Direct and Alternating Current Mnual

QlnrnpU Intersttg IGtbrarg
BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE
SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND

THE GIFT OF
ftenrg HI. Sage

1891
B.
ab'^5 a.1
aV^li
1J06
Cornell University Library
TK
147.B41
Direct
and alternating current manual; wi
3 1924 004 406 199
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tine
original of
tiiis
book
is in
Cornell University Library.
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the United States on the use of the
text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004406199
By
the
Alternating Cuirents
Treatment
same aatbor
An
Analytical and Graphical
for Students
and Engineers
By Frederick Bedell and Albert
C.
Crehorb
Translated into German by Alfred H. Bucherer
Theorie der Wechselstrome: in analytischer und

graphisher Darstellung
Translated into French by J. Bertkon
Etude Analytique
&
Giaphique des
Courants Alternatifs
The
Principles of the Transformer
By Frederick Bedell
Laboratory Manual of Physics and Applied

Electricity
Arranged and Edited by
VOL.
Edward
H PART
L.
Nichols
II
Experiments with Alternating Currents

By Frederick Bedell
DIRECT AND ALTERNATING
CURRENT MANUAL
WITH DIRECTIONS FOR TESTING AND A DISCUSSION
OF THE THEORY OF ELECTRICAL APPARATUS
BY
FREDERICK BEDELL,
Ph.D.
PROFESSOR OP APPLIED ELECTRICITY IN CORNELL UNIVERSITY
ASSISTED BY
CLARENCE
A.
PIERCE, Ph.D.
SECOND EDITION, ENLARGED AND REVISED
NEW YORK
D.
VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

25
Park Place
LONDON: CONSTABLE &

1915
E-V.
CO., Ltd.
Copyright, 1909 and 191
By Frederick Bedell
All rights reserved
First Edition, September, 1909
November, 1909
Second Edition (enlarged), July, 1911 ; (revised), December, igii

August, 19x2; November. 19x2; Maxch, 1914, August, 1915
Note. The
first edition was issued under the title

" Direct and Alternating Current Testing."
PRESS OP
The new era printing cohpany

Lancaster, pa.
PREFACE.
This manual consists of a series of
tests
on
direct
and
alter-
nating current apparatus, selected with reference to their practical
While the book has been pre-
usefulness and instructive value.
pared primarily for students,

to
The
others.
it is
presentation
hoped that
is
in the
manual; the author, however, has not
mere statement of
instructions
it
may prove
helpful
form of a laboratory
restricted himself to a
conducting tests but has
for
directed the reader's attention to the principles that underlie the
various experiments and to the significance of the results.

perience has
shown
that theory
thus combined with
more
The
intelligently
its
is
more
readily grasped
that the
from
aside
From
its
Exit is
application and that the application
made when
its
is
broader bearings are understood.
material has been systematically arranged and
book may
when
it is
believed
be found useful for reference or as a text,
use in testing.
the text proper are excluded specialized tests and those
that are of limited application or require unusual testing facilities,
such tests being described in the appendices to the several
experiments.
of some
These appendices thus permit a
of the details of the tests
fuller discussion
and various modifications than
could be included to advantage in the text proper.
The
tests in
general are those that can be performed in any college laboratory.
No
attempt has been
complete
made
to
on the contrary every
work exhaustive or
has been made to eliminate
make
effort
the
matter of secondary importance and that which
is
of questionable
technical or pedagogical value.
The aim has been to arrange an introductory series of experiments of a comprehensive nature, so that in a reasonable time
and with a reasonable amount of
effort the student
may
acquire
PREFACE.
VI
the
power
problems requiring a continually increas-
to proceed to
ing initiative and originality.

the quickest
way
Although standardized
tests afford
for obtaining certain desired results and, in the
case of a student, for obtaining a knowledge of testing methods,
the ability to conduct such tests with full instructions given
Beyond
soon acquired.
this point the exclusive use of standard-
ized tests should be avoided.

aS
new
Standards in
electricity serve best
The student who
points of departure.
to
is
become more
than the " ordinary slide-rule engineer " or " mental

will
have
is
sufficient intellectual curiosity to desire
mechanic
"
more than any
standardized tests can give him and should be encouraged in every
way
ing
to seek
new
results
them with the
and
to devise
facilities at
such work would at once deprive
may
ways and means for obtain-
hand.
it
of
To
its
attempt to formulate
freshness.
The
student
well be referred to the current technical press and to the
transactions of the engineering societies for suggestions as to

