ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Impact Engineering 35 (2008) 771783

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijimpeng

Pressureimpulse diagrams for the behavior assessment

of structural components
T. Krauthammera,, S. Astarlioglua, J. Blaskoa, T.B. Sohb, P.H. Ngb
a

Center for Infrastructure Protection and Physical Security, University of Florida, 365 Weil Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
b
Defence Science & Technology Agency, 1 Depot Road, #12-05, Singapore 109679, Singapore
Received 26 April 2007; received in revised form 29 November 2007; accepted 6 December 2007
Available online 4 January 2008

Abstract
Theoretical and numerical methods for deriving pressureimpulse (PI) diagrams for structural elements subjected to transient loads
are described in this paper. Three different search algorithms for deriving PI diagrams numerically were developed by the authors and
are presented. The PI diagrams of a linear elastic system under rectangular and triangular load pulses are derived using both theoretical
and numerical methods and the results are compared. The application of these approaches to the behavior assessment of tested structural
elements is illustrated.
r 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: PI diagram; Closed-form solution; Numerical methods; SDOF; Blast

1. Introduction
For structural dynamic analysis, a designer is frequently
concerned with the nal states (e.g. maximum displacement
and stresses) rather than a detailed knowledge of the
response histories of the structure. Baker et al. [1]
quantied the loading regimes for an undamped, perfectly
elastic system subjected to an exponentially decaying load,
where T is the systems natural period and td is the
triangular load pulse duration. One can dene three
general cases for relative relationships between the load
function and the structural response, as illustrated in
Fig. 1. In the impulsive domain, the load is over before the
structure reaches its maximum response. In the quasi-static
domain, the structure reaches its maximum deection well
before the load is over. In the dynamic domain, the
maximum deection is reached near the end of the load
function.
Plots of a maximum peak response versus the ratio of the
load duration or natural period of the system, known as
response spectra, can be used to simplify the design of a
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 352 392 9537; fax: +1 352 392 3394.

E-mail address: tedk@u.edu (T. Krauthammer).

0734-743X/$ - see front matter r 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2007.12.004

dynamic system for a given loading. By dening different

sets of axes, the same response spectra for the given dynamic
system can be represented in different ways. Though the
various forms of response spectra may look different, they
all describe the relationship between the maximum value of
a response parameter and a characteristic of the dynamic
system under consideration. A pressureimpulse (PI)
diagram is an alternative representation of a response
spectrum, and is widely used for structural component
damage assessment. Impulse is dened as the area under the
pressure vs. time load function.
The early application of PI diagrams was based on
empirically derived diagrams for brick houses to determine
damage criteria for other houses, small ofce buildings,
and light-framed industrial buildings [2]. The results of
such investigations can be used as the basis for obtaining
explosive safety standoff distances [1,3]. PI diagrams were
also developed to assess human response to blast loading
and to establish damage criteria for specic organs (e.g.
eardrum, lungs, etc.) of the human body. This is possible as
the human body responds to blast loading as a complex
mechanical system [1]. In protective design, PI diagrams
have been extensively used for approximate damage
assessments of structural components subjected to blast

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T. Krauthammer et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 35 (2008) 771783

Fig. 1. Typical response domains [1]. (a) Impulse, (b) quasi-static and (c) dynamic.

loading. For example, the Facility and Component

Evaluation and Damage Assessment Program or FACEDAP [4] was developed to predict damage to more than 20
structural components based on the assumptions of
selected modes of failures. The PI diagrams in FACEDAP are mostly based on the analytical work done by
Baker et al. [1] that has been adjusted to better t available
experimental damage points.

