BC Grasslands Winter 2008

The voice for grasslands in British Columbia
M A G A Z I N E O F T H E G R A S S L A N D S CO N S E R V A T I O N C O U N C I L O F B R I T I S H C O L U M B I A
W I N T ER 2 0 0 8 / 2 0 0 9
Special Edition
Temperate Grasslands
of the World
THIS PAGE
LEFT Tulip Humilis in the high grasslands of the Alborz Mountains

of northern Iran.
JALIL NOROOZI
BELOW The vibrantly coloured white-browed rosefinch is a native

of the grasslands of China.
JOHN MACKINNON
COVER PAGE
MAIN PHOTO Mongolian nomadic horseman galloping past herds

of horses and yaks.
GLORIA YOUWE
LOWER LEFT Feather grass in blossom on the Russian Steppe.

ILYA SMELANSKY
LOWER RIGHT Grasslands and wetlands of Tasmania, Australia.

LOUISE GILFEDDER
M A G A Z I N E O F T H E G R A S S L A N D S C O N S E R V A T I O N C O U N C I L O F B R I T I S H C O L U MB I A
The Grasslands Conservation Council of

British Columbia (GCC)
was established as a society in August 1999

and as a registered charity on December 21,
2001. Since our beginning, we have been
dedicated to promoting education,
conservation and stewardship of British
Columbias grasslands in collaboration with our
partners, a diverse group of organizations and
individuals that includes government, range
management specialists, ranchers, agrologists,
ecologists, First Nations, land trusts,
conservation groups, recreationists and
grassland enthusiasts.
W I N T E R 2 0 08 / 20 0 9
Special Edition
IN THIS ISSUE:
TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS OF THE WORLD
The GCCs mission is to:
foster greater understanding and

appreciation for the ecological, social,
economic and cultural importance of
grasslands throughout BC;
promote stewardship and sustainable
management practices that will ensure the
long-term health of BCs grasslands; and
promote the conservation of representative
grassland ecosystems, species at risk and
their habitats.
GCC Board of Directors

EXECUTIVE
David Zirnhelt, Big Lake Ranch

CHAIR
Michael Kennedy, Lillooet

VICE CHAIR
King Campbell, Salmon Arm

SECRETARY / TREASURER
Michael Pitt, Saskatchewan

PAST CHAIR
Leanne Colombo, Cranbrook

Lauchlan Fraser, Kamloops
Bill Henwood, North Vancouver
Mark Quaedvlieg, Keremeos
Jim White, Knutsford
BOARD
Barry Booth, Prince George

Darren Dempsey, Knutsford
Mike Duffy, 108 Mile
Bruce Gordon, West Vancouver
Judy Guichon, Quilchena
Sonja Leverkus, Fort Nelson
Francis Njenga, Kamloops
Hillary Page, Invermere
Darrell Smith, Invermere
HONORARY BOARD MEMBER
Bob Peart, Sidney, BC

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
Bruno Delesalle, Kamloops
Magazine Production
Bruno Delesalle
PUBLISHER
Catrina Crowe
MANAGING EDITOR
A sincere thank you to Amber Cowie for her role

as co-editor in the preparation and design of
the summer 2008 edition of BC Grasslands.
SPECIAL FEATURES
page 5 Temperate Grasslands of the World Bill Henwood
page 8 British Columbia: The Grasslands Before Us Catrina Crowe

page 10 Mexico: Chihuahuan Desert Lessons Jrgen Hoth
page 15 Iran: Understanding Climate Change Jalil Noroozi
page 26 Russia: Beyond the Ordinary on the Russian Steppe Ilya Smelanksy
page 30 Australia: Farmers Conserving Grasslands Louise Gilfedder
page 32 South Africa: Making Biodiversity Stewardship Work Anthea Stephens
GCC IN BRIEF
page 2 Message from the Chair David Zirnhelt
page 2 Message from the Executive Director Bruno Delesalle

page 38 GCC Program Highlights
PERSPECTIVES
page 18 Photographic EssaySouth America: The Next Steps Andrea Michelson
page 35 Personal LandscapesPastoral Nomadism in Mongolia Phil Youwe and Wendy Gardner
FLORA AND FAUNA
page 13 Flora: The Opuntia ficus-indica: from the Chihuahuan Desert to the World Ismael Cabral
page 22 Fauna: Chinas Glories John MacKinnon
OTHER
page 4 Hohhot Declaration
page 20 Map of the Grasslands of the World

page 38 Members Corner
Message from the Chair

David Zirnhelt
his beautiful issue of BC Grasslands magazine presents a world perspective on grasslands. When
British Columbia sent a small but powerful delegation to the Hohhot Conference in China last summer, they
learnt that, from all reports, BCs grasslands are relatively
intact, perhaps to an extent unique in the world. What
does this mean for BC? Does it mean we should conserve
everything we can? Do we have an obligation to save proportionately more than other countries, which have almost
destroyed their natural grasslands?
Certainly, it would be easier to conserve than to restore,
which is the prospect facing other countries. Although
there are real threats to our grasslands, we should be
proud of what we have, both in the grasslands and in the
research and science that supports them. Our scientific
understanding of BCs grasslands is considerable compared to many other countries. Given their limited
research opportunities, some countries have reached out
to the world for the scientific support that would further
their efforts to manage their threatened or degraded grasslands.
Given the broad scientific base the Grasslands Conservation

Council of British Columbia (GCC) has to its programs, we can
contribute to the international grasslands dialogue. As part of
our research efforts, the GCC has been doing extensive work
on defining and mapping our priority grasslands. When this
work is complete, it will reinforce our understanding that a
large amount of the grass ecosystems that needs attention and
constant vigilance is on private land, a situation common to
many countries. Further research will improve our knowledge
of how native ecosystems can best withstand and mitigate for
global climate change.
Given that both private and public stewards of grasslands have important roles to play in conserving grasslands, the GCCs mandate is to bring the various parties
together to work in mutually beneficial partnerships
designed to conserve the legacy of the grasslands of BC. In
doing so, we can take our place on the world stage and
offer encouragement and knowledge to be shared around
the world.
JOIN US IN THIS UNDERTAKING!
Message from the Executive Director

Bruno Delesalle
n July of 2008, I was fortunate and privileged to participate in both the World Temperate Grasslands
Conservation Workshop and the Joint International
Grassland and Rangeland Congress in Hohhot China. I
was profoundly moved by the experience. The diversity of
cultures and experiences stimulated a rich, dynamic discussion amongst the worlds leading grassland scientists
and experts. Most important was the outcome of the
exchange: the Hohhot Declaration. In this declaration,
representatives from 14 countries unanimously declared
that temperate indigenous grasslands are critically endangered and that urgent action is required to protect and
maintain the services they provide to sustain human life.
The declaration calls on all countries and all sectors of
society to collaborate towards this goal. It was an amazing
experience, one that inspired this special issue of BC
Grasslands: Temperate Grasslands of the World. The GCC
dedicates this issue to the many people who participated
in this momentous event and who shared their passion
To see the full Hohhot Declaration,

turn to page 4.
2
BC GRASSLANDS: WINTER 2008/2009
and their dedication for conservation and stewardship of

the worlds diminishing grasslands.
As numerous initiatives from around the world were
unveiled at the congress, the similarities between the
issues, challenges and approaches to conservation were
striking. Some of the most common topics included the
level of formal protection of grassland ecosystems and
private land stewardship, namely the need to develop
effective strategies and appropriate incentives to encourage stewardship and best management practices.
Many countries around the world are facing drastic
under-representation of grassland ecosystems within formal protected areas. While there is a need to engage governments and society generally to increase understanding
about grasslands and the need for conservation, there is
also a strong recognition that protected areas, although
important, are only one of the tools in the tool box. Parks,
protected areas or reserves alone will not address the
adversities that many countries are experiencing due to
population and urban growth, fragmentation, degradation
and, ultimately, the loss of native grassland landscapes.
Another discussion focused on the growing recognition
that private land stewardship is essential to achieving
grassland conservation objectives. Many jurisdictions are
grappling with a number of important questions: How do we develop

and implement effective stewardship strategies? What are viable financial incentives that will encourage stewardship and appropriate land
management practices? The gamut of strategies discussed ranged from
the certification of land use practices, including the eco-labeling of
products produced sustainably from native grasslands, to market-based
and financial incentives for landowners and producers. Following this
discussion was the age-old economic question: Is society willing to pay a
higher price for agricultural products that preserve grassland values and
services? Answering these questions may well determine our success!
Intimately tied to the stewardship and incentive questions above is the
ability of organizations like the GCC to work with industry and governments to define the economic values of native grassland and their associated ecological goods and services. The need to build sound economic
arguments to support land use planning and decision-making processes
and to secure needed incentive programs for conservation was resoundingly and globally universal.
Last but not least, global climate change was on everyones radar, particularly the need to detect early warning signs of climate change and its
impact on grassland plant communities and biodiversity.
This magazine strives to provide you with a flavour of global grassland diversity and a status of the grassland regions of the world, coupled with local conservation stories and perspectives. The common
threads are apparent and striking! We hope you enjoy this special issue
of BC Grasslands!
RIGHT A typical Mongolian herdsman from the Hulunbier region near Hailaer
in the northeast of China. Hulunbier borders both Mongolia and Russia.
BELOW The nomadic people of Inner Mongolia, China, depend on traditional
yurts for shelter when tending their livestock on pastures. Many of the yurts
have modern conveniences, such as wind power generation, radios and
televisions.
PHOTOS BRUNO DELESALLE
Hohhot Declaration
XXI International Grasslands Congress/VIII International Rangeland Congress

June 2008, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China
that:
e, the participants of the World Temperate Grasslands Conservation Initiative, recognize
onsidering that temperate indigenous grasslands provide environmental services essential for
life on earth as a source of food, fibre, human livelihoods and well-being, cultural and biological diversity, the recharge of aquifers and the sequestration of carbon, particularly in the face
of global climate change;
greeing that temperate indigenous grasslands are terrestrial ecosystems dominated by herbaceous and shrub vegetation, maintained by grazing, fire, drought and/or low temperatures
and that all of these processes are dynamic and display great variability in terms of time, extent,
intensity and place;
R
R
A
R
A
R
R
D
ecognizing the opportunities that temperate indigenous grasslands provide in feeding people, it is imperative to maintain the genetic diversity of grassland systems;
ealizing the importance of temperate indigenous grasslands to the life and cultural survival
of mobile indigenous peoples and the value of indigenous knowledge as well as the accumulated experience of traditional indigenous temperate grasslands users;
cknowledging that temperate indigenous grasslands are currently considered among the most
imperiled ecosystems on the planet, having been modified by human activity to such a
degree that most grasslands have been transformed and very little remains in a natural state;
ecognizing that the remaining areas of natural grassland continue to be threatened by inappropriate policies that lead to loss of grassland, as well as unsustainable land use and management practices;
cknowledging that success will require participatory management approaches and partnerships among all sectors to ensure the integration of production and biodiversity conservation
outcomes for the continued provision of grassland ecological goods and services;
ecognizing the importance of strengthening indigenous territories, community conserved
areas and the establishment of new protected areas;
ecognizing that one of the most important opportunities for collaboration is ensuring
worldwide societal recognition of the enduring value of natural grasslands;
eveloping and implementing incentives for good land stewardship, restoration and the sustainable management of indigenous temperate grasslands is essential to guaranteeing their
sustainable use as healthy working environments.
herefore, we the participants of the Hohhot World Temperate Grasslands

Conservation Initiative Workshop from five continents and 14 countries,
declare that temperate indigenous grasslands are critically endangered and urgent action
is required to protect and maintain the services they provide to sustain human life. We
call upon all sectors of society to collaborate towards this goal.
BACTARIAN CAMEL IN THE GOBI DESERT OF MONGOLIA / BILL HENWOOD
of the World
The Legacy of Churn Creek: Local Action Goes Global
by Bill Henwood, Task Force Leader, Grasslands Protected Areas Task Force,
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) World Commission on Protected Areas
INTRODUCTION
he familiar adage of think globally, act locally also

works in reverse. Efforts in the early and mid 1990s to
support the conservation and protection of British
Columbias beautiful grasslands, particularly in the Chilcotins
Churn Creek area, led directly to the creation of two organizations that have proven to be pivotal at both the local and
global levels to ensure grasslands are used in ecologically sustainable ways and that they gain their rightful place in BCs
and the worlds protected area systems.
Following a founding meeting at the Big Bar Ranch in 1996,
the Grasslands Conservation Council of British Columbia
(GCC) was formed in 1999, largely in response to a recognized need to foster greater awareness of the natural, social and economic values of native grassland ecosystems in BC. At the same time,
it was evident that temperate grasslands around the world shared this
need, and in 1996 the World Commission on Protected Areas of the
IUCN (the International Union for the Conservation of Nature)
formed the Grasslands Protected Areas Task Force to help protect and
conserve the worlds temperate grasslands.
The concerns that led to the formation of both the GCC and the
Task Force arose from the rapid decline of an ecosystem thats essential to the livelihoods of many people and to the survival of countless
species. Temperate grasslands, including the intermontane grasslands
of BC, are one of the worlds great biomes, occupying about 9 million
km2, or 8% of Earths terrestrial surface, and occur on every continent
except Antarctica. However, after cradling the needs of mankind for
countless centuries, the temperate grassland ecosystem is now considered the most altered on the planet. In fact, its currently the most
Special Feature
endangered ecosystem on most continents, especially in the prairie or
plains of North America, the pampas of South America, the lowland
grasslands of south-east Australia and the steppes of eastern Europe.
Once home to some of the greatest assemblages of wildlife the earth
has ever witnessed, the temperate grasslands now support only remnant populations of this former abundance.
Historically, grasslands at all latitudes have been one of the most
amenable environments for human settlement and have provided for
human needs since early evolutionary times. Indeed, grassland landscapes and many species of grasses, including corn, wheat, rice, oats
and sugarcane, continue to be a foundation for the worlds food supply. From a conservation perspective, however, this productivity has
come at a significant cost. Grasslands in temperate latitudes have now
been modified by human activity to such a degree that little remains
today in a natural state, and substantially less is in some form of longterm protection.
Yet, despite the essential role they play for humans and in nature,
temperate grasslands have seldom been visible on the global conservation agenda. Opportunities to protect significant representative and
ecologically viable examples of this biome have been largely overlooked. The level of communication and international cooperation
TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS OF THE WORLD
DEFINITION OF INDIGENOUS TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS
Grass and graminoid-dominated indigenous ecosystems, where

seasonal climates and soils favour the dominance of perennial
grasses and other graminoides. These ecosystems occur mainly in
the middle latitudes and also in areas of tropical and temperate
high mountains above the regional tree line where generally similar
environments and temperate biogeographic affinities occur.
STATUS OF WORLDS TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS

9 million square kilometers.
8% of Earths terrestrial surface.
On every continent except Antarctica.
The most endangered ecosystem on most continents.
40% have been converted from their indigenous state.

