D3 Analgesics

D.3.1 Describe and explain the different ways that analgesics

prevent pain
Mild analgesics: intercepts the pain stimulus at the source,
often by interfering with the production of prostaglandins that
cause pain, swelling and fever.
Strong analgesics: work directly on the brain. They
temporarily bond to receptor sites in the brain preventing the
transmission of pain impulses without depressing the CNS.

D4 Depressants
D.4.1 Effects of depressants
At low doses, depressants may have little or no effect
At moderate doses, compound may induce sedation
reduction of anxiety, soothing effect
At high doses, depressants may induce sleep
Extremely high doses can result in death
D.4.2 Social and psychological effects of abuse of ethanol
Background:
The actual mode of action of ethanol is not fully understood:
at low concentrations it is a stimulant but at high
concentrations it becomes a depressant.
However most of the problems attributed to ethanol (C2H5OH)
are probably due to the action of ethanal (CH3CHO) formed
from ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) in
the liver.
This compound interacts with neurotransmitters to produce
chemicals with psychotropic activity.
Ethanal is then metabolized to ethanoate ions (CH3COO)
and eventually to water and carbon dioxide. The average 70
kg human male can oxidize about 10 grams of ethanol per
hour.
Effect on family life and cost to society:
Alcohol is addictive, can cause hardship to the families of
addicts as financial situation can become strained family
income can be spent on large amounts of alcohol instead
of food and other essential items.
Many people become bad tempered and violent under the
influence of alcohol, butting the wellbeing of friends and
family at risk.
Lack of productivity can result in unemployment.
Alcohol slows mental performance and response times
making activities such as driving or operating of heavy
machinery dangerous.

Long-term health effects of ethanol:

Cirrhosis of the liver
Cancer (of liver and other organs)
Increased risk of coronary heart disease and high blood
pressure
Increased risk of stroke
Anxiety and depression
Poor eating habits
Changes in physical appearance
Alcoholic hepatitis and fatty liver
Short-term health effects of ethanol:
Anaesthetic effect on the brain slows thoughts and
actions. Reaction time and coordination is impaired.
Heart rate speeds up.
Blurry vision and slurred speech.
Diuretic effect can cause dehydration.
Can cause stomach upsets, heartburn, sickness and
diarrhoea.
D.4.3 Techniques used for detection of alcohol in breath, blood
and urine
D.4.4. Synergistic effect of ethanol with other drugs
Synergistic effect: when the combined action of two or
more drugs is greater than the sum of their separate,
individual effects

Increased risk of stomach bleeding when ethanol

consumed in combination with aspirin
Increased risk of heavy sedation when ethanol consumed
in combination with any drug that has a sedative effect on
the CNS.

D.4.5 Identify other commonly used depressants and describe

their structures.

The basic structure of benzodiazepines and nitrazepams is the

seven membered ring fused to an aromatic ring with four main
substituent groups.
However, fluoxetine hydrochloride is structured differently
from the benzodiazepines. It has two aromatic rings bonded to
an ether group. On the opposite end of the molecule, there is
a secondary amine present as NH2+ forming a salt with the Clion.

D5 Stimulants

D.5.1 List the physiological effects of stimulants

Increase in heart rate and blood pressure
Increase in breathing rate
Dilation of pupils in the eyes
Constrictions of arteries
Sweating
Reduction in appetite
D.5.2 Compare amphetamines and epinephrine (adrenaline)
Amphetamines and adrenaline (the hormone) stimulate the
central nervous system in similar ways. Adrenaline induces
the fight or flight response increasing supply of oxygen and
glucose to the brain and muscles. Immune system and other
non-emergency bodily procedures are supressed.
The ability of amphetamines to mimic adrenaline causes it to
be known as sympathomimetic drugs. They are addictive;
their main effects are to:
Increase loco motor stimulation
Induce a sense of euphoria and excitement
Temporarily reduce appetite
Increases heart rate, blood flow and rate of respiration
Increases wakefulness causing restlessness and
insomnia
Both amphetamines and adrenaline are similar in their phenyl
ethylamine structure.

D.5.3 Discuss the effect of short term and long term effects of
nicotine consumption
Short term effects of
nicotine
Increases alertness
Reduction of anxiety and
tension
Constricts blood vessels
putting strain on the heart
Increased heart rate
Increased blood pressure
Reduction in urine output
Stimulating effects

Long term effects of

nicotine
Increased risk of heart
disease, including angina
Coronary thrombosis
Peptic ulcers
Physical and psychological
dependence note that
nicotine is addictive and
can lead to withdrawal
symptoms

Thee are further risks associated with smoking tobacco, not

only from the effects of nicotine.
Other substances in cigarette smoke increase risk of
mouth, throat and lung cancer
CO in cigarette smoke reduces the ability of the blood
to carry O2
Increased risk of bronchitis and emphysema
Cigarettes are costly, so a nicotine addiction increases
financial strain on families.
D.5.4 Describe the effects of caffeine and compare its
structure with that of nicotine.
Caffeine stimulates the central nervous system by increasing
the metabolic rate of nerve cells.
Moderate doses
Enhances alertness,
wellbeing, energy,
motivation and
concentration.
Mild diuretic

Higher doses
Affects physical
coordination of the user.
Can cause sleeplessness,
anxiety and irritability.

Caffeine is not physically addictive but can lead to mild

psychological addiction. Caffeine constricts cerebral blood
vessels. Quitting the habit may produce powerful headache
as the constricted blood vessels dialate.

Both caffeine and nicotine contain 3o

amine groups.
Both caffeine and nicotine also contain 6 and 5 membered
rings in the case of caffeine, these rings are fused and the 6
membered ring also contains 2 carbonyl groups.

D6 Antibacterials
D.6.1 Outline the historical development of penicillin
D.6.2 Explain how penicillins work and discuss the side effects
of modifying the side chain.
D.6.3 Describe and explain the importance of patient
compliance and the effect of penicillin over prescription

D7 Antivirals
D.7.1 State how viruses differ from bacteria
Bacteria
Living
Single celled micro-organism
Bacteria contain:
Single chromosome in the
nucleoid
Rigid cell wall
A cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Ribosomes

Feed
Excrete
Grow
Reproduce asexually

Virus
Non-living
Non-cellular and submicroscopic
Viruses contain:
A central core of DNA or
RNA with a protein coat
No nucleus, cytoplasm,
ribosomes, cell membrane
or cell wall
The enzymes invade a cell
and replicate their nucleic
acids
Do not feed, excrete or
grow
Use the ribosomes of the
cell they have invaded to
reproduce

D.7.2 Describe the different ways in which antiviral drugs work

D.7.3 Discuss the difficulties associated with solving the AIDS
problem