BJ Fundamental of Logging PDF

FUNDAMENTAL OF LOGGING
CONSULTANTS
SIMPLIFIED TRAINING FOR IMMEDIATE USE
704 Sage Brush Road

Yukon, OK 73099
405 324-5828
Fax 324-2360
GWBConsult@cs.com
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Log Parameters
Resistivity Logs
13
Water Saturation Approximation
30
Porosity and Lithology Determination
35
Log Interpretation Exercise #1
57
Water Production Estimation
60
Log Interpretation Exercise #2
65
Summary
66
WIRELINE LOGGING
LOGGING ANSWERS
RESERVOIR ROCK
PORE
WATER?
OIL?
GAS?
GAS
OIL
WATER
Are hydrocarbons present in commercial quantities?

Need to define:
Type of rock
Type of fluid in pores
Type of pore space
100% SATURATED WITH

FORMATION WATER
RO = WATER SATURATED RESISTIVITY

R xL
RO = W
SOME WATER
SATURATION AND
SOME HYDROCARBON
RT =
RW x L
x SW
SCHEMATIC OF BOREHOLE
Rxo
Rmf
Sxo
TRANSITION
ZONE
Hmc
FLUSHED
ZONE
UNINVADED
ZONE
ADJACENT
FORMATION
Rt
Rw
Sw
di
Borehole
Flushed Zone
Uninvaded Zone
d - Hole diameter, inches

di - Diameter of invaded zone
Hmc - Thickness of mudcake
Rmf - Resistivity of mud filtrate
Rxo - Resistivity, flushed zone, ohm-meter
Sxo - Water saturation of flushed zone
Rt - Resistivity undisturbed zone
Rw - Resistivity of formation water
Sw - Water saturation, uninvaded zone
BASIC RESISTIVITY LOG
RESISTIVITY
SP
SHALE
SHALY SAND
FRESHWATER
SAND
OIL SAND
SALTWATER
SAND
HARD
LIMESTONE
ANHYDRITE
OR
GYPSUM
POROSITY
(Storage Space)
Intergranular
Intragranular
Primary
Secondary
Solution
Fracture
Intercrystalline
PERMEABILITY
(Fluid Mobility)
Coarse-grained, well sorted

Good permeability
Fine grained
Poorly-sorted
Poor permeability
SAND GRAIN SIZE, STACKING,

AND SORTING EFFECT POROSITY
MAXIMUM POROSITY OF 47.6 PERCENT
MINIMUM POROSITY OF 25.9 PERCENT
RESERVOIR ROCKS
SANDSTONE
ANGULAR AND SUBANGULAR GRAIN PACKING
DOLOMITES AND LIMES

OIL
OIL ACCUMULATION IN POROUS ZONES IN LIMESTONE
10
GAMMA RAY LOG
RADIOACTIVITY
SHALE VOLUME
(Gamma Ray Index)
ZONE A
GR sh
GR - GR clean
GI=
GR sh - GR clean
GR clean
11
LAMINAR SHALE
DISPERSED SHALE
12
RESISTIVITY
LOGS
13
RESISTIVITY
THE MEASURE OF THE RESISTANCE OF A

GIVEN VOLUME OF MATERIAL
The resistivity of any formation is a function of the amount of

water in that formation and the resistivity (salinity) of the water itself. Formation water (salt water) is conductive, while the rock and
hydrocarbon are normally insulators.
14
RESISTIVITY DEVICES
Todays drilling programs use either highly conductive fluids (salt muds) or low to
non-conductive fluids (fresh mud, oil base mud, air).
For fresh muds the Dual Induction tool is recommended, since electrical currents
cannot be passed through non conductors. It is necessary to set up a ground loop with
induced currents. Deep induction (ILD) and the medium Induction (ILM) are such measurements. The shallow measurement is an electrical measurement and requires a conductive borehole fluid.
The Dual Laterolog measurements (LLD) deep laterolog and (LLS) shallow laterolog
are electrical measurements and require conductive fluids. Therefore, it is recommended
for salt muds. Generally, a salinity of 50,000 ppm or greater is considered a salt mud.
The deep measurement from either device may require correction to read the resistivity of the uninvaded zone(Rt) when invasion has occurred. In most cases this correction is
minimal.
In order to get an accurate reading of the flushed zone (where the original fluids have
been replaced by mud filtrate), a resistivity device reading very near the borehole is recommended. For fresh muds that would be the Proximity Log, while with salt muds, the
recommended device would be the Microlaterolog.
15
BOREHOLE
DUAL INDUCTION - FRESH MUD - AIR
ILM
ILD
SFL*
* Shallow measurement is not an induction device

and needs a conductor in the borehole.
16
Undisturbed
Zone
Transition Zone
Borehole
Flushed Zone
RESISTIVITY - SATURATION PROFILES
Permeability
Indicator
Invaded Zone
Distance from Borehole
100%
SW or SXO
Water Zone
RXO
RT
0%
100%
SW or SXO
SXO
Hydrocarbon Mobility
(Permeability to Hydocarbons)
SW
0%
17
DUAL INDUCTION LOG

MEDIUM
OHM-M
0.2
API
GAMMA RAY
150
SHALLOW
0.2
OHM-M
-]20[+
SP
OHM-M
0.2
SHALLOW
MEDIUM
18
SP
2000
DEEP
DEEP
GAMMA RAY
2000
2000
DUAL INDUCTION LOG

MEDIUM
0.2
0
API
150
GAMMA RAY
2000
SHALLOW
0.2
-]20[+
SP
OHM-M
OHM-M
2000
DEEP
0.2
OHM-M
2000
MEDIUM
GAMMA RAY
SHALLOW
SP
DEEP
19
DUAL INDUCTION LOG

MEDIUM
0.2
2000
OHM-M
SHALLOW
0.2
-]20[+
SP
OHM-M
2000
DEEP
0.2
OHM-M
2000
SP
DEEP
MEDIUM
SHALLOW
20
INDUCTION LOG WITH

AUTOMATIC CORRECTIONS
.2
1.0
.2
1.0
.2
1.0
GAMMA RAY
0
150
UNCORRECTED DEEP
10
100
MEDIUM
10
100
CORRECTED DEEP
10
100
1000
1000
1000
21
RXO MEASUREMENTS
PAD RESISTIVITY DEVICES
Pad resistivity devices have very shallow depths of investigation (reading very near
the borehole) and hence are used to measure the resistivity of the flushed zone (RXO). The
devices have soft rubber pads designed not to cut through the mudcake (the solids of the
mud left of the borehole wall from invasion). If invasion has occurred and a zone has
permeability.
A difference of hydrocarbon content in the flushed zone (1-SXO) and the hydrocarbon
content in the undisturbed zone (1-SW) indicates that the hydrocarbons near the borehole
were replaced by filtrates. Hence the is moved oil and, therefore, the zone has permeability to hydrocarbons.
A tow-armed (single diameter) caliper log is ran indicating mud cake thickness (HMC).
MICRO-SPHERICALLY FOCUSED LOG

The MSFL can be combined with a Dual Induction or a Dual Laterolog to give an
accurate reading of the resistivity in the flushed zone (RXO). Since this resistivity is very
near the borehole it can easily detect invasion and, therefore, when a zone has permeability. The shallow measurement hive this tool good vertical resolution allowing good detection of thin beds. A MSFL works better in fresh mud than in salt muds.
MICRO-LATEROLOG
The micro-laterolog can give accurate resistivities in the flushed zone when salt muds
are used. It is essentially a laterolog device with a limited depth of investigation. This
tool is influenced by mud cakes greater than 1/4 inch thick. The micro-laterolog has even
better vertical resolution than the microlog.
PROXIMITY LOG
For fresh mud systems, the proximity log read the invaded or flushed zone. The
proximity log has more focusing and has a deeper reading (further form the borehole). In
addition, it has a vertical resolution on the order of inches.
22
TYPICAL MICROLOG RESPONSES

MICRO - NORMAL
0
0
MICRO - INVERSE
40
40
SHALE
TIGHT
SHALE
PERMEABLE
TIGHT
SHALE
PERMEABLE
PERMEABLE
PERMEABLE
(WATER - NO INVASION) ?
SHALE
These are the oldest of the pad type devices. They combine two resistivity
measurements with different depths of investigation. The Micro Inverse (solid coding)
measures roughly 1.5 inches from the pad while the Miconormal (dashed coding)
reads approximately 4 inches from the pad. When the pad is across a mud cake
(permeable zone) a separation of the curves occurs.
This separation of the dashed curve reading higher resistivity than the solid curve is
called "positive separation" and indicates mud cake. Therefore, these devices are
excellent permeability indicators.
23
MICROLOG
GAMMA RAY
0
6
CALIPER
MICRO - NORMAL
150
16
MICRO - INVERSE
40
MICRO
INVERSE
CALIPER
GAMMA RAY
MICRO
NORMAL
24
40
PROXIMITY MICROLOG
MICRO NORMAL
20
MICRO INVERSE
20
CALIPER
PROXIMITY
16.0
6.0
.2
1.0
10
100
1000
20 00
MICRO
NORMAL
CALIPER
PROX
MICRO
INVERSE
BIT SIZE
25
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL
The Spontaneous Potential (SP), also known as Self Potential is a record of the
natural occuring currents downhole. SP measures the potential difference between
an electrode at the surface and an electrode in the conductive mud. Shales will
give a constant value (base line) and potential reservoir rocks will deviate from
this base line. This deviation is usually in a negative direction.
IDENTIFY RESERVOIR ROCKS

(Sandstone, Limestone, Dolomite, etc.)
SP CURVE
MV
SHALE
SHALE
BASE LINE
SAND
26
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL (SP) LOG

RMF vs RW
PERM INDICATOR
SALINITY INDICATOR
SHALE
PERMEABLE BED
FRESH WATER
SHALE
SHALE
SALTY WATER
SHALE
SHALE
SALTY WATER
IMPERMEABLE
LIMESTONE
SHALE
SHALE
SALTY WATER
SHALE
HYDROCARBON EFFECT
SHALE
HYDROCARBONS
WATER
SHALE
27
DETERMINATION OF RESISTIVITY
The formation RT (true resistivity) was measured using the deep reading from a dual
induction (fresh muds) or a deep reading from a dual laterolog (salt muds). Correction for
invasion, bed thickness (shoulder beds) or hole size may need to be considered.
The resistivity of the water in the uninvaded zone RW cannot be measured directly.
Produced waters are measured at the surface and listed in a RW catalog by zone. These
values can vary from one area to another and are sometimes contaminated, hence giving
wrong readings. Ideally, a 100% water zone will exist and a R W can be "back calculated"
from saturation formulas. Logging companies have experience with RW values which
best predict production. These "whatever works" values are the second choice. The least
desireable choice in most cases is an RW value derived from the SP.
The resistivity of the flushed zone (RXO) is calculated using the "tornado" chart or with
a proximity log (fresh mud) or a micro laterlog (salt mud). The water in the flushed zone
is RMF and is then measured by pressing the liquids (filtrate) out of a mud sample. Its
resistivity is then measured with a "mud checker" in the logging truck. This RMF value
and the temperature at which the measurement were made are noted on the resistivity log
heading.
28
USES OF RESISTIVITY
PERMEABILITY INDICATOR
Invasion of a zone cannot occur unless permeability exists. The separation of
the medium (dotted) and the deep (dashed) induction or the deep and shallow laterolog
curves indicates permeability. The positive separation of the microlog curves or a
caliper reading less than bit size is an indication or permeability. The deflection of the
SP curve from the shale base line may indicate permeability.
PREDICTION OF WATER CUT
Bulk volume water is the percent of the total volume (including rock) which is
water. By comparing the bulk volume water in a given zone versus water production
from various producing wells, a prediction of water cut can be made in a given field.
A critical BVW is BVWIRR which is the maximum amount of water a formation
will hold without producing water (irreducible water saturation). The relation to
bulk volume water and resistivity is as follows:
BVW = * SW =
RW/RT
These two values will be approximately the same unless there is permeability to
hydrocarbons (moved oil).
WATER SATURATION APPROXIMATION (RATIO METHOD)
The separation between the shallow resistivity (solid) and the deep resistivity
(dashed) on a dual induction or dual laterolog can indicate water saturation. The
further the separation between these two curves, the more likely it is water. The
closer the curves, the more likely it is hydrocarbon bearing.
This is only a approximation for specific conditions, but can be useful for many
applications. This method could allow the determination of oil water contacts in a zone
or give you an easy method of detecting hydrocarbons. It could be especially important
in the presence of conductive minerals where Archie methods will not work.
WATER SATURATION CALCULATIONS (ARCHIE SOLUTION)
Bulk volume water is also the product of water saturation times porosity.
Therefore, with the resistivity and porosity a quantification of water saturation can be
made and the reserves in a given well can be calculated.
29
WATER SATURATION APPROXIMATION

The ratio method is considered an approximate or qualitative method for
determining water saturation. This technique requires that a normal invasion profile
and a resistivity contrast (Rmf - Rw). In other words, zone of low permeability as well
as zone of low or high porosity could have inaccurate advantages since no porosities
are required and no m (Archie method) is required.
Two ratios are needed for this calculation. The first ratio is of the invaded zone
RXO and the undisturbed zone RT. This allows a quick look at the relative
separation between the deep (dashed) and shallow (solid) resistivity readings. The
wider the separation between these two readings, the more potential for water. These
values are from the respective resistivity measurement with corrections made where
necessary.
The second is a ratio of the water resistivity in the invaded zone (RMF) and the
uninvaded zone (RW). Both of these values must be corrected for the temperature for
the zone you are calculating. Neither of these values come from the logs.
30
RATIO SW METHOD
F X RW
RT
SW =
F X RMF
RXO
& SXO =
ASSUMING
SXO = (SW)
1
5
THEN
1.6
SW =
RXO
RT
RW
RMF
OR
RXO
RT
RW
RMF
5
8
31
DETERMINING WATER VS OIL

MEDIUM
RMF = .52
2000
OHM-M
0.2
RW = .04
SHALLOW
0.2
2000
OHM-M
-]20[+
DEEP
0.2
SP
2000
OHM-M
SP
A
B
C
D
SHALLOW
DEEP
E
F
MEDIUM
IN SPECIAL CASES: Bulk Volume Water =
32
RW
RT
RATIO METHOD EXAMPLE

CALCULATE BULK VOLUME WATER
POINT
SHALLOW / DEEP
BVW
RATIO
SW*
20/6
________
33
30/6
________
43
15/9
________
20
25/5.3
________
42
38/4
________
66
19/2
________
66
20/1.5
________
83
GIVEN: RW = .04
*APPROXIMATE SW
33
RESISTIVITY
1. Consists of several curves with different distances of investigation.
A. Deep (dashed curve) measures deepest, a reading of 6-12 ft. approximates the
uninvaded zone (RT) and usually reads further to the left.
B. Medium (dotted curve) measures deeper than the shallow (usually between
the deep and shallow).
C. Shallow (solid curve) measures near the wellbore, usually reading the furthest
to the right. The addition of a MSFL* (Micro Spherically Focused Log) will
give a good approximation of RXO.
DUAL INDUCTION
DUAL LATEROLOG
DEEP
DEEP INDUCTION
DEEP LATEROLOG
MEDIUM
MEDIUM INDUCTION
SHALLOW
SFL / GUARD
VERY SHALLOW
*MFSL
SHALLOW LATEROLOG
*MSFL
MICRO LATEROLOG (ATLAS)
*MSFL can be added to a dual induction or a laterolog for RXO measurements.
2. Modern log scales are on a logarithmic grid.

3. Relative amounts of separation between the medium and the deep (DIL) or shallow
(DLL) indicates invasion, therefore, permeability.
4. Another indication of permeability is the separation of the MSFL from the shallow or
medium.
5. The SP identifies potential reservoir rocks by deviating from a shale base line.
34
POROSITY & LITHOLOGY

IDENTIFICATION
35
POROSITY
TOTAL VOLUME OCCUPIED BY PORES,

EXPRESSED IN PERCENT
"HOLES IN THE ROCK"
36
DETERMINATION AND USES OFPOROSITY

Porosity cannot be measured directly, but rather a parameter related to porosity is measured. Each porosity device responds to the type of rock and the fluid in the rock as
well as porosity. Because complex rock types and shaliness can mislead the interpretation of a single device, two or more porosity devices may be required.
By using two or more porosity devices a more accurate porosity as well as the rock type
of lithology (rock type) can be determined. In many cases the detection of gas in the
porosity is possible.
There are two types of porosity. Primary porosity resulting from the deposition of the
material and secondary resulting from some later mechanical or chemical change. Fractures would be an example of secondary porosity.
The combination of porosity and resistivity allows for the calculation of the percent of
water in the porosity (Sw). The percent of hydrocarbons in the porosity So then is
defined by 1-Sw. This information can then be used to determine the economics of a
well and the subsequent development of a field.
The number of barrels of stock tank oil in place (BSTO) can be calculated the following
formula:
A simple equation for oil reservoirs would be:
BSTO = 7758 A h So / FVF

BSTO
A
h
So
FVF
=
=
=
=
=
=
BARRELS OF STOCK TANK OIL

DRAINAGE AREA
THICKNESS OF PAY
POROSITY
OIL SATURATION (1-Sw)
FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
37
POROSITY MEASURING DEVICES
I. LITHO TYPE DENSITY TOOL
II. COMPENSATED NEUTRON TOOL
III. BOREHOLE COMPENSATED SONIC (BHC)
38
DENSITY POROSITY DEVICE
b = f + (1-
) ma
ma - b
ma - f
39
Mud Cake
(mc * hmc)
Formation
)
)
Short Spacing
Detector
Source
40
Long Spacing
Detector
PHOTO ELECTRIC USES
The P e measurement is strongly related to the nature of the formation

rock type. Therefore, methods of interpretation have been developed
to yield better answers for lithology and hydrocarbon type.
1. As a matrix indicator (the lithology curve)

2. In combination with density b as a two-mineral model for
a better determination of the porosity
3. In combination with the density neutron to analyze more
complex rock types for a solution to three-mineral models
4. For easier distinction between oil and gas in the formation
41
THE LITHO TYPE DENSITY LOG
The density of a formation is a function of the density of the rock material, the
amount of porosity, and the density of the fluid in the pores. A density tool responds to
the electron density (number of electrons per cubic centimeter) as a function of the number of Compton-scattering collisions. The electron density is then related to the true bulk
density or Pb expressed in grams per cubic centimeter.
The litho type tool has a additional measurement from the lower energy gamma rays.
This measurement is a function of the photo electric cross section of different elements.
The Pe curve is an index of this cross section.
The litho type density log can help determine rock type (lithology) as well as porosity. Evaluation of shaley sands, oil shales, complex rock types, and gas detection are
aided by the density log.
42
SWS
LITHODENSITY LOG
HLS
SPECTRAL DENSITY LOG
ATLAS
Z-DENSITY
COMMON P AND
VALUES
e
ma
Pe
ma
QUARTZ (SS)
1.81
2.64
CALCITE (LS)
5.08
2.71
DOLOMITE
3.14
2.88
WATER (FRESH)
0.358
0.119
1.0
OIL (n(CH2))
GAS (CH4)
SHALE
0.67
0.095
-0.06
About 3 Variable
43
LITHO DENSITY LOG

-.250
150
CORRECTION
16
2.0
5
2.5
CORRECTION
BULK DENISTY
C
GAMMA RAY
Pe
2700
CALIPER
44
+.250
10
BULK DENISTY
CALIPER
6
PHOTO ELECTRIC
GAMMA RAY
0
3.0
LITHO DENSITY LOG

CORRECTION
PHOTO ELECTRIC
-.250
GAMMA RAY
0
150
CALIPER
6
+.250
10
BULK DENISTY
16
2.0
3.0
2.5
GAMMA RAY
PHOTO ELECTRIC
BULK DENISTY
CORRECTION
3600
CALIPER
45
NEUTRON POROSITY
Neutron logging devices react to the hydrogen in the formation. Since hydrogen
is present in water and hydrocarbbons the tools are responding to the total fluid and
hence the porosity in the rock.
FEW HYDROGEN MOLECULES IN THE FORMATION = LOW POROSITY
MANY HYDROGEN MOLECULES IN THE FORMATION = HIGH POROSITY
In a gas there are 1/5 to 1/10 as many molecules as with a liquid. Therefore, the
porosity from a neutron device will be too low. For example a zone with 15% porosity
could appear to be 5 - 10% using a neutron device.
A combination of the neutron and density porosity devices can give a
reasonable estimate of porosity. A determination of the rock type (lithology) and gas
detection become reasonable with the assumption of a two mineral model.
TRUE POROSITY QUICKLY ESTIMATED BY
= 1/2 (
D + N)
IF A ZONE IS GAS PRODUCTIVE USE THE "2/3 METHOD"
= 1/3(2
D + N)
Since shale contains a great deal of trapped water (hydrogen) a little shale can
make the neutron porosity too high. The above methods then become too high. In a
shaley zone the density porosity alone becomes a better estimate of porosity.
46
COMPENSATED NEUTRON LOG