Only 0.69% were protected in 1993.
As of 2007, 5.5% were protected.
The Grasslands Protected Areas Task Force of the World

Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) has set a goal to have
10% of the grasslands biome protected by 2014.
Map courtesy of EarthTrends & the World Resources Institute. Status information from the
Compendium of Regional Templates on the Status of Temperate Grasslands Conservation and
Protection (click on Publications at
http://iucn.org/about/union/commissions/wcpa/wcpa_work/wcpa_strategic/wcpa_conservin
gsd/wcpa_grasslandstf/)
within the conservation community that is so often evident in the

conservation and protection of other biomes, such as tropical rainforests, mountains or coral reefs, has not existed for temperate grasslands. Quite to the contrary, theres been a pervasive lack of recognition of this ecosystem as being one even worthy of protection, essentially precluding its protection as a viable land-use option. By the mid1990s, it was obvious to some that this needed to change.
The IUCN/WCPA Grasslands Protected Areas Task Force

As a response to the conservation dilemma for temperate grasslands,
the World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) of the IUCN created the Grasslands Protected Areas Task Force in 1996 to work
toward raising the level of protection for grassland ecosystems in general, but with a clear and immediate priority on temperate grasslands.
The mission of the Task Force is
To promote and facilitate the establishment of new grassland
protected areas throughout the grassland biomes, with a priority
on temperate grasslands, toward a goal of protecting 10% of the
temperate grasslands biome by the year 2014, and to provide for
the protection, restoration and wise use of grassland protected
areas through the development of best management practices
and guidelines.
The Task Force focuses on the temperate grasslands of the prairie
and inter-montane grasslands of North America; the pampas and the
Patagonian grasslands in Argentina; the steppes of eastern Europe,
central Asia and East Asia; the grasslands of south-east Australia; the
tussock grasslands of New Zealand; and the veld of South Africa. In
cooperation with WCPAs Mountains Programme, the Task Force will
also pursue increased levels of protection for high elevation grasslands, particularly in the Himalaya/Hindu Kush region, including the
Tibetan Plateau, and the Andes of Chile, Ecuador and Peru.
A preliminary assessment of the overall condition and conservation
potential of these grasslands was undertaken by the Task Force in
2003 in preparation for the World Parks Congress held in South Africa
that year. This assessment found that in most cases the level of conversion of natural grasslands to other lands uses, primarily agriculture, was extremely high. For example, in North America, the tall
grass prairie is virtually gone, with only about 3% remaining. About
30% of the pampas remain in Argentina, but only 3-5% of the steppes
in eastern Europe and less than 2% of the grasslands in south-east
Australia remain. In welcome contrast, the extensive grasslands of
Mongolia are still largely intact, with as much as 90% remaining in
natural vegetative cover. Other regions, such as the Patagonian steppe
in southern Argentina and the steppes of Kazakhstan in central Asia,
have also retained extensive areas of natural grasslands; although
here, as in Mongolia, high intensity grazing continues to degrade the
grasslands in many areas.
The assessment led to conclusions about where the greatest potential lies to achieve significant conservation and protection benefits.
Moderately degraded and modified landscapes, such as those in North
Americas mixed grass prairie, the veld of South Africa and portions of
northern China, still possess some potential for modest conservation
gains. Its on the large, intact landscapes of eastern Mongolia, portions
of the Kazakh steppe and the Patagonian steppe and the short and
some mixed grass prairie in North America where the best potential
lies for significant conservation and protection initiatives.
Hikers in the Churn Creek area of British Columbias Cariboo Chilcotin, an area blessed with some of the provinces least- altered grasslands.
CHRIS HARRIS
While were still fortunate in BC to have almost 70% of our intermontane grasslands under native vegetation cover, our grasslands
landscape is quite small, occupying only 0.7% of the province, and
increasing fragmentation is a continuing concern. Still, this level of
relative intactness and their outstanding beauty clearly rank BCs
grasslands among the best of the remaining temperate grassland landscapes in the world.
In the decade since the creation of the Task Force and the GCC, the
level of interest in the conservation and protection of grasslands has
risen significantly. The amount of the worlds temperate grasslands in
protected areas has increased from only 0.7% in 1996 to over 5% in
2007. While this increase of over 700% represents considerable
progress, nowhere in the world does the level of protection for temperate grasslands approximate the 10% target sought for all biomes
worldwide through the United Nations Convention on Biological
Diversity. Much more remains to be done.
The Temperate Grasslands Conservation Initiative

In an effort to increase the conservation and protection of temperate
grasslands, the WCPA/IUCN Grasslands Protected Areas Task Force
launched the Temperate Grasslands Conservation Initiative (TGCI) at
a two-day workshop held in Hohhot, China, in the summer of 2008, in
conjunction with the joint International Grasslands Congress and
International Rangelands Congress (IGC-IRC). The TGCI is directed
to foster a regime of communications and cooperation at the global
level. It aims to stem declines in habitat loss, conserve biodiversity,
restore lost or damaged ecosystems and reintroduce extirpated
species.
The Hohhot workshop itself was an important part of the grasslands
conservation effort, as it brought together 35 grasslands experts from
14 countries for the following purpose and outcomes:
To reverse the trend of biodiversity loss and degradation of the
temperate grasslands biome by promoting both the designation
and special management of representative protected areas and
the widespread use of sustainable management practices beyond
protected area boundaries, with the goal of at least doubling the
current level of protection by 2014.
The principle outcome of the workshop was to establish a global

strategy to achieve this goal and to inspire the production of regionalspecific action plans worldwide through 2008-2009. The first regional
action plans are to be for East Asia and South America. Other highlights of the workshop included encouraging sustainable use and
management to preserve the many valuable ecological services delivered by indigenous temperate grasslands and promoting the benefits
of transboundary protected area networks.
The final report on this successful workshop, entitled Life in a
Working Landscape: Towards a Conservation Strategy for the Worlds
Temperate Grasslands, and a compendium that describes the various
temperate grasslands regions of the world, their current conditions,
levels of protection and potential for increased protection is available
from the Task Force website at: http://iucn.org/about/union/commissions/wcpa/wcpa_work/wcpa_strategic/wcpa_conservingsd/wcpa_gra
sslandstf/. The workshop culminated in the consensus adoption of the
Hohhot Declaration (see page 4), which calls to the world to take
urgent action to protect and maintain the ecological services that temperate grasslands provide to help sustain human life. This declaration
received the endorsement of both the IGC and the IRC. It is being
used as a primary tool by the TGCI and the Task Force to encourage
governments and others to take action accordingly.
The distances that the BC and international grasslands communities
have come since the mid-1990s have been considerable. Given that the
work ahead of them remains immense, its important that the local
and the global continue to support and learn from one another.
Bill Henwood has been a protected areas planner for over 30 years, the
last 25 with Parks Canada, working on establishing new national parks
and national marine conservation areas. Hes visited national parks and
marine protected areas in almost 50 countries. Currently, hes the Project
Manager for a study to assess the feasibility of establishing a national
marine conservation area in BCs Strait of Georgia. One of the founding
members of the Grasslands Conservation Council of BC, he presently sits
on its Board of Directors.
Special Feature
The Grasslands Before Us
RAISING THE PROFILE OF BRITISH COLUMBIAS GRASSLANDS

by Catrina Crowe, Communications and Outreach Coordinator, Grasslands Conservation Council of BC
BRITISH COLUMBIA
isualize the grassland landscape of British Columbia.

What grasslands? you may ask. You cant recall seeing grasslands in BC. While youve no problem visualizing vast fields of grass bending in waves to the wind on the
prairie, when you think of BC landscapes, you see mountains,
deep lakes and ocean.
This is a problem for BCs grasslands: theyre often not seen,
even by people surrounded by them. My childhood was spent
in and on the grasslands. I saw the vistas of rolling hills and
golden landscapes and yet missed the grasses themselves and
so failed to understand their variety, richness and importance.
There are many reasons for their lack of visibility in BC.
The term grasslands generally invokes images of wide open
spaces, such as the prairies of central Canada. BCs grasslands
compete for attention against our internationally and justifiably famous mountains and rainforests. They also have an
image problem: theyre often seen as being dry, brown scrubland. And
finally, BCs grasslands take up less than one percent of the provinces
land base.
But the importance of grasslands to BC is much greater than their

area would suggest and for this they should stand tall in our imagination. Thirty percent of the species at risk in the province rely on grasslands for at least part of their life cycle. The list of species at risk is
unfortunately long, with badgers, sharp-tailed grouse, burrowing
owls, spadefoot toads, Western rattesnakes, spotted bats, antelope
brush and Mariposa lilies amongst their numbers. Many of these plant
and animal species are adapted to living where drought is common,
summers are long and hot and winters are cold and relatively dry.
Humans also benefit greatly from the provinces grasslands. Many
ranching families have a century or more of history with cattle ranching on the grasslands. For all British Columbians, an intact grassland
ecosystem plays a vital role in filtering water, stabilizing slopes and
helping combat climate change by sequestering and storing carbon.
The grasslands also provide impressive views and recreational opportunities that increase the value of homes in adjacent communities.
For such a proportionately small land area, BCs grasslands are
greatly varied, as climatic conditions in the province differ considerably from the south to the north and from high to low elevations. The
landscapes can change abruptly from deeply incised valleys to undulating plains and level plateaus and then to mountain slopes. A pronounced rain shadow effect produces hot and dry conditions in the
southern interior, as the ocean side of the Coast Mountains captures
the moist air that blows east from the Pacific. While the effect is less
pronounced further north, local rain shadows also occur in the northern interior and east of the Rocky Mountains. Having such a variety in
climate, elevation and latitude, the province encompasses broadly
characterized plant communities in the southern ecosystems. Big
sagebrush, bluebunch wheatgrass grasslands are common throughout
the southern interior at low elevations. At the southern-most extent of
the interior, where its very hot and dry, antelope-brush, bluebunch
wheatgrass grasslands predominate. Moving up the slopes to the middle grasslands of 700 m to 900 m of the southern interior, bluebunch
wheatgrass is usually the dominant grassland type, although rough
fescue can co-dominate and sometimes dominate. The upper grasslands, from 900 m to 1200 m, vary in grassland types depending on
where they are. Rough fescue grasslands are common through much
of the southern interiors uplands, while rough fescue, antelope brush
grasslands are found mainly in the East Kootenays. Further north,
porcupinegrass, bluebunch wheatgrass grasslands dominate in the
Cariboo Basin and Chilcotin Plateau.
The Grasslands All Around Us

Now that you have a sense of the land and grasses of the southern
interior, try again to visualize a BC grassland landscape. This time, do
you see the see the rolling hills of the Thompson or Okanagan valleys,
speckled with big sagebrush and bluebunch wheatgrass, intermingled
with the delicate colours of Mariposa Lilies, balsam root or low-lying
prickly-pear cactus, depending on the time of the year? Look a little
closer and you might see the Alkali Bluet damselfly flitting between
them and a mountain bluebird alighting upon a branch of a wild rose.
A little easier to spot would be the California Bighorn Sheep and the
coyote, if theyre about. The same exercise in the East Kootenays will
still evoke rolling hills, but this time theyll abut some of those snowcapped mountains you expect in BC. In the Cariboo-Chilcotin, just to
the east of the Coastal Mountains, the grassland landscape of needleand-thread grass, junegrass and pasture sage can be so wide as to
remind you of the prairie or so dry as to bring images of New Mexico
to mind. While the Peace region of northeast BC is actually prairie, its
been so extensively converted to croplands that only remnants remain
along the south-facing slopes, river terraces and uplands along the
main river valleys. Finally, even those of you on the east coast of
Vancouver Island need only look about you to see scattered patches of
Garry oak savannah and parklands. Here, where only 5% of the original grasslands remain, 169 wildlife species still make use of Garry oak
communities.
So, if youre in many of the developed parts of the interior of BC, the
grasslands are all about you. But for how long? BC has lost approximately 20% of its native grasslands, with most of the loss concentrated
in the Southern Interiors hot, dry, low-elevation grasslands. In the
past 15 years, the majority of the Southern Interior grasslands were
LEFT A southern interior grassland vista of the Nicola Valley, about 300 km
northeast of Vancouver, BC, with rough fescue grasses in the foreground.
RICHARD DOUCETTE
lost to urbanization, except in the South Okanagan, where most of the

grassland losses were to intensive agriculture, specifically vineyard
development. The low elevation antelope-brush grasslands provide
appropriate soils and an ideal climate for wine grapes. A growing
threat to grasslands throughout the central and southern interior is
the urbanization of BCs rural landscapes, with large ranches being
broken up into small hobby farms and recreational properties. The
fragmentation of the landscape, for example by roads, sets barriers
against species movement. Further, BCs grasslands share with grasslands elsewhere the threat of global climate change, which is altering
local ecosystems.
To be protected, the grasslands first need to be recognized. This is
the challenge BCs grasslands face: how to be seen, appreciated and
protected when even those who grow up amongst them often dont see
them. For the sake of the provinces grasslands and the lessons they
can provide to the rest of the world, their profile needs to rise to the
height of BCs other natural wonders.
GRASSLANDS OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
Grasslands
STATUS OF BCS TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS
698,417 hectares of native grasslands; less than 1% of the

provinces land area
At least 20% of the historic grasslands of BC have been lost to

fragmentation, development and intensive agriculture, mainly
throughout the southern interior of the province
More than 30% of BCs species at risk depend on grassland and

associated ecosystems
46% of BCs grasslands are found on Crown land; 44% on private

land and over 9% on Indian reserves
Only 7% of Crown grasslands in the Southern Interior are
protected
A feasibility study is being completed for a grassland national

park in the South Okanagan
Map and status information from www.bcgrasslands.org. Also see our site for many more grasslands
images of British Columbia.
Special Feature
Chihuahuan Desert Lessons

THERES MUCH THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA CAN
TEACH THE WORLD ABOUT GRASSLANDS CONSERVATION
by Jrgen Hoth, World Wildlife Fund, Chihuahuan Desert Program
MEXICO
ssessing the risks of working in areas controlled by

drug cartels doesnt usually figure into the project
plans of grasslands conservationists. However, to be a
conservationist in the northern Chihuahuan Desert means
being sometimes willing to go places where even the Mexican
military wont.
The remoteness of the countryside
along the United States-Mexico border, which
has traditionally offered a safe haven for
migratory birds and mammals, has
more recently made the region a player in international politics and criminal activities, with major implications for wildlife. US-built border
walls on the north side of the Rio
Grande, more daring efforts by
desperate would-be immigrants to
cross the border and increasingly
bloody clashes between drug cartels
operating under ever tightening security conditions, all impose barriers to
animal migration and conservation
work.
The historically free movements of bison
herds, as well as pronghorns, coyotes and even,
amazingly, the occasional jaguar, across the western rangelands of the Chinuahuan Desert may soon come to a full halt due to the
over 900 km of a border wall recently built by the US. Further barriers
to the migrations of grasslands birds are caused on both sides of the
border by diminishing water sources, as ground water and aquifer levels
are dramatically lowered to sustain largely unsustainable agriculture.
Welcome to the work of conservationists of the Chihuahuan Desert

grasslands, where competing interests are earnest and where most players remain callous to conservation imperatives.
Yet there is plenty of conservation work that needs to be done and is
indeed being done. Just as the challenges cross borders, so do collaborations to save the grasslands. And the border region,
although important, is only part of the vast desert.
As the largest desert in North America, covering
65 million hectares, the Chihuahuan stretches
from the southwestern US to the Central
Mexican Highlands. Its a place of
extremes, sitting at altitudes of 900 to
1,500 metres, where temperatures vary
from cool winters and nights to summer day temperatures of over 38C.
And while very little rain falls in the
region, one of the worlds most
famous, and endangered, rivers
called the Rio Grande on the US side of
the border and the Rio Bravo on the
Mexican sideruns through it.
This land of extremes is one of the biologically richest deserts in the world due to its
great diversity: more than 130 species of mammals; 110 native freshwater fish species (nearly half of
them either endemic or of limited distribution) and 3,500
plant species. As well, it provides nesting sites and migratory habitats
for over 500 bird species. To maintain this diversity in the face of vanishing desert habitats and a water crisis exacerbated by climate change,
we have drawn on continental efforts to develop joint projects and share
lessons in conservation.
ABOVE Western Bluebird

