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GENERATOR SETS
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
CATERPILLAR ENGINE DIVISION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I.
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
II.
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Alternating Current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
"
"
I.
INTRODUCTION
The continuing growth of civilization and its technology has been accompanied
by an ever-increasing dependence on electrical power. Business and industry as
it exists today cannot function without a reliable supply of electricity. In the
case of hospitals, broadcasting stations and other facilities providing essential
public services, a constant supply of electrical power may spell the difference
between life and death. Most often the need for electrical power is met by public
utility companies with their central generating plants and vast power
distribution networks. Such systems, however, are subject to occasional
malfunctions, which can have serious effects unless the user is prepared to
supply emergency power from onsite sources. In addition, many users are
finding that with the improved energy recovery techniques now available it is
advantageous from the standpoints of economy and reliability to supply all of
their power requirements with on-site equipment. In remote areas, where
centrally-generated power, if available at all, is expensive and less than optimally
reliable, the advantages of generator set power are even more obvious. Diesel
and natural gas generator sets have proven their effectiveness in meeting
needs for both prime and standby power systems.
It is important that persons involved in the application of generator sets have an
understanding of the fundamentals of electrical power generation and
distribution. This manual is intended to provide the information necessary to
correctly apply the guidelines found in the Generator Set Application and
Installation Guide and the requirements listed in consulting engineers
specifications. Readers who have had little contact with the power generation
and distribution field will find this book a reliable aid to learning. The more
experienced can use it as a review or reference. Tables, Formulae and Technical
Terms will be useful to all who work in this field.
II.
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY
Electrical Potential
Current
':T~~~~ ~~
1 VOLT (V)
= AMPERE
(A)
LOAD
RESISTANCE
1 OHM (n)
Ohm's Law
A fundamental law of electricity, Ohm's Law,
relates the quantities of voltage and current in a
circuit. It states that the voltage which appears
between the terminals of a resistance is equal to the
value of the resistance in ohms multiplied by the
magnitude of the current flow in amperes. In
mathematical terms, this law is written:
E= IR
where
E
I
R
= voltage
in volts
= current in amperes
= resistance in ohms
IEq.1J
E
1=R
Resistance
Resistance is the term used to denote the amount
of opposition which a substance offers to the flow of
electrical current. The basic unit of resistance is the
ohm, denoted by the Greek symbol n . The amount
of resistance that a given object exhibits depends
not only on the type of material from which it is made,
but also on its physical dimensions, such as cross sectional area and length. For a given physical
configuration, objects made from insulating
materials have high resistance while those made
from conductive materials have relatively low
resistances.
IEq.2J
or
E
R =I
IEq.3J
E
1 volt
1=- =
1 ohm
R
Electrical Circuits
An electrical circuit is a closed path through which
electrons can flow from a source of potential
difference, or voltage, through a load, a device in
which electrical energy is used, and back again to the
source. In the circuit shown in Figure 2, the source is
a battery having a potential difference at its
terminals of 1 volt. The load is a resistor, a circuit
1 ampere
Series Circuits
Figure 3 shows a somewhat more complicated
circuit. Here the load is composed of two resistors
connected in series. All of the current flowing in the
curcuit must flow through both of the resistors
= R1
+ R2 + R3 + ... RN
=1
(Eq. 4)
1= 1. =
= 1/2 volt
1V
= 1/2 ampere
SERIES
LOAD
1 volt
2 ohms
1=1
SOURCE:
= 1 ohm
1
1j'2 + 1j'2
Power
If the circuits shown in any of the above figures were
actually connected, the resistors would become
warm. The potential energy of the electrons is
changed to heat energy as they pass through the
resistances. The heat [or other forms of energy)
produced is the power which the load dissipates. It
is a function of the applied voltage and the amount
of current flowing through the load. The unit of
quantity for electrical power is the watt, abbreviated
[W) and denoted in electrical formulae by the letter
[Pl. The law relating power to the other quantities in
an electrical circuit is given by the expression:
Parallel Circuits
The load shown in the circuit of Figure 4 is somewhat
different. Here the resistors have been connected
side-by-side instead of end-to-end. When this
configuration is used, the resistors are connected in
parallel. In this case there are two paths for the
current to follow and it consequently divides, part
passing through one resistor and part through the
other. The total resistance of any number of resistors
connected in parallel is given by the equation:
= IE
(Eq.6)
(Eq. 5)
where P
I
E
PARALLEL
LOAD
I=1A
= power in watts
= current in amperes
=
voltage in volts
SOURCE
1V
2n
2n
or
(Eq. 8)
ALTERNATING CURRENT
(Eq.9)
(Eq. 10)
+100
O~---+---r-----
= [1 volt]2 = 1 watt
1 ohm
TIME ---.
Frequency
The frequency of an alternating current or voltage is
the number of cycles completed within a one-second
period. The unit of frequency is the hertz,
abbreviated [Hz); one hertz is one cycle per second.
One of two "standard" frequencies is supplied by the
commercial [utility) power sources in various parts
of the world. In much of North America, 60 Hz is
the standard frequency. Europe is generally 50 Hz.
Countries in South America, Africa, Asia, and the
Pacific Basin have 50 Hz as standard. Some of these
areas have standardized on 60 Hz. Some countries
have two frequencies and others are changing from
+
w
t.!I
j:!
