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ELECTRONICS 1

EEE 231 (3+1)


Dr. Naeem
Shehzad

Grading Policy
Assignments

10%

Minimum 3

Quizzes (scheduled/surprised)

15%

Minimum 3

Midterms
Sessional 1
Sessional 2

Final exam

25%
10%
15%

50%
3

Electronics ?

Electronics ?

Objectives
1.
2.
3.

4.

Basic knowledge of semiconductor devices


To analyze a given circuit
To design an optimized circuit according to
given requirements
To be familiar with the commonly used
configurations

Advantages of semiconductor Devices


1.

Small in size

2.

Low power consumption

3.

Long life

4.

Low operating voltages


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Overview
Introduction to semiconductors
What are P-type and N-type semiconductors?
What are Diodes?
Forward Bias & Reverse Bias
Characteristics Of Ideal Diode
Shockley Equation
I V Characteristics of Diodes
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Introduction
The goal of electronic materials is to generate
and control the flow of an electrical current.
Electronic materials include:
Conductors: have low resistance which allows
electrical current flow
Insulators: have high resistance which suppresses
electrical current flow
Semiconductors: can allow or suppress electrical
current flow

Atomic Structure
The highest energy band completely filled with
electrons (at T = 0 K) is called the Valence Band
The next band is called the Conduction Band
The energy difference
between the bottom of the
Conduction and the top of
the Valence bands is called
the Band Gap
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Insulators, Semiconductors, and Metals


The Band Gap determines the electrical properties of
the material
Insulators have a large energy gap (>5eV)
electrons cant jump from valence to conduction bands
no current flows

Conductors (metals) have a very small (or


nonexistent) energy gap
electrons easily jump to conduction bands due to thermal
excitation
current flows easily

Semiconductors have a moderate energy gap


only a few electrons can jump to the conduction band
leaving holes
only a little current can flow
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Valence and Conduction Bands


The band structures of insulators and semiconductors
resemble each other qualitatively.
Both in insulators and semiconductors a filled energy
band (referred to as the valence band) separated from
the next higher band (referred to as the conduction
band) by an energy gap.
If this gap is at least several electron volts, the material is
an insulator. It is too difficult for an applied field to
overcome that large energy gap, and thermal excitations
lack the energy to promote sufficient numbers of
electrons to the conduction band.
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Conductor Atomic Structure


Good conductors have low
resistance so electrons flow
through them with ease.
The atomic structure of
good conductors usually
includes only one electron
in their outer shell.
It is called a valence electron.
It is easily striped from the
atom, producing current flow.
Copper Atom
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Why Semiconductors?
Resistivity vs temperature

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Commonly used Semiconductors


Germanium (Ge)
Good availability, Easy to refine it But Low level
of reliability and sensitive to temperature

Silicon (Si)
Less sensitive to temperature and abundantly
available But refining is complex

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)


High speed (5 times that of Si) But costly and
temperature sensitive

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Semiconductor Valence Orbit


The main characteristic
of a semiconductor
element is that it has
four electrons in its
outer or valence orbit.

16

Crystal Lattice Structure


The semiconductor
atoms link together to
form a physical structure
called a crystal lattice.
The atoms link together
with one another sharing
their outer electrons.
These links are called
covalent bonds.

2D Crystal Lattice Structure

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Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor


Intrinsic = Pure semiconductor
Extrinsic = Impure or doped semiconductor
Doping means mixing a pure semiconductor with
impurities to increase its electrical conductivity
Impurities change the conductivity of the material
so that it can be fabricated into a device
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N-Type (Doping with Penta-valent atoms)


An impurity, or element
like arsenic, antimony has
5 valence electrons.
Adding arsenic (doping)
will allow four of the
arsenic valence electrons to
bond with the neighboring
silicon atoms.
The one electron left over
for each arsenic atom
becomes available to
conduct current flow.