It is well known from structural dynamics that a strong

relationship exists between the structural response and the
ratio of the load function duration, td, to the structures
natural period, T [57]. As noted earlier, this relationship is
normally categorized into three regimes: impulsive, quasistatic, and dynamic. Compared to the response spectrum,
the PI representation better differentiates the impulsive
and quasi-static regimes, in the form of vertical and
horizontal asymptotes. Fig. 2 shows a typical response
spectrum for an undamped, perfectly elastic SDOF system
under suddenly applied loads. In this gure, xmax is the
maximum dynamic displacement, K is the spring stiffness,
P0 is the peak force, M is the lumped mass, td is the load
pulse duration, and T is the natural period of the system.
By dening a different set of axes, the same response
spectrum can be transformed into what is known as a PI
diagram (Fig. 3). Humar [7] suggested that for rectangular,
triangular, and sinusoidal load pulses with td/T ratio of less
than 0.25, the dynamic response can be assumed to be in
the impulsive loading regime.
In specic applications for blast-loaded structures, the
term PI diagram is used because the (blast) load is
typically dened in terms of a pressure vs. time distribution. For example, various authors consistently use the
term pressureimpulse to describe these diagrams
regardless of the nature of the loading [1,3,8,9]. PI
diagrams should be more correctly referred to as loadimpulse diagrams, since the ordinate can also be
dened in terms of forces. Here, all loadimpulse diagrams
(i.e. PI or forceimpulse diagrams) are collectively

Quasi-static asymptote

Quasi-Static
domain

2
P
t

Impulsive asymptote

1.5

P
0.5

P0

Kxmax

2. Characteristics of PI diagram

2.5

Dynamic
domain

1
1
1

0.5
Impulsive
domain

0
0

5
td

10

Fig. 2. Typical response spectrum.

referred to as simply PI diagrams. PI diagrams, also

referred as Iso-damage curves [3], permit easy structural
response assessment to a specied load. With a specic
response or damage level dened, the points on a PI curve
indicate the combinations of load (or pressure) and impulse
that will cause the specied failure (or damage level). In
effect, such threshold curves divide a PI diagram into two
distinct regions. Combinations of pressure and impulse
that fall to the left of and below the curve will not induce
the specied damage level, while those to the right and
above the graph will produce damage in excess of the
specic limit (e.g., maximum dynamic displacement).
3. Analytical solutions for PI diagrams
Closed-form solutions of PI diagrams can be obtained
for idealized structures subjected to a specic load pulse.

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773

2.5

Impulsive
domain

P0

Kxmax

1.5

Dynamic
domain

1
Impulsive
asymptote

P
Quasi-Static
domain

0.5
P
Quasi-static
asymptote

0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5
I

3.5

4.5

KMxmax

Fig. 3. Typical PI diagram.

This is accomplished by deriving the response spectrum

from its respective response history functions under both
forced and transient vibration. For example, for an
undamped elastic SDOF system subjected to a rectangular
load pulse with duration td, the displacement functions are
as follows [7]:
P0
1  cos ot 0ptptd ,
K
P0
cos ot  td  cos otd t4td ,
xt
K

xt

(2)

The following expressions for the vertical and horizontal

axis of the PI relationship [7] also represent the responses
in the free and forced domains, respectively:

sin I 1
P

2
2P
1
P
2

p
1pI p ,
2
p
I 4 .
2

 2
 
 
2
2I
2I
4I
2I
2I
sin



2
cos
,
2

P
P
P
P

P
1pI p1:166,
 
 

2I
2I
1
tan
1
I 41:166.

P
P
2P


(4)

(1)

where o is the natural circular frequency. The dimensionless force and impulse terms are dened as
P0 =K ,
P
xmax
I
I p
.
KM xmax

Similarly, for a triangular load pulse with zero rise time,

the PI curve was dened in [10], as follows:

(3)

A more widely used method for obtaining PI diagrams

is the energy balance method. The approach, based on the
principle of conservation of mechanical energy, is convenient to apply because two distinct energy formulations
always exist that separate the impulsive loading regime
from the quasi-static loading regime. To obtain the
impulsive asymptote, it can be assumed that due to inertia
effects the initial total energy imparted to the system is in
the form of kinetic energy only. Equating this to the total
strain energy stored in the system at its nal state (i.e.
maximum response), one obtains an expression for the
impulsive asymptote. For the quasi-static loading regime,
the load can be assumed to be constant before the
maximum deformation is achieved. By equating the work
done by load to the total strain energy gained by the
system, the expression for the quasi-static asymptotes is
obtained. Expressing these approaches mathematically,