;."J
I
I
90
1 BO 270 360
(Eq. 11)
or
Peak voltage = 1.414 x RMS voltage
I
I
Reactance
In instances where the load applied to an AC
generator is a resistance, the voltage and current in
the load circuit are in phase. When the voltage is
zero the current is zero; when the voltage reaches
its positive maximum, the current is also maximum
in the positive direction, etc. If a reactance is introduced into the circuit, however, the current waveform
may actually lead or lag the voltage waveform.
Reactances are of two types: capacitive and inductive. Capacitive reactance will be considered first.
(Eq.12)
Capacitance
If two plates of metal are placed in close proximity to
each other as shown in Figure 7, and a negative
charge is applied to one of the plates, negative
charges at the adjacent surface of the other plate
will be repelled. If negative charges on this second
plate are allowed to drain off to some large
reservoir of charges, such as the earth, the two
plates will maintain a charged condition. The plates
have then stored electrical energy. A device of this
type is known as a capacitor and is usually
represented in electrical drawings by the symbol
shown at the right in the drawing. The amount of
energy which can be stored in a capacitor at a given
voltage is dependent on the size of the plates and
the spacing between them, as well as the material
which separates them.
Phase
Another factor of importance when dealing with AC
waveforms is phase, the relationship in time
between two waveforms of the same frequency.
Suppose that two AC generators are operating
simultaneously. If their output voltages both start at
zero at precisely the same time and if they are both
AC
GENERATOR
+
+
+
+1----,
+
+
-iE-
VOLTAGE - -
CAPACITOR
SYMBOL
CURRENT---
~~-~-+--;---
00
~--~~~.---~
1-
Consider now the case where a capacitor is connected across a source of AC voltage as shown in
Figure 9. At the beginning of a cycle, when the voltage
from the generator starts to rise above zero, the
capacitor passes a relatively heavy current as it
begins to store charges. As the voltage continues to
increase, the rate at which the capacitor draws
current decreases until, finally, as the voltage reaches
a maximum in the positive direction and starts again
to decrease, the capacitor voltage will equal momentarily the voltage of the generator. At this instant,
the current through the capacitor will be zero. As
the generator voltage decreases, the capacitor
voltage remains larger than the generator voltage
and the capacitor discharges into the generator.
[Eq. 13)
where
Inductance
Inductors are the second type of reactive element
found in AC circuits. An inductor is formed by
wrapping a number of turns of insulated wire around
a form as shown in Figure 10. Current passing
through a wire causes a magnetic field to be set up
around the conductor. If a number of turns of wire
are concentrated in a small area, the magnetic field
generated by current passing through each individual
turn adds to that of neighboring turns and a strong
magnetic field is generated in the area of the coil.
[
INDUCTOR
SYMBOL
An Inductor and its Schematic Symbol
Figure 10
1/
I
.......,
I .... '
,~ ,I
~I
\ '.
I ,
\\
\ ,
I I
I \
I I
\\ \
I I'
\\ 11'\
I I
VOLTAGE - CURRENT---
I /
II
', ...../S
..// \ .....
...........
TIME----'
where
Z = impedance in ohms
R = resistance in ohms
XL = inductive reactance in ohms
Xc = capacitive reactance in ohms
(Eq.14)
where
(Eq.17)
(Eq.18)
A Transformer
Figure 13
Transformation
A key reason for the use of alternating current
instead of direct current in power distribution
systems, other than the ease with which it may be
generated, is that it may be readily converted from
one voltage level to another with very little loss of
power. The conversion process is transformation
and the devices used to perform the conversion are
called transformers.
Vs
= Vp Ns
[Eq.19)
Np
10
SECONDARY
~IMAAY {o---"
An Auto-Transformer
Figure 14
In some types of transformers. called autotransformers. only one winding is used. The coil is tapped
at some point as shown in Figure 14. The turns of
the "primary" actually form a part of the "secondary"
winding. If a low voltage is applied to the primary
winding. a higher voltage will appear across the
secondary winding. Equation 19 may be used to
calculate the secondary voltage. bearing in mind
that the primary turns must be included when
counting the number of secondary turns. The
autotransformer may be used in reverse as well. If
the input voltage is applied to the secondary. a lower
voltage will appear across the primary.
Autotransformers have the disadvantage that the
secondary is not electrically isolated from the
primary. and can therefore present a safety hazard
at high voltages or when used improperly. They are
very convenient. however. whenever a voltage. must
be changed a small amount to suit a particular piece
of electrical equipment.
Electromechanical Generators
In the section above on inductors. it was stated that
a voltage will be induced in a coil of wire moving
through a magnetic field. This principle is put to use
in the generation of electrical energy from motion. If
a force is applied to continuously turn a coil in a
magnetic field. an alternating voltage will be
produced at the coil terminals. This voltage may
then be transmitted through wires to a load where it
can perform useful work. The mechanical energy
required to move the coil is converted to electrical
energy which. in turn. is converted to another form
of energy at the load.