BOREHOLE
FORMATION
3 3/8" Dia
FAR DETECTOR
NEAR DETECTOR
SOURCE
OTHER TOOLS
COMBINED WITH
DENSITY AND
DUAL INDUCTION
"TRIPLE COMBO"
47
LITHOLOGY LOGGING
FINDING THE ROCK TYPE
0
GAMMA RAY
30
150
Pe
5
NEUTRON POROSITY
-10
MATRIX LIME
30
DENSITY POROSITY
-10
MATRIX 2.71
GAMMA RAY
LIMESTONE
DENSITY
DOLOMITE
ANHYDRITE
Pe
SAND
SALT
GAS SAND
LIMESTONE
OR
GASSY DOLOMITE ?
48
NEUTRON
NO GAS
SHALE
NEUTRON DENSITY
GAMMA RAY
CALIPER
Pe
10
150
30
NEUTRON POROSITY
16
30
DENSITY POROSITY
-10
MATRIX LIME
-10
MATRIX 2.71
Pe
DENSITY
GAMMA RAY
NEUTRON
CALIPER
49
NEUTRON - DENSITY LOG WITH Pe
0
0
6
GAMMA RAY
CALIPER
30
150
Pe
10
NEUTRON POROSITY
-10
MATRIX LIME
30
16
DENSITY POROSITY
-10
MATRIX 2.71
A
CALIPER
GAMMA RAY
DENSITY
Pe
NEUTRON
50
NEUTRON - DENSITY LOG WITH Pe
GAMMA RAY
Pe
10
NEUTRON POROSITY
30
150
-10
MATRIX LIME
CALIPER
DENSITY POROSITY
30
16
-10
MATRIX 2.71
DENSITY
GAMMA RAY
Pe
NEUTRON
CALIPER
51
BOREHOLE COMPENSATED SONIC

TRAVEL TIME MEASURED THROUGH 1 FT. OF FORMATION
R1
3'
5'
R2
R3
5'
3'
R4
T2
52
FORMATION
T1
SONIC LOG
(SPEED OF SOUND)
SONIC
tlog = tma = 1/Vma

Vma
SANDSTONES
LIMESTONES
DOLOMITES
STEEL
18,000 - 19,500
21,000 - 23,000
23,000 - 26,000
tma
55.6 - 51.3
47.6 - 43.5
43.5 - 38.5
57.0
53
SONIC POROSITY
tlog = tfluid + (1-

)
tmatrix
=
54
tlog - tma
X
tf - tma
( )
1
Cp
1
Cp
= 1 for Limes, Dolomites and Shales

where Tshale < 100 msec/ft
Cp
= 1 Tshale /100 msec/ft if > Tshale 100 msec/ft
SONIC LOG
TRAVEL TIME THROUGH 1 FT. OF FORMATION
0 GAMMA RAY 150
6
CALIPER
TRAVEL TIME
sec/ft
16
100
70
40
GAMMA RAY
A-
BC-
CALIPER
55
POROSITY AND LITHOLOGY IDENIFICATION

1. Three types of porosity logs:
A. Density: Utilizes a pad device which cuts through mudcake. Two arm caliper
usuallly reads the large side of the hole. Too high in gas.
B. Neutron: Responds to hydrogen. Shale makes porosity too high. Too low in
gas.
C. Sonic: Travel time of sound through one foot of formation. Shale makes
porosity too high. Uncompacted sands are a particular problem. Very
operation sensitive and poor response equation.
2. Porosity cannot be computed from a single porosity tool without knowing the
type of rock.
3. Porosity can be estimated with a neutron density by the following:
A. Fluid filled (no gas):
= (
D + N)/2*
= (2
D + N)/3*
* When a zone is shaley, will be too high.

4. The photoelectric (Pe) curve can be used for better estimation of the rock type
(especially in gas)
Pe
LITHOLOGY
*Quartz (SS)
1.18
5.08
Calaite (LS)
3.14
Dolomite
Shale
~3
* Sandstone can be 2.2 to 2.6 when cemented with calcite.
Gamma Ray Log
1. Measures natural radioactivity usually associated with shale.
2. Radioactivity or shaliness increases left to right.
3. Furthest to left clean zone indicating good permeability.
Shale line (Average reading in shales) can be used to determine percent shale.
56
OPEN HOLE
INTERPRETATION
REFERENCE
57
VALUES
COMMON P AND
ma
e
PE
ma
QUARTZ (SS)
1.81
2.64
CALCITE (LS)
5.08
2.71
DOLOMITE
3.14
2.88
WATER (FRESH)
1.0
OIL (N(CH2))
0.358
0.119
GAS (CH4)
0.095
-0.06
ABOUT 3
VARIABLE
SHALE
58
0.67
LITHOLOGY LOGGING
FINDING THE ROCK TYPE
GAMMA RAY
150
Pe
30
NEUTRON POROSITY
30
DENSITY POROSITY
-10
MATRIX LIME
-10
MATRIX 2.71
GAMMA RAY
LIMESTONE
DENSITY
DOLOMITE
ANHYDRITE
Pe
SHALE
SAND
SALT
NEUTRON
NO GAS
GAS SAND
LIMESTONE
OR
GASSY DOLOMITE?
SHALE
59
SATURATION DETERMINATION
FOR CLEAN LIMES AND DOLOMITES
Ro
Rw
60
Porosity
Rt
Sw
ARCHIE'S RELATIONSHIP
It has been established experimentally that the resistivity of a clean formation is proportional to the
resistivity of the salt water with which it is fully saturated (RO). The constant of proportionality is called
the formation resistivity factor, or F, where RW = Resistivity of the formation water.
F = Ro / Rw
In a formation containing oil or gas, both of which are electrical insulators, resistivity is a function not
only of the formation factor F and the water resistivity RW, but also the water saturation SW. SW is the
fraction of the pore volume occupied by formation water. G. E. Archie determined experimentally that
the water saturation of a clean formation can be expressed in terms of its true resistivity (RT).
Sw = (FRw / Rt)1/n
Since RO = F * RW, water saturation can be expressed as:
Sw = (Ro / Rt)1/n
For a given porosity, the ratio of RO to RW remains nearly constant. The porosity of a rock is the total
volume occupied by the pores or voids. Formation factor is a function of porosity and also of pore
structure and pore size distribution. Archie has proposed the following formula:
F = a / m
The constant "a" is an empirically derived constant that normally equals 1. Usually in Limes and Dolomites
the cementation factor "m" = "n" = 2 therefore:
Sw = (Rw / Rt)1/2 /
Humble determined that "a" = 0.62 in Sandstone formations and "m" = 2.15 which is rewritten as:
Sw = (.81Rw / Rt)1/2 /
61
DUAL INDUCTON LOG
3900
MEDIUM
0.2
0
API
2000
150
SHALLOW
0.2
GAMMA RAY
OHM-M
-]20[+
DEEP
SP
A
4000
C
D
E
62
2000
0.2
OHM-M
10
100
2000
NEUTRON DENSITY LOG
3900
SDL PE COM
API
10 -.025
150
30
NPHI
LIME
-10
16
30
DPHI
2.71
10
-10
GAMMA RAY
6
INCHES
CALIPER
DELTA RHO
GM/CC
.025
4000
63
MICROLOG
3900
10000
GAMMA
API
150
CALIPER
INCHES
16
4000
64
TENSION
POUNDS
MICRO INVERSE
OHM-M
40
MICRO NORMAL
OHM-M
40
LOG INTERPRETATION PRACTICE

DETERMINATION OF SW
GIVEN: RW = .04
(READ VALUES AT A DEPTH OF 4020)
A. ON THE LOG ON PAGE 63 READ:

1. Neutron Porosity (Dotted) = __________
2. Density Porosity (Solid) = __________
3. Photo Electric Index = Pe = __________
B. USING THE LOG ILLUSTRATION ON PAGE 59 DETERMINE:
1. The rock type __________
2. Is there gas in the porosity? __________
C. USING EITHER THE 1/2 OR THE 2/3 RULE (IF GAS) DETERMINE:
1. Actual Porosity = __________
D. USING THE LOG ON PAGE 62 READ THE DEEP INDUCTION:
1. RILD (Dashed) = __________
E. USING THE LOGS ON PAGE 62 AND 64:
1. Is there a separation between the deep (dashed and the Medium (Dotted) indicating
permeability? __________
2. Does the Microlog show positive separation at the same depths indicating
permeability? __________
F. USING THE NOMOGRAPH ON PAGE 60:
1. Connect RW (.04) with the Porosity from step C above
2. Extend this line to find RO = __________
3. Connect the RO found in step 2 with the RILD (approximate Rt) found in Question D
4. Extend this line to find SW = __________
G. AT WHAT DEPTH IS THERE MOST LIKELY WATER? __________
H. IF WE ASSUME THAT DEPTH TO BE 100% WATER WE CAN USE THE
NOMOGRAPH (GOING BACKWARDS) ON PAGE 61 TO CALCULATE RW:
1. Read the deep induction from the log on page 62. _______________
2. Connect the Rt in Step 1 with SW = 100% and extend the line to find
RO = __________
3. Read the Neutron Porosity and Density Porosity from the log on page 63, use the 1/2
rule and find = __________
4. Connect the RO Found in step 2 with found in step 3 and extend this line to find
RW = __________
65
SUMMARY
INTERPRETATION AT A GLANCE
Resistivity
1.
Consists of several curves with different distances of investigation.

A.
Deep (dashed curve) deepest reading of 6-12 ft. Approximates the uninvaded zone
(Rt) usually reads furthers to the left.
B.
Medium (dotted curve) measures deeper than the shallow, usually between the deep
and shallow.
C.
Shallow (solid curve) measures near the wellbore usually reading the furthest to the
right. The addition of a MSFL *(micro spherically focused log) will give a good
approximation of Rxo.
Dual Induction
Dual Laterolog
Deep
Dual Induction
Medium
Medium Induction
Shallow
SFL / GUARD
Shallow Laterolog
Very Shallow
*MSFL
*MSFL
Micro Laterolog (Atlas)
Deep Laterolog
*MSFL can be added to a dual induction or a laterolog for Rxo measurements.

2.
Modern log scales are on a logarithmic grid.
3.
Relative amounts of separation between the medium and the deep (DIL) or shallow deep
(DLL) indicates invasion, therefore, permeability.
4.
Another indication of permeability is the separation of the MSFL from the shallow or medium.
5.
The SP identifies potential reservoir rocks by deviating from a shale base line.
Gamma Ray Logs
66
1.
Measures naturally occurring radioactivity. Usually due to clay or shale.
2.
Lower gamma ray usually indicates less clay, therefore, better permeability.
SUMMARY
INTERPRETATION AT A GLANCE
Gamma Ray (Continued)
3.
Percent clay determination by picking shale line (Average reading in shales) and clean line
(lowest gamma ray in a zone.
4.
Spectral Gamma Ray - Thorium, Potassium, and Uranium

A.
B.
C.
Identify Radioactive Reservoirs

Facies and Mineralogies
Better Permeability Indication
Porosity and Lithology Identification

Porosity and Lithollogy Identification
Three types of porosity logs:
1. Three1.types
of porosity logs
A.
Density: Utilizes a pad device which cuts through mudcake. Two arm caliper usually reads
the large side of the hole. Too high in gas.
B.
Neutron: Responds to hydrogen. Shale makes porosity too high. Too low in gas.
C.
Sonic: Travel time of sound through one foot of formation. Shale makes porosity too
high. Uncompacted sands are a particular problem. Very operation sensitive and poor
response equation.
2. Porosity cannot be computed from a single porosity tool without knowing the type of rock.
3. Porosity can be estimated with a neutron density by the following:
A.
Fluid filled (no gas):
= (
D + N) / 2*
= (2
D +
N) / 3*
*When a zone is shaly, will be too high
LITHOLOGY
Pe
*Quartz (SS)
Calcite (LS)
1.81
5.08
Dolomite
3.14
Shale
About 3
*Sandstone can be greater than 2 when cemented with calcite.
67
TODAY'S COMPUTER INTERPRETATIONS

APPARENT GRAIN DENSITY
25
DIFFERENTIAL CALIPER
-20
20
EFFECTIVE
POROSITY
50
%
0
VOLUME MATRIX
%
VOLUME SHALE
%
GAS
FLAG
RO
0
1
DEPTH
1000
Rt
1000
BULK
VOLUME
WATER
50
%
0
X800
DIFFERENTIAL
CALIPER
VOLUME
SHALE
X900
WATER
SATURATION
EFFECTIVE
POROSITY
RO
GRAIN
DENSITY
HYDROCARBONS
Y000
BULK
VOLUME
WATER
VOLUME
MATRIX
Y100
68
Rt
OPEN HOLE
INTERPRETATION
EXERCISE
69
COMPANY:
WELL:
FIELD:
COUNTY:
LOCATION:
SEC:
RT
RW
RT
SANDSTONE SW =
D N
LITH
SW
(.81 RW / R T)1/2
LIMES AND DOLOMITES SW =
(RW / RT)1/2
WATER SATURATION (RATIO)3
BVW2
RMF
BVW = * SW
SW =
RXO
RT
RGE:
RW
R MF
RW
RMF
RILM
RSFL
RXO
RXO
RT
SW
CONSULTANTS
5/8
704 SAGE BRUSH RD 405 324-5828

YUKON, OK 73099 FAX 324-2360
70
RW RILD
ZONE
TWP:
SW (ARCHIE)1
POROSITY
RESISTIVITY
STATE:
OPEN HOLE LOG

INTERPRETATION EXERCISE
FIND:
WATER ZONE?
HYDROCARBON ZONE?
FRACTURES?
LITHOLOGY?
ARE THE LOGS EFFECTED BY GAS?
USE EITHER 1/2 OR 2/3 RULE TO FIND POROSITY AT

POINTS INDICATED
MAKE COMMENTS ABOUT PERMEABILITY AND
PRODUCIBILITY
71
EXERCISE #1
SP
-]20[+
GAMMA RAY
0
150
.2
1.0
.2
1.0
.2
1.0
MEDIUM INDUCTION LOG

10
100
DEEP INDUCTION LOG
10
100
1000
1000
SHALLOW FOCUSED LOG

10
100
1000
9300
2
9400
ILM
SP
GR
72
ILD
SFL
EXERCISE #1
5
0
CALIPER
INCHES
GAMMA RAY
15
30
20
150
30
20
LIME MATRIX
NEUTRON POROSITY
10
DENSITY POROSITY
10
MATRIX 2.71
-10
-10
9300
GR
CAL
1
NEUTRON
2
9400
DENSITY
73
EXERCISE #2
SP
-]20[+
GAMMA RAY
0
150
GR
9600
.2
1.0
.2
1.0

10
100
DEEP INDUCTION LOG
10
100
.2
1.0
SHALLOW FOCUSED LOG

10
100
1000
1000
1000
SP
ILD
ILM
9700
74
SFL
EXERCISE #2
5
CALIPER
INCHES
GAMMA RAY
15
30
20
LIME MATRIX
NEUTRON POROSITY
10
30
20
DENSITY POROSITY MATRIX 2.71

10
150
-10
0
-10
GR
CAL
9600 5
N
NEUTRON
D
DENSITY
9700
75
MINERAL IDENTIFICATION PLOT
76
LITHOLOGY PRESENTATION
0
GAMMA RAY
125
Pe
30
NEUTRON POROSITY
30
DENSITY POROSITY
-10
MATRIX LIME
-10
MATRIX 2.71
DOLOMITE
LIMESTONE
Pe
GAMMA RAY
SANDSTONE
DENSITY
NEUTRON
77
EXERCISE #3
.2
SP
-]20[+
GAMMA RAY
0
.2
2000
SHALLOW FOCUSED LOG
150
.2
4100
3
1
4200
78
2000
DEEP INDUCTION LOG
2000
EXERCISE #3
6
0
CALIPER
INCHES
GAMMA RAY
.30
.20
.30
.20
16
150
NEUTRON POROSITY
.10
DENSITY POROSITY
.10
PEF
10
-.10
-.10
20
4100
3
1
4200
79
EXERCISE #3
CALIPER
6
16
MICRO NORMAL
(ohmm)
40
MICRO INVERSE
(ohmm)
40
GAMMA RAY
0
150
4100
3
1
4200
80
81
EXERCISE #4
MEDIUM
0.2
0
2000
OHM-M
API
150
SHALLOW
GAMMA RAY
2000
OHM-M
0.2
DEEP
-]20[+
SP
2000
OHM-M
0.2
SP
4600
DEEP
SHALLOW
2
MEDIUM
4700
GAMMA RAY
82
EXERCISE #4
Pe
10
GAMMA RAY
NEUTRON POROSITY
0
150
30
MATRIX LIME
DENSITY POROSITY
-10
30
MATRIX 2.71
-10
CALIPER
6
16
CALIPER
PE
4600
DENSITY
NEUTRON
4700
GAMMA RAY
83
EXERCISE #4
CALIPER
6
16
GAMMA RAY
0
150
4600
4700
84
MICRO NORMAL
(ohmm)
MICRO INVERSE
(ohmm)
40
40
LOG
INTERPRETATION
ANSWERS
85
ANSWERS TO OPEN HOLE

INTERPRETATION PRACTICE
POINT
SWR
SW
BVW
55
45
17
.055
.06
.027
16
100
.023
.105
(Ratio)
EXERCISE #1
Upper zone fractured
Lower zone bed corrections
Gassed effect both zones
Ra = 40
Rt = 160
1
3
4
99
EXERCISE #2
Upper zone no perm no SP
Lithology unclear Pe could clarify
Lower zone fractured in top
Obviously wet in bottom
Water free production
Wet!
6
8
EXERCISE #3
Low resistivity pay excellent perm
Resistivity constant porosity: 18% / Lower 2
Top 6 ft. 1MMCFPD no water
1
2
45
70
75
100
EXERCISE #4
Good microlog perm upper zone
Bottom zone low porosity no ML perm
Classic example: water in bottom transition zone oil in top
1
2
86
21
82
.045
.17
FOR CLEAN SANDSTONE
RW
FR
%
RO
Rt
SW%
OR
0.81
F= 2
87
FOR CLEAN LIMES AND DOLOMITES
SW
RW
P
O
R
O
S
I
T
Y
M=2
88
RO
Rt
DEVELOPMENT
OF THE
PERMEABILITY PROFILE
89
PERMEABILITY ESTIMATE APPLICATIONS
I. Productivity profile Where are the producing zones and water zones located?
II. Productivity estimate What effect will a fracture treatment have on production
and is it cost effective?
III. Fluid efficiency distributionWhere will the fracture fluid leak off?
IV. Pore pressure distribution Where is the pore pressure depletion taking place that
will affect the in-situ stress distribution?
90
I. PRODUCTIVITY PROFILE
LOCATE THE PRODUCING ZONE(S)
0.01
0.0
GR
GAPI 150
Deep Resistivity
0.2 OHMM 2000.0
K
MD
Perm
0.2
10.0
e or BVW 0.0
Hydrocarbons
Moved Water
91
II. PRODUCTIVITY ESTIMATE

HYDRAULIC FRACTURE EFFECTS ON PRODUCTIVITY
FLOW RATE IS DIRECTLY RELATED TO:

Reservoir permeability-thickness
Fracture length and conductivity
Reservoir PVT parameters
92
III. FLUID EFFICIENCY DISTRIBUTION

FRAC FLUID LEAKOFF
93
IV. PORE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

FOR STRESS CALCULATIONS
94
LOG DERIVED PERMEABILITY
Permeability can be derived from logs using the following inputs:
1. Effective porosity (e)