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one obtains
K:E: S:E:

impulsive asymptote;

(5)

W:E: S:E:

quasi-static asymptote;

(6)

where K.E. is the kinetic energy of the system at time zero,

S.E. is the strain energy of the system at maximum
displacement, and W.E. is the maximum work done by the
load to displace the system from rest to the maximum
displacement. For the case of a perfectly elastic system, the
energy expressions are
K:E:

I2
,
2M

(7)

W:E: P0 xmax ,

(8)

1
S:E: Kx2max .
2

(9)

Substituting Eqs. (7)(9) into Eqs. (5) and (6), the

dimensionless impulsive and quasi-static asymptotes are
obtained as 1 and 0.5, respectively. The derivation of the
impulsive and quasi-static asymptotes for several other
simple SDOF systems is available in the literature [10].
Though the energy balance method greatly reduces
computation efforts, its formulation is only applicable to
the impulsive and quasi-static domains of the response
spectrum. The dynamic regime of the PI curve must be
approximated using suitable analytical functions. For this
purpose, Baker et al. [1] recommended the following
hyperbolic tangent squared relationship:
r
K:E:
2
S:E: W:E:tanh
.
(10)
W:E:
For small values of the above expression, the hyperbolic
tangent equals its argument, which effectively reduces to Eq.
(5). For large values, the hyperbolic function approaches
unity and Eq. (6) for the quasi-static asymptote is obtained.
Baker et al. [1] reported that less than one percent error is
introduced when Eq. (10) is used to approximate the
transition region for linearly elastic oscillators.
Oswald and Skerhut [4] recommend the simple hyperbolic function, shown in Eq. (8) to curve-t the transition
region, where A and B are the values of the impulsive
asymptote and quasi-static asymptote, respectively. This
equation is based on limited comparisons to response
curves developed with dynamic SDOF analyses, where
blast loading has been idealized as a triangular pressure
history with the same impulse as the positive phase of the
blast wave. Modications of this approach can be obtained
by shifting the curves to t test data [4]:

1:5
 AI  B 0:4 A B
P
.
(11)
2 2
All the procedures addressed previously are limited to
simple structural systems, resistance models, and load

functions. More involved problems require one to adopt

appropriate numerical approaches.
4. Numerical approach to PI diagrams
PI diagrams can be generated numerically by generating a sufcient number of computed points to allow for
curve tting. Each point represents the result from a single
dynamic analysis and indicates that the structure has
reached a specic response-level pressure and impulse
combination. Since running all possible pressure and
impulse combinations is computationally very expensive,
a search algorithm must be employed to locate the
threshold points that dene the transition from safe to
damaged states. Unlike analytical solutions, numerical
approaches allow complex nonlinear resistance functions
and complex loading functions to be used. Furthermore,
the numerical approach can describe the behavior of the
PI curve in the dynamic response domain accurately.
Rhijnsburger et al. [11] presented a procedure to
generate PI diagrams by utilizing multiple analytical
techniques. The energy balance method estimates the
impulsive and quasi-static asymptotes, while a numerical
analysis procedure generates the dynamic regime using a
branch-tracing algorithm. This process, as shown in Fig. 4,
extrapolates the slope on the curve from two previously
known points and a prediction point is made. A response
calculation follows with the predicted PI combination,
and the ductility of the system is obtained. If the predicted
loading point does not agree with the specied ductility,
correction steps are then taken to nd the next point in the
vicinity. The ductility, m, is dened as the ratio of the

New point on branch

774

Corrector steps
Predictor step

Fig. 4. Branch-tracing technique [11].