Batteries
Batteries are employed where it is desirable to store
electrical energy for a period of time and yet have it
instantly available whenever required. All batteries
produce electricity from chemical reactions too
involved to discuss here. One type of battery. the
common "dry cell" or flashlight battery. releases
electrical energy as a result of chemical reactions
taking place between the compounds from which
the cell was originally manufactured. The reaction
proceeds only when current is being drawn. When
all of the original materials have undergone the
In practical AC generators. the magnetic field is produced by passing direct current through a second
smaller coil of wire called the field winding. Only a
small amount of current is necessary to "excite" the
field coil. The coil in which the electricity is actually
produced is called the armature. Since the field coil
can be made appreciably smaller than the armature.
the latter is often constructed on a stationary form
and the field coil made to rotate inside it.
11
.... 1 CYCLE-.
180
360
PHASE A
PHASE B
PHASE C
Phase Arrangement
The armature of a generator may be a single coil, or
there may be three coils spaced at 120 degree
intervals around the frame. In the latter case, the
output of the three coils will exhibit a phase
difference, since the magnetic poles of the field coil
pass the three armature coils at different times.
The output waveforms of each of the three coils are
shown in Figure 15. Generators constructed in this
manner are called three-phase generators, while
those having only one armature coil are called
single-phase generators. Three-phase machines
are common where a large amount of electrical
power is to be generated.
Voltage Regulation
The voltage at the output of the generator armature
winding is dependent on the field coil angular velocity
and the intensity of the magnetic field produced.
Since it is usually desirable to maintain a constant
frequency at the output of the generator, the
velocity cannot be varied to adjust the output
voltage. The field current is commonly controlled to
obtain the desired voltage.
12
II Field
Generator
Field
,..----------- L
L
------------ L
~-----------------------------L
Slip Rings
Slip Rings
Exciter
[Rotating)
Diode SCR
Generator
Field
~--N
-......_ _- - - L
Generator
Field
[Rotating)
~------------------L
L
L
Slip Rings
Figure 16
13
240 VOLTS
240 VOLTS
240 VOLTS
230 VOLTS
216 VOLTS
230 VOLTS
230 VOLTS
115 VOLTS
THREE-PHASE, FOUR-WIRE (DELTA)
~115V
~115V
DC Generators
Direct-current generators are rarely used today
except in certain special applications. A notable
exception, of course, is in motor vehicles, where
direct current is needed to recharge the storage
batteries which supply power for engine cranking. A
DC generator is usually constructed with the field
coil stationary. The armature consists of many coils
of wire, set at small angles around the shaft, each
connected to a pair of commutator bars mounted
on insulators near the end of the shaft. As one of
the coils passes the field pole pieces, a voltage is
induced in it. At the same time, brushes contact the
commutator bars connected to the ends of that coil,
allowing current to flow into the load. As the first
coil of the armature moves away from the pole
NEUTRAL
NEUTRAL
~115V
14
Mechanical Power
Electric motors are used to convert electrical
energy into mechanical motion. If current is passed
through a coil located within a magnetic field, the
coil will tend to change its orientation until its field
aligns with the external magnetic field. By mounting
the coil on a shaft which is free to rotate, and by
periodically reversing the direction of current
through the coil or the sense of the external
magnetic field, the coil can be forced to rotate
continuously. In three-phase AC motors a revolving
magnetic field is supplied by a three-phase stator
winding. The stator and rotor coils have a number of
poles around their circumference, the number being
inversely related to motor speed. The rotor revolves
as it attempts to align itself with the applied
magnetic field.
Heating
As electrical power has become increasingly
economical, the very large amounts of energy
required for electrical heating applications have
become feasible. From the enormous electric
furnaces used in the production of steel to small
electric ranges or home heating systems, electricity
provides a clean and easily controlled source of
heat.
Voltage
Voltage in electrical circuits is measured by means
of devices called voltmeters. They consist of a coil
of wire mounted on a rotatable shaft and positioned
between the pole pieces of a permanent magnet. A
pointer is attached to the shaft in such a manner
that as the coil and shaft rotate, the pointer passes
in front of markings on a dial scale. When current
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
15
AMMETER
SHUNT
Ammeter with Shunt Resistor
Figure 20
LOAD
AMMETER
VOLTMETER
Proper Connection of a Voltmeter
Figure 19
CURRENT
TRANSFORMER
Current
Current is measured through the use of ammeters,
which are very similar in construction to voltmeters.
16
Power in DC circuits may be determined by measuring the voltage and current and multiplying the
results, since P = I E [Equation 6). Apparent power
in AC circuits, measured in volt-amperes, may be
found in the same way. Actual power in watts,
however, must take into account the power factor.
Wattmeters are available which simultaneously
measure voltage, current and power factor and
automatically multiply the results to give an
indication of true power. They employ two coils, one
for voltage and one for current, mounted in such a
way that the pointer deflection is a product of the
two quantities with correction made for any variation
in phase angle between the two waveforms. To
prevent damage to the instrument, care must be
taken to ensure that the rating of neither the
voltage nor the current coil is exceeded, as the
pointer may not indicate an overload condition.
17
III.
GENERATOR SETS
1.
2.
3.