(Sialia Mexicana), which
breeds as far north as BC.
ANTONIO HIDALGO
LEFT The largest remaining

black-tailed dog colony in
North America is located
here in Janos, Chihuahua.
10
JRGEN HOTH
Developing a Common Language

We have come a long way in the North American grasslands conservation communityand the most exciting developments are about to
begin. This journey has included such basics as establishing a common geographic language to realizing the need to embrace change and
uncertainty as we move towards concerted actions to address the
impact of global challenges such as climate change.
Establishing a common language throughout North America
involved two major parts. Geographically, its only ten years ago since
we agreed upon common descriptions for ecoregions within and especially straddling countries at the North American scale. This laid the
foundation to give us a true ecological sense for our conservation
planning and to understand North America by its biological connections and not so much by its jurisdictional borders. This understanding of interdependence and connectivity was further bolstered with
the onset of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA),
which included the realization for many that North America does
not only include Canada and the United States of America, but also
Mexico, something geologists had long ago realized due to our shared
geological past.
The second part of establishing a common language
required addressing semantics, like agreeing to what
grass and grasslands means. This discussion bears
not only direct implications on how we map and understand our grasslands world, but also what we do with
that understanding. Although there is not yet agreement on a universal definition, ones such as that proposed by the World Resources Institute
(2000) have proven useful as a basis to
adapt them to specific regions: Terrestrial
ecosystems dominated by herbaceous and
shrub vegetation maintained by grazing,
fire, drought and/or low temperatures.
Establishing Grassland Priorities

The next step has been to establish effective processes for deciding collectively
what the main grasslands conservation priorities are. Here, Canada has a distinguished record and has helped other countries advance
their grasslands conservation work. I refer to the Prairie
Conservation Action Plans (PCAPs). Developed about
fifteen years ago and initially promoted by the World
Wildlife Fund, the plans soon took on a life of their own
in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta as frameworks
for aligning the efforts and aspirations of the key groups
related to the beleaguered grasslands. The PCAPs are
based upon the premise of sharing a vision and agreeing
on the priorities to best conserve them. Further south, in
the US, many diverse grasslands conservation initiatives
have been also successfully established as Joint Ventures.
Much inspired by Canadas PCAPs, its in just the past
year, however, that Mexico has developed its own grasslands conservation framework, called Estrategia para la
Conservacin de los Pastizales del Desierto
Chihuahuense (ECOPAD, or the Strategy for the
Conservation of Grasslands of the Chihuahuan Desert).
This strategy, which reflects the aspirations and dreams of all eight
Chihuahuan desert states, is now serving as the shared basis for developing individual state action plans. The importance and promise of
these efforts is based on the recognition that many resources are
already invested in grasslands regions, frequently with mutually exclusive results, and hence efforts must be better aligned to pull in the
same direction to achieve conservation and sustainability. Concerted
regional conservation action will moreover much facilitate contributions towards greater continental goals.
The influence of the Canadian plans is now reaching further south,
as Mexicos ECOPAD is in turn serving as a conservation impulse for
collaborative efforts between Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay conservationists who met in late November 2008 to begin developing their own
strategy.
These emerging ecoregional and continent-wide joint efforts are
essential if we want to face the formidable challenges ahead, such as
climate change, especially since several models predict that arid areas,
including grasslands, will be among the most vulnerable of ecosystems in a warming world. To give an example, Nature magazine pubGRASSLANDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Ecological Regions
Great Plains
North American Deserts
STATUS OF NORTH AMERICAS GRASSLANDS
Combined grasslands of North America: 5,841,675 km2.
Less than 15-20% remain in natural grasslands; tall grass areas have been
the most impacted.
Of Chihuahuan Deserts 629,000 km2, less than 15% remains in natural
grasslands.
Most of the grasslands are now under private ownership, ranging from 94%
privately owned in Mexico to 30% in Canada.
The grasslands of North America are very diverse. The map above provides a general representation of the grassland
ecoregions. For greater detail, please see the Compendium of Regional Templates on the Status of Temperate Grasslands
Conservation and Protection. The status information above is also from this report (click on Publications at
http://iucn.org/about/union/commissions/wcpa/wcpa_work/wcpa_strategic/wcpa_conservingsd/wcpa_grasslandstf/)
The large map above is adapted from the Commission of Environmental Cooperations Ecological Regions (www.cec.org).
The small map of the Chihuahuan Desert is from the World Wildlife Fund
(http://www.worldwildlife.org/what/wherewework/chihuahuandesert/)
lished a recent country-wide study that assessed the probable impact

of climate change by 2050. The study suggests that in a conservative
change scenario, the Chihuahuan desert can expect to see a 40%
species turnover due to migrations and extinctions.
There are many challenges such changes will bring to conservation
efforts. For instance, we have customarily thought that by establishing
a protected area, we would secure the given landscape and its components, as if on an island in the midst of a changing landscape.
However, climatic changes may result in entire changes of the biota,
hence making conservation a moving target. In this context, there is a
clear need to expand our approach to conservation and to ensure that
the much touted networks and corridors of protected areas are really
establishedand soon. This may only be accomplished if our societies look beyond officially recognized protected areas and acknowledge (and reward) the role privately-owned lands play in providing
the ecological services of a healthy grassland and in ensuring the geographic connectivity of the grassland networks.
Mexico has already begun with a process to offer good grassland
land stewards certification as protected area, which entitles landowners to receive financial assistance to further improve their lands without having to relinquish control of their lands. However, more, much
more, needs to happen, including having the marketplace recognize
the higher health value of beef obtained from healthy grasslands or
having societies recognize the ecological services provided by these
areas.
ABOVE LEFT: Rich grasslands
wildlife has been appreciated
for more than 1,000 years, as
this rock etching of
pronghorns and curlews
shows.
JRGEN HOTH
ANIMALS ABOVE LEFT TO

RIGHT: Black-tailed prairie
dogs, red-tailed hawk, and
burrowing owls of Nuevo
Leon.
ANTONIO HIDALGO
RIGHT: Agua Caliente spring

in Janos, Chihuahua. Unique
water sources thoughout the
Chihuahuan desert
grasslands are rapidly
vanishing due the excessive
depletion of aquifers for
agricultural purposes.
BILL STEEN
12
Despite current risks, we need to learn to surmount bordersphysical, political and psychological. All things considered, however, perhaps the main lesson drawn from the last fifteen years of grasslands
conservation work throughout the American continents is the importance of building and sharing a common view, one based on trust and
the sharing of information and experiences that will help us secure
the integrity of our shared grasslands and species and better face the
changes to come.
References
ECOPAD, 2007. Aguirre, C., J. Hoth and A. Lafn (Editors). Estrategia para la
Conservacin de Pastizales del Desierto Chihuahuense. Chihuahua, Mexico. 23 pages.
www.wwf.org.mx/wwfmex/archivos/dc/Ecopad_2007.pdf
Peterson, T., M.Ortega Huerta, J. Bartley, V. Snchez Cordero, J. Sobern, R. Buddemeier
and D. Stockwell. Future projections for Mexican faunas under global change. Nature,
Vol 146 11 April, 2002: 627
World Resources Institute, 2000. People and Ecosystems-The Fraying Web of Life. World
Resources 2000-2001. Chapter 2 Taking stock of Ecosystems-Grasslands ecosystems.
www.wri.org.
Why dedicate precious years of your life to work in the desert grasslands? Having
lived in eight countries and worked in most terrestrial ecosystems from the tropics to the high arctic Jrgen Hoth finds theres something quite unique in working
in grasslands conservation. For one, it is urgent, for grasslands are considered
among the most threatened and least protected ecosystems worldwide. The urge
to try to make a difference is only invigorated by the despondency of societies to
dismiss the importance of this ecosystem, which was the cradle of civilization
(providing us with corn, rice, wheat, sorghum, etc.). Today, its vulnerability perhaps makes it our best laboratory to study the challenges to be faced due to climate change. Enough to keep you at the edge of your chair... for many lives.
Flora
The modesty and

origins of the
Opuntia ficusindica (Indian fig
opuntia) belie the
value of this very
useful and now
globally significant
cactus.
The Opuntia ficus-indica
From the Chihuahuan Desert to the World

Story and photos by
Ismael Cabral, Forestry Department, Antonio Narro Agricultural Autonomous University (UAAAN), Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico
MEXICO
ppearances can be deceiving

in a desert. From a socioeconomic perspective, the
Chihuahuan Desert is one of the
poorest regions of Mexico. Yet in
terms of species biodiversity, it is
rich. It has possibly the worlds highest diversity of reptiles, second highest of mammals and fourth highest of plants.
Likewise, the regions reptiles, which are generally not valued as sources of food, sports
hunting or pets, play key roles in the web of
life. And where many people would see little
but dry dirt and a bit of scrub when looking
on the desert or semi-desert grasslands of the
Chihuahuan ecoregion, a trained eye sees
hundreds of varieties of plants, many of great
value to humans and wildlife.
Despite, or perhaps because of, the harshness of the desert climate, with its scarce rain
and extreme temperatures, several plants
have attributes that contribute to the
Chihuahuan economy. Palms (Yucca spp),

legumes (Acacia and Prosopis spp), century
plants (Agave spp) and jojoba (Simmondsia
spp) all have commercial value. Further,
many of the close to 600 species of cacti in
the Chihuahuan desert or semi-desert grasslands provide products useful to humans. Of
these cacti species (80% of which are endemic to the region), the prickly pear cactus
(known as nopales in Spanish) dominates the
landscape and provides the most products for
human use.
The nopaleras are very typical of the vegetation in the central and northern zones of
Mexico. The country has a high number of
prickly pear varieties, with about 114 wild and
more than 200 cultivated species. The cultivated varieties are mainly used to produce a
sweet fruit (known as tuna) or, from the young
stem segments, a vegetable crop (nopal),
which is harvested for both humans and animals. Since pre-colonial times, the nopales
have been very important for food and cultural, medicinal and industrial uses; over 120
products or uses for nopales have been identified.
Of all the the prickly pears that originated
in central Mexico, the Opuntia ficus-indica
(Indian fig opuntia) has had a disproportionate influence historically and geographically.
Again, appearances can be deceiving.
Although the Opuntia ficus-indica can grow
rather tall and wide, its a modest-looking
plant, with broad pads, a few short thorns
and small gentle yellow, rose-red flowers that
provide a touch of colour during its annual
bloom. Nevertheless, the Opuntia ficusindica, related to the much smaller Opuntia
fragilis prickly pear cactus found in the
British Columbias southern grasslands, is a
valuable cash crop around the world. Along
with corn and tequila agave, its a crop that
originated in Mexico but is enjoyed internationally. The Opuntia ficus-indica has had
13
such a widespread international distribution

that in many places, many think the cactus is
a native (although not in Australia, where its
been considered a weed since it was introduced early in the 20th Century).
In the dry desert regions of Mexico, a crop
such as prickly pears, which can produce 10
to 15 tons of fruit and 25 to 30 tons of
nopales per hectare, is of great value. Its particularly important that it can produce at
these levels with low inputs of water, as little
as one-third the amount required for cereals
and legumes. Its attributes have served
humans for a very long time. Evidence shows
that prickly pears were used as human food
at least 9,000, perhaps 12,000, years ago.
An unusual product of the nopales,
cochineal dye, at one time made a fortune for
Spain, which jealously guarded the supply.
The source of the dye is not very impressive:
a little insect called a cochineal or grana,
which creates what looks like a speckled disease on the bulbous cactus. However, when
the female insects die, they become a source
for a natural red colouring known as carmine
acid. This produces a natural pigment of red
or purple, which in colonial times produced
the vibrant and rich tones of the costumes of
the nobility and ecclesiastics. Later, it gave
British army jackets their famous red tinge.
Today, while not traded for the same worth,
its still used in the textile, food and cosmetic
industries and continues to be appreciated
internationally for its high compatibility, stability and vividness, as well as for being
14
harmless to humans.
Of further interest is the
plants ability to hybridize
well; in fact, this genus is
among the most interspecifically promiscuous of plants.
The relative ease with which
it propagates should be of
concern, or at least of interest, with the prospect that
global warming is predicted
to raise temperatures by two
or three degrees Celsius. The
expansion of warmer and
dryer lands in continental
North America will favour
cacti. The cacti could potentially become a noxious weed in some places;
on the other hand, its role as a human and
animal food crop could also be enhanced. It
may require people further north on the continent to look beyond appearance to see the
value of the Opuntia ficus-indica. One day, it
may not be only Mexican families who enjoy
eating delicious tacos made of nopales.
Ismael Cabral recently obtained his PhD, with
support from a CONACTY fellowship, from the
School of Forestry Science, Autonomous
University of Nuevo Leon. A specialist in succulent biodiversities, he is presently seeking funding and scientific interest in preserving a newly
discovered but ancestral form of Agave
(http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/Ar
tPdfRed.jsp?iCve=57408005&iCveNum=0).
ABOVE The flower that becomes the

fruit of the Opuntia ficus-indica.
BELOW, LEFT The Chihuahuan Desert

landscape, with cacti in the foreground.
BELOW, TOP The cactus pad as
compared to the size of a hand.
MIDDLE An Opuntia covered with

cochineal insects.
BOTTOM The edible pad, known as

nopal, edged by the fruit, called tuna.
Understanding
Climate Change
Studies of the grasslands of Irans Alborz Mountains could

provide globally-significant data for understanding the effects
climate change has on grasslands
FRITILLARIA KOTSCHYANA AND TULIPA HUMILIS
Special Feature
Story and photographs by Jalil Noroozi, MSc Plant Ecology, School of Biology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Iran
IRAN
fter a surprisingly restful sleep, no doubt induced by