2. Bulk Volume Water Irreducible (BVI)
3. Correlation factor (C)*
*The 'C' factor is used to correlate the log derived permeability estimate to well
test or apparent permeability. In other words, it corrects a permeability from the
logs on offset wells based on empirical data.
95
SOURCES OF PERMEABILITY
FOR FINDING THE "C" FACTOR
USE ONE OF THE FOLLOWING

TO CORRELATE LOG DERIVED PERMEABILITY:
A. WELL TEST DATA (WHEN POSSIBLE)
OR IN LOW PERM
B. PRODUCTION HISTORY MATCH ON OFFSET WELL
C. CORES CAN WORK WELL FOR DRY GAS
96

SANDSTONE RESERVOIR CALCULATION
keff
[C
e2
(e-BVI)
X
BVI
where:
keff
e
BVI
C
=
=
=
=
Effective permeability (md)

Effective porosity (shale corrected crossplot)
Bulk volume water irreducible
A constant for each reservoir type
e and BVI are expressed in fractional units

keff is permeability to total fluids.
Permeability to hydrocarbons requires a water cut input.
To match core permeability to air set C = 100
If e is greater than BVI the zone is permeable

If e is less than BVI the zone is impermeable
The above equation is a derivation of the relationship by Coates an Denoo (1981)
97
LOG PERMEABILITY EXERCISE # 1
Sandstone oil reservoir with the following parameters:
BVI
C
keff =
=
=
0.05 (Column C)
17.1 (Cell C4)
C X e2
(e-BVI)
X
BVI
Using this equation in the "Permeability Calculator" Workbook:

Estimate effective permeability for the following effective porosities:
e = .07
keff =
__________ md
e = .10
keff =
__________ md
e = .12
keff =
__________ md
e = .15
keff =
__________ md
With a permeability cutoff for net pay of 0.001 md:

What is the porosity cutoff? _______ %
98
LOG DERIVED PERMEABILITY OUTPUT

FOR OIL SAND
Where: BVI = 0.05 and C = 17.1
Will this produce water?
BVI
BVI
99

UNFRACTURED CARBONATE RESERVOIRS
keff
[C
sonic2
sonic - BVI
X
BVI
where:
keff
sonic
BVI
C
=
=
=
=
Effective permeability (md)

Sonic porosity*
Bulk volume water irreducible
A constant for each reservoir type
A well test may be of more value in carbonates

The permeability estimate in carbonates is qualitative due to complex pore
throat structures. Many carbonates have there permeability dominated by
fractures and unless a pre-frac well test is performed the results may be poor.
100
Sonic porosity is recommended to avoid including secondary

porosity in the permeability estimate.
PERMEABILITY FROM NMR
1.
Using the MRIL
k=
Where
[(
)(
MPHI
A
)]
MFFI
BVI
MPHI = Porosity from MRIL

MFFI = Free Fluid Index ( e - BVI)
C = Usually 2
A = Usually 10
2. Using the CMR
k=C
Where
B
NMR
T2
T2 = Log Mean T2
B = Usually 4
C = Usually 2
101
PERM CALIBRATION FOR NMR

Service Company Calibrations
1.
With the MRIL Perm adjust the A factor to get effective

perm.
2.
With the CMR perm adjust the C factor to get effective

perm.
3.
Porosity Considerations
4.
102
A.
NMR Porosity is close to e
B.
NMR Porosity may be too low in gas.
C.
NMR Porosity can be replaced by shale corrected

neutron-density porosity.
D.
Use neutron-density porosity in gas zones or when wait

time is too short.
Alternately use e from NMR and BVI in spreadsheet for

calculating perm.
PERMEABILITY EXERCISE
NET PAY ESTIMATION
WATER CUT PREDICTION
103
FINDING WATER PRODUCING ZONES
Bulk Volume Water (BVW) = e X Sw
Sw
e
There is no water production when: BVW < or = BVI
104
CALCULATING LOG DERIVED PERMEABILITY
Part I
Using the BVW on pages 106 and 107 and the Relative Perm
graphic below, circle the produced fluids for each zone.
NOTE: This Relative Perm

graphic is for the specific
area of these logs.
No water production - < 6%
> 10% - 100% water production
Part II
Calculate log derived permeability for each zone using the
workbook "Permeability Calculator"
Using:
keff = [C X e2 X ((e - BVI) / BVI)]2
Where: C = 17.5 (Cell C1)

and BVI = 0.06 (Column C)
105
PERMEABILITY AND WATER CUT

C = 17.5 and BVI = 0.06
106
.177 .104
.168 .098
.191 .132
.140 .091
.155 .110
Depth
BVW
.104
Fluid(s)
Produced
Oil / Water
7579
7588
.098
7611
4
5
e
.177
k eff (md)
BVI = 0.6
_____
keff (md)
BVI=BVW
_____
Oil / Water
.168
_____
_____
.132
Oil / Water
.191
_____
_____
7624
.091
Oil / Water
.140
_____
_____
7648
.110
Oil / Water
.155
_____
_____
PERMEABILITY AND WATER CUT

C = 17.5 and BVI = 0.06
.150 .089
.154 .087
.156 .082
.089
Fluid(s)
Produced
Oil / Water
7705
.087
7755
.082
Depth
BVW
7680
7
8
.150
keff (md)
BVI = 0.6
_____
keff (md)
BVI=BVW
_____
Oil / Water
.154
_____
_____
Oil / Water
.156
_____
_____
107
PERM EXERCISE ANSWER SHEET

SCALE FACTOR (C)
17.5
PERM AVERAGES
KH TOTAL
KH WELL TEST
0.64 MD
3.87 MDFT
3.87 MDFT
108
DEPTH
PHIE
BVI
PERM
FLUID
7579
7588
7611
7624
7648
7680
7705
7755
7835
7865
7955
7975
0.177
0.168
0.191
0.140
0.155
0.150
0.154
0.156
0.180
0.141
0.141
0.143
1.950
1.800
2.183
1.333
1.583
1.500
1.567
1.600
2.000
1.350
1.350
1.383
1.143
0.790
1.943
0.209
0.443
0.349
0.423
0.464
1.286
0.221
0.221
0.245
Water
Oil & Water
Water
Oil & Water
Water
Oil & Water
Oil & Water
Oil & Water
Oil & Water
Oil & Water
Oil
Oil
CALIBRATED LOG PERMEABILITY

The objective is to avoid growing into a permeable water zone
with a propped fracture. At what depth should the frac stop
growing? __________
0.01
0.0
Deep Resistivity
0.2 OHMM 2000.0
GR
GAPI 150
K
MD
Perm
0.2
10.0
e or BVW 0.0
Hydrocarbons
Moved Water
7600
7700
7800
7900
109
PERM SPREADSHEET EXERCISE
1.
Mark the following page with the layers that are permeable
and impermeable for your upper or lower portion.
2.
Using the Log Analysis Calculations Blank input the C

factor of 3.8 into Cell AC4. The calculated Perm Archie
will be effective permeability assuming BVW = BVI.
3.
Use the Excel paste function to average the Modified

Simandoux Perm for each layer marked and write the
average permeability in the worksheet.
(FracProPT will use this perm to calculate leakoff)
4.
Mark the permeability layers with an X to indicate leakoff

will occur.
5.
Mark the Pore Pressure Gradient (PP) in the various

layers. This PP will later be used in the stress calculations.
110
1. Write the Pore Pressure Gradient in each layer
Wireline pressures were measured in this well
A. The lower sand has a PP of 0.82 (higher pressure)
B. The upper sand has a PP of 0.79 (higher pressure)
C. Assume all impermeable layers PP is 0.82
Where PP = Pore Pressure Gradient
2. Mark an X in a layer if it is going to leak off.
PERM LAYERS
AVG.
Leakoff
PERM
PP
11400
11500
11600
.001
.01
.1
111
EAST TEXAS SAND - CV TAYLOR

Water Frac or Sand / Gel Frac
Which Would You Recommend?
NMR Perms were Calibrated to Cores and Corrected for Gas
Gamma Ray
Caliper, SP
&
V
Shale
Hint: Look at the Clay and the Perm

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Dual Induction
.002
Permeability
112
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Neutron / Density
MRIL Porosity
.06 md
.05 md
NMR
BVI, POROSITY
MOVABLE WATER
HYDROCARBONS
113
IDEALIZED ECHO TRAIN

NMR Porosity
Amplitude
Free Fluid (FFI)

T2R
Bulk Volume
Irreducible (BVI)
TE
Time
The Basic NMR Experiment

N
1) Permanent magnet polarizes

hydrogen nuclei
2) Transmit train of RF pulses,

record returning spin echoes
Signal Amplitude
Spin Echoes
3) Wait for re-polarization

4) Repeat steps 1-3
RF Pulses
Time (ms)
114
clay-bound water
small-pore (irreducible fluid) signal
time
large-pore (mobile fluid) signal
multiexponential fit to spin-echo amplitudes
NMR porosity
Spin-echo data
Incremental Porosity [pu]
Inversion
Processing
0.1
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
BVI
100
T2 [msec]
10
FFI
T2 Spectrum
1000 10000
ECHO TO T2 INVERSION
115
EFFECTS OF OIL ON T2 DISTRIBUTION
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
Sw = 56.9%
Sw = 65.4%
Sw = 84.3%
1224.8
T
Distri 2
bution
Sw = 100%
341.8
95.4
26.6
2.1
7.4
0.0
0.6
Incremental Porosity %
Oil and Water Saturation Effects
Oil Viscosity Effects

609 ms
2.7 cp
40 ms
35 cp
1.8 ms
4304 cp.
0.1
10
100
T2 (ms)
116
1000
10,000
T2 CUTOFFS AND DISTRIBUTION

Bulk Volume Irreducible and Free Fluid
Gamma Ray1234Dual Induction
1234
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T2 Distribution
Variable Density
Clay Volume
Effective Porosity
Gas
Hydrocarbons
e
Hydrocarbons
e
Gas
Hydrocarbons
e
Gas
Hydrocarbons
e
Hydrocarbons
e
Movable Water
117
T2 - RELATIVE TO SURFACE AREA

Incremental Porosity %
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
100
300
400
500
Small Pore Size = Rapid Decay Rate

Large Pore Size = Slow Decay Rate
Water Filled Pores
200
Time (ms)
600
118
T2 TIME SLICES CALLED BINS

Smaller Pore Surfaces - Shorter T2
Larger Pore Surfaces - Longer T2
Gamma Ray
Perm Indicator
Dual Induction
T2 Distribution
Variable Density
Clay Volume
Effective Porosity
Gas
Hydrocarbons
e
Hydrocarbons
e
Larger Pore
Surfaces
Gas
Hydrocarbons
e
Gas
Larger Pore
Surfaces
Small Pore
Surfaces
Hydrocarbons
e
Hydrocarbons
e
Finest
Grains
Finest
Grains
Small Pore
Surfaces
Movable Water
119
T2 OF ROCKS AND FLUIDS

NMR Summary
T2 (ms)
0.1
1.0
10
100
1000
Clay bound water

Montmorillonite/Smectite
Illite
Cholrite
Kaolinite
Capillary bound water

Free water - sands
Small grains
Large grains
Free water - carbonates

sucrosic
vuggy
Gas
Light Oil
Medium Oil
Heavy Oil
Oil Wetting
120
MRIL ANALYSIS - MRIAN

IN TRACK 4
Clay Bound Water in Green
Capillary Bound Water Gray
Movable Hydrocarbons in Red
Movable Water in Blue
Raw Bins and
Correlation
Resistivity and
Permeability
T2 VDL
.5 msec
1024 msec 50%
Track 4
Porosity
0%
First 3 Divisions
Clay Spectrum
Exercise:
Are the Sands fining downwards or coarsening upwards?
Which part of each sand has the largest grain size and therefore permeability?
121
LOW RESISTIVITY PAY WITH NMR

McClish Sand Open Hole Logs
Look at the Upper Part of the Sand
Does it appear to be wet?
Platform Express
Data
122

CMR Calculations
Waveform instead of VDL
Show Movable Hydrocarbons when Water was Suspected
Permeabilities are Tied to Cores
How do we know if they are right?
CMR Analysis
123
124

Calibrated CMR Permeabilities
Match Permeability from Post Frac Test
Buildups run after perforating indicated average reservoir perm 7-10 md
IP:
3 mmcf/day
No Water
MRIL Prime Hydrocarbon Typing

Calibrated Perm Compared to actual Production
Hydrocarbon Typing from Differential Spectrum
Low Perm
Water 4 BWPD
350 BOPD
200 MCFPD
125
ANALYSIS WITHOUT NMR

Would you expect a lot of water?
Traditional BVI = 5%
Quick look
Hand Calculations
Analysis
How many stress layers?

GR-SP
AIT
.3
TLD-CNL
-.1
ML
RW=.035
RT SW
4 19 49
BVW
.093
18
39
.07
20
41
.084
Conclusion:
Well sh ould p roduc e
a co nsidera ble amount of water
an d some HC. T raditional BVIRR
cu ttoff for most Granite Wa sh is
.05 .
126
CMR ELAN INTERPRETATION

Not using NMR Porosity
Lithology for stress layers and heat transfer

Zones Tested Separately
400 mcf
mcf/day
/day
Oil & No Water
200 mcf
mcf/day
/day
140 bbl Oil
1 bbl Water
Would NMR Porosity have helped?
127
128
THE ROLE OF STRESS

DIRECTION
AND
FINDING STRESS DIRECTION
129
THE ROLE OF IN-SITU STRESS

In Drilling and Stimulation
Hydraulic fractures propagate in the direction of the maximum

principal stress and generate width in the direction of the
minimum principal stress.
A. CRITICAL IN-SITU STRESS MODEL PARAMETERS
1. Horizontal in-situ stress magnitude and distribution
2. Vertical in-situ stress magnitude and deviation from

vertical
B. Other roles of stress
1. Bore hole stability -want minimum difference in stress
2. Minimum difference in stress minimum sand
production
130
THREE PRINCIPAL STRESSES
(Preferred Drilling Direction)
VERTICAL (Overburden)
Usually larger and therefore vertical fractures are created
If less than horizontal stress a horizontal fracture results
A. Maximum stress on Horizontal well bores
B. Maximum stress for creating sanding potential
HORIZONTAL in Fracturing
Maximum - determines lateral direction of propagation
Minimum - determines the direction of creating width
131
VERTICAL STRESS or OVERBURDEN
! "Vertical" growth of fracture if greater than horizontal stress
! If deviated from the borehole, so is the fracture height growth
! Maximum factor in borehole stability for deviated boreholes
! Plays a large role along with drawdown for sand production
132
HORIZONTAL STRESS MAGNITUDE

THE MOST CRITICAL INPUT IN 3-D SIMULATORS
SH
SH
SH = Minimum Horizontal Stress
The magnitude and distribution of the minimum
horizontal stress will determine the vertical
fracture propagation and height growth
133
MAX HORIZONTAL STRESS DIRECTION

FOR WELLSITE PLACEMENT
Offset Well Drainage Patterns
Fractures in Horizontal Wells

v
Single Fracture
Single Fracture
Single
T shaped
Multiple
Reorientation
multiple (at wellbore)
Hmax
Reorientation
Multiple fractures
(away from wellbore)
134
min

FOR PERFORATION STRATEGY
Near wellbore entry problems (tortuosity)
Don't Create Initial Width against Maximum Stress !!

Place Perforations In Max Stress Direction
1. Lower initiation pressures
2. Fewer premature screenouts
3. Higher sand concentrations near the wellbore
135

METHODS FOR FINDING THE DIRECTION
A. Logs
1. Borehole images of induced fractures
2. Borehole breakout direction with calipers
3. Directional Gamma Ray after frac
4. Dipole Acoustic Anisotropy
B. Oriented Cores
1. Direction of maximum relaxation (strain gauges to sample)
2. Velocity variations in minimum (ultrasonic pulse direction)
3. Remove core after frac
C. Production/Testing results
D. Geological Data
1. Relationship to faults
136
2. Direction from Dipmeters
LOGS FOR FINDING STRESS DIRECTION

BOREHOLE BREAKOUT
Multiple Arm Caliper - Direction Information
Extensional Fracture (Natural Fractures)
SHmax
Elliptical Enlargement
SHmin
Shear Fractures (No Natural Fractures)
Elliptical Enlargement
SHmax
SHmin
137

BOREHOLE IMAGING TOOLS
Halliburton- CAST-V or EMI
Schlumberger- FMI
Baker Atlas- CBIL
Natural fractures, Drilling Induced, or Log after Minifrac
138
Perms Calibrated to Cores allows Production Prediction
139
FRACT
URE
FRAC D
IRECTIO
ROTO SCAN - DIRECTION OF THE FRAC

Radioactive material in the frac wings
140
TORTUOSITY IN THE BOTTOM ZONE

Perforations in Zone B were 90o to the Initiation Direction.
A
B
141
142
EXCESS PRESSURE TO CREATE WIDTH

Fracs Change Direction if it doesn't Screenout
70 degrees to Perfs
90 degrees to perf
FINDING MAXIMUM STRESS DIRECTION

PRODUCTION/TESTING RESULTS
A. Production decrease or an increase in Gas Oil Ratio in an

offset following the completion
B. Premature breakthrough in offset wells

(water or CO2 floods, or even Frac job)
C. Interference testing
(pressure gauges in offsets during pump-in)
143
FINDING MAXIMUM STRESS DIRECTION

GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION
(Assumes stress state hasn't changed since faulting)
A. Reverse or Thrust Fault
1. Compressional tectonic environment
2. Maximum stress perpendicular to the fault
B. Normal or Growth Fault

1. Extensional tectonic environment
2. Maximum stress parallel to the fault
144
ESTIMATING AN
IN-SITU STRESS PROFILE
145
MINIMUM HORIZONTAL IN-SITU STRESS
DEVELOPING THE STRESS PROFILE
PRACTICAL SOLUTION:
1. Low cost small volume pump-in test through perforations.
2. Log derived estimates calibrated to the pump-in test
ADVANCED TECHNIQUE:
Microfracture treatments in all layers using small fluid
volumes at low rates.
1. With tubing and packers in casing
2. With wireline inflatable packers and pump in openhole
146
COMPONENTS OF HORIZONTAL STRESS
POISSON'S
RATIO
OVERBURDEN
STRESS
PROFILE
Pext from
pump-in test
calibration
PORE
PRESSURE
147
POISSON'S RATIO -
A MATHEMATICAL FUNCTION TO COMPUTE HORIZONTAL STRESS
Horizontal stress is a result of the vertical stress
OVERBURDEN PRESSURE (Squash)
HORIZONTAL STRESS (Squish)
= Squash / Squish
148
is calculated using the shear and compressional sonic data
SONIC WAVE TRAVEL TIMES

1 Foot
VELOCITY OR SLOWNESS
(Travel times through one foot)
tlog = tfluid + (1-)

tmatrix
149
FULL WAVE WITH DIPOLE

The ratio between the shear and compressional sonic travel times
is a function of the lithology and the elastic rock properties.
) is a measurement that indicates the degree of
Poisson's Ratio (
elasticity.
Earlier
Quieter
Later
Louder
Monopole
PREFERRED:
Dipole sonic tools (open or cased hole)
Dipole
150
SECOND CHOICE:
Full wave sonic tools (open hole only)
WHY THE DIPOLE SONIC IS PREFERRED

CAN GET A SHEAR MEASUREMENT WHEN OTHER LOGS CAN'T
Time (
)
Compressional
Shear
Fluid
! t increases with porosity

! Shales and high porosity sands have long t
(Above 140 msec/ft. - No Fullwave Sonics)
! Measurements were often not made in shales and sands
(no data from half of the log in Case Study 2)
Experience with Dipole Sonics
1. Significantly better shear measurement in casing
(see next page)
2. Data is more consistent from well to well
3. Deeper depth of investigation
4. Better correlation to stress test data
(less adjustment of stress profile to pump in test)
5. Can find natural fractures (anisotropy)
6. Somewhat directional and gives direction of least principal stress
7. Cross Dipole can get direction within 5 degrees
151
DIPOLE SONICS IN CASED HOLE

Need fluid in the wellbore and some cement
1/S in Microseconds / Ft.
Travel Time in Milliseconds
Comparison of open and cased hole shear-wave logs
152
POISSONS RATIO ESTIMATION

Calculate Poissons ratio from shear and compressional sonic
travel times using the worksheet "Poisson's and Young's from
Dipole".
tc)2)-1] / [(
ts/
tc)2-1]
[(0.5 X (
ts/
where:
ts
tc
=
=
Delta T Shear (microsec/ft)

