CHAPTER

SEVEN
VOLTAGE-DROP AND POWER LOSS CALCULATION
7-1 THREE-PHASE BALANCED PRIMARY LINES
As discussed in Chap. 5, a utility company strives to achieve a well-balanced distribution system
in order to improve system voltage regulation by means of equally loading each phase. Figure 71 shows a primary system with either a three-phase three wire or a three- phase four-wire main.
The laterals can be either (1) three-phase three-wire, (2) three-phase four-wire, (3) single-phase
with line-to-line voltage, undergrounded, (4) single-phase with line-to-neutral voltage, grounded,
or (5) two-phase plus neutral, open-wye.
7-2 NON-THREE-PHASE PRIMARY LINES
Usually there are many laterals on a primary feeder which are not necessarily in three-phase,
e.g., single-phase which causes the voltage drop and power loss due to load current not only in
the phase conductor but also in the return path.
7-2-1 Single-Phase Two-Wire Laterals with Undergrounded Neutral
Assume that an overloaded single-phase lateral is to be changed to an equivalent three-phase
three-wire and balanced lateral, holding the load constant. Since the power input to the lateral is
the same as before,

where the subscripts 1 and 3 refer to the single-phase and three-phase circuits, respectively.
Equation (7-1) can be rewritten as
( 3 x Vs)I1 = 3 VsI3

(7-2)

where Vs is the line-to-neutral voltage. Therefore, from Eq. (7-2),

I1 = 3 x I3

(7-3)

Which means that the current in the single-phase lateral is 1.73 times larger than the one in the
equivalent three-phase lateral.
The voltage drop in the three-phase lateral can be expressed as

VD3 = I3(R cos + X sin )

(7-4)

And in the single-phase lateral as

VD1(KR R cos + Kx X sin )

(7-5)

Where KR and KX are conversion constants of R and X and are used to convert them from their
three-phase values to the equivalent single-phase values.
KR = 2.0
KX = 2.0
Kx 2.0

when underground cable is used

when overhead line is used, with aproximately a 10% accuracy

Therefore Eq. (7-5) can be rewritten as

VD1 = I1(2R cos + 2X sin )

(7-6)

Or substituting Eq. (7-3) into Eq. (7-6),

VD1 = 2 3 x I3(R cos + X sin )

(7-7)

By divinding Eq. (7-7) by Eq. (7-4) side by side,

VD 1
VD 3

=2 3

(7-8)

Which mean that the voltage drop n the single-phase undergrounded lateral is aproximately 3.46
times larger than the one in the equivalent three-phase lateral. Since base voltages for the singlephase and three-phase and three-phase lateral are

And

VB(1) = 3 x Vs.L-N

(7-9)

VB(3) = 3 x Vs. L-N

(7-10)

Eq. (7-8) can be expressed in per units as

VDpu .1
VDpu .1

= 2.0

(7-11)

Which mean that the per unit voltage drop in the single-phase undergrounded lateral is two times
larger yhan the one in the equivalent three-phase lateral. For example, if the per unit voltage drop
in the single-phase lateral is 0.10, it would be 0.05 in the equivalent three-phase lateral.
The power losses due to the load currents in the conductors of the single-phase lateral and
the equivalent three-phase lateral are

And

PL.S1 = 2 x I21R

(7-12)

PLS. 3 = 3 x I23R

(7-13)

Respectively. Substituting Eq. (7-3) into Eq. (7-12),

PLS. 1 = 2( 3 x I3)2R

(7-14)

And dividing the resultant Eq. (7-14) by Eq. (7-13) side by side,
PLS . 1
PLS . 3

= 2.0

(7-15)

Which means that the power loss due the load currents in the conductors of the single-phases
lateral is two times larger than the one in the equivalent three-phase lateral.
Therefore, one can conclude that by changing a single-phase lateral to an equivalent
three-phase lateral both the per unit voltage drop and the power loss due to copper losses in the
primary line are approximately halved.
7-2-2 Single-Phase Two-Wire Unigrounded Laterals
In general, this system is presently not used due to the following disadvantages. There is no earth
current in this system. It can be compared to a three-phase four-wire balanced lateral in the
following manner. Since the power input to the lateral is the same as before,
S1 = S3