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Data points

Search interval

775

Search interval

Plot
limits

Search
interval

Search
direction

Search direction

Search
interval
Search direction

Search direction

I
Estimated locations of asymptotes

Established threshold curve for flexure

Fig. 5. Search algorithm by Soh and Krauthammer [10]. (a) Flexure and (b) direct shear.

maximum displacement, xmax, to the yield displacement,

xy. These correction steps are performed until the
calculated ductility is within a certain tolerance of the
failure criterion. As a result, a new point is found on the
PI curve. The algorithm assumes that the PI curve is
smooth and continuous. However, due to the time
discretization of the numerical method, the PI curve
may violate these assumptions, and abrupt changes in the
slope may occur. As a result, the method may become
unstable, as data points scatter within the overlapped
zones [10].
Soh and Krauthammer [10] developed a methodology
that would produce numerically stable PI diagrams. The
procedure starts by using the energy balance method to
estimate the locations of the asymptotes. After deriving the
asymptotes, a large number of dynamic analyses are
evaluated within specic limits of the asymptote locations.
These limits are reduced until the threshold curve is
formed. Fig. 5 illustrates the numerical algorithm for this
procedure. The research in this analysis was based on
reinforced concrete beams that were idealized as two
loosely coupled SDOF systems to represent exure,
diagonal shear, and direct shear behaviors.
Ng and Krauthammer [12] generated PI curves
independently of the asymptotes. In this numerical
technique, the reinforced concrete slabs were idealized as
two loosely coupled SDOF systems, representing exural
and direct shear behaviors. The algorithm is based on the
denition of a threshold curve. Threshold points are found
by keeping the pressure constant and checking whether the
PI combination is either safe or damaged. If safe, the
impulse is increased until the point results in damaged.
Conversely, reducing the impulse for a damage point will
eventually nd a safe point. In between these two
boundaries a threshold point is found, as shown in Fig. 6.
The numerical procedures presented by Soh and
Krauthammer [10] and Ng and Krauthammer [12]

Trial 3
For a
given
pressure

Trial 2

Trial 1

Damaged
Safe

Check segments in increasing order

I
I1/4

I1/2

I1

Divided into 20 segments

Fig. 6. Search algorithm by Ng and Krauthammer [12].

produced reasonably accurate PI diagrams; however,

there are a few disadvantages to their algorithms. Both
approaches are computationally intensive and generate a
considerable amount of unnecessary data. Due to these
problems, the computational process is quite lengthy. Soh
and Krauthammers [10] numerical analysis was limited to
reinforced concrete beams subjected to localized impact
loads. While, Ng and Krauthammers [12] study was
limited to reinforced concrete slabs subjected to uniformly
distributed blast loads. These procedures are case specic
and do not allow the user to select a different structural
element or loading scheme.
Blasko et al. [13] used a polar coordinate system and the
Bisection method to obtain PI diagrams. The numerical

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776

this procedure takes advantage of multi-processor and

multi-core computing capabilities. This method simplies
the previous procedures [10,12] by using a single radial
search direction, instead of two search directions (i.e.
horizontal in the impulsive response domain and vertical in
the quasi-static response domain). Although the calculation of the asymptotes is not necessary for the method to
work, one can automate the procedure for selecting the
location of the pivot point by utilizing the asymptotes. The

procedure starts with normalizing the load function based

on the load assigned to the SDOF system. A pivot point
(Ip, Pp), which is located in the fail zone, is set as the
origin of the polar coordinate system. The coordinate
system is normalized and the radius and angle are mapped
to the unit coordinate system (Fig. 7). Iterations using the
Bisection method are carried out to nd the radius Ri to the
threshold point for each angle yi. Since the iterations for
each angle can be carried out independent of each other,

P
Ip , Pp

i

rlower

i
rmid

Ii , Pi

G(I,P) = 0

F(r,) = 0

rupper

Fig. 7. Search algorithm by Blasko et al. [13]. (a) establist pivot point and (b) data pivot search.

2.5
Closed form (*)

Numerical

P0

Kxmax

P
t

1.5
P

P
t

0.5

0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5
I

3.5

KM xmax
(*) FACEDAP solution used for exponential pulse
Fig. 8. Comparison of analytical and numerical PI solutions [13].