the previous days six-hour steep hike while carrying
heavy measurement equipment, I crawled out of our
frost-covered tent to enjoy a few minutes of quiet in which I
could appreciate Irans mountain grasslands before getting
back to work. Even before the suns rays warmed the dry
scree-covered ground, the colours and textures of the herbs, grasses
and other plants richly defined the landscape. At this high elevation
and on steep slopes, the plant communities are not only attractive;
theyre especially adept at surviving in harsh conditions. There is no
shelter under which to seek protection when the weather turns cold,
the winds build and the rain falls, as it did that afternoon. But the
grasslands have adapted to natures historical challenges; we were
there to see how and if they are up to the new challenges changing
global climate conditions might impose on them.
Each time I am in the Central Alborz Mountains, looking over their
grasslands and showy, beautiful wild flowers, I am struck by the rich
biodiversity and number of endemic species in a land of such geographical variety. With altitude levels ranging from 26 metres below
sea level, on the shores of the Caspian Sea, to 5,671 metres at Mt.
Damavand, the highest peak in Eurasia west of the Hindu Kush, the
chain supports a wide range of alpine ecosystems and grasslands, so
many in fact that even now we are finding new plant species here. I,
too, have found a new Allium species that we named Allium
tuchalense after the Central Alborz mountain of Tuchal.
The diversity and potential for discovery that brings me constantly
back to the Alborz Mountains also interested the Global Observation
Research Initiative in Alpine Environments (GLORIA;
www.gloria.ac.at). This long-term monitoring network aims to assess
the impacts of climate warming on mountain biodiversity, particularly
on plants, in a comparative and standardized approach. The Alborz
site is one of about 60 GLORIA target regions active on five continents; however, it is the first and so far the only one in Southwest
Asia.
In the high mountain grasslands of Iran, more than 50% of the flora
is endemic to Iran. Many of these plants are familiar to gardeners
around the world: poppies, tulips, irises, fritilleria and foxtail lilies.
The high rate and extent of mountain uplift in the Alborz range and
significant degrees of fragmentation, especially in the upper belts, isolates it from neighbouring mountain ranges. The Alborz mountain
chain, which runs west to east in the northern part of Iran, has more
than fifty mountain peaks that exceed 4,000 metres in height and support large alpine grassland ecosystems. Yet there has been little botanical and ecological research on these habitats. Even I, who now loves
15
the high mountain grasslands of Iran and wishes my lifes work to be

in and on these ecosystems, did not have my interest in them sparked
until six years ago when my Masters supervisor introduced them to
me as a subject for my thesis.
My new interest coincided with a growing awareness of a new challenge the grasslands are facing. As in most parts of the world, temperatures in the Central Alborz mountains have risen markedly in recent
decades. Ecosystems in high mountains are considered to be particularly sensitive to climate change, because they are adapted to low temperature conditions. Alpine grassland plant communities and species
are limited in their propagation and distribution potentials due to the
island nature of mountain tops.
Yet, despite their limited range, the mountain grasslands play a vital
role in the Iranian peoples lives and support a great deal of wildlife.
Iranians are almost entirely dependent on water that comes in the
form of spring rains or melting snow descending from the mountains
or from underground water resources. Traditionally, local people and
nomadic indigenous tribes have relied on the grasslands for their
livelihoods. As for large mammals, leopards, wolves, bears, wild
boars, gazelles, deer, mountain sheep and wild goats can still be found
in Irans grasslands.
Because it is crucial to understand how increasing temperature
affects alpine grassland and treeline vegetation in this region, GLORIA
became active around the turn of the millennium in response to concerns about the risk of serious biodiversity losses. I joined GLORIA,
which is co-ordinated by the
TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS OF IRAN
University of
Vienna and the
Austrian Academy
of Sciences, as the
Iranian Alpine
Ecological
Researcher when it
was established in
Iran in 2007.
Over the past two
years, we found
suitable sites on
which to install
plots. The
GLORIAs multisummit approach
STATUS OF IRANS GRASSLANDS
considers four
The high mountain areas of Iran exhibit a
principal dimenstrong continental climate, and their steppes
sions latitude,
are of temperate grasslands.
longitude, altitude,
A high percentage of endemic and rare
and time for its
species exist in the alpine zone.
large-scale design
The alpine has been less affected by humans
at sets of four
than have lowland ecosystems, but recently
observation sites at
grazing and human intrusions have increased.
summit habitats
23 protected areas of 1,416,903 ha cover the
arranged along an
high mountain grasslands
elevation gradient
Map and status information from the Compendium of Regional Templates
of a particular taron the Status of Temperate Grasslands Conservation and Protection
get region (eg., a
(click on Publications at
http://iucn.org/about/union/commissions/wcpa/wcpa_work/wcpa_strateg
mountain region
ic/wcpa_conservingsd/wcpa_grasslandstf/)
with consistent climatic conditions). The mountain tops have to be as

conically-shaped as possible so that plots can be located on all four
sides. Geology and climate at each site had to be largely consistent,
and human and grazing impacts should be low. As the high mountain
habitats of Iran are usually used as summer pastures, finding suitable
summit sites in Central Alborz was a difficult task. Still, we were able
to start the field work for installing the permanent plots and recording
species in late July 2007, just in time to take advantage of the best season for recording plant species in Iranian alpine habitats, which is July
and August. As the setup of permanent plots and the recording of vegetation at the sites requires five to ten full days per summit site for a
team of four persons, we get to spend a great deal of time amongst the
marvellous beauty of the mountain grasslands. By the summer of
2008, the permanent plots for two remaining summits were set up
and recordings taken on three sites.
Even without the impacts global climate change is having upon the
grasslands, the fragile subalpine and alpine ecosystems have faced
new threats in recent years by increases in heavy grazing. Along with
destroying vegetation, negatively impacting biological diversity and
eroding soils, the grazing has introduced invasive thorny and cushion
forms of plant species. Further threats arise from new road construction into many mountain areas, littering and human-made fires.
There are a number of challenges to protecting Irans grasslands.
These include insufficient knowledge about ecology, biodiversity and
the size of indigenous grasslands; inappropriate grazing management;
economic interests; development activities; lack of knowledge and
awareness among rural people about the importance of grasslands; and
insufficient funds. Such pressures on the grasslands need to be understood within the context of global warming. Therefore, GLORIAs
research is designed for long-term observations, with the plots being
monitored at intervals of five to ten years.
Aside from recording and reporting on the GLORIA results, an
important aspect of my work is to introduce the wonders of these landscapes to the world for the purpose of encouraging stewardship. Along
with detecting early warning signals of climate change and understanding changes in biodiversity, GLORIA is designed to contribute to
stewardship. While there is a decidedly local aspect to stewardship, it is
also enhanced by a greater international understanding of the Iranian
mountain grasslands, what they have to offer and what could be lost.
The possibilities for further exploration of Iranian mountain ranges
should continue well into the future. Besides the Alborz, there are several large high mountain regions distributed through Iran, including
in the Azarbaijan province in the northwest and the Zagros mountains
that stretch from the northwest to the southwest of Iran. These extensive mountain areas offer an array of unique alpine environments also
rich in biodiversity and locally distributed endemics. So far, they have
not been the main targets of climatological, ecological or biodiversity
research. Therefore, we very much intend to extend the network of
long-term observation sites to these little explored mountains of Iran.
With our work, we strive to ensure that the wonders we discover
remain into the distant future.
Jalil Noroozi was born in a small village in northwest Iran. He received
his Bachelors degree from the University of Tabriz in 2002 and a
Masters degree in plant ecology and systematics from the University of
Tehran in 2005. Presently, hes preparing to pursue PhD studies in alpine
plant ecology. Jalil can be reached at noroozi.jalil@gmail.com.
In the high mountain grasslands of Iran, about 50% of the

plant species are endemic to Iran. Gardeners around the
world are familiar with many, including poppies, tulips,
irises and foxtail lilies.
ABOVE Iranian poppies on Mt. Damavand, at 5,671 m the highest of the

Alborz peaks. The Papaver bracteatum deep red flowers open up to 20 cm
across and its stalks can be up to 1.2 metres high. Commercialy, its used
for the production of codeine.
FAR LEFT A foxtail lily (Eremurus spectabilis) provides a colourful perch for
a linnet (Acanthis cannabina).
NEAR LEFT In such remote areas as the Alborz mountains, new plant
species are still being found. This one found by Naroozi is called Allium
tuchalense after the Central Alborz mountain of Tuchal.
17
Photographic Essay
South America:
The Next Steps
GRASSLANDS OF SOUTH AMERICA
SOUTH AMERICA
Andrea Michelson, International Union for the Conservation of Nature,

Regional Office for South America (UICN Sur)
18
he Temperate Grasslands Conservation Initiative (WCPA/IUCN*)

recently held its first South America workshop, with 42 participants
from eight countries: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador,
Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay. The objective was to start to define a strategy
to increase the level of protection and sustainable management of four
temperate grasslands eco-regions in South America: Paramos, central
Andes, Pampas and Campos and Patagonia steppe. As a result of the meeting, a scientific-technical network of communication and cooperation was
formed. The network will attempt to influence national and international
policies through the elaboration and implementation of a South American
strategy. It also expects to work on the application of IUCN Red List criteria to temperate grasslands ecosystems in the continent.
(*) The initiative is led by the World Commission of Protected Areas (WCPA) of the
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), with the support of Asia and
South America Regional Offices of IUCN.
Map assembled by Fernando Miarro/Fundacin Vida Silvestre Argentina.

To view status information, see the Compendium of Regional Templates on the Status
of Temperate Grasslands Conservation and Protection (click on Publications at
http://iucn.org/about/union/commissions/wcpa/wcpa_work/wcpa_strategic/wcpa_co
nservingsd/wcpa_grasslandstf/)
ONE CONTINENT, MANY GRASSLANDS
FACING PAGE A scene from the Paramos grasslands of the

northern Andes.
FRANCISCO CUESTA AND BERT DE BIEVRE
THIS PAGE, TOP Central Andes grasslands and Sajama

mountains of the Sajama National Park in Bolivia. The
grasslands and wetlands begin below the tree line of
Popylepis spp. trees.
JUAN CARLOS LEDEZMA
MIDDLE, LEFT Pampas grasslands in Argentina.
FERNANDO O. MIARRO/FUNDACIN VIDA SILVESTRE ARGENTINA (FVSA)
MIDDLE, RIGHT A Pampas deer in the future national park

of Campos del Tuy in Buenos Aires province, Argentina.
The Fundacin Vida Silvestre Argentina (FVSA) has agreed
to donate the Campos del Tuy to the National Parks
Administration to make it the first national park
dedicated to the conservation of natural
grasslands in the Pampas eco-region and
the first to protect the emblematic
Pampas deer.
CLAUDIO BERTONATTI /FVSA
BOTTOM Gauchos moving cattle

through the temperate
grasslands of a Patagonian
ranch; Chubut Province,
Argentina.
BRIDGET BESAW/THE NATURE
CONSERVANCY
BC GRASSLANDS: WINTER 2008
19
Grasslands o
ALTAI TERRITORY, RUSSIA
BRITISH COLUMBIA, CANADA
Beyond the Ordinary, p. 26
The Grasslands Before Us, p. 8
CHIHUAHUA DESERT, MEXICO
Lessons for the World, p. 10

Cacti of the Chihuahua, p. 13
Grasslands and Arid Biomes
Temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands

Tropical & subtropical grasslands, savannas and
shrublands
SOUTH AMERICA
Deserts and xeric shrublands
Montane grasslands and shrublands

Flooded grasslands and savannas
Mediterranean forest, woodlands, and scrub

Tundra
This map provides one of the best general representations of the worlds
grasslands available at this time. For other classifications and
representations of global grasslands, please go to the World Resource
Institutes EarthTrends (http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/forests-grasslandsdrylands/map-229.html). For greater definition at the continental and
country levels, please see the articles in this magazine and reports in the
Compendium of Regional Templates on the Status of Temperate
Grasslands Conservation and Protection, available under Publications at
http://iucn.org/about/union/commissions/wcpa/wcpa_work/wcpa_strate
gic/wcpa_conservingsd/wcpa_grasslandstf/
20
The Next Steps, p. 18
of the World
MONGOLIA
Personal LandscapesPastoral
Nomadism in Mongolia, p. 35
CHINA
ALBORZ MTNS, IRAN
Fauna: Chinas Glories, p. 22
Understanding Climate Change, p. 15
SOUTH AFRICA
Making Biodiversity Stewardship

Work, p. 32
TASMANIA, AUSTRALIA
Farmers Conserving Grasslands, p. 30
BC GRASSLANDS: WINTER 2008
21
Fauna
THIS PAGE FROM TOP TO BOTTOM:

Swallowtail butterfly amongst clover.
Dewy grass head.
Herd of kiang or wild ass on the Tibetan Plateau.
FACING PAGE
ANIMALS CLOCKWISE FROM TOP LEFT:

Chinese water deer, great bustard, marmot and a lapwing in the snow.
BOTTOM Grasslands of north east China.
KIANG: XIE YAN
22
BUSTARD: DUAN WENKE
OTHERS: JOHN MACKINNON
Chinas
Glories
HUMANS HAVE LIVED FOR

THOUSANDS OF YEARS
WITH THE BEAUTY AND
DIVERSITY OF CHINAS
GRASSLANDS. HOW MUCH
LONGER WILL THIS BE
POSSIBLE?
by John MacKinnon, EU-China Biodiversity Programme, Expert
CHINA
n ancient times, great herds of gazelles, antelopes and

wild horses migrated with the seasons in wide annual
circuits across the vast swathe of steppe grasslands of
northern China and Mongolia and across the alpine grasslands that clothe much of the Tibetan Qinghai plateau.
Wolf packs and brown bears preyed on the weak or sick,
and cranes and bustards stood tall over the birds and reptiles that also made this their home.
At higher altitudes, yaks and wild sheep grazed the rugged montane meadows, stalked by elusive snow leopards and gliding eagles.
In spring and summer, the grasslands blazed with flowers and
hummed with insects. In winter, they froze and dried, with only the
hardiest creatures still in residence.
These wonderful ecosystems proved rich hunting for early human
settlers. Hunting then gave way to pastoral herding. Tibetans
domesticated yaks and sheep, whilst the Mongolians domesticated
horses and cattle. Goats were domesticated further west and were
gradually added to the mixed herds. Only the moister, more fertile
lands were farmed, and for centuries the traditional herdsmen
evolved their own nomadic and migratory patterns of using the
grasslands, in parallel to the patterns of the herds of wild animals.
Even today, there are places on the Chinese grasslands where
wildlife is able to continue as it did when human rhythms matched
those of nature. Larks and pipits breed and spend most of their
time in the open grasslands. Bright blue grandalas and glorious
pink rose-finches (see the picture on the front inside cover) feed on
the seed heads of the upper pastures and alpine scrub, where sever-
23
al pheasant species also roam on the high mountains. Chukor partridge and sand grouse live in the drier grasslands and the magnificent Great Bustard is king of the wide steppes. Storks and Chinas
nine species of crane range through the moister grassland types that
fringe important wetlands.
With good visibility and scant cover, grasslands are the ideal hunting grounds for birds of prey. Shrikes prey on insects and lizards,
making sudden dives from bushy perches and impaling their prey on
thorny spikes. From the sky, cineraceous vultures and lammergiers
scour for larger dead and dying prey, whilst falcons, from the dainty
hovering kestrel to the powerful saker and peregrine, play the speed
game, outpacing lesser birds in flight. Amur falcons chase the thousands of dragonflies that live on the moister grasslands in summer
GRASSLANDS OF CHINA
Grasslands
STATUS OF CHINAS TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS
With a total of 320 million ha, grasslands account for about