(7-16)

Or

Vs x I1 = 3 x Vs x I3

(7-17)

From which

I1 = 3 x I3

(7-18)

The voltage drop in the three-phase lateral can be expressed as

VD3 = I3(R cos + X sin )
And in the single-phase lateral as

(7-19)

VD1 = I1(KR R cos + Kx X sin )

Where KR = 2.0
KR > 2.0
Kx 2.0

(7-20)

when a full-capacity neutral is used

when a reduced-capacity neutral is used
when overhead line is used

Therefore, if KR = 2.0 and Kx = 2.0, Eq. (7-20) can be rewritten as

VD1 = I1(2R cos + 2X sin )

(7-21)

Or substituting Eq. (7-18) into Eq. (7-21),

VD1 = 6 x I3(R cos + X sin )

(7-22)

Dividing Eq. (7-22) by Eq. (7-19) side by side,

VD 1
VD 3

= 6.0

(7-23)

Which means that the voltage drop in the single-phase two-wire unigrounded lateral with fullcapacity neutral is six times larger than the one in the equivalent three-phase four-wire balanced
lateral.
The power losses due to the load currents in the conductors of the single-phase two-wire
unigrounded lateral with full-capacity neutral and the equivalent thre-phase four-wire balanced
lateral are

And

PLS. 1 = I21 (2R)

(7-24)

PLS. 3 = 3 x I21R

(7-25)

Respectively. Substituting Eq. (7-18) into Eq. (7-24),

PLS. 1 = (3 x I3)2(2R)

(7-26)

And dividing Eq. (7-26) by Eq. (7-25) side by side,

PLS . 1
PLS . 3

= 6.0

(7-27)

Therefore, the power loss due to load currents in the conductors of the single-phase two-wire
unigrounded lateral with full-capacity neutral is six times larger than the one in the equivalent
three-phase four-wire lateral.

7-2-3 Single-Phase Two-Wire Laterals with Multigrounded Common Neutrals

Figure 7-2 shows a single-phase two-wire lateral with multigrounded common neutral. As shown
in the figure, the neutral wire is connected in parallel (i.e., multigrounded) with the ground wire
at various places through ground electrodes in order to reduce the current in the neutral wire. Ia is
the current in the phase conductor, Iw is the return current in the neutral wire, and Id is the return
current in the Carsons equivalent ground conductor. According to Morrison [1], the return
current in the neutral wire is
In =

Ia

where 1 = 0.25 to 0.33

(7-28)

And it is almost independent of size of the neutral conductor.

In Fig. 7-2, the constant KR is less than 2.0 and the constant Kx is more or less equal to
2.0 because of conflictingly large Dm (i.e., mutual geometric mean distance or geometric mean
radius, GMR) of the Carsons equivalent ground (neutral) conductor.
Therefore, Morrisons data [1] (probably empirical) indicate taht
VDpu. 1 = 2 x VDpu. 3
And

PLS, 1 = 3 x PLS. 3

V
W

where 2 = 3.8 to 4.2

(7-29)

where 3 = 3.5 to 3.75

(7-30)

Therefore, assuming that the data from Morrison [1] are accurate,
KR < 2.0

and

Kx < 2.0

The per unit voltage drops and the power losses due to load currents can be approximated as

And

VDpu.1 4.0 x VDpu. 3

(7-31)

PLS. 1 3.6 x PLS. 3

(7-32)

For the illustrative problems.

7-2-4 Two-Phase Plus Neutral (Open Wye) Laterals

Figure 7-3 shows an open-wye-connected lateral with two-phase and neutral. Of course, the
neutral conductor can be unigrounded or multigrounded, but because of disadvantages the
unigrounded neutral is generally not used. If the neutral is unigrounded, all neutral current is in
the neutral conductor it self. Theoretically, it can be expressed that

= ZI

(7-33)

Where
V
V

= Z

= Z

I
I

(7-34)

(7-35)

It is correct for equal load division between the two phases.