Delta T Compressional (microsec/ft)
POISSONS RATIO
ESTIMATION EXERCISE
Delta T Compressional
65 microsec/ft (Cell B7)
Delta T Shear
107 microsec/ft (Cell C7)
Shear - Compr Ratio
_________
(Cell D7)
Poissons Ratio
_________
(Cell F7)
153
SHEAR/COMPRESSIONAL RATIO
154
Shales
Lime
Dolo Anh
Siltstones
Hard Sands
POISSON'S RATIO
Soft Sands
POISSON'S RATIO VS
SHEAR/COMPRESSIONAL RATIO
SONIC QUALITY CONTROL
Poor
Coherence
Missing
Data
What Should Poisson's Ratio read in the shale?
BAD
DATA
FLAG
155
POISSONS RATIO GAS CORRECTION

Gas Effect On Ratio Of Shear To Compressional Travel Times
= [(0.5 X (ts/tc)2)-1] / [(ts/tc)2-1]
tcompr
Gas increases both compressional and shear travel times (can be used to detect
gas as in cased hole) and as a result the measured Poisson's Ratio is lower, and
sometimes unrealistically low.
tshear
Ts/
Comparison with stress test data suggest that a Poisson's ratio less than 0.179 (
Tc ratio of 1.60) reflects gas effect and not rock mechanical properties.
A practical correction method involves calibration to a low

porosity, oil, or water sand with the same lithology as the affected
gas sand.
156
POISSON'S RATIO
CORRELATION TECHNIQUE
1. Full Wave or Dipole sonic data will not be on all wells
2. Existing Poisson's ratio data (on an offset well) will need to be

correlated to the frac well using lithology.
3. Spreadsheet calculations Poisson's in sand/shale lithology

Poisson's Ratio for various types of lithology
Lithology
Poisson's Ratio
Sandstones
0.18-0.22 (Hard Rock)

0.22-0.40 (Soft Rock)
Siltstones
0.20-0.28
Shales
0.26-0.40
Dolomites
0.283
Limestones
0.31
Anhydrite
0.319
157
IS RELATED TO LITHOLOGY
LITHOLOGY DATA IS NEEDED FOR CORRELATIONS
Poisson's ratio is independent of porosity.
OFFSET WELL
0.26
0.29
0.31
Write in the appropriate Poisson's Ratio for the Frac Well
FRAC WELL
158
POISSON`S VS GAMMA RAY SHALE INDEX

Sand and Shale Lithology
Using the equation 0.17 + 0.17(GI) Poisson's was calculated
Exercise: Find and mark bad sonic data below
Gamma Ray
0
.15
150
Sonic
Gamma Ray
Edyn
.35
0
10
159
GEOLOGY EFFECTS CORRELATIONS

CORRELATIONS MORE DIFFICULT IN COMPLEX LITHOLOGY
160
ROCK COMPONENT OF STRESS
OVERBURDEN PRESSURE (Squash)
HORIZONTAL STRESS (Squish)
STRESS =
Rock
Component
Fluid
Component
Calibration
Component
The rock component is a function

of overburden and Poisson's Ratio
Defined by:
X OBG
1-
OBG = Overburden Gradient = Vertical Stress/Depth

161
OVERBURDEN GRADIENT VS ROCK TYPE
The overburden gradient is determined by rock type and porosity.

An accurate gradient can be obtained from a density log.
Lithology
Porosity
Overburden
Anhydrite
Shale
Dolomite
Limestone
Sandstone
Sandstone
Sandstone
Sandstone
Salt
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
10%
20%
30%
0%
1.26 psi/ft
1.23 psi/ft
1.21 psi/ft
1.15 psi/ft
1.12 psi/ft
1.05 psi/ft
0.98 psi/ft
0.91 psi/ft
0.86 psi/ft
Overburden Gradient (OBG) should be reasonably constant in

an area. Therefore, offset data can be used.
OBG = (Bulk Density* / 1.1) x 0.465
*The average density from the top of the pay zone to the surface.
162
OVERBURDEN GRADIENT EXAMPLE
MOST OVERBURDEN GRADIENTS ARE NEAR 1.0 PSI/FT
Shale
1.23 psi/ft
2000 ft
Average
Gradient
1.13 psi/ft
Anhydrite
1.26 psi/ft
2000 ft
Sandstone
0.91 psi/ft
2000 ft
Pay
Zone
Field examples of Measured Overburden

Val Verde Basin W. Texas
Black Warrior Basin Coal
Offshore Louisiana
South Texas:
Wyoming Frontier
:
:
:
:
:
1.09
1.20
0.93
1.00
1.00
Values can vary with depth.
163
PORE PRESSURE STRESS COMPONENT
STRESS =
Rock
Component
Pore Pressure
Component
Calibration
Component
This Component is a function of the pore pressure gradient. (Pp)

Defined by:
[1 -
1-
Pp
Usually is determined from one or more of the following:

1. Bottom hole pressure measurements
2. Salt water gradient
3. Drilling mud gradient (over estimate)
4. Drilling mud gradient during gas kicks (under estimate)
Pore Pressure in Impermeable Zones

The pore pressure gradient in impermeable layers should be set
equal to the original reservoir pressure for the field. This can be
obtained from historical field data or from the highest measured
pore pressure in a virgin zone.
164
PORE PRESSURE CHANGES

CRITICAL WHEN PARTIAL DEPLETION HAS OCCURRED
Using formula on page 164, calculate pore pressure component of stress
Pore pressure can be measured with wireline formation tester

Calculate: 1. Pore Pressure Gradient (Pp) for:
Assuming = 0.22 for sands. 2. Calculate the
Pressure component of the stress gradient for:
3. Log Derived Stress (pressure component) for
A. ______ B. ______
A. ______ B. ______
A. ______ B. ______
7700
A
510 psi
FORMATION
TEST
PRESSURES
7800
B
2780 psi
Depletion in the Travis Peak of E. Texas

Pressure change of 400% in less than 100 feet
Exercise:
How much does the stress change from pore pressure? __________
165
LOG DERIVED STRESS PROFILE
ROCK
1-
OBG
FLUID
[1 -
1-
Pp
EQUALS
LOG
DERIVED
CLOSURE
STRESS
GRADIENT
The key inputs required at least once in a field are:

1. Poisson's ratio *
2. Overburden gradient
3. Pore pressure gradient
4. Calibration Component
OBG
Pp
Pext
* From a full wave sonic or correlation to a nearby sonic.

166
CLOSURE STRESS GRADIENT (CSG)

A PRIMARY INPUT FOR 3-D FRAC MODELS
The wireline measurements can be used to determine the
minimum horizontal stress profile for all zones above and below
the perforated interval. Since this is inherently wrong a pump-in
calibration is necessary.
ACTUAL CSG (in tectonically relaxed areas) is:
CSG =
1-
OBG
ROCK
+ [1 -
X
] Pp
1-
FLUID
+ CALIBRATION
Pext *
* A pump-in test will be

necessary to find Pext
167
STRESS EXERCISE #1
Closure Stress Gradient (CSG) Estimation from Log Data
Use the worksheet "Rock Properties for FracPro"
Poissons ratio from log:
0.20
Overburden gradient:
1.1 psi/ft
Pore pressure gradient:
0.40 psi/ft
No calibration component
What is the calculated closure stress gradient?
CSG
________ psi/ft
CSG
/(1-
)]) X Pp + Pext
)] X OBG + (1-[
[
/(1-
If the depth is 8,700', what is the closure stress? _______
168
STRESS EXERCISE #2
PORE PRESSURE INPUT TO CLOSURE
1. A reduced pore pressure increases stress contrast.
Hence, fracture containment can be improved.
2. Impermeable zones will not deplete and therefore should be at
original field pore pressure.
GIVEN:
Poissons ratio from log:
0.20
Overburden gradient:
1.1 psi/ft
Pore pressure gradient:
0.20 psi/ft*
No calibration component
* was 0.4 in previous exercise
Calculate the closure stress gradient with the lower pore pressure gradient.
CSG
) X OBG + (1-(
/1-
)) X Pp + Pext
(
/1-
CSG
________ psi/ft
If the depth is 8,700', what is the closure stress? _______
169
Flow Chart for Stress Calculation

Coherent
Measured
Pore Pressure
Gradient
Overburden
Gradient
Log Stress
Gradient
Calibrate with
Pump-In
Pext
Depth
Stress for
Model
170
STRESS EXERCISE # 3
Find Poisson's ratio change in a shale to equal
a change in stress of 100 psi.
Shale Volume
Caliper
6
Inches
16 0
Corrected GR
11300
A
B
C
D
11400
API
1 00
Poissons Ratio
1 0 .2
S HALE
S AND
0 .4
LOG
Pext = 0
STRESS
Pext = .09
STRESS
Average Shale Above

_____ ______
_____
A. _____
B. _____
______
______
_____
_____
C. _____ ______ _____

D. _____ ______
_____
Average Shale Below
_____ ______
_____
11500
Compare the different

stress values
E
F
G
11600
Average Shale Above

_____ ______
_____
E. _____ ______ _____
F. _____ ______ _____
G. _____ ______ _____
11700
H. _____ ______ _____

Average Shale Below
_____ ______
_____
171
SONIC, GAMMA RAY, NEUTRON DENSITY
POISSON'S RATIO
172
0.2
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.3
0.32
0.34
0.36
0.38
GI
NPHIDPHI
DIPOLE
DEPTH
COMPARISON OF THREE METHODS FOR POISSON`S
YOUNG'S MODULUS DEVELOPMENT
173
ROLE OF YOUNG'S MODULUS
1. Used with stress to estimate fracture width.
2. Used to estimate the variable tectonic component.
174
YOUNGS MODULUS ESTIMATION

DYNAMIC OR LOG DERIVED
INPUTS REQUIRED ARE:

1. Full wave sonic TSHEAR and TCOMPRESSIONAL
2. Bulk Density (b)
FORMULA:
Edyn
G
=
=
)
2 X G X (1+
13400 X (b/TS2)
Units are in PSI X E6
T shear = DTS
(Dynamic Young's Modulus)

(Shear Modulus)
T comp = DTC or DT
WHERE:
b
TS
=
=
=
Bulk density (g/cc) = RHOB

Delta T Shear
Poisson's ratio
Dynamic Young's Modulus calculated from logs must be converted

to Static Young's Modulus for use in 3-D models.
175
YOUNG'S EXERCISE # 1
DYNAMIC YOUNG'S MODULUS
GIVEN:
Delta T Compressional (Cell B7)
65 microsec/ft
Delta T Shear (Cell C7)
107 microsec/ft
Bulk density (Cell E7)
2.5 g/cc
Calculate Poissons ratio (Cell F7)
0.20
USING:
TS2)
G = 13400 X (b /
)
Edyn = 2 X G X (1+
Using worksheet "Poisson's and Young's from Dipole"

calculate:
=
_______ X E6 psi
Dynamic Youngs Modulus (Cell H7) =
_______ X E6 psi
Shear modulus (Cell G7)
176
DYNAMIC VS A STATIC YOUNGS
The log derived dynamic Youngs modulus estimate cannot be

used directly as an input to the 3-D models. It must first be
corrected to static.
The static estimate can range from 15% to 100% of the dynamic
estimate.
Two options are available to correct the log Young's Modulus to

a static:*
1. Use published core data (practical method)
Refer to the chart on page 178 to obtain the
Lab Ratio
Estatic
Edyn X (Lab Ratio)
2. Using actual core data (preferred method)

Static to Dynamic Ratios (SDR)
Estatic
Edyn X SDR
177
STATIC TO DYNAMIC YOUNG'S MODULUS

Two Correlations of Conversions
Lab Data from SPE 26561
140%
Static % of Dynamic
120%
100%
80%
0 - 14%
Porosity
60%
15 - 24%
Porosity
40%
25 - 35%
Porosity
20%
Dynamic Youngs Modulus
0%
0
4,000,000
8,000,000
12,000,000
16,000,000
From GRI Studies (Tight Gas Sands)

Dynamic Young's Modulus, millions of psi
10
0
0
Static Young's Modulus, millions of psi

178
10
STATIC TO DYNAMIC YOUNG'S MODULUS

Composite of both Correlation Studies
Static/Dynamic Ratio
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
y = -0.0003x 4 + 0.0052x 3 - 0.0203x2 + 0.0312x + 0.4765
R2 = 0.9145
0.2
0.1
0
0
10
12
Dynamic Youngs Modulus x E6 psi
The above forumula is incorporated in the spreadsheet "Rock

Properties for FracPro. It is used to calculate the static to dynamic
ratio and this ratio is then multiplied times the dynamic ratio
and converted to millios of psi.
179
Flow Chart for Youngs Calculation

Poissons
Ratio
T
Compressional
T
Shear
Dynamic
Poissons
Convert to
Static
SPE
Data
GRI
Data
Youngs for
Model
180
YOUNG'S EXERCISE # 2
Dynamic Young's modulus from Dipole Sonic (1)
Young's modulus from Sonic log Converted to Static (2)
Static to Dynamic Ratio (SDR) Based on Porosity (3)
Shale Volume
Caliper
6
Inches
16 0
Corrected GR
11300
A
B
API
100
1 0.2
SHALE
(1)
Poissons Ratio
0.4
(2)
YOUNG'S YOUNGS
DYNAMIC STATIC
(3)
SDR
SAND
Average Shale Above

_____ ______ _____
A. _____
B. _____
______
______
_____
_____
_____
_____
C. _____ ______ _____

D. _____ ______
_____
Average Shale Below
_____ ______ _____
_____
_____
C
D
11400
11500
(1)
(2)
YOUNG'S YOUNGS
DYNAMIC STATIC
E
F
G
11600
(3)
SDR
Average Shale Above

_____ ______ _____
E. _____ ______ _____
F. _____ ______ _____
G. _____ ______ _____
_____
_____
_____
11700
H. _____ ______ _____

Average Shale Below
_____ ______ _____
_____
181
YOUNG'S MODULUS INPUT TO MODEL

Using the same Layers as the Stress Profile
182
BUILDING PROFILES FOR

3-D MODELS
183
LOW PERMEABILITY GAS SANDS

Multiple Zones over a Long Interval
Objectives:
1.
Calculate the average Poisson's, dynamic young's and

permeability for each layer.
2.
Estimate pore pressure for each layer.
3.
Convert the dynamic young's to static for use in

FracProPT.
4.
Estimate the stress for each layer.
Background:
A comprehensive evaluation program was run on this well and on
an offset well. This well had the following information:
Open hole porosity, lithology, and resistivity
Full wave sonic over lower zones (bad data over pay)
Pre-frac well test - 108 ft of 0.017 md gas perm
Pre-frac pump in test with gelled fluid
Real time BHP during minifrac and main frac (dead string)
Post frac pressure transient test 435 ft frac length with 145 md-ft for kh.
The offset has all of the above along with a complete full wave sonic
and several microfracture tests.
184
185
8.5
Dynamic Youngs Modulus E6 PSI
DYNAMIC YOUNGS VS SONIC POISSON'S
DEVELOPED FROM OFFSET WELL WITH FULL WAVE SONIC
8
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
y = -21.783x + 11.364
2
R = 0.893
5
4.5
4
0.15
0.17
0.19
0.21
0.23
0.25
0.27
Poissons Ratio from Full Wave Sonic
0.29
0.31
STATIC TO DYNAMIC YOUNG'S

140%
Static % of Dynamic
120%
100%
80%
0 - 14%
Porosity
60%
15 - 24%
Porosity
40%
25 - 35%
Porosity
20%
Dynamic Youngs Modulus
0%
0
4,000,000
8,000,000
12,000,000
16,000,000
Dynamic Young's Modulus, millions of psi
10
0
4
Static Young's Modulus, millions of psi

186
10
LOG STRESS PROFILE DEVELOPMENT

Since the shear wave arrival time and the fluid wave arrival time were
close the full wave sonic data was not available over this intervals
above 6000 feet.
A correlation was established below that depth between Poissons
Ratio and the Gamma Ray shale index (GI). This correlation is shown
on the following page.
The relationship developed for Poissons ratio from the GI was:
= 0.17 + (GI .17)
X
Poisson's Ratio for:
100% Sand=________
Poisson's Ratio for:
100% Shale=________
For the calculation of GI: GR clean = 25 GR shale = 150
ADVANTAGES OF THE GAMMA RAY INDEX POISSON'S

1.
Allows the full wave sonic data to be used on wells without

full wave sonic data.
2.
Removes incoherent data if correlation is made where the

data is good.
3.
Replaces values where gas correction is needed in sand.

187
POISSON'S RATIO FROM SONIC AND GR
Where is the sonic log probably not valid?

Gamma Ray
0
188
.15
150
Sonic
Gamma Ray
.35 0
10
Edyn
FINDING STRESS LAYERS - FRAC WELL

Determine layers for stress/Young's mark on log
Gamma
Ray
Mark Layers
for
GI
GR
Stress Changes
.15
Caliper
keff
Gamma
Ray
Density Porosity
.3
Perm
.35
.001
Neutron Porosity
.1 0
Pe
10
5250
5300
5350
5400
5450
189
PERMEABILITY AND BULK VOLUME WATER

1. Determine layers for permeability and mark on log
2. Mark Pore Pressure gradient for each layer
in permeable zone Pp =.30
in impermeable zone Pp=.375
3. Where will leak off occur and mark with an X
4. What is BVI and will it produce water?
Shale
Sandstone
190
keff
Resistivity
Shale Volume
0.2
200
Eff Porosity
.1
Perm
0.001
1.0
BVW
H/C
Mark Perm
Layers
FINDING STRESS LAYERS - FRAC WELL

Using exercise on the following page :
1. Average Poisson's for zones A through F
2. Calculate stress for zone A through F
3. Average Perm for layers A through F
Gamma Ray
Gamma Ray
0
0
7.
GI GR
Caliper
150
.15
k eff
Density Porosity
.3
.35
Perm
1.
17.
.001
1.
Neutron Porosity
Pe
Label
Lithology
10
5250
5300
C
5350
5400
5450
E
F
191
DEVELOPING A STRESS PROFILE

Stress, Young's and Perm for 6 layers
1.
The log on page the previous page has been provided in digital form in the
worksheet"Case 2 Stress and Perm Profile." Below the workshop starting
at row 41 Poisson's Ratio, dynamic Young's and permeability have been
calculated using the techniques as demonstrated earlier in the workshop.
2.
The upper part of the worksheet has provided space to calculate

A. Stress from the average Poisson's, Pore Pressure, Pext and Overburden
B. Average dynamic Young's for each layer.
C. Average Permeability for each layer.
3.
For each layer, average the data from the lower part of the spreadsheet
using the past function in Excel. Since there is a formula in the averages
they must be pasted into the upper part of the spreadsheet using "paste
special values". You can use the keyboard and type "alt+edit+s+v and
then hit enter when pasting into the spreadsheet for calculations.
4.
Enter the appropriate pore pressure in each averaged layer for stress
calculations.
5.
Enter an overburden gradient of 1.09 from the density and a Pext of 0.09
6.
To convert Young's from dynamic to static read the values for dynamic
Young's and enter them in the chart on page 186. Read the appropriate
Dynamic Young's at the bottom of the chart.
7.
Put the dynamic values in the worksheet "Case 2 Stress and Perm" in
column D.
8.
The top depth of the layers, averaged Poisson's, estimated values of static
Young's, permeability and stress are ready to past into the FracProPT F9
screen. Demonstrate their input into the F9 screen using data from one of
the groups calculations.
192
STRESS PROFILE TABLE

WORK SHEET
Layer
Depth
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
5250
5254
5277
5295
5298
5335
5353
5358
5362
5383
5390
5392
5395
5399
5408
5443
5449
5453
5458
5480
B
C
E
F
Average Pressure Dynamic/Static

Poisson's Gradient Young's E6
0.285
0.375
5.7
Average
Perm. SSStress
4.0
4.6
4.3
.02
0
4.1
4.3
4.5
4.3
4.5
4.2
4.0
4.3
.002
.0
.01
.006
.008
.002
.001
.003
3.8
3.9
.001
0
3.7
/
0.198
0.246
0.300
0.375
6.9
6.4
/
/
0.247
0.228
0.209
0.236
0.216
0.245
0.263
0.228
0.375
0.375
0.300
0.375
0.375
0.375
0.375
0.375
6.0
6.4
6.8
6.2
6.7
6.0
5.6
6.4
/
0.277
0.275
0.375
0.375
5.3
5.4
/
/
0.289
0.375
5.1
3935
________
3085
3698
_________________
_________________
3746
3624
3212
3691
3570
3758
3883
3652
_________________
4021
4010
_________________
_________________
4141
193
STRESS PROFILE DEVELOPED
5200
Depth (ft)
5250
5300
5350
5400
5450
5500
3000
3200
3400
3600
3800
4000
4200
4600
Minimum Horizontal Stress (psi)
194
4800
HEIGHT, LENGTH AND WIDTH

Determined Primarily by Minimum Stress Profile
What is the Effective Frac Length and Height?
5200
Depth (ft)
5250
5300
5350
5400
5450
5500
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Length (ft)
What is the Effective Frac Width?