40% of Chinas land area.
Around 60%, or 196 million ha, can be classified as

temperate grasslands; most are in Western China and on the
Tibetan Plateau.
196 million people, many of whom are herders, live on the

grasslands.
53% of indigenous temperate grasslands are still in a natural

state.
63% to 95% is subject to varying degrees of degradation,

predominantly from grazing.
35% of temperate grassland areas are formally protected, in

principle, in 87 natural reserves.
Opportunities for Protection: Increasing public awareness;
favourable government policies; improved legal framework;
preferable government funds.
Constaints on Protection: Knowledge and technology gaps;

conflicts between conservation and development; insufficient
coordination and participation; low capacities at the local
level; shortage or instability of funds.
Map provided by author. Status information and map are from the Compendium of Regional
Templates on the Status of Temperate Grasslands Conservation and Protection
(click on Publications at
http://iucn.org/about/union/commissions/wcpa/wcpa_work/wcpa_strategic/wcpa_con
servingsd/wcpa_grasslandstf/)
and autumn and migrate in large numbers each spring and fall.
Rough-legged buzzards rest on stumps or telegraph poles for a better
view of the pikas, hares and marmots that provide their main prey.
The burrows of these small mammals double as nest holes for snakes,
short-eared owls and the perky ground jays and Humes ground peckers that are such a familiar feature of the northern grasslands.
But the great steppes, where once the hordes of Genghis Khan
swept proudly west into Europe and north India and east over northern China and where Mongolian bowmen hunted gazelles from the
saddle, are becoming tamed and degraded. Despite the establishment of many nature reserves, the changes to the landscape brought
about by farming and modern rangeland management have changed
the biota forever.
Its only in the past 40 years that the old patterns have been abandoned in the name of development. Sedentarization, the fencing of
grasslands, intensification of stocks, expansion of farming, drainage
of marshes and extension of road networks have all played their
part. Revenues have indeed been generated and the volume of meat
and farm produce increased, but at grave cost to the environment
and the sustainability of the ecosystems and the valuable services
they provide.
Oriental white storks, bustards and most of the noisy cranes are now
endangered species, falcons are smuggled out to the falconers of the
Middle East and thousands of larks end up in the bird cages that hang
among Chinese markets. Wild horses and saiga antelope are extinct in
China, and wild yak and Tibetan antelope populations are heavily
depleted. The Tibetan antelopes, or chiru, have wool so soft that it is
sought to make precious shatoosh scarves in northern India, Pakistan
and Afghanistan. Consequently, chiru have been hunted heavily. Only
the wild ass, or kiang, seems to survive the pressures of a changing
world and still roams in fair numbers across the plateau grasslands.
Tragically, despite the assurance by ecologists that pikas are good
for wildlife, good for grasslands and a keystone species in ensuring
the health and productivity of the grasslands, the Chinese Ministry
of Agriculture sees them only as pests and launches a massive aerial
poisoning campaign against them each year. Along with the many
millions of pikas killed, collateral species are also killed, food
sources to support many carnivores are eliminated, and other
species lose access to the burrows that the pikas create for them.
Even many of the grassland plants are in danger from over harvesting. Sack loads of fritillary bulbs, gentians and other medicinal
plants are harvested from the grasslands for Chinese traditional
medicine. One of the most valuable is the strange summer grass
winter worm. When a particular fungus attacks this underground
caterpillar, it climbs to the surface, where it dies and dries out and is
then eagerly collected for its supposed almost magical healing properties.
Active and careful conservation is desperately needed to save
many grassland biota; such efforts are underway and a glimmer of
hope may yet remain. The Chinese government has established
nature reserves on 15% of the land surface, including some huge
reserves in grassland areas. In addition, China is tightening up law
enforcement, environmental impact assessments and pollution regulations and is investing heavily in green energy and in combating
desertification. The European Union also gives a helping hand. The
$80 million EU-China Biodiversity Program (ECBP) has 18 field
projects in China, including several in grassland areas, and forms
partnerships between government, non-governmental organizations

and local communities to protect biodiversity. In Changtang, on the
northwestern Tibetan Plateau, ECBP helps to protect the plateau
fauna of yak, chiru, bears and wolves. In Rouergai marshes, on the
eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau, the program helps save the
breeding grounds of black-necked cranes. In Hulunbuir, Inner
Mongolia, the focus of conservation is the Mongolian gazelle, which
runs a gauntlet of hunters and fences when it migrates each year
between Mongolia and China. On the Gobi Desert on Chinas northern border, the program in Alashan is developing ways to restore
scrub and grassland vegetation to combat the growing menace of
desertification.
It is a race against time, the pace of Chinas amazing development

and the looming threat of global warming. Change is inevitable; how
much of the biodiversity of Chinas great grasslands will survive the
change remains unclear.
John MacKinnon, a naturalist and ecologist since boyhood, has
worked all his life studying and conserving wildlife in Africa and Asia.
He reached fame through his pioneer field studies of orang-utans and
his discovery of a new genus of forest bovid: the saola in Vietnam. He
first worked in China on Giant panda management in 1987-90 and
has been an advisor to the Chinese Governmnet on biodiversity issues
for many years. The most recently published of his 20 books is A Field
Guide to the Birds of China, with Karen Phillipps.
CLOCKWISE FROM RIGHT Chukor partridge, Oriental

whitestork eating a sparrow, chiru (also known as
Tibetan antelope), cineraceous vulture (or Eurasian
black vulture) and pika.
CHIRU: XIE YAN
OTHERS: JOHN MACKINNON
25
Special Feature
Beyond the Ordinary

on the Russian Steppe
To be an ordinary, natural tract on the Russian Steppe today is to be

extraordinary. But the few remaining remnants still offer conservation
lessons for Russia and the world.
by Catrina Crowe, the Grasslands Conservation Council of BC, from an email interview with Ilya Smelansky of the Siberian
Environmental Center
providing a natural steppe haven for biodiversity in a landscape fragmented by cultivation, settlements and mining. In a land where less
than 15% of the steppe grassland is in a natural state and less than 5%
is protected, such samples are significant and important.
While the common image of Russia, and Siberia in particular, might
be of a country of great taiga forests and deep winters, its also a country of vast areas of natural grasslands that glow in the southern summer sun. Its on these lands that nomadic herders historically grazed their sheep, horses, camels and cattle. Much of
G RASSLANDS OF R USSIA
the landscape began to change in the 17th century with the
High mountains grasslands (tundra steppe, etc.)
introduction of European crop-based agriculture to the
Mountainous forest steppe
north-west corner of the meadow steppes. By the end of
Mountainous steppe
the 19th century, crop-based agriculture had expanded
Mountainous subtropical steppe
Meadow steppe
east and south to reach the desertified steppes near the
Genuine steppe
Caspian Sea and on the Mongolia border. The conversion
Semidesert: desertified and desert steppe
of the virgin steppes of the Altai Mountain foothills, on
Central Asia genuine steppe
which Ozerki is located, to arable lands began as long ago
as the middle of the 18th century. Steppe grasslands on
hills such as Ozerki also continued to be used as rangeland
for cattle and sheep. Given the reduced scope of the natural grasslands, remnant tracts like Ozerkis play an important role in maintaining biodiversity and species richness.
Ozerki, which means small lakes in Russian, is named
for a small nearby village in the Shipunovo municipal
STATUS OF RUSSIAS GRASSLANDS
region of the Altai Territory of the Siberian Federal
There are estimated 670,000 km2 of grasslands in Russia, of which
District. To reach the steppe tract from the Ozerki village,
approximately 500,000 km2 is in the steppes areas.
you cross prairie fields and former crop fields lined with
Steppe grasslands are represented in 36 administrative provinces south of
poplar shelter-belts and abutted against steep hillsides risthe 55 N parallel.
ing to the tract. The hills are covered with steppe grass The 15 provinces at the core of the Eurasian Steppe Region were once
lands and dense tickets of shrubs nestled in deep hollows.
almost entirely covered with steppe; now only 10-30% remains.
Climbing to the hilltop, you can gaze over the vast steppe
No accurate estimate of the current status is available.
country to the south bound by a wide deep-green belt of
bottomland forest alongside the Charysh River. Rolling
Best estimates are that less than 15% of the indigenous steppe is in natural
grasslands and less than 1% remains of typical meadow steppes.
grassland hills run to the skyline. Bisecting the hills are
four parallel valleys cut by small streams bound by aspen
Less than 1% of indigenous steppe grasslands are formally protected at the
federal level and less than 5% protected in total.
and birch. The steppes outer, western and southern,
Status information and map are from the Compendium of Regional Templates on the Status of Temperate
slopes are steep and covered with rock outcrops and
Grasslands Conservation and Protection (click on Publications at
debris, while the inner slopes are mainly gentle and
http://iucn.org/about/union/commissions/wcpa/wcpa_work/wcpa_strategic/wcpa_conservingsd/wcpa_grassl
andstf/)
rounded.
RUSSIA
he Ozerki steppe tract in southern Siberia can be

thought of as extraordinarily ordinary. Its far from
being the largest steppe tract in Russia, its not the richest in rare species, nor does it maintain the highest biodiversity. Its not even the only steppe tract like it; there are several
dozen similar ones throughout the country. But its in its ordinariness that the Ozerki steppe tract and its like stand out, by
At 5,650 hectares, the Ozerki tract is a very small portion of the tectonic terrace that borders the
western foothills of the vast Altai mountains, which run east into Mongolia and south into
Kazakhstan. On its western edge, the terrace drops over a steep cliff to a low plain that is a part of the
Western Siberian Plain, which stretches westward for 1,500 km.
The Altai steppe foothills were historically inhabited by nomadic peoples, whose different tribes
and states superseded one another. By the 17th century, the last of the nomadic people, the
Telenghits, had become vassals to the Dzungarian State. After several wars between Dzungars and
Kazakhs and between Dzungars and Chinese, most of the Telenghit tribes were resettled to the south.
Russia then began to colonize the area, attracted by mining developments. During the 18th century,
this area was the most important source of silver for the Russian treasury. However, while silver and
copper mines were numerous in the area, there were none within the Ozerki steppe tract.
Therefore, meadow steppe was able to
remain as the dominant grassland type of
the Ozerki tract. Its only in hill countries
such as these that the meadow steppe is
self-maintained, without pressure from
forests or oak savannas. Elsewhere in
Russia, only a few large tracts of meadow
steppe survive: the Irendyk Ridge in the
South Urals; several tracts in Altai; and
the meadow steppes of the Central Asian
region of Eastern Siberia, in the Buryat
Republic.
While the Russian steppes
are fragmented and little is in
a natural state, they still supports many plants and animals of interest, many endangered. The steppe eagle, eagle
owl, red grouse, Demoiselle
crane, golden eagle, imperial
eagle, steppe harrier, Saker
falcon, red-footed falcon, and
swallowtail butterfly are
endangered nationally and/or
internationally. Many plants
are nationally endangered:
the bulb Gymnospermium altaicum, steppe peony, and grasses,
such as Stipa dasyphylla, Stipa pennata, and Stipa zalesskii. At
the provincial level, many more species are recognized as
being of special concern: plants like the Tulipa patens, Iris
glaucescens, Adonis wolgensis and animals such as the steppe
viper, bee-eater, white-winged lark, steppe pika, and several
species of bats. For endangered species, the remaining tracts
provide needed havens, but these too are not secure.
Some of the pressures facing the Ozerki steppe tract are
tied to the massive restructuring of land ownership that
occurred following the transition from the former Soviet
Ozerki Village
Union, as well as the fact that the tract is divided between
two municipal districts. In the Soviet era, the border between
ABOVE Genuine Russian steppe in June. ILYA SMELANSKY

RIGHT The Ozerki steppe tract outlined in blue, surrounded by
cultivated fields and bisected on the lower edge by the Charysh
River. The tract is in a southern municipality of the Altai Territory
(shown in red in the top map) of the Siberian Federal District.
27
the districts was also a border between two collective

farms. After the privatization and agriculture collapse
of the early 1990s, the land of one of these collective
farms was transformed into the Karpovo joint-stock
company, which now controls about a half of the
steppe tract.
The collapse of the Soviet Union also led to changes
in land usage. In the early 1990s, virtually all croplands scattered among steppe hills were abandoned.
The hills then became places of spontaneous steppe
restoration, where feather grass, fescue and large
patches of wild strawberries are gradually replacing
weeds.
Recently, the spontaneous restoration has begun to
be checked. Formerly abandoned fields in the
Karpovo estate have been re-ploughed and used as
croplands for wheat and forage. With the recent global food crisis and biofuel boom, there are new incentives to re-plough abandoned crop fields or even
plough virgin steppes for crop production across the
Russian steppes. While the thousands of sheep that
used to overgraze the steppe tract pastures have completely disappeared in the Shipunovo municipal district, 2,000 remain in Karpovo. In both districts, cattle are now the dominant grazers, while horses,
including some semi-wild herds, also use the pastures. The cattle and horses are better for the steppe
ecosystem than sheep, but their grazing patterns
dont necessarily provide adequate habitat for some
steppe animals, such as raptors and sousliks (a large
ground squirrel). Large-scale bee keeping is also having an impact on the native steppes insects and
plants, as the domestic bees strongly compete with
wild pollinators.
The Karpovo joint-stock company intends to manage the whole of the steppe tract. If so, it would
ABOVE FROM TOP TO BOTTOM

Demoiselle crane, Clematis
integrifolia, and feather grass
seeds (Stipa zalesskii), all
species typical of the Russian
steppe.
RIGHT Charysh River running
along the edge of the Ozerki
steppe tract, which is in the
foreground.
ALL PHOTOS ILYA SMELANSKY
28
return all the abandoned fields to crop and forage

land and increase the number of cattle dramatically.
However, because of difficulties it has operating in
the Shipunovo municipal district, the companys
plans are on hold at this time.
While expanding agricultural practices put pressure
on the grasslands, the greatest potential threat to the
Ozerki steppe is mining. Some large ore deposits
have been identified in the vicinity of the tract. No
more than 20 km to the west, a Russian company
called Buryatzoloto, a subsidiary of Toronto-based
High River Gold Mine Ltd., has identified gold
deposits.
Further threats, of a persistent if not so acute
nature as mining, arise from increasing recreational
practices, including the use of off-road vehicles and
the illegal hunting of ungulates, hares, foxes, and
game birds, especially in the snow season. Of special
concern is the illegal trapping and smuggling of
Saker falcons for markets in the Gulf countries,
which, when combined with common agricultural
threats, such as poisoning and the decline of prey
numbers, has made the Saker highly endangered
worldwide. As the Ozerki tract is an important site
on the Sakers seasonal migration route, illegal Arab
hunters visit every year in August to October to trap
young female Sakers. Although all levels of the operation, from trapping to the transboundary trading of
Sakers, are absolutely illegal, its an international
crime thats hard to stop.
With so many threats against the grasslands, the
Siberian Environmental Center (SibEcoCenter), a
non-governmental organization based in nearby
Novosibirsk, has taken the lead in researching and
protecting the grasslands of Ozerki since 2002. In the
Unique to the Steppes
Anna Barashkova (Siberian Environmental Center, Novosibirsk)
past couple of years, its also been assisted by the