4.5

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triangular pulses, both the closed-form [10] and the

numerical [13] solutions yield similar results. For the more
complex exponential load pulse, the results obtained using
the numerical procedure are reasonably close to those
obtained using FACEDAP [4]. For all three load pulses the
impulsive and quasi-static asymptotes were correctly
computed by the numerical procedure as 1.0 and 0.5,
respectively. The insignicant scatter in numerical data
points about the analytical solution reects truncation and
round-off errors inherent in the numerical method, and can
be reduced by using a smaller time step. In these load cases,
the resulting PI curves follow the shape of a hyperbolic
function, and the impulsive and quasi-static asymptotes are
unaffected by the different pulse shapes. This is due to the
fact that all three loading cases have instantaneous rise
times. The shift from the impulsive domain to the quasistatic domain becomes softer and the dynamic response

vector stemming from the origin and passing through the

point where the impulsive and quasi-static asymptotes
intersect is an ideal direction for locating the pivot point,
since the points along this line are expected to be equally
distanced from both of the asymptotes. A randomly
selected point might be close to one asymptote or too far
from the threshold curve, reducing the resolution of the
results. This approach can be applied effectively to any
structural system for which a resistance function can be
obtained.
5. Inuence of load and structural properties
on PI diagrams
Fig. 8 shows the PI diagrams of an undamped simple
perfectly elastic system subjected to three different load
pulses that are shown in Fig. 9. For the rectangular and

P(t)

P(t)

P(t)

(1t)e8t
0

Fig. 9. Characteristic load functions for simple load pulses. (a) Rectangular, (b) triangular and (c) experimental.

2.5
P0

Kxmax

P0

tr

td

1.5

tr = 0.5td
tr = 0.1td

tr = 0.01td

0.5
tr = 0
0
1

777

10
I
KM xmax
Fig. 10. Inuence of rise time on the PI curve [13].

100

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3

2.5

P
t

P0
Kxmax

 : Damping ratio (%)

1.5
 =0

 = 5%
 = 10%

 = 20%

0.5

0
1

10
I

100

KM xmax

Fig. 11. Inuence of damping on the PI curve [13].

3
P
2.5

t
 = 50

P0

 = 20
Kxmax

778

1.5
 =5
 =2

1
 =1
0.5

0
1

10
I
KM xmax

Fig. 12. Inuence of ductility on the PI curve [10].

100

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6. Complicated resistance functions and multiple

behavior modes

systems, it is natural to plot the PI diagram in terms of

and I quantities in Eq. (2) as opposed to
dimensionless P
the non-scaled pressure and impulse values. However, for
more complex resistance functions, which are either
obtained through nonlinear incremental load-deection
analysis or through more advanced analytical solutions
than the usual plastic theory, nding out the necessary
parameters to scale the PI diagram may not be possible.
In this case, the PI curve will be specic to the particular
structural component under consideration.
Consider the simply supported reinforced concrete beam
(beam 1c) shown in Fig. 13, which was tested by Feldman
and Siess [15]. The resistance and the equivalent mass
characteristics of the beam were determined through an
incremental nonlinear analysis procedure described in
180
160
140
120
Load (kN)

domain becomes wider as the order of the load pulse

increases from constant to linear and then to exponential.
For load pulses with a nite rise time, the PI curve may
depart from the usual shape [10,13]. Fig. 10 shows the
effect of the rise time on the same perfectly elastic system
considered before. While the impulsive response remains
unaffected, the quasi-static response uctuates greatly,
depending on the rise time to load duration ratio, a [1]. As
a increases, the quasi-static asymptote moves from 0.5 to
1.0. This occurs because the load is applied relatively
slowly to the structure, and as a result there is no dynamic
amplication. The quasi-static asymptote when equal to 1
is equivalent to a static loading.
The damping ratio assumed for the structure may also
have a signicant effect on the PI diagram. Typical
damping ratios of reinforced concrete structures are
between 2% and 7% under usual conditions. For cases
involving signicant external damping, such as soil
interaction for buried structures, the damping ratio might
be well above 10% [14].
Fig. 11 shows the inuence of the damping ratio on the
PI curve for a perfectly elastic system under triangular
load. Increasing the damping from 0% to 20% increases
the magnitude of the impulsive and quasi-static asymptotes
by 29% and 18%, respectively.
The ductility ratio, m, also has a pronounced effect on the
PI curve. Fig. 12 shows the PI curves of an elasticperfectly plastic system under triangular load with varying
degrees of ductility [10]. For more complicated resistance
functions, it may be more appropriate to use material
events, such as yielding, or fracture of reinforcing steel, or
crushing of concrete to dene damage instead of ductility.