5200
Depth (ft)
5250
5300
5350
5400
5450
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
Length (ft)
195
FRAC X-PERT ZONING

Required FracProPT Inputs
Frac X-PERT Listing
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Fracture Closure Pressure

Estimated Static Poisson's Ratio
Corrected Pore Pressure Gradient
Estimated Static Young's Ratio
Average Permeability Meeting Pay Limits*
*May not be a calibrated "effective" permeability
1.
196
2.
4.
3.
5.
MRIL & MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Zoned by the Log Analyst
1.
2.
Mark Zones to be Fracced

Which Zones have the Greatest Permeability
197
198
FRACTURING PROBLEMS
THAT ARE
STRESS RELATED
199
ROLE OF VERTICAL STRESS DIRECTION

Creating Multiple Fractures
When the vertical stress is not parallel to the wellbore multiple

fractures may result
Critical in multiple zone completions
200
VERTICAL STRESS VS FRACTURE DIP

Multiple fractures can prevent the optimum fracture treatment
Created
Fractures
Created
Fractures
Zone A
Zone B
Vertical Stress Vector
Uses fluid volumes and proppant designed for a single fracture.

Zones can be under stimulated or had not been stimulated.
201
DEVIATION EFFECT ON LOGS

Tracer logs have a limited depth of investigation
Tracer top
Horizontal displacement as a result of dip
100 ft Depth
1 Degree Fracture Dip
1.75 ft Horizontal Offset
202
Actual fracture height
Tracer bottom
Fracture height according to tracer
Tracer limit of investigation
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CORE AND IMAGE DATA
EVIDENCE OF DEVIATED FRACTURES
Canyon SS
5o
Miller 1991
Travis Peak SS
1o - 5o
SFE 1&2
Lost Hills Diatomite*
15o
Fast 92
Spraberry SS
5.5o
DOE 1996
Mesaverde SS
Multiple fractures
in offset horizontal
core
Warpinski 1991
*Numerous case studies in the Diatomite have indicated that the created
fractures were:
- Perpendicular to the bedding planes
203
MULTIPLE ZONE COMPLETION ISSUES

Production Logs and Tracers Can be Help Resolve these Issues
1.
Should the zones be stimulated together or in separate stages?
2.
If they are stimulated in separate stages, will the treatments

communicate?
3.
What is the optimum perforation strategy?
204
PRODUCTION LOGS
TEMPERATURE & TRACER
FOR
EVALUATING TREATMENT
EFFECTIVENESS
205
PRODUCTION LOGS AND RESULTS
Comparing Production to What was Expected
1.
Volumetric reserves compared to actual results
2.
Nearby water produced (or not) after frac
3.
Were all zones fracced in a multi zone completion?
4.
Fluid placement during frac
Production Log Results
206
1.
Which zones are producing?
2.
How much production is each zone contributing?
3.
Was the fracture treatment successful?
THE BEST OF THE BUNCH!

ESTIMATED FLOW FROM OPEN HOLE LOGS
207
PRODUCTION WAS THE WORST!
1. What is not effectively treated?
2. What could be the problem?
3. Suggestions for a more effective treatment.
208
WAS THE COMPLETION EFFECTIVE?
209
TEMP CHANGE - FLUID MOVEMENT

Temperature Logs Have a Deeper Depth of Investigation
Ran while injecting
210
WHERE IS THE TOP AND THE BOTTOM?

Temperature Effects Above and Below Treatment
Shut-In Temperature (OF)
100
105
110
115
120
7000
Well Shut-In
Hours
1
2
3
Zone A
Zone B
7050
Zone C
Which Zones were Treated?

Which survey shows best definition?
211
TEMP LOG WITH TWO ZONES

Possibly Two Fractures were Created
TEMPERATURE
165
175
5800
Th
ZONE
A
TG
TG - Th = 4oF
T1
5900
Geot
6000
212
t
adien
al Gr
T2
herm
ZONE
B
TRACER - INSIDE VS OUTSIDE

Tracer material was inside the pipe and not in the fracture.
EXERCISE: INSIDE - OUTSIDE SOLUTION
FRACTURE HEIGHT
On the outside curves mark the tracer material

outside the casing.
213
MULTIPLE FRACTURE IDENTIFICATION

USING TRACER LOG
"Zero Wash" tracer with - final stage not in all zones
Conventional tracers not continuous
Tracer height less than model predicted propped fracture

height indicates deviated fracture.
214
TRACER SHOWS PROPPANT PLACEMENT
Sc- 46 First Stage
Ir-192 Final Stage
1. Why is there only the first

stage 1-4 ppg 20/40 proppant
in zones B & C?
2. The final stage 5 ppg 20/40

resin coated sand is put away
in zone A. Why do we still have
the first stage present near the
wellbore?
215
NEAR WELLBORE ENTRY PROBLEMS

THE CAUSE OF MOST PREMATURE SCREENOUTS
Perforations oriented in the

maximum stress direction will
generally have the lowest
initiation pressures.
o
70
216
TRACER RESULTS FROM A STEP RATE TEST

DOES THE TEMP LOG INDICATE MULTIPLE FRACTURES
IODINE ANTIMONY SILVER
217
MEASURED FRACTURE HEIGHT

Correlation
Rt
Perm
Porosity
Temperature vs. Tracer

WHAT IS THE TREND HERE?
100
7700
Fracture Height (ft)
80
60
40
20
7800
0
3200 5200 6400 7100 9200 9300 95009500 9600 11700
Well Depth (ft)
Temp
7900
218
Gamma Ray
RADIOACTIVE TRACER TECHNOLOGY

PROPER APPLICATIONS
There is no typical tight gas reservoir. Variations, in many cases extreme,
occur in porosity, permeability, saturation, pore pressure, in-situ stresses, etc.
which affect the optimum design and success of a hydraulic fracturing operation.
As the industry has become more comfortable with the utilization of FracPro
and other complex 3-D Fracture Modeling programs, the proper application of
radioactive tracer technology allows the design engineer to compare what are in
many cases, assumed values to input into the model, with the actual completion
results in the near wellbore region.
In a recent study of nearly 150 completions from four different basins, it
was determined that at least 40% of these completions had one or more of the
following occurrences which significantly affect the economic success of a
completion:
(1) Fracture Height greater than designed
(2) Un-stimulated Pay Intervals
(3) Under-stimulated Pay Intervals
With proper application of tracer technology, one can help confirm design
effectiveness, economic return, and the most asked question about a Completion
Where is my proppant? The proper use of "Zero Wash" radioactive tracers
will determine the following:
Proppant Distribution at the Wellbore - By placing multiple tracers
staggered throughout the frac job, one can determine whether proppant in an
interval was placed early or late in the frac sequence. Are all perforation sets
effectively propped at the wellbore? The effectiveness of a limited entry perforating
scheme can be readily identified.
Fracture Conductivity - Conductivity is a function of fracture . The
correlation between gamma ray intensity from tracers and fracture width has
been documented. An algorithm has been developed which estimates fracture
width from gamma ray intensity using the Monte Carlo method of numerical
simulation.
219
TRACER APPLICATIONS CONTINUED'

Staging Efficiency - in many cases, the need to separate a frac job into
multiple stages is apparent from tracer analysis. There may be a larger stress
or pore pressure contrast between layers than was assumed causing inefficient
stimulation in a single stage operation. Conversely, multiple stages may be
unnecessary; this can be confirmed with a properly planned tracing program.
Minimum Fracture Height - Radioactive tracers will always identify the
minimum height of the medium pumped - either hydraulic height (pad tracers)
or propped height (proppant tracers). In all but the most severe cases, this
minimum height from tracers will be equal or very close to the created fracture
height. Any time this minimum height is greater than designed, then it is likely
that the length may be less than desired.
Identifying Tortuosity - Several tracing designs have been employed to
identify the presence and determine the severity of tortuosity. Changing tracers
after the first 5 - 10% of the job volume has been pumped and tracing of
proppant slugs have both been employed successfully to determine the degree
to which tortuosity affects the completion. Observations can be made about the
effect of perforation phasing, orientation and shot density on reducing the
impact of near wellbore tortuosity.
Proppant Settling - The effects of proppant settling below the perforated
interval or out of the desired zone can be seen from radioactive tracers.
Proppant transport issues such as convection may also be deduced from careful
analysis of tracer logs.
Diversion Effectiveness - An ideal use of tracers is to change isotopes
each time a new diverter stage is pumped to see if the next component is
entering the same interval or diverting into new intervals. Tracers are used
successfully to determine the effectiveness of various diverters and ball sealers
in fracturing and acidizing operations.
As with all other technologies, to be beneficial, tracers must be applied
properly and interpreted correctly to be most useful. Radioactive tracers are
today used extensively for verification of fracture modeling results, as well as in
determining completion effectiveness and economic viability of a reservoir.
220
APPLYING STRESS AND PERM

STIM DESIGN
IN MULTIPLE ZONES
221
MULTIPLE ZONE COMPLETION ISSUES
1. Should the zones be stimulated together or in separate stages?
2. Will treatments be redundant if treated separately?
3. What is the optimum perforation strategy?
222
FORMULA FOR SUCCESS
Reservoir Quality
x Effective Stimulation
= Maximum Production
223
WERE DESIRED RESULTS ACHIEVED?

Were zones effectively treated
Early and late

proppants were tagged
with two different
isotopes
224

Was desired length achieved?
How much money was left in the ground?
225

Is production as predicted or expected?
Was this completion effective?
226
CRITICAL INPUT DATA

FOR MULTIPLE ZONE COMPLETION OPTIMIZATION
Vertical in-situ stress orientation with respect to the wellbore.
Horizontal in-situ stress azimuth and distribution.
Permeability profile.
227
LIMITED INTERVAL CASE STUDY

Where is the Permeability?
Rt
Perm
Correlation
7700
7800
7900
228
Porosity
LIMITED INTERVAL PERFORATED WELL

VERSUS OFFSET AVERAGE PRODUCTION
BOPM
EUR 150 MBO
EUR 110 MBO
Months of Production
Offset Wells - One stage 275 feet

7645 - 7920 (limited entry)
Optimized Well
- Two stages 10 feet each

7834-45 and 7695-7705 (limited interval)
229
PRODUCTION RESULTS
Comparing Production to What was Expected
1.
Volumetric reserves compared to actual results
2.
Nearby water produced (or not) after frac
3.
Were all zones fracced in a multi zone completion?
4.
Fluid placement during frac (particularly final stage)
Production Log Results
230
1.
Which zones are producing?
2.
How much production is each zone contributing?
3.
Was the fracture treatment successful?
WHY DO OPERATORS COMPLETE

MULTIPLE ZONES SIMULTANEOUSLY?
Limited entry completions are more effective than unlimited entry
completions in treating large intervals.
A comfort factor with 3-D fracture model predictions of propped

height growth is required prior to implementing reduced interval
perforating.
COMPLETION RECOMMENDATIONS
STAGING OPTIONS
Treat all major pay zones separately.
Drain minor pay zones using a propped hydraulic fracture

initiated from major pay zone perforations.
Integrate tracers with 3-D model propped height predictions to

determine if multiple stage treatments will communicate.
231
MINIFRAC SPINNER WELL

Rank zones by % of kh
Lithology
Resistivity
Porosity
Porosity
Perm
Poisson's
A. ___
B. ___
C. ___
.001
232
0.1
SPINNER INFLOW BY ZONE

Which zone took the most of the MiniFrac?
Upper Zones %
Lower Zones %
35%
85%
30%
25%
80%
20%
Lower Sand
15%
Upper 2 Sands
75%
10%
5%
0%
70%
5
10
Rate BPM
15
233
COMPLETION RECOMMENDATIONS
PERF TECHNIQUES
Perforate the minimum interval possible with perfs no more than
2 feet apart in the maximum stress plane.
4 wellbore diameters has been proposed as the maximum

perforated interval in deviated wellbores.
In most cases, 45, 60, or 120 degree phasing is optimum, although

120 has the advantage of providing fewer entry points.
Zero degree and 180 degree phasing have been used with success
in some areas
180 degree phasing is preferred when perfs can be oriented in the

direction of the maximum horizontal stress.
234
EXERCISE: PERF AND STAGE SELECTION
The vertical stress and the wellbore are not parallel.
Use the stress profile and permeability log on the following pages.
Determine:
1. Which zones are permeable and productive
2. Perforation Strategy
A. Length of perforation interval
B. Phasing of perforations
3. Number of stages for fracture treatment
235
SPRINGER SAND STRESS PROFILE
18400
18500
18600
17000
236
18000
19000
20000
SPRINGER SAND PERMEABILITY

GR/Cal
Lithology
Rt
Perm
Porosity
18400
18500
18600
237
OPTIMIZATION WORKSHEET
SPRINGER SAND EXERCISE
Perforation Interval
238
Frac Stage Number
PERFORMANCE COMPARISON
Optimized Well VS Two Nearest Offsets
FIRST 9 MONTHS OF PRODUCTION

Net Revenue
$7.7 million
Production History
17.9 mmcfpd
Initial Reservoir Pressure

Feet of Gross Pay
Average Daily Production (mmcf)
9 Month Net Revenue*
Optimized Well
13,400
171
17.9
$7,736,064
Offset A
14,500
131
2.8
$1,101,798
Offset B
16,000
130
2.8
$1,339,716
*Assumes $2.00/MCF and 80% NRI
239
SPRINGER SAND CASE STUDY
Offset wells completed all major pay sands in one stage
Optimized well used permeability and stress profiles to help design

the treatment .
Treatment was conducted in three stages with a maximum of 10

feet of perforations per stage.
Production was increased 5 fold per foot of gross interval

compared to the two offsets.
240
COMPLETION OPTIMIZATION
Reserve recovery can be increased substantially by selectively

completing multiple zones.
The optimum completion strategy can be determined from the

in-situ stress and permeability profiles obtained economically
from readily available data.
241
ORIGINAL TREATMENT RESULTS

Top perfs ineffectively treated
242
SUCCESSFUL REFRAC TREATMENT
243
RESULTS IMPROVE AFTER REFRAC

Increased production and sharply reduced decline
244
SELECTIVE COMPLETIONS
Demonstrating Increased Recoverable Reserves
Ely
1000+ treatments in a wide variety of formations
Schubarth
Moxa Arch Frontier- 25% More Production
Stadulis
Red Fork/Canyon SS
Kubelka
Cotton Valley- Dramatic Production Increases
Mack Energy One zone producing 4 X as much as 2 zones

South Texas
Wilcox - $8 Million more recoverable reserves
Knowles
Springer - 5 X the production per foot of pay
Barba
Permian Sand - 41K BO Increase of EUR
Barba &
Praznik
Cotton Valley - Avg. Production 55% Higher

Over 21 Months
245
246
CEMENT INTEGRITY
CONSULTANTS
704 Sage Brush RD

YUKON, OK 73099
405 324-5828
FAX 324-2360
GWBConsult@cs.com
NEED FOR CEMENT INTEGRITY

A. PREVENT PRODUCTION OF UNWANTED FLUIDS
B. INCREASE TREATMENT EFFECTIVNESS
C. CASING PROTECTION
D. CHECK SQUEEZE EFFECTIVNESS
STEPS FOR OBTAINING USEFUL

INFORMATION
A. PROPER EQUIPMENT SELECTION AND CALIBRATION

B. QUALITY CONTROL INCLUDING MICRO ANNULUS CHECK
C. CORRECT INTERPRETATION - USE VDL FIRST ON CBL
CEMENT BOND
VARIABLE DENSITY LOG
CBL THEORY
Formation
CBL
Casing
Cement
CBL PRINCIPLE
The Cement Bond Log (CBL) measures the changes that occur to a sound wave that
has travelled through the casing, cement and formation. The sound wave is emitted
by the tool itself.
The principle changes (attenuation) occurring to the sound signal are to its amplitude
or "strength" and the detected travel time.
CBL PRINCIPLES
NO CEMENT
E3
E1
T
3'
5'
Mud
R
R
E2
GOOD MUD REMOVAL
Cement
T
5'
3'
R
E1 E3
E2
Free Pipe (no cement)
No attenuation of sound
Some Cement (poor mud removal)
Partially attenuates sound
Good Cement (good mud removal)
Attenuates sound
CBL AMPLITUDE AND TRANSIT TIME

Amplitude
Poor Mud
Removal
E1
Time
Transmitter
Firing
Good Mud
Removal
E3
Amplitude
E1
TT
Detection Level
Time
CBL Time
Window
E2
TRANSIT TIME MEASUREMENT

Amplitude
Detection
Level
E1
Time
Transmitter
Firing
Transit Time
(tt)
CYCLE STRETCH
E3
E1
Free
Pipe
T0
Detection Level
Bonded
Pipe
T0
E1
E2 E3
E2
Specific Time Stretch
CYCLE SKIPPING
First Arrival Time at Receiver
Detection
Level
Skipped
Cycle
TT(
S) = 3FT X 57(
S/FT) + (CASING ID - TOOL OD)(FT) X FLUID SLOWNESS (
S/FT)
QUALITY CONTROL ISSUES

TYPICAL CBL TOOL
1. TRANSMITTER - RECEIVER SPACING
2. SONDE CENTRALIZATION
Casing
Cement
Formation
3' Receiver - Amplitude

(Pipe)
Travel Time
5' Receiver - Seismic
Spectrum/VDL
MSG/Wavetrain
Centralizer
SONIC WAVE PATHS

Casing
Cement
Transmitter
Formation
5'
Receiver
Mud
Transmitter
Pulse
Signal at
Receiver
Mud
Casing
Cement
Formation
E1
Composite
Time
PRINCIPLE OF VDL
Amplitude
mV
Transmitter
Casing
Arrivals
Formation
Arrivals
Mud
Arrivals
E1
time (
( sec)
The entire composite waveform at the 5' receiver is converted into the Variable
Density Log or VDL. With the E1 detection, strong positive signals appear as dark
bands; strong negative signals are bright white and intermediate strength are various
shades of gray. The 5' receiver is used for the VDL because it has the best formation
to casing signal ratio.
10
GAMMA RAY
VARIABLE DENSITY
WAVEFORM
11
TYPICAL CEMENT BOND LOG

Transit Time
(
sec)
400
200
Gamma Ray
0
12
100
3-Foot Receiver
Amplitude (millivolts)
Good Bond
Fair Bond
100
0
5-Foot Receiver
20 200
VDL (
sec)
1200
CEMENT BOND TOOL DESCRIPTIONS

SINGLE AND DUAL RECEIVERS
T/R
OD(in) SACING BASELINE
GATING
(ft)
COMPANY
MODEL
ATLAS
(MCCULLOUGH)
DRB
SRB*
3 3/8
1 3/4
3, 5
5
E1
E1
HLS
CBL-(G)
CBL-271
CBL-304*
CBL-305
CBL-307*
3 1/4
3 3/8
2 1/8
3 5/8
3 1/2
3, 5
3, 5
4
3, 5
4
E2 LIGHT
E2
E1
E1
E1
SLT-M
3 3/8,
3 5/8
1 11/16,
2 1/8
3, 5
3, 5
3, 5
3, 5
E1
E1
SCHLUMBERGER
WEDGE
SLT-J
DUAL RECEIVER CBL

HIGH TEMP CBL*
3 1/2
2,
2 1/4
3, 5
3, 5
E2
E2
13
SUMMARY OF QUALITATIVE INTERPRETATION

GUIDLINES
CEMENT CONDITION
AMPLITUDE SINGLE RECEIVER
VDL
No mud removal
High
T at baseline
Casing arrivals
(bright parallel
lines)
Complete mud removal
Low
Greater than
T at baseline
Varing formation
arrivals
Mud removed on pipe but

not formation and/or
acoustically weak formation
Low
T at baseline
Weak to no signals
Channeling*
(Partial mud removal)
Medium
T at baseline
Generally both
casing and formation
arrivals
Micro annulus
Medium
to high
T at baseline
Generally both
casing and formation
arrivals
Micro annulus
log run under pressure
Low
(lower than above)
T at baseline
Generally formation
arrivals only
(depends on amount
of pressure applied)
Fast formation
High to
medium
Less than T
at baseline
(sometimes)
Varing formation
arrivals. May appear
like casing arrivals
Tool off center

mud not removed
Low
Less than T
at baseline
(sometimes)
Casing arrivals
possibly lighter
in color
Tool off center
Verify by checking amplitude repeatability

(Both main log and repeat should be identical)
*NOTE: Channeling will not change values under pressure
14
FREE PIPE
Transit Time
3-Foot Receiver
(
sec)
400
200
Gamma Ray
0
100
5-Foot Receiver
100
VDL (
sec)
20 200
1200
Signature
200 400 600 800 1000
Casing Travel Time

EXERCISE: CBL TRANSMITTER RECEIVER SPACING
DETERMINE THE SPACING FOR:
THE AMPLITUDE CURVE ___________
THE VARIABLE DENSITY ___________
WHAT IS THE BASELINE TRAVEL TIME? ___________
15
GOOD MUD REMOVAL BETWEEN THE

CASING AND FORMATION
Signature
0
200 400 600 800 1000
Casing Travel Time
Transit Time
3-Foot Receiver
(
sec)
400
200
Gamma Ray
0
16
100
5-Foot Receiver
100
VDL (
sec)
0
20 200
1200
NO FORMATION BOND OR POOR

ACOUSTIC TRANSMITTER
Signature
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Casing Travel Time
Whenever good mud removal exists, the pipe portion of the composite signal will
have a low amplitude. If there is little or no mud removal on the formation or if the
formation is a poor acoustic transmitter, that portion of the signal will be reduced.
Hence, the VDL signal will be light in color. Unconsolidated formations, shales and
fractured formations will often be poor acoustic transmitters.
Gulf Coast (High Porosity)
Hard Rock (Low Porosity)
17
EXERCISE: COMMUNICATION PATHS
POOR MUD
REMOVAL
POOR MUD
REMOVAL
VERTICAL
PERMEABILITY
IN THE
FORMATION
Possible paths through which communication may occur
WHICH PATH CAN BE DETECTED BY USING A CEMENT BOND LOG?