Gebler Ecological Society (named for Frederic
Gebler, a 19th century doctor and naturalist) in the
territorys capital of Barnaul. While no local organizations are presently involved, in 2008 some local
people volunteered to be Important Bird Area (IBA)
keepers.
Despite the limited involvement, there have been
some developments towards grasslands conservation since 2000. Based on information gathered
during the SibEcoCenters research on the status of
the grasslands, the steppe tract has been recognized
as a provincially important nature site. The Center
also nominated it as an Important Bird Area
(Krasnoschekovskaya) of international significance.
Further, in 2008 the steppe tract was included in
the List of Prospective Federal Protected Areas
developed by the World Wildlife Fund Russia for
the Federal Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environment. Some actions against illegal hunting
and falcons trapping were undertaken. The
SibEcoCenter is also working to raise public awareness, including through articles in local newspapers
and posters.
The SibEcoCenter believes the most effective way
to protect the steppe would be to develop direct
agreements with land holders and users.
Unfortunately, Russian legislation is not friendly to
conservation on private agricultural lands. So, the
SibEcoCenter has access to only very restricted
legal instruments. Another constraint to steppe
conservation is the continual reshuffling of environmental protection authorities at both the federal
and provincial levels, as well as Russias very entangled land legislation.
The situation in Ozerki is rather typical of steppe
conservation work being done elsewhere in Russia,
in that low levels of local interest and government
bureaucracy slow the work. However, the Ozerki
steppe tract can still provide outstanding examples
of opportunity for other ordinary yet essential
tracts on the Russian steppes. It remains relatively
intact, and some programs have been developed
around its conservation needs. But for the tract to
remain successfully ordinary, which is extraordinary given the pressures on it, conservation efforts
will need to be intensified.
Ilya Smelansky is an ecologist and conservationist
working in the Siberian Environmental Center
(Novosibirsk, Russia), a non-governmental organization, where he heads the Steppe Conservation program. Hes a founder and editor of the only Russianlanguage periodical specially dedicated to steppe conservation, restoration, and sustainable use, the
Steppe Bulletin. In recent years, he led a team of
Russian NGOs elaborating on the Russian Steppe
Conservation Strategy (NGOs position).
With less livestock on their territory and prohibitions on hunting them, the
Pallas cat and steppe eagle have benefited from improved conditions on
the Russian Steppe. Nevertheless, the changes may prove to be temporary,
so conservation efforts need to be vigilant to maintain their numbers.
Pallas Cat
The Pallas cat, also
known as Manul, is the
only small steppe cat
species in Siberia. About
the size of a large
domestic cat, it has
striking round pupils, a
feature unique among
felines. Its double thick,
long fur, necessary for
Siberian winters, has
unfortunately also made
them appealing to
furriers. The Pallas cat, PALLAS CAT ATTEMPTING TO HIDE IN THE OPEN STEPPE.
a denizen of upland DR. VADIM KIRILYUK (DAURIA INTERNATIONAL PROTECTED AREA, CHITA)
deserts, semi-deserts
and steppes of Central Asia, sparsely populates a large sweep of habitat that
stretches from Tanscaucasus to Transbaikal, Mongolia and northwestern
China. A loner and secretive, the cat requires a hunting territory of several
square kilometres populated by adequate prey and cover. It sets up dens in
rock niches and crevices, where the females raise their litters on their own.
While it has a short and thick body designed for winter living, the season can
be hard for it on the open steppe, as the Pallas cat doesnt like deep snow,
under which hides its prey of small creatures, such as rodents and picas. The
cultivation of the steppe in the 20th century, overgrazing, shepherds dogs
and traps set for foxes and marmots all impacted the Pallas population,
extirpating it from some regions.
Steppe Eagle
The steppe eagle is the
most common of the
large birds of prey of the
Russia steppes. Its
habitat varies greatly,
from hills on plains and
intermountain
depressions to tundra
areas
in
high
mountains. Although
the steppe eagle is a
bird of open areas, it
also requires slopes and
hills. They like places ILYA SMELANSKY
that have a high density
of small mammals, such as sousliks and picas. While the eagle will seek
prey while in flight, itll also sit on the ground near burrows, ready to grab
the residents when they appear. The steppe eagle nests on the ground,
usually on slopes, where they build their nests on low rocks, outcrops,
shrubs, ledges of river valleys, etc., sites that will provide them wide views
of their surroundings. As most of the steppe territories the eagle favours
have been ploughed, theyve been left to survive on hilly islets in seas of
cultivated fields. Nevertheless, large populations do continue to live in
pasture areas.
Special Feature
Farmers Conserving Grasslands

by Louise Gilfedder, Department of Primary Industries & Water, Tasmania, Australia
AUSTRALI A
I love a sunburnt country, a land of sweeping plains,

Of ragged mountain ranges, of droughts and flooding rains.
30
he essence of the Australian landscapewith its extensive

natural grasslandswas captured above in 1904 by
Dorothea MacKellar, one of Australias best known poets,
in her poem My Country. Sadly, two hundred years of European
settlement have seen these vast plains reduced to small scattered grassland remnants. For even these remnants to remain,
urgent conservation work is needed, which in turn requires the
participation of private land owners, most of whom are farmers.
For this, innovative programs and tools are being developed,
sometimes at the insistence of individual farmers.
In 1800, natural grasslands covered millions of hectares of
southern temperate, high-rainfall regions of Australia. Since
then, domestic sheep and cattle have replaced soft-footed kangaroos

and other unique Australian macropods in many places, introduced
weed species have displaced diverse native herbs, and plant and mammal species have gone extinct. Small mammals, and their ecological
role of disturbing the soil while digging for plant foods, have been
lost, too. Gone also from the grasslands are the land management
techniques, including traditional indigenous burning regimes, of the
Australian Aboriginal people.
Clearance for agriculture and urban development has seen the
reduction of Australias vast grassland areas to less than 2% of their
original extent. The more productive lowland systems have suffered
the greatest loss, with less than 100,000 hectares remaining, of which
almost 25% is in protected areas. Upland grasslands have fared somewhat better. Much of the original 120,000 hectares of upland grasslands remains, with more than 90% in protected areas. The protected
areas include both formal reserves managed by state conservation
agencies and perpetual reserves on private land. However, while
national parks and other public reserves serve as the cornerstone for
conserving Australias unique biodiversity, much of the lowland temperate grasslands is on private land, where sheep and cattle graze natural patures.
The essential biodiversity conservation needs of temperate lowlands
have triggered the development of a range of new policies and programs. Drawing on these novel approaches, largely targeted at privately-owned, sheep and cattle grazing properties, Australian farmers and
conservationists are exploring legal instruments that serve both the
grasslands and farmers. For example, whereas many commercial
farmers are wary of perpetual covenants and easements, they are
more receptive to recently introduced fixed-term arrangements, which
range from 10 to 50 years. In addition, conservationists have been
shifting from the practice of pursuing strict conservation objectives,
which include increasing the level of protection in reserves, to allowing more broadly for the sustainable management of natural
resources. For example, using outcomes-based approaches to monitor
the impact of stock grazing on properties that are protected under
conservation management agreements moves the emphasis away from
prescriptive approaches (such as not allowing for livestock grazing or
setting stock levels) that are a disincentive to many landholders to
entering into such agreements in the first place.
Market-based approaches,
such as giving stewardship
payments in exchange for providing ecosystem services, are
another incentive for private
landowners to engage in conservation activities. Some new
programs offer competitive
bids or tenders that offer payment for the management and
maintenance of native vegetation on private land. For
example, Plains Tender in the state of Victoria has successfully conserved significant areas of lowland temperate grassland, as has the
Midlands Biodiversity Hotspot Tender in Tasmania.
Further market rewards for good management practices may be possible through the development of environmental accreditation for the
wool and cattle industries. Consumers worldwide increasingly ask
questions about the environmental credentials of the products they
purchase and want verification of producer claims. In response,
schemes to provide environmental accreditation and eco-labelling of
sustainable land management practices, biodiversity protection, animal
welfare, wildlife-friendly management practices and organic certifications are emerging to reassure consumers. However, the consumers
willingness to pay for these environmental goods and services
remains a key factor in determining the success of these approaches.
Innovation in Tasmania
The southern island state of Tasmania provides some interesting case
studies of innovation in grasslands conservation. Of the more than
100,000 hectares of lowland temperate grasslands on the island, only
3% is in protected areas. The Tasmanian Midlands, the fine wool and
agricultural heartland of the state, has been identified as one of fourteen biodiversity hotspots in Australia, rich in endemic species.
Grasslands and grassy woodlands, with their rich complement of
threatened plant and animal species, are the priority for the hotspot.
Conservation efforts have largely focused on facilitating landholder
stewardship, with financial incentives paid to secure conservation
agreements that enshrine sustainable natural resource management.
FACING PAGE Australian

grasslands form a continuum
with grassy woodlands, where
the dominant grass species are
tussock-forming. They occur
from sea level to alpine
regions, and much is used for
grazing domestic livestock on
private land.
MATTHEW APPLEBY
RIGHT The Galah is a cockatoo

of the open grasslands and
grassy woodlands. Endemic to
Australia, it has benefitted
from the clearing of forests.
SIMON BARLOW
31
. . . continued on page 37
TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS OF AUSTRALIA
STATUS OF AUSTRALIAS GRASSLANDS
87,850 ha of lowland temperate grasslands.

192,00 ha of upland grasslands.
Estimated pre-1750 distribution of lowland grasslands was
about 6 million ha (less than 2% remain).
Temperate grasslands and grassy woodlands are one of
Australias most under-represented biomes in terms of
conservation efforts.
Most of the remaining grasslands is on privately-owned land.
21,000 ha of lowland and 120,000 ha of upland grasslands
are in the Protected Area system.
Status information and map are from the Compendium of Regional Templates on the Status of
Temperate Grasslands Conservation and Protection (click on Publications at
http://iucn.org/about/union/commissions/wcpa/wcpa_work/wcpa_strategic/wcpa_conservings
d/wcpa_grasslandstf/)
Making
Biodiversity
Stewardship
Work
by Anthea Stephens, Grasslands Programme Manager,
South African Biodiversity Institute (SANBI)
he ancient and complex grasslands of South Africa

slowly evolved to be a species-rich repository of
globally significant plant, bird and invertebrate
diversity. Today, theyre also the lands upon which the
majority of South Africans live, as well as the source of
large coal deposits, gold fields and agricultural production. In order to sustain and secure the rich biodiversity
and other ecosystem services of the grasslands in the face
of human needs for economic development, South Africa
recently launched a Grasslands Program. The program
seeks to incorporates stakeholders from all spheres of government, the private sector and civil society.
The task of conserving grasslands is particularly important as
the ecosystem covers 29% of South Africa, making it the countrys
second largest biome. The majority of the grasslands are on the
countrys high central plateau (highveld), the inland areas of the
eastern seaboard, and the high-lying ground of the provinces of
KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape, and Mpumalanga. A portion also
extends into the mountainous areas of Lesotho. Nearly half of the
34 mammal species unique to South Africa are found on these
grasslands, or velds.
The term "grassland" creates the impression that the biome consists only of grass species. In fact, only one in six plant species in
the biome is a grass. The remainder are bulbous plants, such as
Arum Lilies, orchids, red-hot pokers, aloes, watsonias, gladioli and
ground orchids. The biome is also formed by many animal species,
habitats and ecosystems, including rivers and wetland systems.
One of the most diverse biomes in the country, with over 80 vegetation types, the grasslands are also home to South Africa's national bird, the blue crane, and the critically endangered wattled crane
and Rudd's lark.
Unfortunately, in common with other temperate grasslands
across the globe, South Africas grasslands are critically threatened.
Thirty percent of the area has already been irreversibly transformed by human activities, and less than 2% is in protected areas.
As a result, the South African governments National Biodiversity
SOUTH AFRICA
This voluntary approach is delivered through the Private Land

Conservation Program, a partnership between the Tasmanian
Land Conservancy (a conservation not-for-profit organization),
the Tasmanian government and the Australian governments
National Reserves System Program.
With new legal instruments available, some farmers are taking
innovative steps to incorporate them into their conservation and
farming efforts. For instance, three farming families in the
Midlands want to formalize a long-term conservation partnership
with the government that would result in some of the best existing
grasslands in Tasmania remaining in large relatively intact units.
They believe that incorporating conservation practices into their
land and livestock management should provide them with an
annual income stream. To this end, they plan to establish a trust to
manage conservation investment funds from both the government
and philanthropic sectors, as well as develop an innovative legal
instrument that provides an evergreen, or rolling, agreement for
five years. As a performance-based approach to conservation management agreements, it leaves landholders, rather than governments, to settle on how to get the agreed-upon results. If these
farmers are successful, their agreements could lead to the protection of an additional 3% of the states remaining grasslands.
Most of South Africas economic activities occur on its grasslands.

So, to protect grasslands and their rich species diversity, the
Grasslands Programme is developing innovative incentives to
encourage land users to adopt conservation practices.
Strategy and Action Plan has identified the grasslands biome as a priority for conservation action.
An assessment of conservation priorities identified broad biodiversity priority areas located across the grasslands. These areas, which
amount to 37% of the biome, represent what needs to be conserved to
maintain grasslands biodiversity. Much of the biodiversity lies outside
protected areas, on land allocated to livestock production, agriculture,
and afforestation with exotic tree species.
The landscapes occupied by grasslands make a significant contribution to the countrys economy, through agriculture, forestry, mining
and industry. However, these production activities also constitute the
main threat to grasslands biodiversity. South Africas largest urban
centrethe conurbation of Johannesburg and Pretoriais also located within the grasslands. Because the biodiversity of greatest importance is largely found on private commercial and communal lands and
in pockets within urban centres, its not feasible to create large protected areas. Other strategies are needed.
An alternative approach to conserve priority biodiversity areas in
the grasslands is to work with landowners and producers and to
enable them to become stewards of their rich biodiversity. To this end,

the Grasslands Program is implementing interventions in various production sectors and across provinces and is seeking to mainstream
biodiversity objectives into the agriculture, forestry, urban development and coal mining sectors. It aims to provide tools, knowledge and
examples of how production sector practices can be adapted to
achieve biodiversity management objectives. Further mainstreaming
can be enhanced by building capacity within sectors, institutions and
at government policy levels and by correcting market failures. The
programs key strategy is to promote the concept that grasslands biodiversity and ecosystem services have real monetary value.
Biodiversity stewardship in the agricultural sector

The ecological services that grasslands provide may be most evident
in the agricultural sector. Approximately 88% of the grasslands are
used for cultivation and rangelands. Cultivation, which has caused
habitat loss and fragmentation, has already occurred across 23% of
the biome. If plans to plant biofuel crops and expand plantation
forestry onto uncultivated land proceed without due regard for biodiversity priorities, further significant loss
could occur.
The other 65% of the biome used for agriculture is grazed, predominantly by cattle,
sheep and game. Under the right management practices, rangeland use is highly
compatible with sustaining the biodiversity
of grasslands. However, to be compatibleland owners and land users need to implement sustainable stocking densities and veld
management systems that focus not only on
production but also on sustaining biodiversity. The red meat sector, from farmers,
feedlotters and abattoirs to retailers and the
customer, can play a critical role in securing
and sustaining this biodiversity lifeline for
South Africa. Therefore, the Grasslands
Program is seeking to implement interventions across the red meat supply chain, by
engaging policy-makers, industry leaders,
consumers and land owners to change production practices and use market mechanisms and regulatory instruments.
ABOVE Grass owl.
GAUTENG DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, CONSERVATION AND

ENVIRONMENT
LEFT TOP Grasslands near Wakkerstroom.
BOTTOM Communal landowners of grasslands.