779

100
80
60
40
20
0

Typically, the resistance function of the SDOF system

used for plotting the PI curve is in the form of a simplied
elasticperfectly plastic relationship. For these types of

50

100
150
Displacement (mm)

200

Fig. 14. Flexural resistance function for beam 1c [13].

Section A-A
Load
15.2 cm
A
Stub
3.8 cm
30.5 cm

25.5 cm

2.7 m
Top: 2 #6
Bottom: 2 #7
Transverse: #3@178mm

Fig. 13. Detail of beam 1c [15].

fy = 318 MPa
fc = 40.2 MPa

250

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Load (kN)

500
450
400

150
50
0
0

0.05
Time (sec)

0.1

350

Peak Load (kN)

780

300

Steel fracture

Steel strain
hardening

250
200
Test
150
100
50
0
0.1

Steel yield

10
Impulse (kN-sec)

Fig. 15. Loadimpulse diagram for beam 1c [13].

Fig. 16. Details of slab DS1-1 [17].

100

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1.8

1.6

Pressuure (MPa)

1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0

50

100

150
200
250
Deflection (mm)

300

350

400

Fig. 17. Flexural resistance function for slab DS1-1 [13].

2500

Shear Force (kN)

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0

4
5
Shear Slip (mm)

Fig. 18. Direct shear resistance function for slab DS1-1 [13].

781

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T. Krauthammer et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 35 (2008) 771783

25

20

Test

Pressuure (MPa)

t
15

10

Direct
shear

Flexural
0
0.001

0.01

0.1
Impulse (MPa-sec)

10

Fig. 19. PI diagram for slab DS1-1 [13].

Krauthammer et al. [16], and the exural resistance

function is shown in Fig. 14. Using the numerical approach
described in Blasko et al. [13], one can plot the
loadimpulse curve for the beam without having to
approximate the resistance function or the response in
the dynamic range. Furthermore, if the resistance function
contains the displacements corresponding to specic
material events, the threshold curves for these events can
also be included in the PI diagram as shown in Fig. 15. In
the test, the beam suffered damage, its displacement was
about 79 mm, and its residual displacement was about
56 mm. The damage was limited to cracking at various
locations along the beam and noticeable concrete crushing
in the compression zone at the midspan. The PI point
corresponding to the test is also shown to indicate that the
observed response was conrmed by the analysis.
While most components, such as the beam described
above, are prone to failure in a exural response mode, for
components such as reinforced concrete slabs, the failure
might be initiated in the direct shear mode for some PI
combinations. Fig. 16 shows the construction details and
the resistance function for slab DS1-1 tested by Slawson
[17]. The exural resistance function, shown in Fig. 17, was
obtained using the empirical model proposed by
Krauthammer et al. [14] and includes the effects of
compression and tension membrane behavior [18]. The
direct shear resistance function, shown in Fig. 18, was
obtained using the Hawkins direct shear model [19]. Fig. 19

shows the composite PI diagram for exural and direct

shear modes of failure. From this diagram, it is apparent
that these types of components are very prone to direct
shear-type failure under impulsive loading conditions,
which agrees well with test observations [17].
7. Conclusions
Various possibilities need to be considered in all
vulnerability assessments of an engineered system subjected
to severe dynamic loads. In the case of building structures
under the threat of blast, each structural component at
different scaled distances from the explosive source is
subjected to different transient loadings. Traditionally,
pressureimpulse (PI) diagrams are plotted for the
assessment and design of structures under severe transient
loads, to indicate combinations of pressure and impulse
that will cause a specic damage level. Both closed-form
solutions and energy balance methods are easy to use, but
they are quite restrictive in the types of the structures and
loads that can be analyzed. Closed-form solution become
very involved, if at all possible, for cases where the
resistance function is no longer linear elastic, or elastic
plastic, or when multiple behavior modes are present. For
cases where the resistance function is nonlinear and/or the
load pulse is irregular, numerical solutions are the only
reasonable means for deriving PI curves, as described,
herein.

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