A __________
18
B __________
C __________
CHANNELED CEMENT EXERCISE

Variable Density
In the case of channeling, a portion of the casing at the

channel behaves like free pipe. That is, it has a high E 1
and the characteristic straight lines on the VDL. The
remainder of the circumference of the pipe has a low
E1 amplitude and is acoustically coupled to the rocks.
Hence it is characterized on the VDL by a combination of both straight and wavy lines.
USING CBL LOG FIND TWO

CHANNELS ON THE LOG AND MARK
THEM WITH YOUR HIGHLIGHTER
Transit Time
(
sec)
400
5-Foot Receiver
3-Foot Receiver
Amplitude (mv)
200
100
VDL (
sec)
Good Bond
Fair Bond
Gamma Ray
0
Amplitude (mv)
100
0
20
200
1200
19
MICRO ANNULUS
THE #1 CAUSE OF MISINTERPRETATION
FORMATION
CASING
CEMENT
.001 - .004 inch
VDL (
sec)
Amplitude (mv)
100
200
1200
FORMATION
CEMENT
CASING
WHAT ARE THE CAUSES OF A MICRO ANNULUS?
1. ___________________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________________________________
6. ___________________________________________________________________
7. ___________________________________________________________________
8. ___________________________________________________________________
9. ___________________________________________________________________
20
MICRO ANNULUS
Logged with 1000 PSI
Logged with 0 PSI

(
sec)
400
5-Foot Receiver
3-Foot Receiver
Amplitude (mv)
Transit Time
200
0
(
sec)
400
100
5-Foot Receiver
200
VDL (sec)
Gamma Ray
0
3-Foot Receiver
Amplitude (mv)
Transit Time
100
VDL (sec)
Gamma Ray
100
Amplitude (mv)
0
20 200
100
1200
Amplitude (mv)
0
20 200
1200
0 PSI
1000 PSI
21
EXPANSION OF PIPE DIAMETER VS

INTERNAL PRESSURE
0.1
Inches
.01
.001
.0001
100
1000
Pressure (psi)
Key
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
22
in
2 7/8
5 1/2
4 1/2
5 1/2
7
8 5/8
7
8 5/8
8 5/8
10 3/4
Wt. (lb)
6.4
23.0
11.6
17.0
29.0
36.0
23.0
36.0
32.0
45.5
Note: Curves valid to yield point
10000
23
0.0
200.00
100.00
Gamma Ray
400.00
Transit Time (
sec)
20.000
0.0
100.00
0.0
3-Foot Receiver
200.00
VDL (
sec)
1200
5-Foot Receiver
LOGGED WITH 0 PSI
0.0
200.00
100.00
Gamma Ray
400.00
Transit Time (
sec)
20.000
0.0
VDL (
sec)
1200
5-Foot Receiver
100.00 200.00
0.0
3-Foot Receiver
LOGGED WITH 1500 PSI
EXERCISE: FIND AND MARK THE MICRO ANNULUS
FAST FORMATIONS
TYPICAL VELOCITY VALUES
Material
Non-porous
solids
Anhydrite
Calcite
Cement (cured)
Dolomite
Granite
Gypsum
Limestone
Quartz
Salt
Steel (infinite thickness)
Casing
t
(
sec/ft)
vp (ft/sec)
50.0
49.7
83.3
43.5
50.7
52.6
47.6
52.9
66.6
50.0
57.0
20,000
20,100
12,000
23,000
19,700
19,000
21,000
18,900
15,000
20,000
17,500
Signature
0
200
400
600 800 1000
Variable Density
200
Casing Travel Time
THESE FORMATIONS WILL BE LOW POROSITY

LIMESTONES OR DOLOMITES
24
1200
RECOGNIZING FAST FORMATIONS

IDENTIFYING RESULTS OF FAST
FORMATIONS:
Fast Formation
Normal Signal
T Level
1. TRAVEL TIME EQUAL TO OR

SHORTER THAN BASELINE
2. AMPLITUDES LOW TO HIGH
3. STRONG UNIFORM VDL
4. OPEN HOLE LOGS INDICATING
LOW POROSITY
Amplitude Gate
Transit Time
3-Foot Receiver
(
sec)
400
200
Gamma Ray
0
100
Good Bond
Fair Bond
100
0
5-Foot Receiver
20 200
VDL (
sec)
1200
25
EXERCISE: FAST FORMATIONS ON CBL

FIND AND MARK THE AREA(S) OF FAST FORMATION
Transit Time (
sec)
400.00
200.00
3-Foot Receiver
0.0
20.000
Gamma Ray
0.0
100.00
0.0
VDL (
sec)
1200
100.00 200.00
Poor Cement-toFormation Bond

Highly Fractured
Gas?
8000
Minnekahta
Casing E1
Arrival Time
Opeche
Shale
Minnelusa
8100
26
5-Foot Receiver
EFFECTS OF A CBL OFF CENTER

Amplitude
Tool Centered
t
Detection Level
Tool Eccentered
Time
Transit Time t
Eccentering
Effect on t
IN FREE PIPE, ECCENTERING CAN BE DETECTED BY TRAVEL LESS THAN BASELINE,
WHILE THE VDL SHOWS FREE PIPE.
Tool Eccentered
IN THE ZONE OF INTEREST, ECCENTERING CAN BE DETECTED BY COMPARING THE

REPEAT SECTION WITH THE MAIN LOG. WHEN A TOOL IS CENTERED, THEY SHOULD
REPEAT EXACTLY. (On the 100 MV Scale)
Transit Time
(sec)
400
3-Foot Receiver
200
5-Foot Receiver
Amplitude (mv)
0
100
VDL ( sec)
Gamma Ray
0
100
Amplitude (mv)
0
ECCENTERING
EFFECTS
20 200
1200
T BASELINE
27
AMPLITUDE REDUCTION
DUE TO TOOL CENTERING
EXERCISE: ON THE LOG FIND AND MARK THE PLACES
WHERE TOOL ECCENTERING HAS OCCURRED.
Transit Time
400
(sec)
3-Foot Receiver
200
5-Foot Receiver
100
Gamma Ray
0
100
0
VDL (sec)
20 200
Measured Travel Time
Measured Amplitude
Expected Travel
Time
28
Expected Amplitude
1200
OTHER FACTORS ON CBL AMPLITUDE

The bond index is a function of % bond ONLY IF
all of the following conditions are constant all around
the casing and up and down the entire interval:
1. No changes in cement compressive strength

2. No changes in cement thickness
3. No cement less than 3/4" thick
4. No cement on the inside of the casing or rough coat on the outside
5. The casing is not in contact with the formation
6. The fluid inside the casing does not change
7. The casing wall thickness does not change
8. There are not formation arrivals in the amplitude gate (fast formation)
9. A transmitter or receiver on the CBL doesn't change sensitivity
10. The CBL tool is well centralized (a 1/4" off center could reduce the signal by 50%)
11. There is no gas contamination of the cement
29
BOND INDEX THEORY

THEORETICAL AMPLITUDE RESPONSE IN A CHANNEL
100
Attentuation Rate (%)
80
60
(%)
40
Casing
Cement
20
No Cement or
Cement Not Bonded
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Circumference Bonded (%)
BOND INDEX =
30
ATTENUATION in zone of interest (db/ft)

ATTENUATION in well cemented zone (db/ft)
CHART FOR FINDING ATTENUATION

USED IN COMPUTING BOND INDEX
31
CEMENT BOND LOG

GAMMA RAY
0
TT3 (
sec)
400
100
FREE PIPE AMPLITUDE

IS 70mv ON THIS WELL LOGGED W/ 1500 PSI
200
0 AMPLITUDE - MV 100
TENSION
5000
15000
32
AMPLITUDE X5
20 200 SPECTRUM 1200
PULSE ECHO TOOL (PET)

HALLIBURTON LOGGING
0
GR API
100
4.0
M DIA
6.0
150
FLUID T.T.
8000
CS-G
-2000
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
0.0
DEV (DEG)
30.0
-----------------------------------BOND
0
RB (DEG)
720
8000
8000
250
CSMN
CSMX
-2000
-2000
LOGGED WITH
1500 PSI
15000
33
POSSIBLE INTERPRETATION PROBLEMS

EXERCISE: FILL IN THE SOLUTIONS
Micro annulus - A very small gap between the cement and casing
Symptom
Causes amplitutde to increase, attenuation to decrease (looks like bad
bond) but will isolate fluids
Cause
Cement contraction or hydrostatic head reduction
Solution
Eccentering - Tool becomes eccentered in the casing

Symptom
Bond looks better than it should (transit time too fast)
Cause
Not enough centralizers on tool
Solution
Thin cement (less than 3/4")

Symptom
Bond looks worse than true
Cause
Ex centered casing or tight hole
Solution
34
POSSIBLE INTERPRETATION PROBLEMS

EXERCISE: FILL IN THE SOLUTIONS
Fast formation
Symptom
Bond looks bad or erratic, transit time too fast
Cause
Rock transit time faster than casing, amplitude, attenuation invalid
Solution
Cement on inside of pipe

Symptom
Bond looks good, transit time and tension erratic
Cause
No pipe trip made
Solution
Green cement - Cement not completely set

Symptom
Bond looks poor, but formation arrivals visable
Cause
Cement retarded or not enough WOC to completely set
Solution
35
SUMMARY OF LOG INTERPRETATION

Cement Bond Logs (CBL)
1. Travel Time Curve - Single receiver travel time used to determine eccentering
or fast formations. Base line for a given tool and casing size.
2. Amplitude Curve (not a percent)
a. Very low amplitude indicates good mud removal
b. Very high amplitude indicates poor mud removal or free pipe
c. A well centered tool will repeat very closely
d. An amplified amplitude curve is a more sensitive scale
3. Variable Density Display (MSG, etc.)
a. Most reliable information on CBL
b. Pipe signals first to arrive are characterized by straight lines
c. Formation signals arrive later and are characterized by changes in travel
time (wiggly lines)
d. Fast formation signals may be straight but slightly different in character
to casing signals and usually can be seen shifting to the left on the VDL
4. All 3 pieces of information must be used for a proper interpretation. Was it
run under pressure?
5. A channel is a problem only if it does not isolate
CONSIDERATIONS FOR A SQUEEZE DETERMINATION

1. General condition of the cement
a. Do channels exist?
b. Do channels connect what we are trying to isolate?
c. Is cement low compressive strength (mud contaminated)?
d. Is cement gas cut?
2. Where are the zones of interest?
3. What is the relative permeability and porosity of the zones to isolate.
Which way will cement go if squeezed?
4. What kind of stimulation is the well going to require?
36
QUICK GUIDELINES FOR CEMENT BOND LOGS

Equipment Selection
1. Use 3" or larger tool when casing sizes allow
2. The transmitter-receiver spacing for the amplitude measurement must be 3' and 5' for the
variable density.
3. When deviation problems, fluid changes or fast formations are expected, a compensated tool
would be preferred.
4. When casing sizes are larger than 8 5/8", then the Segmented Bond Tool would be preferred.
Operating Procedures
1. Be prepared to rerun the log under pressure (eliminate micro annulus effect).
2. Run with sufficient centralizers to prevent off-center problems. Check travel time versus
amplitude in free pipe and exact repeatability.
3. Run a minimum of 200' in free pipe when available.
4. Run minimum of 200' of repeat section over the zone of interest. (May not be the bottom
200')
5. If cycle skipping occurs above 4 millivolts, slow down logging speed. If necessary, replace
the equipment.
6. A hole full of fluid would be preferred. A CBL tool will not operate with gas percolating in
the fluid.
7. Record cement information, tool sizes and centralizers, casing info (DV Tool), etc. on the
heading of the log.
Interpretation
1. Check 3' and 5' spacings in free pipe.
2. Confirm exact repeatability in the zone of interest (at the same pressure). Confirm no travel
times shorter than baseline in free pipe.
4. Eliminate micro annulus by looking for changes in the amplitude curve when re-run under
pressure. Any amplitude changes indicate a micro annulus (good cement)!
5. If the amplitude has not changed, it is a channel.
6. Obtain information to determine when isolation is needed. Open hole logs are the best
source. If the channel exists across two areas to be isolated, this is a cement problem.
7. Use travel time curve and comparison of the variable density in free pipe to detect fast formations. These will often exhibit high amplitudes, but they are considered to be good cement.
8. Use the amplitude or attenuation curves as a confirmation of interpretation using the above
methods.
37
CEMENT INTEGRITY EVALUATION

TOOL SYSTEM COMPARISON
CBLS1
COMPENSATED CBL
(CBT,BAL,BAS,RBT)1,2
PAD TOOL
(SBT)1,2
CENTRALIZATION
Very critical
Can tolerate
up to .1"
Critical
Can tolerate
up to .3"
Not a factor unless

lose contact
(high deviations)
BOREHOLE
FLUID EFFECTS
Minimal
unless gas cut
Not affected
unless gas cut
Negligible- unless
gas cut
MICRO ANNULUS
Severely affected
Severely affected
Severely affected
FAST
FORMATIONS
Severely affected
Moderately affected
minimized by closer
T/R spacing
Approx 1'
Moderately affected
minimized by closer
T/R spacing
Approx 5"
CHANNEL
DETECTION
Detection difficult
due to circumferential
averaging
Difficult to detect due

to circumferential
averaging
More easily identified

over 60o segments
GAS CUT
CEMENT
Minimal
has to be severe
Minimal
has to be severe
Minimal
has to be severe
RADIAL
RESOLUTION
Average over 360o
Average over 360o
Average of 60o
OPERATIONAL
SENSITIVITY
Very sensitive
a lot of quality
control required
Less quality control

required
Different quality control

issues (gating)
Acoustic Log
2
New Generation Log
38
CEMENT INTEGRITY EVALUATION

TOOL SYSTEM COMPARISON
USI2,3
CAST-V
RADIAL/SECTOR
BOND TOOLS1,2
ULTRASONIC
(CET, PET)2,3
CENTRALIZATION
Critical can tolerate

up to 0.25"
Less affected
Lighter, shorter and
easier to centralize.
Can tolerate up to
1mm/in of casing ID
BOREHOLE
FLUID EFFECTS
Minimal unless
gas cut
Severely affected by
Mud (13PPG water
based mud) 11PPG oil
based. Hvy mud kits avail.
16 PPG? Any
Fluid not as
affected by gas
MICRO ANNULUS
Severely affected
Less affected
exaggerated if gas in
micro annulus
Less
FAST
FORMATIONS
Moderately affected
T/R spacing 2'
Use 8 T-T curves
Minimal effect
PET less affected than
CET but can be verified
w/gas flags or VDL
None?
CHANNEL
DETECTION
More easily identified

over 450 segment
More easily identifiable

than Pad tool segments
(CET, PET) - 45o
50
segments
100 Meas.
GAS CUT
CEMENT
Minimal has to
be severe
Severely affected - can be

detected when used with
CBL Cement Scan (CET)
clarifies interpretation
RADIAL
RESOLUTION
Average over 450

minimum
8 single point calculations

(45o) on CET, PET - 72
single point calculations
OPERATIONAL
SENSITIVITY
Very sensitive
quality control required
Gate setting
(50) on USI
3.60 CAST-V
Acoustic Log
New Generation Log
3
Ultrasonic Log
2
39
40
NEW GENERATION
CEMENT INTEGRITY LOGS
41
BOREHOLE COMPENSATED CBL LOGS
CEMENT BOND TOOL (CBT) - SWS

RATIO BOND TOOL (RBT) - HLS
BOND ATTENUATION LOG (BAL) - ATLAS
BOREHOLE COMPENSATED ADVANTAGES

ELIMINATES
FLUID EFFECTS
TRANSDUCER SENSITIVITY
TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS
MINIMIZES
SONDE ECCENTRALIZATION
FAST FORMATION ARRIVALS
42
COMPENSATED CBL TOOLS
T1
T1
Attenuation 1 =
R1
R2
R1
Attenuation 2 =
20 Log
A12
A11
20 Log
A21
A22
R3
R2
T2
Attenuation 3 =
10 Log
A12 A21
A11A22
T2
WHAT IS THE SPACING

D? _____
43
CBT LOG CURVES
AMPLITUDE (NCBL, DCBL)

Indicates strength of E1 signal at receiver
Good cement: low amplitudes
Free pipe: high amplitudes
Marginal mud removal or channeling: medium amplitude
ATTENUATION (DATN, ATTN, NATN, SATN)

Computed from ratio of the amplitudes
Good cement: high attenuations
Free pipe: low (zero) attenuation
BOND INDEX (BI, NBI)

Computed % bond
VARIABLE DENSITY LOG (VDL)

Used to determine if cement to formation acoustic exists
Good mud removal: gray to formations, arrivals will follow the gamma ray
Free pipe: solid dark E1, chevron patterns in collars, no formation arrivals
TRANSIT TIME
Used as a quality check to make sure tool is centralized
Should remain constant unless tool is eccentered
Helps detect fast formations
44
ILLUSTRATING CBT CURVES
80 % BOND
INDEX
NATN-2.4
ATTENUATION
2.4, RECEIVER
TRANSIT TIME
GAMMA RAY
BOND INDEX
FROM DATN
DATN
DISCRIMINATED
ATTENUATION
45
CBT LOG
EXERCISE: DETERMINE THE MAXIMUM ATTENUATION ON THIS LOG.
IS THAT AMOUNT OF ATTENUATION ENOUGH FOR ISOLATION?
GR (GAP1)
0
TT1 (US)
300
100
NATN (DB/F)
200
20
300
46
0
DATN (DB/F)
TT2 (US)
200
20
0 200
VDL (
s)
1200
BOND ATTENUATION LOG