18
BUS
BUS
SYNCHRONIZING LAMPS
MAIN SWITCH
TO GENERATOR
AC
GENERATOR
BUS --~-.---------
,e ,e ,
\~\~\======lCD'
+ + +
TO INCOMING GENERATOR
Adusting Frequency-Synchronization
Poles x RPM
120
19
Problem 2:
The generator set is rated to deliver 1 00 kW at a 0.8
power factor. It is a three-phase machine with a coil
current rating of 334 amperes. The three-phase
load to be supplied is 50 kW at 0.8 power factor. The
single-phase load consists of both 125 and 216 volt
circuits. The 125 volt load has a power factor of 0.9
and is connected from neutral to one leg. This leg is
common with one of the two supplying 10 kW at a
0.8 power factor to the 216 volt load (see Figure 25).
BALANCING OF LOADS ON
AVAILABLE PHASES
If the electrical distribution system served by a
three-phase generator set consists entirely of
three-phase loads, the system is balanced. The coils
making up the generator's three phases each supply
the same amount of current to the load. If singlephase loads are added to the three-phase load,
however, a condition of unbalance will exist unless
the single-phase loads are equally distributed among
each of the three phases of the generator set.
In many applications, balancing of single-phase loads
may not be practical. If these loads are relatively
small (10 percent or less of the generator set threephase kVA capacity), unbalanced single-phase
loading is not cause for concern provided that each of
the three line currents does not exceed the
generator set rating. The following problems
illustrate the method of determining the maximum
single-phase load which may be safely drawn from a
generator set supplying single-phase and threephase power simultaneously. Table 2 gives formulas
which are useful in making calculations of kVA for
various phase configurations.
216 VOLT
SINGLE-PHASE
10 KW@
.8 P.F. LOAD
Problem 1:
Find the amount of single-phase power which can be
safely drawn from a three-phase 125/216 volt
four-wire generator set rated to deliver 1 00 kW at a
0.8 power factor. The coil current rating of the
generator set is 334 amperes. Assume that the
single-phase load is connected from one line to
neutral and has an operating power factor of 0.9
lagging, and that the generator set is also supplying a
three-phase load of 50 kW at a power factor of 0.8.
Solution:
1. The current drawn from each line by the threephase load is found by the procedure used in step
1 of problem 1 to be 167 amperes.
Solution:
P =./3E x I x P.F.
1000
1= P x 1000
Ex P.F.
1= P x 1000 =
50 x 1000 =167 amperes
~ x E x P.F. 1.73 x 216 x 0.8
2.
3.
10 x 1000 = 58 amperes
216 x 0.8
THREE-PHASE
50 KW
216 VOLT
_8 P.F. LOAD
58
109 amperes
P _ E x I x P.F.
1000
20
IV.
AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
Once line current has been determined. final
selection of the circuit breaker trip rating may be
calculated from the formula:
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Circuit breakers are devices which protect
generating equipment and distribution lines from
damage which may result from excessive current
flow. They are available in a wide range of current
ratings. When the rated current is exceeded by a
small amount. the circuit breaker automatically
"trips" and opens the electrical circuit. Normally
they are of the dual type. tripping instantaneously on
heavy overloads such as short circuits. but only after
a certain time interval on lesser overloads. The time
delay effect prevents their tripping on normal
momentary overloads such as motor-starting
currents.
Voltage Ratings
Several different types of circuit breakers are
available. The selection of the correct type for use
with a given generator set is made on the basis of line
voltage and rated full-load line current. For all
voltages less than 600 volts either an air circuit
breaker or a molded-case thermal magnetic breaker
may be used. depending on line current. For voltages
over 600 volts. oil or air breakers must be used
regardless of line current.
1000
- f f x E x P.F.
Voltage
Constant
115
125
200
230
240
380
400
460
480
575
2400
4160
6.27
5.28
3.61
3.14
3.01
1.90
1.80
1.57
1.50
1.26
0.30
0.17
= trip
21
INDICATING INSTRUMENTS
Switchgear selected for use with a generator set
should include, in addition to the circuit breaker, a
number of indicating devices to enable the operator
to monitor system performance. A minimal system
would provide an ammeter with a phase-selector
switch to permit monitoring of current on any of the
three lines, and a voltmeter to monitor generator
output voltage. Any necessary current and potential
transformers would, of course, be included.
TRANSFER SWITCHES
For standby systems, a means must be provided to
switch the load from the normal (or preferred) power
source to an emergency supply should normal
voltage fail or be substantially reduced, and to
retransfer it to the normal source when voltage has
been restored. Transfer switches perform this
function: they may be either manually operated or
may include sensing devices which throw the switch
automatically when conditions warrant. Automatic
transfer switches are more frequently used. In
combination with an automatic start-stop system
they provide for completely unattended operation of
the standby generator set.
22
PARASITIC
23
24
v.
ELECTRICAL TABLES
TABLE 1
ELECTRICAL FORMULAE
Alternating Current
To Obtain
Single-Phase
Three-Phase
Direct Current
v x I x P.F.
1000
1.732 x V x I x P.F.
1000
V xl
1000
vxI
1000
1.732 xV x I
1000
KW
.746 x EFF. (Gen.J
KW
.746 x EFF. (Gen.J
KW
.746 x EFF. (Gen.J
(Eq.21)
KW input when HP
known (Motor)
HP x.746
EFF. (Mot.J
HP x .746
EFF. (Mot.J
HP x .746
EFF. (Mot.J
(Eq.22)
Amperes when HP
known
HP x 746
V x P.F. x EFF.
HP x 746
1.732 x V x EFF. x P.F.
HP x 746
V x EFF.