BOTH PHOTOS ANTHEA STEPHENS
33
Farmers protecting South Africas grasslands

In a pilot project, the Grasslands Program is working in partnership
with the World Wildlife Fund South Africa and the Botanical Society
of South Africa to support commercial farmers and communal land
owners in the Wakkerstroom/Luneburg area of Mpumalanga to protect and maintain the biodiversity on their farms. In this area, the
farms primarily produce red meat and wool. Almost 80% of the
182,108 hectares of land in the project is in a natural state. The region
itself has high biodiversity significance and plays a critical role in
water production, as it straddles the catchments of four of South
Africas major rivers.
In the demonstration area, the Grasslands Program works with fifteen individual land owners to manage 22,000 hectares of priority biodiversity land that is under conservation stewardship. Conservation
stewardship refers to the formal proclamation of private land under
conservation. It involves assessing the biodiversity value of the land
and reaching an agreement with landowners and conservation agencies on which portions of land can be taken out of agricultural production and conserved. Management plans for the conserved areas are
then negotiated and typically include agricultural practices, such as
grazing, as a biodiversity management tool. A formal motivation for
conservation status is then submitted to the provincial minister, who
is then able to proclaim the area for conservation.
In addition to conservation stewardship,
the Grasslands Program works with land
owners to develop and implement biodiversity good management practices on an
additional180,000 hectares. This includes
developing and rolling out guidelines in
which biodiversity management is integrated into agricultural good practice..
duced to ensure tax benefits for conservation. Other incentives, such as

preferential access to technical assistance programs, are also tailored
towards landowners engaged in conservation stewardship.
The greatest challenge for grasslands conservation in South Africa
lies in the need to realize the real value of the goods and services provided by the grasslands biome in land-use decisions. Without a sound
economic case, the productive value of land in the grasslands for other
land uses will outweigh the benefits of retaining the land in its natural
state, despite economic returns from conservation-compatible land
uses, such as grazing and eco-tourism. Quantifying the value of the
grasslands biome and ensuring returns on this value to landowners
will greatly enhance the conservation of South Africas grasslands.
Anthea Stephens has years of experience in managing complex environmental programs, having previously worked at IUCN (World Conservation
Union) as acting director and manager of the country program. Her MSc
in Environmental and Geographical Science, is from the University of
Cape Town. She also holds positions on the board of PhytoTrade Africa,
the Southern African National Products Trade Association, and on the
advisory panel of Fair Trade in Tourism South Africa.
G RASSLANDS
OF
S OUTH A FRICA
FIGURE ABOVE
Wakkerstroom/Luneburg
Early lessons
Agriculture Demonstration
The Grasslands Program is still in early
Area (areas of biodiversity
stages of implementation, having had its
importance shown in red)
official launch on International
Biodiversity Day, May 22, 2008. However,
valuable lessons have already emerged from it. Conservation stewardship is proving to be an essential strategy for meeting conservation
targets on the grasslands, especially since South Africa has low levels
of formal protection and much of the important biodiversity is found
on private land. Identifying champions for conservation amongst
industry role players and private landowners is critical to integrating
biodiversity management into other sectors. The willingness and commitment of individuals are essential building blocks upon which conservation stewardship depends.
However, in order for concepts like biodiversity stewardship to make
a meaningful contribution to meeting conservation targets, institutional support is required. In South Africa, this has required conservation
agencies to re-orientate their thinking from protecting what lies within
publicly proclaimed nature reserves to offering conservation services
to landowners as part of a contractual arrangement. In many instances,
additional budget, posts and skills are required. A sound economic
argument and the right incentives are equally important for effective
stewardship. Conservation as a land use needs to make economic sense
compared to other land uses. Fiscal reforms are gradually being intro-
34
Grasslands Biome
STATUS OF SOUTH AFRICAS GRASSLANDS
The grasslands biome is South Africas only biome not

represented by a national park.
Nearly half of the 34 mammal species unique to South Africa are

found in the grasslands biome.
22% of the 195 reptile species endemic to South Africa and onethird of the 107 threatened South African butterfly species occur
in the grasslands.
Of the 72 vegetation types in the biome, 1 is listed as critically
endangered, 14 are endangered and 24 are classed as
vulnerable.
83% of the river ecosystems in the grasslands are ranked as
threatened, with 48% critically endangered.
Maps provided by author. Status information from Compendium of Regional Templates on the Status
of Temperate Grasslands Conservation and Protection (click on Publications at
iucn.org/about/union/commissions/wcpa/wcpa_work/wcpa_strategic/wcpa_conservingsd/wcpa_gras
slandstf/)
Personal Landscapes
Pastoral Nomadism in
Mongolia
A LAND WHERE PAST AND FUTURE INTERSECT
by Phil Youwe: P. Ag., Range Officer, Kamloops Forest District, BC, Canada and
Wendy Gardner: P. Ag., Professor; Department of Natural Resource Sciences, Thompson Rivers University, Kamloops
MONGOLIA
REEN GOLD is a term

Mongolians use to describe the
wealth and importance of their
grasslands. Imagine a country one and a
half times as large as British Columbia,
all of which is pasture land mostly comprised of native grasses. In the summer
of 2008, we travelled across this vast
country for seven days on primitive
roads and saw only grasslands, distant
hills and a small riparian strip along
one river. We felt we had stepped back in time, a
time long before the Hudson Bay Company pastured their horses on our BC interior grasslands,
a time when Genghis Kahn ruled half the old
world and Marco Polo led expeditions across this
vast landscape. With the Gobi desert to the south
and Siberia to the north, the lesser known country of Mongolia is sandwiched between two of
most harsh climates on the globe.
We were there, seeing, sensing and smiling at
each other. Is this really what we expected? The
grasslands where we travelled are in the old
world, and it is still old. We didnt see grass up to
a horses belly, despite the small horses, but we
could imagine it. This grass was short, well used
and the life blood of the animals and people who
shared this beautiful yet harsh environment. We
had both experienced similar placesthe
Canadian wilderness, the Serengeti, and the
Canadian prairiebut this was different. There
was minimal infrastructure, few roads and millions of hectares of grasslands. The Mongolians
live on the land, move camps with the seasons
and survive only if their animals survive. All the
grass we saw was used, but it was still green and
Summer camp of a Mongolia family. PHIL YOUWE
35
growing. The Mongolian grasslands we were exploring still supported the people and their livestock, but as we would find out, the sustainability of these grasslands is coming under question.
In July of 2008 we were lucky enough to have an opportunity to
travel to Mongolia to tour the grassland steppe region of Mongolia.
The journey began with a joint research project between Thompson
Rivers University and the BC Ministry of Forests and Range on the
outcomes of seeding after the 2003 wildfires. The data from this
study was summarized and presented in two posters at the joint
International Rangeland Congress and International Grassland
Congress that was held in Hohhot, China. The Congress was attended by approximately 1,600 people, and over 40 countries were represented. We attended the pre-conference workshop on conservation of temperate grasslands, attended the various sessions and
tours throughout the conference, met many interesting delegates
and enjoyed the hospitality of our Chinese hosts, but the highlight
of our trip was the post-congress tour to Mongolia.
We left Hohhot by bus and travelled to the border of Mongolia.
There we transferred to a train and travelled north across the Gobi
desert to Ulaanbaatar, the capital of Mongolia. In Ulaanbaatar we
were met by members of the Mongolian Society for Range
Management, who guided us for the next seven days. It was a fairly
daunting task for any organization, but especially for one that was
formed only a year before the tour!
Mongolia is a land-locked country, bordered to the north by
Russia and to the south by China. Approximately 156.4 million
hectares in size, Mongolia is slightly smaller than Alaska. Its an
independent country and is not politically connected to Inner
Mongolia, which is actually part of China. The terrain of Mongolia
is diverse, ranging from desert to grassy steppe to mountains; the
elevation rises from 518 metres to over 4,300 metres. On our trip
we travelled west from Ulaanbaatar for 600 km, through the grassy
steppe to the ancient city of Ikh Tamir.
Historically, Mongolias economy has depended on herding and
agriculture. The population of Mongolia is currently estimated to be
around 3 million people, but approximately half of the population
now lives in the city of Ulaanbaatar. While the
Mongols held the largest land empire in history in the 1200s, since the 1600s, Mongolia
was under the direct or indirect rule of China,
Russia or the USSR. Following Perestroika in
the USSR in 1989, the Mongolians undertook
a democratic revolution, and in 1990
Mongolia held its first democratic election.
The country now operates under a mixed parliamentary/presidential system. The change in
political structure also impacted the management on the land base, as livestock have gone
from being state owned to being privately
owned, while the land has remained common.
Mongolia is a country without fences. As a
society, every aspect of the Mongolian way of
life has been shaped by pastoral nomadism.
Goats and sheep on the Mongolian steppe.
36
PHIL YOUWE
Even though theres been movement of people to the city, close to

one third of the population is still involved in herding. The herders
in Mongolia are considered semi-nomadic pastoralists, as they
move twice a year with their animals between summer and winter
ranges. The average herd size is around 100 animals; thus many of
the herders would be classified as practicing subsistence agriculture. Estimates of the number of animals varies depending on the
source, but most data suggests there are 30 million head of livestock, with 40% being sheep, 30% goats, 21% cattle, 8% horses, and
1% camels. The numbers continually fluctuate, with the number of
goats currently rising as the market demand for cashmere increases. The large numbers of animals are having an impact on the
grassy steppe area that we travelled through.
Extreme variability in the environment, marked by vast changes
in temperature and precipitation, including severe winters (called
dzuds), has forced the Mongolians to seasonally exploite their
resources. A nomadic way of life is necessary to convert the grassland forage into the milk and meat essential for their survival. The
harsh winters, where the average temperature in January is around
minus 25 C, creates the greatest challenge to a nomadic existence.
Damaging storms in mid-winter or at spring lambing season can
wipe out entire herds or severely impact numbers. Since the 1950s,
authorities have been working to help provide shelters and winter
feed for the herds.
Shortly after the transition to democracy in 1992 and the move to
a market economy, major changes began to occur on the Mongolian
landscape. The first changes were brought about by a move to the
private ownership of livestock. Privatization has resulted in a dramatic increase in animal numbers, as the Mongolians hang on to
the only thing they have to make money: their animals. Over the
last 16 years, the increase in livestock numbers has exceeded the
carrying capacity of the grassland pastures by 40%. Today approximately 18% of the pasture areas are severely degraded.
In 2002 the Mongolian government passed a Law on Land, which
authorized the formal possession of land used as winter and spring
campsites. The land area allocated to herders is relatively small
(approximately 25 m x 25 m) and is only sufficient to place a ger

(Mongolian for yurt, a portable dwelling) and winter shelters for their
livestock. The law further specified that summer and autumn pastures
shall be used in common by herders in one sub district. The law does
not authorize ownership of any seasonal pastures, but does empower
local authorities to regulate and enforce carrying capacity of pastures
and seasonal livestock movements. Local grassroots organizations have
developed to take collective action to control seasonal movements and
enforce deferred grazing and the resting of pastures. Challenges arise
when drought or severe winters force some herders from their seasonal
areas and they take up their nomadic ways to look for better pastures.
The new range laws take a step closer to sustainable pasture use and
help to improve pasture management at the local level through local
grazing plans, while meeting the needs of outsiders by developing
cross-border agreements.
One cannot help but compare the current grazing situation in
Mongolia to what it was once like here in British Columbia. In the late
1800s and early 1900s, the grazing of large herds of livestock in the
grasslands and dry forests of the interior was not regulated. Cattle numbers expanded as demand for beef increased to supply the prospectors
who came for the gold rushes and then the increasing number of settlers. Most land was government Crown land, and ranch properties
were just beginning to be pre-empted from the Crown. The ranches had
winter feed, but those that could get by without putting up hay did. The
ranges were mostly open and unfenced, and there were many conflicts
between ranchers as to who had rights to which seasonal ranges.
GRASSLANDS OF MONGOLIA
Mongolias rangeland management is at a similar stage today as BCs

was following the Grazing Act of 1919 and regulations imposed by the
Forest Service through to the early 1960s and 70s. Theyve established
their ranch base and are just beginning to establish their common
grazing areas. Theyre setting their common ranges and carrying
capacities based on groups of herders and have yet to construct fences
to establish boundaries. Lets hope Mongolia can learn from what happened in North America, and more recently in China, where ranges
and individual animal ownership led to livestock numbers surpassing
pasture-carrying capacities. Perhaps its already too late in parts of
Mongolia. We saw huge areas of degradation and desertification, but
we also saw some short-term exclosures, where productive communities of native plants were evident. The plant communities are diverse
and green during most of the grazing period, and with some proper
rest, the pastures should improve. The challenge that faces Mongolians
is balancing the need for security of tenure with the need for flexibility
and mobility that is necessary on Mongolias semiarid and pastoral
rangelands.
Phil Youwe continues to be active in his Range Officer role and the BC
chapter of the Society for Range Management. He and his wife, Gloria,
will raft and hike this summer on the Firth River in the Yukon, Canada,
Phil will volunteer at the 2010 Olympics, and they both plan to attend the
International Rangeland Congress in Argentina in 2011.
Wendy Gardners passion is teaching. As well as teaching range ecology,
range management and agricultural science, she is a coach for the
Thompson Rivers University Range Club and is active in helping to support
students to attend conferences related to range and reclamation. Her current research interests centres around disturbance ecology and succession.
Grasslands of Australia
continued from page 32
Latitudinal Zones
Steppe
Govi
Desert
Forests
Mountains
High Mountains
STATUS OF MONGOLIAS GRASSLANDS
Grasslands occupy about 70% of the country.