EXERCISE: FIND THE ATTENUATION RATE IN FREE PIPE ________
WHY IS THE ATTENUATION RATE SO LOW AT 8442-50?
GAMMA RAY
NORMAL ATTENUATION
API
._._._._._._._DB/FT
._._._._._._._._._
100
20
TRAVEL TIME
ms
290
190
PEAK AMPLITUDE
MV
100
_._._._._._._._x 5
.AMPLIFIED
0
MV
VDL
( sec)
10
200
1200
FAST
FORMATION
47
THE NEED FOR NON AVERAGING TOOLS
THESE TWO CEMENT CONDITIONS WOULD LOOK THE

SAME ON AN AMPLITUDE OR AN ATTENUATION CURVE.
HOW CAN YOU TELL THE DIFFERENCE ON A VDL ?
48
PAD TYPE CEMENT DEVICE

SEGMENTED BOND TOOL - ATLAS
THIS TOOL AVERAGES

OVER 60 DEGREES
RATHER THAN 360
49
SEGMENTED BOND TOOL
PRIMARY
MINIMUM
ATTENUATION
AVERAGE
ATTENUATION
20.00
100
API
50
0.0
AMPLITUDE
0.00
100.00
MV
VARIABLE
ATTENUATION
CC
ATTENUATION
DB
0 |___|___|___| 21
1200
US
DB
VARIABLE
DENSITY
0.0 200
20.0
GAMMA RAY
SEGMENTED ARRAY
2.8
8.4
5.5
11.2
0
TOOL AZIMUTH
DEGREES
360
SEGMENTED BOND TOOL

IN A TEST WELL
MINIMUM
ATTENUATION
20.0
0.0 200
DB/FT
VARIABLE
ATTENUATION
VARIABLE
DENSITY
DB/FT
6.0
300
CPS
0 |___|___|___| 21
12.7
100
9.3
MV
16.0
0
AMPLITUDE x 5
GAMMA RAY
ATTENUATION
1200
US
AMPLITUDE
0
CC
TOOL AZIMUTH
360
DEGREES
20
MV
EXERCISE: FIND THE MINIMUM ATTENUATION RATE FOR EACH

CHANNEL.
A _____ B _____ C _____
Which channel appears to have the largest circumference?
51
RADIAL AND SECTOR BOND TOOLS

WEDGE WIRELINE AND COMPUTULOG
450
Cement Bond Log
MONOPOLE
& SECTOR
TRANSMITTERS
15 deg
chan.
24.0"
450
36.0"
8 Radial Amplitudes
SECTOR
RECEIVERS
60.0"
3 FOOT
RECEIVER
Cement Maps
5 FOOT
RECEIVER
52
EPA TEST WELL COMPARISON

CET PET AND RADIAL BOND TOOL DISPLAYS
O
THESE MAN MADE CHANNELS ARE 30 CIRCUMFERENCE OR LARGER
53
SECTOR BOND TOOL LOG
54
ULTRASONIC CEMENT DEVICES
CET, PET AND USI
55
ULTRASONIC CEMENT DEVICES

CEMENT EVALUATION TOOL (CET) SWS
PULSE ECHO TOOL (PET) HLS
Casing
Ultrasonic Transducer
Cement
Formation
Transmit Mode
Reference Transducer
Receive Mode
56
RADIAL INVESTIGATION
Easier Channel Detection
DIAMETER AND THICKNESS AVAILABLE
2
3
CET
4
Mud filled Channel
Casing Inspection Capabilities
Thickness
Radius
Cement
Casing
57
ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE
Z1 = 11
Incident
Z2 = 22
Transmitted
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Reflected
ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE
58
TYPICAL ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCES

OF SOME OIL WELL MATERIALS
Z = Sound Velocity x Density

6
Unit: 10 kg/m -sec = Mrayl (Mega-Rayleigh)
Zgas
0.1
Zwater
1.5
Zmud
2.4 (density = 1.6 gm/cc)
Zslurry
2.6 (C.S. = 0 psi)
Zcement
5.0 (C.S. 4000 psi)
Zsandstone =
17.0 (
= 30%)
Zsteel
40
>
59
CEMENT INFORMATION
CSMX (PSI)
10000
0.0
CSMN (PSI)
10000
0.0
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
CEMENT MAP
WWM
0.0
2.0
Maxiumm
Compressive
Strength
WWM
Minimum
Compressive
Strength
*WWM (WINDOW WINDOW MEAN) - Represents the average acoustic

impedance seen by the tool. It is an indicator of cement quality.
CIRCUMFERENTIAL CEMENT MAP - Pictorial representaion (360 degrees ) of
cement quality.
MINIMUM & MAXIMUM COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH - Gives the range of
compressive strength in PSI of the cement behind the casing.
*FORMATION FLAGS / GAS FLAGS - Formation flags indicate energy reflections
that are seen at same time interval that signals from the casing arrive. Gas flags
indicate free gas behind the casing.
*Only on Schlumberger's Cement Evaluation Log
60
HOLE DIRECTION INFORMATION

DEVI (DEG)
0.0
20.0
RB (DEG)
0.0
360.0
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
CEMENT MAP
Deviation
Relative
Bearing
DEVIATION - Number of degrees from verticle

RELATIVE BEARING - This is the direction recorded with reference to the first (no.
1) transducer.
61
CASING INFORMATION
0.0
OVAL (IN)
0.5000
CCLU (IN)
-0.950
0.0500
ECCE (IN)
0.0
0.5000
CALU (IN)
3.5000
4.5000
Eccentering
Mean Diameter
Ovality
Collars
ECCENTRICITY - Measures the amount of tool eccentering.

ULTRASONIC CALIPER - Measures mean diameter of the casing.
FLUID VELOCITY (FVEL) - A ninth transduces fires at a fixed plate, FVEL is
derived.
62
USES OF ULTRASONIC CALIPERS
CET
or
PET
CASING
Dmax - Dmin = OVALITY

DIAmin
DIAmax
CET
or
PET
CASING
ECCENTRICITY
R1
R1 =/ R2
CET
or
PET
R2
CASING
63
USI TOOL DIAGRAM
TELEMETRY
SYSTEM
AND
ELECTRONIC
CARTRIDGE
DOWNHOLE FLUID
PROPERTIES
PRINCIPLE
Target
plate
Fluid properties
position
Sensor
unit
SONDE
Compensating device
7 in.
Casing
Motor assembly
Rotating electrical
connection
Centralizer
Rotating shaft
Measurement position
Target
plate
Sensor
unit
Rotating seal
Interchangeable SUB
Sensor
7.5 rps
64
7 in.
Casing
ULTRASONIC IMAGING TOOL
TOOL:
A transducer similar to the CET rotates 360 degrees pulsing
the casing with a high frequency signal and receiving it.
THEORY:
Using downhole processing the mud impedance and velocity
are measured. Using the frequency and time of received
signal, casing thickness and acoustic impedance of material
behind pipe is determined.
ADVANTAGES OVER CET:

100% casing-cement evaluated
T^3 processing eliminates fast formation concerns
65
NEW GENERATION LOGS

TOOL DESCRIPTIONS
TYPE
COMPANY
MODEL
Compensated
Schlumberger
CBT-E
2 3/4
CBT-EA
(HiTemp/Press)
T1-T2 = 5.8'
T1-RN = .8, 2.4, 3.4
Western Atlas
BAL
2 3/4
T1-T2 = 6'
T1-RN = 2.5, 3.5, 5
HLS
CCAT
3 3/8
T1-T2 = 6'
T1-RN = 2.5, 3.5, 5
Pad (Segmented)
Western Atlas
SBT
3 3/8
3 5/8 w/GR
Limited to 4 1/2"
16" casing ID
Ultrasonic
HLS
PET
3 3/8
9 receivers,
single helix
Schlumberger
CET
3 3/8
9 receivers,
double helix
Schlumberger
USI
3 3/8
3 1/2", 4 1/2",
6 1/2", 8 1/2", and
11" rotary subs
Wedge
RAL
3 1/8
T-R = 3', 5'

Radial Receivers 2'
Computalog
SSB
2 3/4
T-R = 3', 5'

Radial Transmitters
and Receivers 2'
Radial/Sector
Bond
OD (in)
T/R SPACINGS (ft)
All tools are rated to a maximum of 350o F and 20,000 psi.
66
LOG EXAMPLES
OF
ULTRASONIC CEMENT LOGS
AND
CEMENT BOND LOGS
67
GOOD MUD REMOVAL
Transit Time (
sec)
400
3-Foot Receiver
200
Gamma Ray API Units

0
100
Good Bond
Fair Bond
5-Foot Receiver
100
0
20 200
Amplitude
Travel Time
11400
Gamma Ray
Variable Density
Casing Collar
68
VDL (
sec)
1200
GOOD MUD REMOVAL

EXERCISE: Find the average of the minimum compressive strength over the
interval where the CBL appeared to be channeled.
DEVI (DEG)
GAMMA RAY
0.0
0.0
150.0
20.000
RB
(DEG)
0.0
OVAL (IN)
0.0
0.0
ECCE
(IN)
360.00
CSMX (PSI)
0.5000
10000
0.5000
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
CEMENT MAP
0.0
CSMN (PSI)
CALU (IN)
3.5000
10000
0.0
WWM
4.5000
0.0
2.0
RELATIVE
BEARING
MAXIMUN
COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH
AVERAGE
REFLECTIVE
ENERGY
GAMMA RAY
ECCENTERING
MINIMUIM COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH
CASING OVALITY
69
POOR QUALITY
CEMENT BOND LOG
EXERCISE: Determine why the amplitude curve is so misleading.
What information is missing?_____________________ What is the tool spacing? ____
Gamma Ray
QUALITATIVE ONLY
0
70
100 200
VDL (
sec)
1200
GOOD QUALITY
CEMENT BOND LOG
3-Foot Receiver
Transit Time
400
(sec)
200
5-Foot Receiver
100
Gamma Ray
0
100
0
20 200
VDL (
sec)
1200
71
NO CEMENT
DEVI (DEG)
GAMMA RAY
0.0
150.0
0.0
20.000
RB (DEG)
0.0
OVAL (IN)
0.0
ECCE (IN)
0.0
0.5000
10000
0.5000
10000
72
0.0
CSMN (PSI)
CALU (IN)
3.5000
360.00
CSMX (PSI)
4.5000
0.0
WWM
0.0
2.0
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
CEMENT MAP
CHANNELING
EXERCISE: Find and mark two channels (Hint: one is not at 3974-4058)
3-Foot Receiver
Transit Time
400
(sec)
200
100
Good Bond
Fair Bond
Gamma Ray
0
5-Foot Receiver
100
0
20 200
VDL (
sec)
1200
4000
4100
73
CHANNELING
DEVI (DEG)
GAMMA RAY
0.0
0.0
150.0
20.000
RB (DEG)
0.0
OVAL (IN)
0.0
ECCE (IN)
0.0
0.5000
10000
0.0
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
CEMENT MAP
CSMN (PSI)
0.5000
10000
CALU (IN)
3.5000
360.00
CSMX (PSI)
0.0
WWM
4.5000
0.0
2.0
4000
A
4100
Relative
Bearing
B
C
A - No Porosity
B - Oil
C - Water
74
CHANNELING
EXERCISE: On the log below, find and mark all possible channels
Gamma Ray
Qualitative only
0
100
VDL (
sec)
200
1200
75
THE NEED FOR A 3 FT. OR LESS

TRANSMITTER - RECEIVER SPACING
50
45
Using 4 ft. spacing instead of 3 ft. spacing, the amplitude

measurement goes from 10 MV to 5 MV (1/2 the resolution)
40
35
Log Amplitude Millivolts
30
25
5 db/ft Attenuation
20
6 db/ft Attenuation
15
6' 5' 4'
10
3'
5
1 MV
1
10 11
12
13 14
SOUND ATTENUATION (db/ft)

Amplitude response of CBL versus attenuation for
different Transmitter - Receiver spacings in 7" Casing
76
15
CHANNELING
EXERCISE: Find and mark all possible channels.
3-Foot Receiver
Transit Time
(sec)
400
200
Gamma Ray
0
100
Good Bond
Fair Bond
5-Foot Receiver
100
0
20 200
VDL (
sec)
1200
77
CHANNELING
EXERCISE: Find and mark all mud channels.
DEVI (DEG)
0.0
20.000
RB (DEG)
0.0
OVAL (IN)
0.0
ECCE (IN)
0.0
0.5000
10000
0.5000
0.0
10000
0.0
WWM
4.5000
0.0
A
3500
Hole Deviation
Relative Bearing
3600
78
720.00
CSMN (PSI)
CALU (IN)
3.5000
CSMX (PSI)
2.0
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
CEMENT MAP
CONSIDERATIONS FOR A SQUEEZE

DETERMINATION
1.
General condition of the mud removal and the cement.

A. Do channels exist?
B. Do channels connect what needs to be isolated?
C. Is cement low compressive strength (mud contaminated)?
D. Is cement gas cut?
2.
Relative permeability and porosity of zones to be isolated.

Frac gradient of 2 zones needing isolation
3.
What kind of treatment is the well going to require? (ie.,

frac versus natural completion)
TO SQUEEZE OR NOT TO SQUEEZE

1.
Determine the zones which need isolating
2.
Locate the zones needing isolation from the open hole logs
3.
Determine if channeling exists between the two zones

needing isolation
4.
A channel needs squeezing only if it connects what needs

isolation!
79
GOOD ISOLATION?
Bond Index
Gamma Ray
0
320
80
Transit Time
1.0
100
220
-20
-100
Amplified Amplitude
Amplitude
0
20
100
TO SQUEEZE OR NOT TO SQUEEZE?

WWM
Amplitied Amplitude
-10
10
Amplitude
0
100
Bond Index
100
10000
Variable Density
200
Comp Str Max
2
0
Comp Str Min
1200
10000
C
C
Circumferential
Cement Map
81
CHANNELING OR LOW
3-Foot Receiver
Transit Time
400
(sec)
200
Gamma Ray
0
100
5000
OIL
WATER
82
RED
FORK
SAND
100
0
---------
Good Bond
Fair Bond
5-Foot Receiver
5100
20 200
VDL (
sec)
1200
CHANNELING OR LOW
Exercise: Should this Sand be squeezed? If not how could you complete it to
minimize or prevent water production?
DEVI (DEG)
0
20
RB (DEG)
0
0.0
ECCE (IN)
0.0
0.5
10000
0.5
10000
4.5
CALU (IN)
3.5
360
CSMX (PSI)
OVAL (IN)
CSMN (PSI)
WWM
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
CEMENT MAP
0
2
MINIMUM
COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH
MAXIMUM
COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH
RED
FORK
SAND
OIL
5100
WATER
83
MICRO ANNULUS
(LOSS OF INTIMATE CONTACT WITH CEMENT AND CASING)
CAUSES
1. PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL PLACED ON CASING
A. HOLD PRESSURE ON CEMENT PLUG
B. PRESSURE TEST CASING
C. STIMULATION (ACIDIZING, FRACTURING, ETC.)
2. DIFFERENT HYDROSTATIC PRESSURES ON CASING
A. REPLACE HEAVY FLUIDS WITH LIGHTER FLUIDS
B. SWABBING FLUIDS OFF A WELL
C. WELL TAKING FLUIDS (LOSS OF HYDROSTATIC)
3. THERMAL EXPANSION / CONTRACTION
A. HEAT GENERATED DURING CURING OF CEMENT
B. PUMPING FLUIDS COOLER THAN FORMATION (ACIDIZING / FRACTURING)
4. MECHANICAL
A. MOVING PIPE AFTER CEMENTING (SETTING SLIPS)
B. DRILL PIPE BANGING AGAINST THE CASING (DRILLING DEEPER)
RESULTS:
A MICRO ANNULUS CAN EXIST ON EVERY WELL
A CBL LOG WILL INDICATE WORSE THAN ACTUAL CONDITIONS
CONCLUSIONS:
RE-RUN CBL UNDER PRESSURE AND COMPARE TO SEE IF MICRO ANNULUS EXIST
84
CHANNELING OR MICRO ANNULUS?

3-Foot Receiver
Transit Time
(sec)
400
200
100
Gamma Ray
0
100
5-Foot Receiver
VDL (
sec)
Log Ran Under

0 PSI
Amplitude (milivolts)
0
20 200
1200
7800
7900
85
MICRO ANNULUS EXERCISE

On the log below, find and mark all micro annulus and channels.
Transit Time
Amplitude
Microseconds 3' Spacing
Millivolts
400
200
Variable Density
Microseconds 5' Spacing
100
Log Ran Under

1000 PSI
Gamma Ray
API Units
0
Amplified Amplitude
100
86
Millivolts
20 200
1200
MICRO ANNULUS EFFECT

Exercise: What is the Minimum Compressive Strength in the Micro
Annulus. ____________ Is the Channel Confirmed?
DEVI (DEG)
GAMMA RAY
0.0
0.0
150.0
0.0
OVAL (IN)
0.0
ECCE (IN)
0.0
0.5000
10000
0.5000
10000
CSMX (PSI)
360.00
0.0
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
CEMENT MAP
CSMN (PSI)
CALU (IN)
3.5000
20.000
RB (DEG)
0.0
WWM
4.5000
0.0
2.0
7700
7800
7900
87
WRONG INTERPRETATION!
DUE TO TOOL ECCENTERING
Exercise: Why was this log misinterpreted
Transit Time
(sec)
400
DEVI (DEG)
5-Foot Receiver
0.0
200
RB (DEG)
0.0
100
10000
Good Bond
Fair Bond
100
10000
VDL (
sec)
1200
0.0
10300
10400
10500
10500
88
0.0
WWM
10300
10600
0.0
CSMN (PSI)
200
10400
360
CSMX (PSI)
Gamma Ray
0
20
10600
2.0
CIRCUM
CEMENT MAP
FAST FORMATION
EXERCISE: Find and mark all the areas affected by fast formations.
Highlight areas where the travel time is less than the baseline value.
3-Foot Receiver
Transit Time
(sec)
400
200
100
Gamma Ray
0
Good Bond
Fair Bond
5-Foot Receiver
100
20 200
VDL (
sec)
1200
4000
Single Receiver
Travel Time
4100
89
FAST FORMATION
EXERCISE: Does the ultrasonic devices evaluate the cement across the
fast formation? What is causing the secondary reflection flags?
DEVI (DEG)
0.0
20.000
RB (DEG)
0.0
OVAL (IN)
0.0
ECCE (IN)
0.0
0.5000
10000
0.0
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
CEMENT MAP
CSMN (PSI)
0.5000
10000
CALU (IN)
3.5000
360.00
CSMX (PSI)
0.0
WWM
4.5000
0.0
2.0
4000
Secondary
Reflection Flags
4100
90
FORMATION OR DOUBLE CASING STRING

SECONDARY REFLECTIONS
Gates W1W3
W2
Free Pipe
W2
High
W1
W3
W2
High compared to
W1
W1
Good mud removal

W2 Low
W1
W2
W3
High compared to
W1
W1
Secondary reflections
W2
High
W1
W3
W2
Low compared to
W1
W1
X1
X10
Vertical Scale
0 10 20 30 40 50 (
sec)
91
CHANNELING?
EXERCISE: Find and mark all existing channels.
3-Foot Receiver
Transit Time
(sec)
400
200
100
Gamma Ray
0
92
Good Bond
Fair Bond
5-Foot Receiver
100
20 200
VDL (
sec)
1200
WARNING: Use the Minimum Strength Curve Not the Map
CHANNELING ON A CET
Exercise: Does the minimum compressive strength curve confirm your
interpretation of the VDL? ______
Why is the CBL amplitude so optimistic?
DEVI (DEG)
0
20
RB (DEG)
0
OVAL (IN)
0.0
ECCE (IN)
0.0
0.5
10000
0.5
10000
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
CEMENT MAP
CSMN (PSI)
CALU (IN)
3.5
360
CSMX (PSI)
4.5
WWM
0
2
12000
12100
12200
93
APPLICATIONS OF NEW GENERATION

CEMENT INTEGRITY TOOLS
I. EFECTIVE IDENTIFICATION OF CEMENT

PROBLEMS
Channel or voids identified easier
Contaminated cement identified
Reliable squeezes possible
Identify need for cement program changes
Monitoring the effectiveness of cement program changes
II. COMPLETION DESIGN ASSISTANCE

Cement integrity versus treatment design
Effectiveness of treatment
III. IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL CASING

PROBLEMS
Unwanted sizes or weights in the well
Potential packer/plug setting problems
Indentification of old perforations possible
94
ULTRASONIC CEMENT LOGS

W1
Fire Pulse
DT
Internal
Radius
Resonant
Frequency
W3
W2
Cement Evaluation
Thickness
Inner Surface Condition
TOOL: Eight transducers at 45 degrees separation around the tool fire a high frequency
pulse at eight points on the casing, The same transducer receives the signal and sends it
to the tool for processing.
THEORY: The signal transmitted is the resonance frequency of the casing, therefore it
begins to resonate, much like a tuning fork will vibrate if its key is played or sung. In a
low acoustic impedance medium (air), the fork will continue to resonate. If a high acoustic
impedance medium is placed behind the fork (or casing) the resonance will decay quickly.
A resonance measurement is taken in two places (SWS only) and acoustic impedance is
derived. Low resonance (W2) means HIGH acoustic impedance.
95
TRANSDUCER RESPONSE CHART

2.0
FREE GAS
1.8
1.6
1.4
LIQUID HYDROCARBONS
1.2
FRESH WATER
1.0
BRINES & MUDS
.8
FOAM CEMENTS
.6
LIGHT WEIGHT CEMENTS
.4
NEAT-HIGHER COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH CEMENTS
.2
.2
96
.4
.6
.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
CEMENT EVALUATION TOOL

W2 vs W3 (Schlumberger only)
W2 = 0.65 W3 = 1.05 FOR FREE PIPE
UNNORMALIZED
1.6
1.2
.8
.4
0.0
NORMALIZED
2.5
0.0
.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
2.0
1.5
1.0
.5
0.0
97
EFFECTS OF GAS
ON
CEMENT INTEGRITY
LOGS
98
GAS CUT CEMENT

CBL vs ULTRASONIC
Cross-Plot For Cement Integrity
Free Casing
(Gas-filled
Annulus)
-2.0
-1.0
Foam
Cement
Gas-cut
Cement
r)
oo
P
(
0.0
1.0
2.0
Free Casing
(Fluid-filled
Annulus)
)
od
o
(G
g
sin /or h
a
e
r
nd gt
Inc ng a tren
i
nd ive S
i
B
s
% pres
m
Co
Size Increasing
Compressive Strength (1000 PSI)
-3.0
Micro Annulus
3.0
4.0
5.0
Increasing
CBL (millivolts)
99
TWO STAGE CEMENT JOB?