(Eq.23)
Amperes when
KW known
KW x 1000
V x P.F.
KW x 1000
1.732 x V x P.F.
KW x 1000
(Eq.24)
Amperes when
KV'A known
KVA x 1000
KVA x 1000
1.732 x V
(Eq.25)
Frequency (c.p.sJ
Poles x RPM
120
Poles x RPM
120
(Eq.26)
(Eq.27)
Kilowatts
KVA
Horsepower required
when KW known
(Generator)
vx
010
I x';1- (P.F.J 2
1000
Voltage Regulation
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
current in amperes
power in kilowatts (actual power)
kilovolt-amperes (apparent power)
horsepower
revolutions per minute
reactive kilovolt-amperes
efficiency as a decimal factor
no load
full load
power factor
NOTE: DC KW
(Eq.28)
= voltage in volts
=
=
(Eq. 20)
(Eq. 19)
--
kilomegamillimicro-
= DC KVA
25
x
x
-;-;-
1000
1,000,000
1000
1 ,000,000
k
M
m
J.l.
TABLE 2
KVA OF AC CIRCUITS
Single-Phase, Two-Wire
LlNE--0~V--------
vxI
KV'A =
1000
LINE
Single-Phase, Three-Wire-Balanced
KVA =
-----'-------i0-
LINE
NEUTRAL
vxI
1000
LINE
Single-Phase, Three-Wire-Unbalanced
(V, XI,)
KV'A =
+ (V 2
NEUTRAL
Xb)
1000
Three-Phase, Three-Wire-Balanced
KVA =
I,
LINE
LINE
LINE
LINE
1.732 X V x I
1000
LINE
Three-Phase, Three-Wire-Unbalanced
( I,
KV'A=
1.732 xV x
1000
LINE
+b3 +1,)
LINE
LINE
Three-Phase, Four-Wire-Balanced
NEUTRAL
LINE
3 xV x I
1000
KV'A =
I,
LINE
LINE
Three-Phase, Four-Wire-Unbalanced
KV.A =
xVx
( I,
1000
NEUTRAL
+ 12 + 1,)
LINE
3
LINE
LINE
26
(5
G
G)
G)
(5
TABLE 3
COPPER WIRE CHARACTERISTICS
Wire
Size
AWG
[B &SJ
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Diam.
in
Mils
Circular
mil
Area
289.3
257.6
229.4
204.3
181.9
162.0
144.3
128.5
114.4
101.9
90.7
80.8
72.0
64.1
57.1
50.8
45.3
40.3
35.9
32.0
83690
66370
52640
41740
33100
26250
20820
16510
13090
10380
8234
6530
5178
4107
3257
2583
2048
1624
1288
1022
Ohms
per
1000 ft.
25 0 C
[77 0 FJ
Diam.
in
mm
Nearest
British
SWG
No.
.1264
.1593
.2009
.2533
.3195
.4028
.5080
.6405
.8077
1.018
1.284
1.619
2.042
2.575
3.247
4.094
5.163
6.510
8.210
10.35
7.348
6.544
5.827
5.189
4.621
4.115
3.665
3.264
2.906
2.588
2.305
2.053
1.828
1.628
1.450
1.291
1.150
1.024
.912
.812
1
3
4
5
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
18
19
20
21
TABLE 4
SINGLE-PHASE AC MOTORS
FULL LOAD CURRENTS IN AMPERES
HP
114
113
112
3/4
1
1112
2
3
5
7112
10
115 V
20BV
230V
440 V
5.8
7.2
9.8
13.8
16
20
24
34
56
80
100
3.2
4.0
5.4
7.6
8.8
11
13.2
19
31
44
55
2.9
3.6
4.9
6.9
8
10
12
17
28
40
50
21
26
27
TABLE 5
THREE-PHASE AC MOTORS-SO% POWER FACTOR
FULL LOAD CURRENT IN AMPERES
INDUCTION-TYPE. SQUIRREL CAGE AND
WOUND ROTOR
HP
1/2
3/4
1
11/2
2
3
5
71/2
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
75
100
125
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
600
700
800
900
1000
110V
208 V
220 V
440 V
550 V
2300 V
4
5.6
7
10
13
2.1
3.0
3.7
5.3
6.9
9.5
16
23
29
43
55
68
83
110
133
159
198
262
330
380
510
697
837
976
1114
1254
1393
1672
1950
2220
2504
2789
2
2.8
3.5
5
6.5
9
15
22
27
40
52
64
78
104
125
150
185
246
310
360
480
657
790
922
1051
1192
1317
1578
1842
2103
2365
2639
1
1.4
1.8
2.5
3.3
4.5
7.5
11
14
20
26
32
39
52
63
75
93
123
155
180
240
328
394.5
461
526
592
657
789
921
1051
1194
1316
.8
1.1
1.4
2.0
2.6
4
6
9
11
16
21
26
31
41
50
60
74
98
124
144
192
262
315
368
421
473
526
632
737
842
947
1050
7
8.5
10.5
13
16
19
25
31
37
48
65.7
78.8
92.2
105.2
118.3
130
157
184
210
233
265
TABLE 6
DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS
FULL LOAD CURRENT IN AMPERES
HP
1/4
113
1/2
3/4
1
11/2
2
3
5
71/2
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
75
100
125
150
200
115 V
230 V
550 V
3
3.8
5.4
7.4
9.6
13.2
17
25
40
58
76
112
148
184
220
292
360
430
536
1.5
1.9
2.7
3.7
4.8
6.6
8.5
12.5
20
29
38
56
74
92
110
146
180
215
268
355
443
534
712
1.6
2.0
2.7
3.6
5.2
8.3
12
16
23
31
38
46
61
75
90
111
148
184
220
295
28
TABLE 7
CONDUIT SIZES FOR CONDUCTORS
Size
AWG
or
MCM
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
:,3
2
1
0
00
000
0000
250
300
350
400
500
600
700
750
800
900
1000
1250
1500
1750
2000
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
112
3/4
3/4
3/4
3/4
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
3/4
3/4
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
3/4
3/4
1/2
1/2
1/2
3/4
3/4
1/2
1/2
3/4
3/4
1/2
1/2
3/4
1/2
3/4
3/4
3/4
3/4
3/4
1
1
1114
1114
1114
1114
11/2
11/2
2
2
2
2
2
2
21/2
3
3
3
1114
1114
1114
1114
1112
2
2
2
21/2
2112
3
3
3
31/2
31/2
31/2
31/2
4
4
5
5
5
6
1
t1114
1114
1114
11/2
2
2
2
2112
2112
2112
3
3
3
31/2
31/2
31/2
4
4
4
5
5
6
6
1
11/4
11/2
1112
2
2
2112
2112
2112
3
3
3
31/2
31/2
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
1114
1112
11/2
2
2
2
21/2
2112
3
3
3
3112
31/2
31/2
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
1
1
11/4
11/2
2
2
2
2112
2112
3
3
3
31/2
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
1
1
1
11/4
2
2
2
2112
2112
3
3
3
3112
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
1
1
1114
11/2
2
2
2112
2112
3
3
3
31/2
3112
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
1
11/4
11/4
11/2
2
2112
2112
2112
3
3
3112
3112
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
t Where a service run of conduit or metallic tubing does not exceed 50 feet 115.3 m) in length and does
not contain more than the equivalent of two quarter bends from end to end. two No.4 insulated and one
No.4 bare conductors may be installed in 1-inch 125.4 mm) conduit or tubing .
.,!-
Rubber covered: Types RF-2. RFH-2. R. RH. RW. RH-RW. RU. RUH. RUW
Thermoplastic: Types TF. T. and TW
29
TABLE 8
ALLOWABLE CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITIES OF INSULATED COPPER CONDUCTORS*
BOC
75C
85C
110C
125C
200
TYPES OF INSULATION
Rubber
Paper
Size,
AWG
or
MCM
R, RW,RU,
RUW
14-2
Thermoplastic
T,TW
TYPE RH,
RHW
Var-CamType V
90C
Thermoplastic
Asbestos-TA
Asbestos-VarCam-AVa
14
12
10
8
6
4
3
2
1
0
00
000
0000
250
300
350
400
500
600
700
750
800
900
1000
1250
15
20
30
40
55
70
80
95
110
125
145
165
195
215
240
260
280
320
355
385
400
410
435
455
495
15
20
30
45
65
85
100
115
130
150
175
200
230
255
285
310
335
380
420
460
475
490
520
545
590
25
30
40
50
70
90
105
120
140
155
185
210
235
270
300
325
360
405
455
490
500
515
555
585
645
Asbestos
Var-Cam
Type AVA
Type AVL
Impregnated
Type A1
14-8
A1A
30
35
45
60
80
105
120
135
160
190
215
245
275
315
345
390
420
470
525
560
580
600
30
40
50
65
85
115
130
145
170
200
230
265
310
335
380
420
450
500
545
600
620
640
680
730
0.94
0.90
0.87
0.95
0.92
0.89
40
45
50
.,~
104
113
122
0.82
0.71
0.58
0.88
0.82
0.75
0.90
0.85
0.80
With not more than three conductors in a raceway or cable and a room temperature of 30C (86FJ.
30
Type A
14-8
AA
30
40
55
70
95
120
145
165
190
225
250
285
340
TABLE 9
CODE LETTERS USUALLY APPLIED TO RATINGS
OF MOTORS NORMALLY STARTED ON FULL VOLTAGE
Code Letters
HorsePower
3-phase
15 - up
10 - 7112
2 - 1112
2 -1112
1-phase
1-
TABLE 10
IDENTIFYING CODE LETTERS ON AC MOTORS*
NEMA
Code Letter
A
B
C
o
E
F
G
H
J
K
L
M
N
P
R
S
T
U
V
~*"
31
3/4
112
TABLE 11
CONVERSION - HEAT AND ENERGY
1 - Kilowatt =
1 .341 horsepower
{ 44,254 foot pounds/minute
56.883 Btu/minute
1 - Kilowatt Hour =
1 - British Thermal
Unit [Btu) =
1 - Horsepower Hour =
1 - Horsepower
0.7457 kilowatt
745.7 watts
33,000 foot pounds/minute
42.418 8tu/ minute
1.0139 metric horsepower
TABLE 12
APPROXIMATE EFFICIENCES SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR
HP
112
3/4
1112
2
3
5
7112
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
75
100
125
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
600
Full Load
KW Required
Full Load
Efficiency
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.5
1.9
2.7
4.5
6.7
8.8
13.0
16.8
21.0
24.9
33.2
41.5
49.2
61.5
81.2
101.5
122.0
162.5
203.0
243.0
281.0
321.0
362.0
401.0
482.0
68%
71 %
75%
78%
80%
82%
83%
83%
85%
86%
89%
89%
90%
90%
90%
91 %
91 %
92%
92%
92%
92%
92%
92%
93%
93%
93%
93%
93%
32
TABLE 13
APPROXIMATE ELECTRIC MOTOR EFFICIENCY TO USE IN CALCULATING INPUT
MOTOR
SIZES
LOAD
1 to 3 HP
1/2
DIRECT CURRENT
lal Shunt wound
Ibl Compound wound ....................