Assuming equal load division among phases, the two-phase plus neutral lateral can be
compared to an equivalent three-phase lateral, holding the total kilovoltampere load constant.
Therefore

Or

S2 = S3

(7-36)

2VsI2 = 3VsI3

(7-37)

3
2

(7-38)

From which
I2 =

I3

The voltage-drop analysis can be performed depending upon whether the neutral is
unigrounded or multigrounded. If the neutral is unigrounded and the neutral conductor
impedance (Zn) is zero, the voltage drop in each phase is
VD2 = I2(KR R cos + Kx X sin )

(7-39)

Where KR = 1.0
Kx = 1.0
Therefore
VD2 = I2(R cos + X sin )

(7-40)

Or substituting Eq. (7-38) into Eq. (7-40),

VD2 =

3
2

I3(R cos + X sin )

(7-41)

Dividing Eq. (7-41) by Eq. (7-19) side by side,

VD 2
VD 3

3
2

(7-42)

However, if the neutral is unigrounded and the neutral-conductor impedance (Zn) is larger than
zero,
VD 2
VD 3

3
2

>

(7-43)

Therefore in this case some unbalanced voltages are inherent.

However, if the neutral is multigrounded and Zn > 0, the data from Morrison [1] indicate
that the per unit voltage drop in each phase is
VDpu.2 = 2.0 x VDpu.3

(7-44)

When a full-capacity neutral is used and

VDpu. 2 = 2.1 x VDpu. 3

(7-45)

When a reduced-capacity neutral (i.e., when the neutral conductor employed is one or two sizes
smaller than the phase conductors) is used.
The power loss analysis also depends upon whether the neutral is unigrounded or
multigrounded. If the neutral is unigrounded, the power loss is
PLS. 2 = I22(KR R)
Where KR = 3.0
KR > 3.0

(7-46)

when a full-capacity neutral is used

when a reduced-capacity neutral is used

Therefore, if KR = 3.0,

Or

PLS . 2
PLS . 3

3 I 22 R
3 I 23 R

PLS . 2
PLS . 3

= 2.25

On the other hand, if the neutral is multigrounded,

(7-47)

(7-48)

PLS . 2
PLS . 3

< 2.25

(7-49)

Based on the data from Morrison [1], the approximate value of this ratio is
PLS . 2
PLS . 3

1.64

(7-50)

Which means that the power loss due to load currents in the conductors of the two-phase threewire lateral with multigrounded neutral is approximately 1.64 times larger than the one in the
equivalent three-phase lateral.
7-3 FOUR-WIRE MULTIGROUNDED COMMON-NEUTRAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Figure 7-4 shows a typical four-wire multigrounded common-neutral distribution system.
Because of the economic and operating advantages, this system is used extensively. The assorted
secondaries can be, for example, either (1) 120/240 V
Single-phase three-wire, (2) 120/240 V three-phase four-wire connected in delta, (3) 120/240 V
three-phase four-wire connected in open-delta, or (4) 120/208 V three-phase four-wire connected
in grunded-wye. Where primary and secondary system are both existent, the same conductor is
used as common neutral for both system. The neutral is grounded at each distribution
transformer, at various places where no transformers are connected, and to water pipes or driven
ground electrodes at each users service entrance. The secondary neutral is also grounded at the
distribution transformer and the service drops. Typical values of the resistances of the ground
electrodes are 5, 10, or 15 . Under no circumstances should they be larger than 25 . Usually, a
typical metal water pipe system has a resistance value of less than 3 . A part of the unalanced,
or zero sequence, load current flows in the neutral wire, and the remaining part flows in the
ground and/or the water system. Usually the same conductor size is used for both phase and
neutral conductors.
Example 7-1 Assume that the circuit shown in Fig. 7-5 represents a single-phase circuit if
dimensional variables are used; it represents a balanced three-phase circuit if per unit variables
are used. The R + jX represents the total impedance of lines and/or transformers. The power

factor of the load is cos = cos ( V R - I ). Find the load power factor for which the
voltage drop is maximum.
SOLUTION The line voltage drop is
VD = I(R cos + X sin )