Transit Time
3-Foot Receiver
(
sec)
400
200
100
100
Good Bond
Fair Bond
Gamma Ray
0
100
0
5-Foot Receiver
20 200
VDL (
sec)
1200
GAS CUT CEMENT

DEVI (DEG)
OVAL (IN)
0.0
0.0
0.5000
CCLU (IN)
-.950
20.000
RB (DEG)
0.0
0.5000
360
CSMX (PSI)
10000
ECCE (IN)
0.0
CSMN (PSI)
0.5000
10000
4.5000
0.0
CALU (IN)
3.5000
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
CEMENT LOG
0.0
0.0
WWM
2.0
9600
Average Reflective Energy
9700
Gas Flags
101
CEMENT SCAN
CSMX
Gamma Ray
0
100
10000
0.0
CSMN
10000
Distribution
Component
Mix (%)
0.0
GOOD
MUD
GAS CUT
FREE GAS
102
WHERE IS THE CEMENT CHANNEL

ACCORDING TO THE VDL?
Amplitude (mv)
0
5-Foot Receiver
200
Amplitude (mv)
0
Transit Time
(
sec)
400
40
Bond Index (%)

100
200
0 200
VDL (
sec)
1200
Tension
10200
Transit Time
10300
103
EXERCISE: IDENTIFY
1. Good Cement
2. Gas Cut Cement
3. Gas Filled Channels
DEVI (DEG)
0.0
20.000
RB (DEG)
0.0
CCLU (IN)
-.950
0.5000
360
CSMX (PSI)
10000
ECCE (IN)
0.0
CSMN (PSI)
0.5000
10000
4.5000
0.0
CALU (IN)
3.5000
104
0.0
0.0
WWM
2.0
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
CEMENT LOG
DOES THIS CEMENT SCAN CONFIRM

YOUR INTERPRETATION?
Component Mix
(%)
Distribution
Map
VDL (
sec)
200
1200
Gas
Bond Index
10200
Gas-Filled
Channel
Mud
Gas-Cut
Cement
10300
Gas Cut
Good
Good Cement
105
GAS CUT CEMENT ON PET

EXERCISE: Find zero on the compressive strength scale.
What is the compressive strength at Zone C? ____
0
GR API
100
4.0
M DIA
6.0
150
FLUID T.T.
8000
CS-G
-2000
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
0.0
DEV (DEG)
30.0
-----------------------------------CEMENT MAP
0
RB (DEG)
720
8000
8000
250
15000
106
CSMN
CSMX
-2000
-2000
LOGGED WITH
1500 PSI
IS THERE GOOD ISOLATION WITH THE

FOAM CEMENT?
Transit Time
3-Foot Receiver
(
sec)
400
200
5-Foot Receiver
50
Gamma Ray
0
100
VDL (
sec)
0
20 200
1200
FOAM CEMENT
TOP
TAIL
CLASS H
CEMENT
107
FOAM CEMENT
DEVI (DEG)
0
RB (DEG)
20
0.0
10000
100
4.5
4100
TOP
TAIL
108
CSMN (PSI)
10000
CALU (IN)
3.5
720
CSMX (PSI)
Gamma Ray
WWM
0
2
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
CEMENT MAP
109
OVAL (in)
0.5000
CCLU (in)
-0.950
0.5000
ECCE (in)
0.0
0.5000
CALU (in)
3.5
4.5000
0.0
4500
4400
RB (deg)
CIRCUM
CEMENT MAP
OVAL (in)
0.5000
CCLU (in)
-0.950
0.5000
ECCE (in)
0.0
0.5000
CALU (in)
3.5
4.5000
0.0
4500
4400
RB (deg)
360.00
CSMX (psi)
10000.
0.0
CSMN (psi)
10000.
0.0
WWM
0.0
2.0
0.0
SQUEEZED W/ 150 SKS AT 4504-05
360.00
CSMX (psi)
10000.
0.0
CSMN (psi)
10000.
0.0
WWM
0.0
2.0
0.0
BEFORE & AFTER SQUEEZE CET

CIRCUM
CEMENT MAP
USI IN 10 DEGREE CHANNELS

(EPA Test Well)
110
ULTRASONIC CEMENT INTEGRITY LOGS

A. FIXED TRANSDUCERS
1. Two logs available.
a. SWS - Cement Evaluation Log (CET)
b. HLS - Pulsed Echo Tool (PET)
2. Based on a focused device with 8 transducers giving azimuthal as well as

vertical resolution, compared to averaging from the bond log.
3. Graphic presentation on right hand side shows distribution of cement

around the pipe. When white appears look at the compressive strengths.
(especially the minimum)
4. Minimum and maximum are both presented, occasionally an average.

Of course the minimum being is most important.
5. Gas cut or foam cement: A bond log will show cement and a CET/PET
will appear as no cement . This characteristic identifies gas cut cement.
6. On CET (SWS) the average reflective energy curve (WWM) will have a
0-2 scale left to right.
a. Usually reads 1 in free pipe.
b. Exhibits a "nervousness" in free gas cut cement.
c. May read 1 or 1.5 with gas behind the pipe.
B. ROTATING TRANSDUCERS
1. USI - Schlumberger
2. Reading every 5O (9 times that of a CET or PET)
3. Casing inspection capability
4. Indicates free gas but not gas cut cement
111
CASED HOLE
FIND:
Min.
Max
Good Cement
Channeled Cement*
Mud Contaminated Cement
Gas Cut Cement
_____
_____
_____
_____
DETERMINE:
Why each well requires a squeeze?
Does well require squeeze?
If so where are the perfs recommended?
What volume is recomended
*Mark extent of channel
112
_____
_____
_____
_____
EXERCISE 1
CBL
Transit Time (
sec)
400.00
200.00
3-Foot Receiver
CCL
Amplitude (mv)
0.0
20.00
-18.00
0.0
CET
5-Foot Receiver
DEVI (deg)
20.000
RB (deg)
0.0
360.00
CSMX (psi)
10000
0.0
CSMN (psi)
10000
0.0
WWM
0.0
2.0
OVAL (in)
0.0
0.0
0.5000
CCLU (in)
1.0000
Gamma Ray
100.00
0.0
VDL (
sec)
Amplitude (mv)
1200
100.00 200.00
-0.950
0.5000
OVAL (in)
0.0
0.5000
OVAL (in)
3.5000
4.5000
CIRCUM
CEMENT MAP
10400
10400
10500
10500
10600
10600
10700
10700
10800
10800
113
EXERCISE 2
0.0
-0.950
0.0
3.5000
OVAL (in)
CCLU (in)
ECCE (in)
CALU (in)
0.5000
0.5000
0.5000
4.5000
0.0
10000
0.0
DEVI (deg)
RB (deg)
CSMX (psi)
CSMN (psi)
WWM
20.000
0.0
360.00
2.0
0.0
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
CEMENT MAP
3-Foot Receiver
0.0
Amplitude (mv)
Transit Time (
sec)
400.00
200.00
1.0000
100.00
0.0
Amplitude (mv)
Gamma Ray
CCL
-19.00
0.0
4000
0.0
10000
4000
4100
4200
4100
PAY
4200
20.00
100.00 200.00
5-Foot Receiver
VDL (
sec)
1200
114
EXERCISE 3
COLLAR LOCATOR
0
0
10
GOOD
200
FAIR
TRANSIT TIME
300
FORMATION AMP (MV)

100
PIPE AMP (MV)
100
AMPLIFIED PIPE AMP (MV)

0
20 200
VDL (
sec)
1200
WATER
ZONE
PAY
8400
WATER
ZONE
DEPTH WELEX
115
EXERCISE 4
DEVI (DEG)
0
20
RB (DEG)
0
OVAL (IN)
0.0
0.5
10000
0.5
10000
4.5
ECCE (IN)
0.0
3.5
CALU (IN)
CSMX (PSI)
720
0
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
CEMENT MAP
CSMN (PSI)
WWM
0
2
Oil Water Contact
116
CBL INTERPRETATION - HOW TO

STEP 1 - PERFORM THE FOLLOWING CHECKS IN FREE PIPE
1. Check the spacing of the Transmitter to the Receiver
A. Amplitude and travel time curve should be 3 feet
B. Attenuation curves have a 2.4 feet spacing
C. Variable Density / waveforms should be 5 feet
2. Identify a value of travel time - base line
A. Look for a reduction in travel time form baseline and amplitude indicating
poor centralization
B. Look for a reduction from base line associated with an increase in amplitude
below the cement top indicating fast formations
3. Identify the dead time on the VDL and identify the first 3-4 bands associated with the
casing signal for later channel identification
STEP 2 - PERFORM THE FOLLOWING CHECKS ON THE REPEAT

1. Passes made under the same pressure will repeat exactly on the 0-100 scale if the
tool is well centered.
2. Check for changes in amplitude with and without pressure. A change represents a
Microannulus and therefore good cement integrity
CONSULTANTS
704 Sage Brush RD

YUKON, OK 73099
405 324-5828
FAX 324-2360
GWBConsult@cs.com
117
CBL INTERPRETATION - HOW TO

STEP 3 - IDENTIFY THE ZONES NEEDING ISOLATION
1. Identify the zone(s) from an interpretation of the open hole logs or comments on the
open hole logs
2. Find the zone(s) from an outside source. Company representative, geologist,
engineer, etc.
STEP 4 - USE THE VDL TO IDENTIFY CHANNELS
1. First compare runs under pressure to determine it is not a microannulus

2. All casing signals on the VDL (straight lines) indicate no cement around the casing
3. The dead time followed by 3-4 casing arrivals followed by formation arrivals
identifies a channel. A channel indicates incomplete mud removal (cement around
part of the casing)
4. Only channels between zones needing isolation are a potential problem and need a
squeeze consideration.
CONSULTANTS
704 Sage Brush RD

YUKON, OK 73099
405 324-5828
FAX 324-2360
GWBConsult@cs.com
118
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
CEMENT LOGS
Amplitude
The level of sound that returns to a CBL receiver measured in milli volts.
This sound is usually the portion traveling through the casing.
Analog
Signals from downhole tools that are recorded directly. Digital signals
are digitized and then recorded, usually on magnetic tape or disk.
API Units
A standard scaling factor established by the American Petroleum Institute.

They have set up scales for both Gamma Ray counts and Neutron counts.
Attenuation
The rate of reduction of a sound level. Normally caused by the cement in

the annulus and expressed in decibels per foot. (DB/Ft.)
Casing Signal
The portion of the sound wave from a CBL tool that is traveling through
the casing from the transmitter to the receiver.
Centralizers
A device attached to a CBL tool in order to keep in it the center of the

casing. This is a important quality control issue. The centralizers may be
slipped over the tool or connected in between various portions of the
tool.
Correlation
A method of depth control for logs. The method is to correct for depth
discrepancies between logs or between curves on individual logs. The
result or correlation is that each event (Shale, Sand, etc.) occur at the
same depth on all logs.
Counts
The number of either gamma ray particles or neutrons detected or

counted by a radioactivity detector.
Detector
A portion of the logging tools that can detect a reaction. Usually these
are radioactive reactions which cause gamma rays to be emitted or neutrons
bounce off the atoms.
First Arrival
The portion of the sound which travels to the CBL receiver first. This is
usually the casing signal.
Formation Signal
The portion of the sound which travels to the CBL receiver after traveling
through the formation or rocks. Usually the speed of this sound changes
as the rock properties change and arrives at a later time than does the
casing signal.
Gain
The amount of amplification applied by the electronics in a tool. For

example the tool may have a 1 volt signal with a 10 to 1 gain applied. The
resulting signal will be 10 volts.
119
Gate
The time interval over which the CBL amplitude is measured. This gate
should be set in free pipe so that it can represent the sound level of the
casing signal.
Gamma Ray
A small particle from the nucleus of a atom. Gamma rays are emitted by
elements that are naturally radioactive and as a result of nuclear reactions
caused by logging tools. A gamma ray tool detects only naturally occurring
radioactivity and it is usually associated with shale (non-reservoir rock).
Gamma Ray Detectors-
The portion of the gamma ray tool that detects (or counts) gamma ray
particles. They vary from the less sensitive Geiger Muller detector to the
more sensitive Scintillation detectors.
Helium 3 Detector
The portion of a neutron tool that detects (or counts) neutrons. A neutron
tool has a neutron source which bombards the formation and the counts
are a result of neutrons that are reflected back by the formation and its
fluids.
Logging Speed
The speed at which the cable is moving on or off a logging truck. The
speed is limited by the floating of a tool downhole and the detections
made by the tool as it is logging. The limiting factor is usually the gamma
ray or neutron detectors.
Neutron
One of the two largest particles in a nucleus or an atom (the proton and
the neutron). Emitted by a radioactive source in a neutron tool and detected
by its detector. Some neutron tools detect gamma rays and are presented
in API units. The result or this neutron bombardment is a function or a
formations porosity.
Pipe Signal
Pipe and casing are interchangeable terms. See casing signal.
Porosity
The amount or pore space in a formation. These holes in the rock are
the rocks ability to store oil, gas or water and determine the formations
ability to be a reservoir or tank.
Repeat Section
A section of log (100-300 feet interval) which is logged twice. This is

usually at the bottom of the hole, but most importantly should be over the
potential pay zone.
Sonic
Sound or anything referring to sound. A sonic tool emits a sound and has
a receiver that picks up the sound after it has traveled through some fluid,
rocks, cement or casing. A CBL tool is a unique version or a sonic tool.
120
Sonic Wave
Often referred to as the sound wave or wavetrain, is a combination of the

sounds which have traveled through all of the media. In cased holes
sound travels in the casing fluid, the casing, the cement and through the
rocks and the fluids. Sound is transmitted by two means, these are
compressional and shear waves. The compressional wave is the quickest
while the shear wave is the highest in strength.
Transmitter
The portion or a sonic or CBL tool which emits the sound which is later
detected by the receiver.
Transit Time
Sometimes referred to as the travel time. It is the time from which a

sound is emitted from a transmitter in a CBL tool (T0) until it is detected
by the tool at a given amplitude. (Usually 0.5 milli volts)
VDL
Variable Density Log. The VDL is a graphic representation of a sound

wave as it is received by the CBL receiver. It is alternating dark and light
lines which represent the positive and negative portions of the sound wave.
Sometimes the VDL is called a micro seismogram.
Wavetrain
The entire portion of the sound wave as it is received by CBL receiver.

The sound wave represents both compressional and shear waves that have
traveled several paths from the transmitter to the receiver. This wavetrain
are sometimes presented on the logs a pictures of the sound wave rather
than the VDL graphic representation.
121
POST SQUEEZE
Gamma Ray
0
150
COLLAR LOCATOR
10
TRANSIT TIME
300
200
FORMATION AMP (MV)

100
PIPE AMP (MV)
GOOD
0
100
FAIR
AMPLIFIED PIPE AMP (MV)
0
20 200
0
8300
Squeeze
Holes
8400
Squeeze
Holes
122
VDL (
sec)
1200
LOG WORKSHOP CRITIQUE

VG
OK
1. Instructor's presentation
2. Instructor's knowledge of subject matter
3. Organization
4. Thoroughness of each topic
5. Encouraged participation and discussion
6. Answered all questions satisfactorily
7. Met your expectations
What did you like most about the workshop?
What did you like least about the workshop?
Are there any areas that you would have liked to have spent more time on?
Other comments or additional log workshops you would like to see:
123

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FUNDAMENTAL OF LOGGING

704 Sage Brush Road

Water Saturation Approximation

Porosity and Lithology Determination

Log Interpretation Exercise #1

Water Production Estimation

Log Interpretation Exercise #2

Are hydrocarbons present in commercial quantities?

100% SATURATED WITH

RO = WATER SATURATED RESISTIVITY

d - Hole diameter, inches

BASIC RESISTIVITY LOG

Coarse-grained, well sorted

SAND GRAIN SIZE, STACKING,

MAXIMUM POROSITY OF 47.6 PERCENT

MINIMUM POROSITY OF 25.9 PERCENT

ANGULAR AND SUBANGULAR GRAIN PACKING

DOLOMITES AND LIMES

OIL ACCUMULATION IN POROUS ZONES IN LIMESTONE

GAMMA RAY LOG

THE MEASURE OF THE RESISTANCE OF A

The resistivity of any formation is a function of the amount of

DUAL INDUCTION - FRESH MUD - AIR

* Shallow measurement is not an induction device

RESISTIVITY - SATURATION PROFILES

DUAL INDUCTION LOG

DUAL INDUCTION LOG

DUAL INDUCTION LOG

INDUCTION LOG WITH

MICRO-SPHERICALLY FOCUSED LOG

TYPICAL MICROLOG RESPONSES

IDENTIFY RESERVOIR ROCKS

SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL (SP) LOG

WATER SATURATION APPROXIMATION

DETERMINING WATER VS OIL

IN SPECIAL CASES: Bulk Volume Water =

RATIO METHOD EXAMPLE

*MSFL can be added to a dual induction or a laterolog for RXO measurements.

2. Modern log scales are on a logarithmic grid.

POROSITY & LITHOLOGY

TOTAL VOLUME OCCUPIED BY PORES,

"HOLES IN THE ROCK"

DETERMINATION AND USES OFPOROSITY

A simple equation for oil reservoirs would be:

BSTO = 7758 A h So / FVF

BARRELS OF STOCK TANK OIL

POROSITY MEASURING DEVICES

I. LITHO TYPE DENSITY TOOL

II. COMPENSATED NEUTRON TOOL

III. BOREHOLE COMPENSATED SONIC (BHC)

DENSITY POROSITY DEVICE

PHOTO ELECTRIC USES

The P e measurement is strongly related to the nature of the formation

1. As a matrix indicator (the lithology curve)

THE LITHO TYPE DENSITY LOG

SPECTRAL DENSITY LOG

LITHO DENSITY LOG

LITHO DENSITY LOG

TRUE POROSITY QUICKLY ESTIMATED BY

COMPENSATED NEUTRON LOG

NEUTRON - DENSITY LOG WITH Pe

NEUTRON - DENSITY LOG WITH Pe