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P-Type (Doping with Tri-valent atoms)


Doping with an atom such as
boron, gallium that has only 3
valence electrons.
The 3 electrons in the outer orbit
do form covalent. But one
electron is missing from the bond.
This place where a fourth electron
should be is referred to as a hole.
The hole assumes a positive
charge so it can attract electrons
from some other source.
Holes become a type of current
carrier like the electron to support
current flow.
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Majority and Minority carrier


In N-type
Electrons are majority carriers
Holes are minority carriers

In P-type
Holes are majority carriers
Electrons are minority carriers
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Donner and Acceptor ions


Group V impurities are called Donors, since they
donate electrons into the Conduction Band
Donor atom becomes an ion with +ve charge D+

Group III impurities are called Acceptors since


they accept an electron in valence band
Acceptor atom becomes an ion with -ve charge A-

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Summary upto here


In its pure state, semiconductor is a poor conductor
The commonly used semiconductor material is silicon.
Semiconductor materials can be doped with other atoms to
add or subtract electrons.
An N-type semiconductor material has extra electrons.
A P-type semiconductor material has a shortage of electrons
with vacancies called holes.
The heavier the doping, the greater the conductivity or the
lower the resistance.
By controlling the doping of silicon the semiconductor
material can be made as conductive as desired.
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Diodes
A diode is formed by putting a N-type and P-type
of semiconductor together

P-N Junction
P type

Anode

N type

Cathode

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Diodes
P-N Junction
P type

N typ

Anode

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Diode
Migration of holes from P to N and electrons from
N to P causes a formation of depletion layer
P type

Anode

--+
--+
--+
--+

+
+
+
+

N type

Cathode

This gives rise to barrier potential (E) preventing


further migration of holes and electrons

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Energy bands in a unbiased diode


Depletion layer
Energy

N
Conduction band

Valence band

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Forward biased diode


P type

N type
-+
-+
-+
-+

Anode

Cathode

R
+
+

V
-

VB
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Energy bands of a forward biased diode


Smaller depletion layer

Energy
P

N
Conduction band

Valence band

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Forward Biased diode


The diode behaves like a ON switch in this
mode
Resistance R and diodes body resistance
limits the current through the diode
VB has to overcome V in order for the diode
to conduct

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Reverse Biased diode


Larger depletion layer
P type

Anode

N type
-

+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

Cathode

VB

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Energy bands in a reverse biased diode


Larger Depletion layer
Energy

N
Conduction band

Valence band
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Reverse Biased diode


The diode behaves like a OFF switch in this mode
If we continue to increase reverse voltage V
breakdown voltage of the diode is reached

Once breakdown voltage is reached diode conducts


heavily causing its destruction

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Forward Bias and Reverse Bias


Forward Bias : Connect positive of the Diode
to positive of supplynegative of Diode to
negative of supply
Reverse Bias: Connect positive of the Diode
to negative of supplynegative of diode to
positive of supply.

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Diode Biasing

To forward bias a diode,


the anode must be more
positive than the cathode or
LESS NEGATIVE

To reverse bias a diode, the


anode must be less positive
than the cathode or MORE
NEGATIVE

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A Diode Puzzle
Which lamps are alight

Characteristics of Diode
Diode always conducts in one direction.
Diodes always conduct current when
Forward Biased ( Zero resistance)
Diodes do not conduct when Reverse Biased
(Infinite resistance)

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Example from a daily life

38

I-V characteristics of Ideal diode

39

I-V Characteristics of Practical Diode

40

Breakdown
Diode breakdown is caused by thermally generated
electrons in the depletion region
When the reverse voltage across diode reaches
breakdown voltage these electrons will get sufficient
energy to collide and dislodge other electrons
The number of high energy electrons increases in
geometric progression leading to an avalanche effect
causing heavy current and ultimately destruction of
diode
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Shockley Equation
The forward bias current is closely approximated by

VD
iD = I s exp
nVT

kT
VT =
q
VT 26 mV

Is is the saturation current ~10 -14


VD is the diode voltage
n emission coefficient (varies from 1 - 2 )
k = 1.38 1023 J/K is Boltzmanns constant
q = 1.60 1019 C is the electrical charge of an
electron.
At a temperature of 300 K, we have

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Shockley Equation
For no bias situation VD = 0 ,

I D = I S (exp(0) 1) = 0
For reverse voltage across diode,

ID = IS
For forward voltage across diode

VD
I D = I s exp
nVT

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Zener Diode
Same as ordinary diode but
it is placed in the circuit in
reverse bias and operates in
reverse breakdown.
Forward biased
Characteristics are same
Available in range of 1.8 to
200 V breakdown voltages
Break down voltage
depends on doping
44

Zener Diode
It maintains a specific voltage across its terminals
Used for providing a stable reference voltage for use in power
supplies and other equipment

This particular zener circuit will work to maintain 10 V across the load.
45

Light Emitting Diode (LED)


A light emitting diode (LED) is essentially a PN
junction opto-semiconductor that emits a
monochromatic (single color) light when operated
in a forward biased direction.
When the electron falls down from conduction band
and fills in a hole in valence band, there is an
obvious loss of energy.

46

Light Emitting Diode (LED)


The bandwidth of qaunta of light energy released is
approximately proportional to the band gap of the
semiconductor.

47

Light Emitting Diode (LED)


In Si and Ge diode, the energy is emitted in form of
heat and is insignificant.
In GaAs diode, the emitted light is in infrared zone
(invisible light) .
In GaN, GaP etc emitt visible light of different
colors and at different voltages when forward bias.

48

Temperature Effects
In forward bias region the characteristic of
silicon diode shift to left at rate of 2.5mv/oC
In reverse bias, IS Silicon diode is doubles
after every 10 oC
The reverse breakdown voltage depends on
the variation in temperature
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Types of resistances
As the operating point of a diode moves from one region to
another the resistance of the diode will also change due to the
nonlinear shape of the characteristic curve
The type of applied voltage or signal will define the
resistance level of interest
Three different types of Diode resistances according to
applied voltage
DC or Static Resistance
AC or Dynamic Resistance
Average AC Resistance
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DC Resistance of Diode
The application of a dc voltage to
a circuit containing a
semiconductor diode will result in
an operating point on the
characteristic curve that will not
change with time
The resistance of the diode at the
operating point can be found
simply by finding the
corresponding levels of VD and ID
The lower current through a diode
the higher the dc resistance level
51

Example DC Resistance
Determine the dc
resistance
a)
b)
c)

ID = 2 mA
ID = 20 mA
VD = -10 V

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Solution

53

AC or Dynamic Resistance
The varying input will move
the instantaneous operating
point up and down a region
of the characteristics and
thus defines a specific
change in current and
voltage

54

AC resistance
A straight line drawn tangent to the
curve through the Q-point. It will define
a particular change in voltage and current
that can be used to determine the ac or
dynamic resistance for this region of the
diode characteristics
In equation = Vd/ Id
In general, the lower the Q-point of
operation (smaller current or lower
voltage) the higher the ac resistance.
55

Example
For the characteristics
given curve
Determine the ac
resistance at ID = 2 mA.
Determine the ac
resistance at ID = 25
mA.

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Average AC Resistance
If the input signal is sufficiently
large to produce a broad swing
such as indicated, the resistance
associated with the device for this
region is called the average ac
resistance
The average ac resistance is, by
definition, the resistance determined by a straight line drawn
between the two intersections
established by the maximum and
minimum values of input voltage
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Diode Specifications
Diode data sheets contain standard information, making cross-matching
of diodes for replacement or design easier.

Forward Voltage (VF) at a specified current and temperature


Maximum forward current (IF) at a specified temperature
Reverse saturation current (IR) at a specified voltage and
temperature
Reverse voltage rating, PIV or PRV at a specified
temperature
Maximum power dissipation at a specified temperature
Reverse recovery time, trr
Operating temperature range
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