Much of Mongolias grasslands remain in a natural state.
Most of the land is owned by the state.
About 10% of the grassland area is under state protection.
Conservation policies are outlined in national documents,
including the Millennium Development Goal to increase coverage
of protected areas to up to 30% of the land.
At the same time 30% of the country is under lease for mineral
and mining exploration.
With a population of 2.5 million people, the countrys population
density is 1.5 persons per sqare kilometre.
Status and map from Life in a Working Landscape, Appendix 2: Compendium of Regional Templates
on the Status of Temperate Grasslands Conservation and Protection (click on Publications at
iucn.org/about/union/commissions/wcpa/wcpa_work/wcpa_strategic/wcpa_conservingsd/wcpa_gras
slandstf/)
Where to from here? Australias grasslands are under renewed

pressure. The last three years in southern Australia have seen the
worst drought in the countrys history, with significant impact on
natural grasslands. This has led to increased pressure for droughtproofing, which involves establishing water storage dams, often in
valley floors on remnant grasslands. The decline in the value of wool
has forced many sheep graziers to diversify their farm enterprises
into high-value irrigated cropping and tree plantations. Regulation
has traditionally been the tool of governments to prevent clearance
and conversion; however, its not proved to be an effective policy
mechanism for grasslands, where subtle changes in management can
lead to significant degradation. Without the strong voluntary support of landowners, the grasslands will continue to suffer degradation and biodiversity will be lost. Working in partnership with private grassland custodians is the key to success for protecting the last
of the once vast Australian temperate grasslands. We might not be
able to return to the sweeping plains of MacKellars time, but we do
have options for protecting what does remain.
Louise Gilfedder is an ecologist with the Department of Primary
Industries and Environment in Tasmania and is a member of the
Temperate Grassland Conservation Initiative. She works on developing
new mechanisms to establish protected areas on private land in agricultural regions.
37
Members Corner
GCC Program Highlights
The reach and influence of the GCCs work to conserve grasslands continues to expand, with new products,
research and workshops, not to mention new programs. As with the programs, so too has the GCC staff grown.
Thompson Basin Grassland Portfolio
A recent highlight of GCCs work was the launch of the Thompson
Basin Ecosection Grassland Portfolio. Its the first in a series that will
provide municipal, regional, provincial, and First Nations governments with a framework and guide for grassland conservation and
stewardship that ensures priority grasslands need no longer be lost.
Having identified 87 priority grassland areas within the Thompson
Basin, supported by maps, descriptions and data, the portfolio offers

strategic recommendations on managing human activities both within
the priority grasslands and in surrounding grassland landscapes.
Intended to be used in conjunction with the Green Bylaws Toolkit
and other development and land use planning resources, the grassland
portfolios are tools to help achieve long-term sustainability of our
grassland communities and valued working landscapes and the irreplaceable biodiversity they support.
Public Forums Add to Planning for Change Workshop

The Planning for Change local government workshop held in
Cranbrook this fall was the last of the successful series arranged by
the Grassland Stewardship and Sustainable Ranching program.
Participants from throughout the East Kootenay trench took part in
one of the most engaging workshops to date. New to this workshop
were two open houses organized by the GCC and Ducks Unlimited
Canada: one in Invermere and one in Cranbrook. Deborah Curran
presented ways in which citizens can become more involved in how
their communities are shaped. Both open houses were well attended
and engaging.
Another great success of the program was the adoption of the
Aberdeen Area Plan by the City of Kamloops, which was a result of an
ecological assessment done by the GCC after the Planning for Change
workshop in Kamloops in 2007. The area plan includes a growth management boundary that protects some of the highest value grasslands
in the development area and incorporates many tools from the Green
Bylaws Toolkit. The GCC is in the process of completing another ecological assessment for the City of Kamloops for the Lac du Bois area,
which will be completed in the spring of 2009.
OUT AND ABOUT WITH THE GCC
TOP GCC staff, guests and hosts on our 2008 staff tour, this year to East
Chopaka, in the very south of the Okanagan Valley near Osoyoos.
DEBBIE CLARK
BOTTOM David Zirnhelt presenting to staff, board members and hosts at

the Fall 2008 Directors Meeting tour in the Nicola Valley. Stump Lake is
shown behind.
BRUNO DELESALLE
38
Species at Risk Coordinator

In partnership with the provincial government, the GCC has hired a
Species at Risk Coordinator, Alison Peatt, to support Species at Risk
recovery plan implementation throughout the Southern Interior. As
the coordinator, Alison will collaborate with stakeholders, communities and industry to find ways to effectively implement recovery
actions for over twenty-five species at risk, specifically those depending on grassland ecosystems. As an early joint project, the GCC will
co-sponsor a series of workshops entitled From Species to Landscapes:
Extending knowledge on dry forest and grasslands species at risk to be
held in February and March in Penticton, Kamloops and Williams
Lake. The interactive workshops will provide an opportunity to
explore multi-species, ecosystem-based frameworks for conserving
species at risk and the habitats on which they depend. In addition, the
workshops will review extension and media techniques for broadening awareness of the biodiversity of BCs dry forests and grasslands.
Maintaining healthy, reliable grass from

year to year while dealing with fluctuating climatic changes and shifting operational needs can be challenging. Whether
on Crown or private lands, monitoring is
a useful way to measure change on your
grassland community.
The Grassland Monitoring Manual for
British Columbia - A Tool for Ranchers
will be unveiled and ready for use this
season!
For more information or to be placed on
a distribution list, please contact GCC at
250-374-5787 or gcc@bcgrasslands.org.
Greetings to New GCC Staff
Alison Peatt
Species at Risk Coordinator
Having grown up in the Stikine wilderness

of northern BC, Owen earned his BA in
Anthropology from the University of BC. He
also has a Diploma in Geomatics
Engineering Technology (Surveying) and an
Advanced Diploma in GIS. Work during and
between studies took him to the high grassland plateaus of Spatsizi and the dry grassland breaks of the Stikine River Canyon and
to surveying in the Yukon and northern BC.
At the GCC, hell be able to integrate the
range of his knowledge and experience into
his work, contributing to the GCCs Priority
Grasslands Initiative.
Since completing her Masters of Science

degree in Zoology (University of BC), Alison
has spent more than two decades living and
working in BCs southern interior, presently
in Penticton. A Professional Biologist
(RPBio), shes worked for government ministries and non-governmental organizations,
consulted extensively and managed her own
limited company. Her projects have included
land use planning, wetlands and grasslands
monitoring, national park design, and
recovery planning for species at risk. She
authored the BC Grasslands Stewardship
Guide, as part of The Stewardship Series.
She also has personal experience in ranching and mining with family members
involved in both industries.
Owen Fritch
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Technician
Melissa Ligertwood
Executive and Adminstrative Assistant
Karl J. Vandegoede, CGA

Financial Officer
Melissa was born and raised in Kamloops,

BC, and completed her BA in Psychology
and Political Science at Thompson Rivers
University. After graduating from university, she spent a year teaching English in
South Korea and the past two years managing a professional psychology practice in
Kamloops. Her move to GCC was inspired
by a desire to work for the non-profit sector in a capacity that would offer new challenges, friends and perspectives, as well as
contribute to her interest in preserving and
advocating for the environment.
Karl is pleased to join the GCC team, bringing with him a wide range of accounting
experience, including with governments,
businesses and not-for-profit and public
organizations. He has also been a school
trustee for six years, three of which he acted
as chair; a past member of Rotary, including a two-year term as treasurer; a member
of Toastmasters, and a college instructor for
accounting and business courses. Karl was
born in BC and enjoys cycling, camping,
hiking, skiing and fishing, to name just a
few of his favourite activities.
For Upcoming Events, please see the new Calendar

on our website: www.bcgrasslands.org
Thank You
The GCC sincerely thanks the following

funders for their generous support in the
2008/2009 fiscal year.
PROGRAM FUNDERS
Agriculture Environment Initiative
BC Ministry of Agriculture and Lands
BC Ministry of Environment
BC Ministry of Forests and Range
BC Ministry of Public Safety & Solicitor
GeneralBC Gaming Commission
Beef Cattle Industry Development Fund
Bullitt Foundation
City of Kamloops
Ducks Unlimited Canada
Habitat Conservation Trust Fund
Habitat Stewardship Program
The Nature Trust of BC
The Real Estate Foundation of BC and
Communities in Transition
Tula Foundation
Vancouver Foundation
AND SPECIAL THANKS TO . . .
All GCC members and donors, whose
continued support has helped make our
program a success;
Our many dedicated and hardworking
volunteers who have donated their time and
energy to help the GCC grow and prosper;
Ducks Unlimited Canada for providing
affordable office space; and
The Ministry of Forests and Range and the
Integrated Land Management Bureau for
providing the GCC office space and
infrastructure for our Priority Grasslands
Initiative.
THANK YOU TO THE SPONSORS OF THIS
ISSUE OF BC GRASSLANDS . . .
JM Kaplan Fund
International Union for the Conservation of
Nature
World Commission on Protected Areas
BC Ministry of Agriculture and Lands
BC Ministry of Environment
BC Ministry of Forests and Range
BC Ministry of Public Safety & Solicitor
GeneralBC Gaming Commission
Tula Foundation
Vancouver Foundation
Help keep BCs
GRASSLANDS
FOREVER
for you
for your children
for your grandchildren
Leave a legacy to BC grasslands. Your gift to the

Grasslands Forever Legacy Endowment Fund will ensure
your continued support of BC's unique and life sustaining
grasslands. Help current and future generations enjoy BCs
beautiful grassland landscapes and cultures.
Your contribution to the Endowment Fund will support needed

conservation, stewardship and research activities. Together
we can ensure that the diverse grasslands of BC and the
biodiversity they support are preserved for current and future
generations.
Learn more about the Endowment Fund and how you can
help keep BCs Grasslands Forever:
Call 250-374-5787 or go to www.bcgrasslands.org
RICHARD DOUCETTE
PETER SULZLE
RICHARD DOUCETTE
The Grasslands Expedition: A Rivers Perspective
Join us on a five-day raft trip down the Fraser River

from Sheep Creek to Lillooet
August 10-14, 2009
Power raft down the Fraser River in safety and

comfort, while learning about the grasslands
landscape and history sliding by you.
Enjoy amazing meals carefully prepared with

fresh, healthy ingredients. Dinners at camp are
complemented by a delicious
selection of BC wines.
The GCC has made arrangements with Fraser River Raft
Expeditions to guide the trip.
For details, please contact

Mike Kennedy at 250-256-4836
or mspkennedy@yahoo.com
BC Grasslands Magazine
ISSN 1496-7839
Grasslands Conservation
Council of British Columbia
BC Grasslands is intended to
serve as a platform for informing
readers about GCC activities and
other grassland programs across
BC and Canada, as well as
providing a forum on grassland
ecology, range management,
grassland conservation and
stewardship.
BC Grasslands and the GCC
welcome submissions of letters,
articles, story ideas, artwork and
photographs for each issue.
BC Grasslands reserves the right

to edit submissions for clarity and
length. However, every effort will
be made to work with
contributors to ensure content
remains unchanged.
Contributions, comments and
inquiries can be made to:
BC Grasslands
Grasslands Conservation Council
of British Columbia
954A Laval Crescent
Kamloops, BC V2C 5P5
Tel: 250-374-5787
Fax: 250-374-6287
E-mail: gcc@bcgrasslands.org
PUBLICATIONS MAIL AGREEMENT

NO. 40672540
RETURN UNDELIVERABLE
CANADIAN ADDRESSES TO:
Grasslands Conservation Council
of British Columbia
954A Laval Crescent
Kamloops, BC V2C 5P5
This magazine was printed on
Cougar Opaque, which contains
10 percent post-consumer
content and no elemental
chloride.
A young guanaco (Lama

guanicoe), separated from its
mother, being raised in
captivity on the 6,700
hectare La Esperanza
Reserve, on the Valds
Peninsula of the Atlantic
coast of Argentina. The
reserve, which is in the
Patagonian Steppe ecoregion
of temperate grasslands, is
managed by Fundacin
Patagonia Natural.
PHOTO: BRIDGET BESAW/
THE NATURE CONSERVANCY
Discover the beauty of BCs grasslands

through the eyes of Chris Harris
To order a copy today, visit

www.chrisharris.com or
www.bcgrasslands.org
Publication Agreement #40672540
In our next issue
The Summer 2009 BC Grasslands wll be a special

issue, focused on the GCCs 10th Anniversary. We
encourage you to submit articles, photos and
other artwork by May 31, 2009.
Please send your submissions to: BC Grasslands,
954A Laval Crescent, Kamloops, BC V2C 5P5
Fax: 250 374-6287
For more information, please contact us at
250-374-5787 or gcc@bcgrasslands.org.

BC Grasslands Winter 2008

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The voice for grasslands in British Columbia

LEFT Tulip Humilis in the high grasslands of the Alborz Mountains

BELOW The vibrantly coloured white-browed rosefinch is a native

MAIN PHOTO Mongolian nomadic horseman galloping past herds

LOWER LEFT Feather grass in blossom on the Russian Steppe.

LOWER RIGHT Grasslands and wetlands of Tasmania, Australia.

The Grasslands Conservation Council of

was established as a society in August 1999

The GCCs mission is to:

foster greater understanding and

GCC Board of Directors

David Zirnhelt, Big Lake Ranch

Michael Kennedy, Lillooet

King Campbell, Salmon Arm

Michael Pitt, Saskatchewan

Leanne Colombo, Cranbrook

Barry Booth, Prince George

Bob Peart, Sidney, BC

Bruno Delesalle, Kamloops

A sincere thank you to Amber Cowie for her role

page 5 Temperate Grasslands of the World Bill Henwood

page 8 British Columbia: The Grasslands Before Us Catrina Crowe

page 15 Iran: Understanding Climate Change Jalil Noroozi

page 32 South Africa: Making Biodiversity Stewardship Work Anthea Stephens

page 2 Message from the Chair David Zirnhelt

page 2 Message from the Executive Director Bruno Delesalle

page 18 Photographic EssaySouth America: The Next Steps Andrea Michelson

FLORA AND FAUNA

page 4 Hohhot Declaration

page 20 Map of the Grasslands of the World

Message from the Chair

Given the broad scientific base the Grasslands Conservation

Message from the Executive Director

To see the full Hohhot Declaration,

BC GRASSLANDS: WINTER 2008/2009

and their dedication for conservation and stewardship of

grappling with a number of important questions: How do we develop

BC GRASSLANDS: WINTER 2008/2009

XXI International Grasslands Congress/VIII International Rangeland Congress

e, the participants of the World Temperate Grasslands Conservation Initiative, recognize

herefore, we the participants of the Hohhot World Temperate Grasslands

BC GRASSLANDS: WINTER 2008/2009

BACTARIAN CAMEL IN THE GOBI DESERT OF MONGOLIA / BILL HENWOOD

he familiar adage of think globally, act locally also

DEFINITION OF INDIGENOUS TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS

Grass and graminoid-dominated indigenous ecosystems, where

STATUS OF WORLDS TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS

8% of Earths terrestrial surface.

On every continent except Antarctica.

The most endangered ecosystem on most continents.

40% have been converted from their indigenous state.

The Grasslands Protected Areas Task Force of the World

within the conservation community that is so often evident in the

The IUCN/WCPA Grasslands Protected Areas Task Force

The Temperate Grasslands Conservation Initiative

The principle outcome of the workshop was to establish a global

The Grasslands Before Us

RAISING THE PROFILE OF BRITISH COLUMBIAS GRASSLANDS

isualize the grassland landscape of British Columbia.

BC GRASSLANDS: WINTER 2008/2009

But the importance of grasslands to BC is much greater than their

The Grasslands All Around Us

lost to urbanization, except in the South Okanagan, where most of the

STATUS OF BCS TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS