of the main switch can be decided from this
maximum demand. For an average house 30A single phase supply would be
suffcient.
In case of large houses it may be necessary to bring in a 3 phase 4wiresupply and to balance the single phase loads. In the case of 3 phase
supplies special precautions have to be taken to avoid shock risk at 400 V as
most of the people would not expect this voltage in a house where only
single phase appliances are used. The voltage between conductors

connected to two different phases would be 400 V and therefore taking two
different phases to nearby places should be avoided. When more than one
phase has to be brought into a multi-gang box, the accessories and wiring
connected to each phase should be separated by fxed barriers.
When planning an installation, at least 20 per cent should be left as spare
ways in every distribution board, and the metal clad type should be provided
with plugged holes suitable for accommodating additional conduits for the
future circuits.
Deciding on the position of lamps in a domestic dwelling will be done by the
occupant mainly on aesthetic considerations rather than illumination.
Therefore the lamp points need to be decided accordingly. In deciding the
positions of socket-outlets, the object should be to provide outlets at
convenient positions to feed all portable lamps, table fans, electric irons and
other appliances that are likely to be used. If 5A and 15A socket-outlets are
to

be used it would

be expensive

to provide

an outlet

at each

possible location, but if 13A ring circuits are to be used it would be

economical. The size of each conduit run can be decided depending on the
sizes and the number of cables to be drawn in each length. Once the correct
sizes of the cables for the circuits are determined it will be necessary to
decide the size of conduits to be used to accommodate the cables.