Icl Series wound
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Single-Phase
lal Commutator type ....................
TWO - OR THREE-PHASE
Squirrel Cage
lal General Purpose
Normal starting current
Normal starting torque ...............
Ibl Low starting current
Normal starting torque ...............
Icl Low starting current
High starting torque .................
5 to 15 HP
3/4 4/4
1/2 3/4
4/4
78
82
83
80
83
85
65
72
75
75
78
80
78
80
80
84.5 85
82
30 to 60 HP
1/2 3/4
4/4
86
87
88
85
85
88
89
83
83
88
89
89
83
83
82
88
89
89
81
82
83
88
85
89
90
88
89
It is to be noted that efficiency of electric motors varies with speed, type and line voltage. The above percentages
are therefore approximate and are intended only to assist in calculating input. Where the margin of power of
generator over actual requirements is shown to be quite close, it is well to obtain true efficiency of motors from
motor manufacturer.
TABLE 14
REDUCED VOLTAGE STARTERS
Type of
Starter
Motor Voltage
% Line Voltage
Line Current
Starting Torque
% Full Voltage
% of Full Voltage
Starting Current
Starting Torque
100
100
100
80
65
50
68
46
30
64
42
25
80
80
64
50
45
37.5
50
45
37.5
25
20
14
100
100
75
50
75
50
33
TABLE 15
COMPARISON OF REDUCED VOLTAGE STARTING METHODS
Characteristic
Autotransformer
Least
Low
Low
Primary Resistor
Reactor
Low
Low
Increases slightly
Increases rapidly with
with speed
...........speed .......... .
Motor momentarily
Smooth. Transfer made
disconnected from line
with little change in
from start to run
.... motor terminal voltage ....
Torque
Smoothness of
Acceleration
Increases slightly
with speed
Smooth
Average
Lower in small
size - otherwise
equal
Average
Ease of Control
Same
Same
Same
No provision for
adjustment of
starting current
Maintenance
Same
Same
Same
Relative Cost
Line Disturbance
.,~
Resistor starting adds considerable kW load to a generator set. Total power required includes the
motor kW and the kW which is lost as heat in the resistor. The series resistors account for a higher
than normal starting power factor.
TABLE 16
EFFICIENCY OF DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS
KW CAPACITY
-----1200 RPM----LOAD
VOLTAGE
1800 RPM
100
200
250
300
30
40
60
75
100
150
4/4
125
1250
90.5
91.0
90.0
92.0
90.5
92.2
92.3
87.5
87.5
86.5
89.0
89.0 90.0
90.0 90.0
89.3
90.6
90.0
3/4
125
1250
90.0
90.0
88.3
91.2
89.2
91.3
91.3
86.5
86.0
84.0
87.0
87.0 88.5
89.0 88.5
88.0
89.5
89.5
2/4
125
1250
88.0
89.0
85.0
89.0
86.5
89.4
89.2
84.5
83.0
80.5
83.5
85.0 87.0
87.0 87.0
85.1
86.8
88.0
Note: Efficiencies of 3-wire generators will be slightly lower than those of 250-volt generators
because of losses in 3-wire parts.
34
TABLE 17
TYPES OF ELECTRIC MOTORS AND WHERE USED
DIRECT CURRENT -
1. Shunt Wound
2. Series Wound
3. Compound Wound
Three-Phase
1. Squirrel Cage Induction~<- (has no commutator
or brushes)
a. Normal starting current, normal
starting torque
b. Low starting current, normal
starting torque
c. High starting torque, low starting
current
3. Wound
Rotor~<-
~<-Modern
practice is often the use of a squirrel cage induction motor with thyristor control to provide variable speed.
The thyristor is a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) with which the power input to a motor can be controlled.
TABLE 18
POWER FACTOR OF TYPICAL AC LOADS
1.0
Fluorescent Lamps
(With built-in capacitor)
.95 to .97
1.0
Synchronous Motors
(Operate at leading power
factor at part loads: also
built for leading power
factor operation)
1.0
Rotary Converters
1.0
.55 to .75
.75 to .85
;::L.::.o;::ad~_ _ _ __
Synchronous Motors
are designed in standard ratings at unity,
0.9 and 0.8 leading
power factor.
.75 to .90
.85 to .92
.70 to .85
Wound Rotor
.80 to .90
.50 to .90
Welders
Motor generator type
Transformer type
.50 to .60
.50 to .70
Arc Furnaces
Induction Furnaces
.80 to .90
.60 to .70
35
LEADING POWER
FACTOR
Capacitors-zero
leading power factor
(Output practically all
leading reactive
kVA)
VI.