By taking its partial derivative with respect to the angle and equating the result to zero,

Or

(VD)

= - IR sin + IX cos = 0

X
R

sin
cos

= tan

Therefore
max = tan-1

X
R

And from the impedance triangle shown in Fig. 7-6, the load power factor for which the voltage
drop is maximum is

PF = cos max =

Also

R 2+ X 2
R
1/2

cos max = cos (tan-1

X
R )

(7-51)

(7-52)

Example7-2 Consider the three-phase three-wire 240 V secondary system with balanced loads at
A, B, and C as shown in Fig. 7-7. Determine the following:
(a) Calculate the total voltage drop, or as it is sometimes called, voltage regulation, in one phase
of the lateral by using the approximate method.
(b) Calculate the real power per phase for each load.
(c) Calculate the reactive power per phase for each load.
(d) Calculate the kilovoltampere output and load power factor of the distribution trnasformer.
SOLUTION
(a) Using the approximate voltage-drop equation, that is,
VD = I(R cos + X sin )
The voltage drop for each load can be calculated as
VDA = 30(0.05 x 1.0 + 0.01 x 0) = 1.5 V
VDB = 20(0.15 x 0.5 + 0.03 x 0.866) = 2.02 V
VDC = 50(0.20 x 0.9 + 0.08 x 0.436) = 10.744 V
Therefore the total voltage drop is

 VD

= VDA

+ VDB + VDC
= 1.5 + 2.02 + 10.744
= 14.264 V
Or

14.264 V
240V

= 0.0594 pu V

(b) The real power per phase for each load can be calculated from
P = V I cos
Or
PA = 240 x 30 x 1.0 = 7.2 kW
PB = 240 x 20 x 0.5 = 2.4 kW
PC = 240 x 50 x 0.9 = 10.8 kW
Therefore the total real power per phase is

= PA + PB + PC

= 7.2 + 2.4 + 10.8

= 20.4 kW
(c) The reactive power per phase for each load can be calculated from
Q = VI sin
Or
QA = 240 x 30 x 0 = 0 kvar
QB = 240 x 20 x 0.866 = 4.156 kvar
QC = 240 x 50 x 0.436 = 5.232 kvar
Therefore the total reactive power per phase is

= QA + QB + QC

= 0 + 4.156 + 5.232
= 9.389 kvar
(d) Therefore the kilovoltampere output of the distribution transformer is
S = (P2 + Q2)1/2
= (20.42 + 9.3892)1/2
22.457 kVA/phase

This the total kilovoltampere output of the distribution transformer is

3 x 22.457 67.37 kVA
Hence, the load power factor of the distribution transformer is
Cos =

P
S

20.4 kW
22.457 kVA

= 0.908 lagging
Example 7-3 This example is a continuation of Example 6-1. It deals with voltage drops in the
secondary distribution system. In this and the following examples, a single-phase three-wire
120/240 V directly buried underground residential distribution (URD) secondary system will be
analyzed, and calculations will be made for motor-starting voltage dip and for steady-state
voltage drops of the time of annual peak load. Assume that the cable impedances given in Table
7-2 are correct for a typical URD secondary cable.
Transformer data The data given in Table 7-1 are for modern single-phase 65oC OISC
distribution transformers of the 7200-120/240 V class. The data were taken from a recent catalog
of a manufacturer. All given per unit values are based on the transformer-rated kilovoltamperes
and voltages.
The 2400 V class transformers of the sizes being considered have about 15 percent less R
and about 7 percent less X than the 7200 V transformers. Ignore the small variation of impedance

with rated voltage and assume that voltage drop calculated with the given data will suffice for
whichever primary voltage is used.
URD secondary cable data Cable insulations and manufacture are constantly being improved,
especially for high-voltage cables. Therefore, any cable data soon become obselete. The
following information and data have been abstracted from recent cable catalogs.
Much of the 600 V class cable now commonly used for secondary lines and services has Al
conductor and cross-linked PE insulation which can stand 90oC conductor temperature. The
trplexed cable assembly shown in Fig. 7-8 (quadruplexed for three-phase four-wire service) has
three or four insulated conductors when aluminium is used. When copper is used, the one
grounded neutral conductor is bare. The neutral conductor typically is two AWG sizes smaller
than the phase conductors.
The twin concentric cable assembly shown in Fig. 7-9 has two insulated copper or
aluminium phase conductors plus several spirally served small bare copper binding conductors
which act as the current-carrying grounded neutral. The number and size of the spiral neutral
wires vary so that the ampacity of the neutral circuit is equivalent to two AWG wire sizes smaller
aluminium/copper XLPE 600 V class cable.
The triplex and twin concentric assemblies obviously have the same resistance for a given
size of phase conductors. The triplex assembly has very slightly higher reactance than the
concentric assembly. The difference in rectances is too small to be noted unless precise
computations are undertaken for some special purpose. The reactances of those cables should be
increased by about 25 percent if they are installed in iron conduit. The reactances given below
are valid only for balanced loading (where the neutral current is zero).
The triplex assembly has about 15 percent smaller ampacity than the concentric assembly,
but the exact amount of reduction varies with wire size. The ampacities given are for 90oC
conductor temperature, 20oC ambient earth temperature, direct burial in earth, and 10 percent
daily load factor. When installed in burried duct, the ampacities are about 70 percent of those
listed below. For load factors less than 100 percent, consult current literature or cable standards.
The increased ampacities are significantly large.

Arbitrary criteria
1. Use the approximate voltage-drop equation, that is,
VD = I(R cos + X sin )
And adapt it to per unit data when computing transformer voltage drops and adapt it to
ampere and ohm data when computing service-drop (SD) and secondary-line (SL)
voltage drops. Obtain all voltage-drop answers in per unit based on 240 V.

2. Maximum allowable motor-starting voltage dip (VDIP) = 3 percent = 0.03 pu = 3.6 V

based on 120 V. This figure is arbitrary; utility parctices vary.
3. Maximum allowable steady-state voltage drop in the secondary system (transformer + SL
+ SD) = 3.50 percent = 0.035 pu = 4.2 V based on 120 V. This figure also is quite
abritrary; regulatory commission rules and utility practices vary. More information about
favorable and tolerable amounts of voltage drop will be discussed in connection with
subsequent examples, which will involve voltage drops in the primary lines.
4. The loading data for computation of steady-state voltage drop is given in Table 7-3.
5. As loadingndata for transient motor-starting VDIP, assume an air-conditioning
compressor motor located most unfavorably. It has a 3-hp single-phase 240 V 80 A locked
rotor current, with a 50 percent PF locked rotor.
Assumptions
1. Assume perfectly balanced loading in all three-wire single-phase circuits.
2. Assume nominal operating voltage of 240 V when computing currents from
kilovoltampere loads.
3. Assume 90 percent lagging power factor for all loads.
Using the given data and assumptions, calculate the K constant for any one of the
secondary cable sizes, hoping to verify one of the given values in Table 7-2.
SOLUTION Let the secondary cable size be #2 AWG, arbitrarily. Also let the I current be 100 A
and the length of the secondary line be 100 ft. Using the values from Table 7-2, the resistance
and reactance values for 100 ft of cable can be found as
R = 0.334 /1000 ft x

100 ft
1000 ft

= 0.0334
And
X = 0.0299 /1000 ft x

100 ft
1000 ft

= 0.00299
Therefore, using the approximate voltage drop equation,
VD = I(R cos + X sin )
= 100(0.0334 x 0.9 + 0.00299 x 0.435)

= 3.136 V
Or, in per unit volts,
3.136 V
120 V

= 0.0261 pu V

Which is very close to the value given in Table 7-2 for the K constant, that is, 0.02613 pu V/(104
A . ft) of cable.