The terms below are described or discussed on the indicated page in the text or defined here.
Across-the-line starting
Refers to starting an electric motor at the
available supply voltage without the use of
voltage reduction transformers.
Actual load
Sometimes specified to indicate the actual
on line load at any given time. Usually only a
fraction of the connected load.
Actual power. p. 9
Alternating current (AC). p. 5
Ammeter. p. 1 6
Ampere (A). p. 2
Apparent power. p. 9
Armature. p. 11
Auto-compensator
Another name for an autotransformer
used to reduce the applied starting voltage
of an electric motor.
Automatic start-stop system. p. 23
Automatic transfer switch. p. 22
Autotransformer. p. 11
Available current
The maximum current which a source
(generator) can supply to the terminals of
the equipment being supplied. Clarity
requires that the value be identified as
RMS. symmetrical RMS. asymmetrical
RMS or peak.
Battery. p. 11
Breakdown voltage. p. 3
Capacitance. p. 6
Capacitive reactance. p. 7
Capacitor. p. 6
Circuit. p. 3
Circuit breaker. p. 21
Collector ring. p. 12
Commutator. p. 14
Conductor. p. 3
Connected load
Usually listed in specifications as "Total
Connected Load". Refers to the total hp.
kW. or KVA connected to a system.
Current. p. 2
Current transformer. p. 16
Cycle. p. 5
Cycles per second-see hertz
Cyclic deviation angle
Term applies to large. slow speed engines
directly driving generators. Value is
determined from engine cyclic irregularity
and is measured in electrical degrees.
Usual limit is 2.5 degrees. SR 4. SRCR
generator sets show less that 1 .0 degree.
Kilovolt-see volt
Kilowatt-see watt
KVA. p. 18
KVAR. p. 10
Lagging phase. p. 6
Lagging power factor. p. 9
Leading phase. p. 6
Leading power factor. p. 9
Load. p. 3
Load factor
The mathematical ratio of the actual load divided
by the connected load.
Motor. p. 15
Motor-generator set
A generator. AC or DC. driven by an electric
motor. Typical usage includes arc welders.
frequency changers. battery chargers. and
precise frequency voltage supplies.
Neutral. p. 1 2
Ohm. p. 3
Ohm's law. p. 3
Delta connection. p. 1 2
37
Sine wave. p. 5
Single-phase AC circuit. p. 14
Single-phase generator. p. 1 2
Slip ring. p. 1 5
Slip ring motor. p. 1 5
Squirrel cage motor. p. 15
Stator. p. 12
Step-down transformer. p. 11
Step-up transformer. p. 11
Switch. p. 3
Synchronization (generator). p. 19
Synchronous motor. p. 1 5
Synchroscope. p. 19
One Coil. p. 1 2. 14
Oscilloscope. p. 16
Parallel circuit. p. 4
Part-winding starter (motor)
A system of using two or three parallel coil windings in large electric motors. Windings are
sequentially connected to the line to minimize
current inrush yet provide accelerating torque
for the motor and its load.
Peak-to-peak voltage. p. 6
Peak voltage. p. 6
Phase (0). p. 6
Phase sequence. p. 17
Potential difference. p. 2
Potential transformer. p. 1 6
Power. p. 4
Power factor. p. 9
Primary (transformerl. p. 10
Primary reactor starter (motor)
An iron core coil inserted in the line leads of
electric motors to reduce starting voltage and
current inrush.
Primary resistor starter (motor)
A variable resistor (usually carbon discs) inserted in the line leads of electric motors to reduce
starting voltage and current inrush.
Three-phase circuit. p. 14
Three-phase generator. p. 1 2
Transfer switch. p. 22
Transformation. p. 10
Transformer. p. 10
Transient. p. 16
Unity power factor. p. 9
Volt (V). p. 2
Voltage. p. 2
Voltage regulator. p. 12
Voltmeter. p. 15
Watt. p. 4
Watt-hour. p. 5
Watt-hour meter
A recording device that totals the aVI
Ie
power (kW) passing through it in a period of time.
The reading is kilowatt hours. 10 kWh means 10
kilowatts for a one hour period. or one kilowatt
for ten hours. or any product of power and time
that equals ten.
Wattmeter. p. 17
Waveform. p. 5
Wound-rotor motor. p. 1 5
Wye connection. p. 1 2
Reactance. p. 6.
Reactive volt-ampere. p. 10
Rectifier. p. 12
Reduced-voltage starting
Makes use of an autotransformer. primary
reactor starter. or primary resistor starter to
lower the starting voltage.
Resistance. p. 3
Resistor. p. 3
RKVA. p. 10
RMS. p. 6
Secondary (transformerl. p. 10
Semiconductor. p. 3
Series circuit. p. 3
Short circuit ratio
Figure gives some indication of generator
response under suddenly applied load. Value is
determined by test and is usually 0.4 to 0.8.
Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). p. 12
X/R ratio
This ratio is used in calculations of circuit breaker requirements. The ratio determines the time
in which an asymmetrical current becomes
symmetrical. Most generators have a figure of 6
to 10.
Y connection-see wye connection
38
LEH03210 (4-93)
Supercedes LEH02380
1993 Caterpillar