subject matter for further study and also as to
methods to be
adopted.
With reference
to prepared blanks
lieves that their use
can be, and often
and forms, the writer beis,
carried too far, leading
perhaps to good technical but not to good pedagogical results.
work
is
the one
who
prepares the forms and lays out the
really
performs the experiment, the tabu-
who, for commercial work, require
lators of data being assistants
only a
common
In
who
a certain sense the one
school education.
Progress undoubtedly results from the development of individualism and
if
college course
more or
as not to
room
for such development
specifically in
less standardized instruction

fill
the entire available time.
been quite the reverse.
Two
is
to be given in a
a college laboratory course
^the
must needs be reduced so
The
natural tendency has
decades ago, the study of electrical
engineering meant, practically, the study of direct currents, there
being
little else.
Laboratory courses were developed in which the
whole available time was well
filled
with
test
after test
upon
PREFACE.
direct
current generators and motors.
The transformer and
were then added, with extensive time-consuming
alternator
with the apparent assumption that the
was reached.
nating currents
eral
vii
full
development of
tests,
alter-
In succeeding years came the gen-
development of polyphase currents, the rotary converter,
duction motor,
etc.,
these subjects being added to a
in-
crowded
course by a process of compression rather than judicious elimination.
The student was given more than he could
late.
As
to
types of machines have multiplied,
perform
all
it
possibly assimi-
would take years
the permutations and combinations of tests on
the diflferent types.
But
is this
necessary for a student?
all
Why
not develop a student's powers by a few typical experiments on a
few
typical kinds of apparatus?
With
terial
this
end
in
view the writer has made selection from ma-
which has long been
outlines.
These have been
collecting in the
form of typewritten
in a process of continual evolution,
frequently rewritten and used by
many
By
classes.
a process of
elimination and survival, experiments consisting of a large
amount
of mechanical data-taking and tabulation and a relatively small
amount of
technical content have been dropped in favor of those
experiments which have proved most effective in student development.
Various demands upon the writer's time prevented
his preparing for the press a
book on testing a number of years
no small
ago and the present appearance of the book
is
way
Meanwhile several
to the valuable assistance of Dr. Pierce.
admirable manuals have appeared, which

or scope from the present work.
leisure, in the
differ,
due
in
however, in aims
The author hopes
to
find
near future, to make good some of the omissions of
the present volume and to include in a later edition additional
chapters on alternating current motors and converters.
The present work
is
self-contained and requires only such pre-
liminary courses in physical and electrical measurements as are

usually given in colleges.
The book may be used
to
advantage in
conjunction with standard texts on electrical engineering, as those
PREFACE.
viii
by Franklin and Esty,
S. P.
Thompson, and Samuel Sheldon, or
The
with an introductory text such as that by H. H. Norris.

experiments given in the book
may
be supplemented by others of
an elementary, intermediate or advanced nature, as circumstances
may
The
require.
division of experiments into parts
and sections
will be found to add materially to the flexibility of the book.
The author
instruction
desires to express his appreciation of the initial
and inspiration of Professor H.
many
continuous cooperation for
He
A.
him
S. McAllister, as
dence.
spirit
He
Ryan and
of the
years of Professor G. S. Moler.
wishes also to express his indebtedness to
associated with
J.
many who have been
many
references in the present text bear evi-
likewise desires to express his appreciation of the
of cooperation
shown by Professors H. H. Norris and V.
Karapetoff and other engineering colleagues.
The author
is
debted, furthermore, to various professors and students,
have used and corrected
and
to a
sheets
Dr.
in laboratory instruction, in particular to
this
book
in
proof during the
number of engineers who have looked over
and have made valuable suggestions.
the author alone
is
Ithaca, N. Y., July
responsible.
i,
1909.
For
all
last
in-
who
year
the proof
shortcomings
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

The preparation of
first edition
and
edition for the press has given the
this
author an opportunity to
make good
certain omissions in the
to include discussions of the induction motor,
the induction generator,
frequency changers, the synchronous
motor, the synchronous converter, wave analysis and a selection

of special problems.
complete.
but
It
is
In
believed that the reader
it is
sense
restricted
not exhaustive and has
who
the
many
book
is
now
short-comings,
has become familiar with
the principles of testing herein contained can proceed to conduct
such further tests as he desires and to manipulate and use new

types of apparatus without special instruction.
In order to present the discussion of the circle diagram for an

induction motor with the utmost conciseness and clearness, the
graphical constructions for determining
which are not
diagram
factor
piroper
and placed
in
^have
slip, efficiency
been omitted from the main discussion
an appendix.
For the same purpose,
cussion of the theory of the synchronous motor
lO-B), particular emphasis has been

principles
and power
essential to the understanding of the circle
laid
in the dis-
(Experiment
upon the
essential
which govern the operation of the motor and matters
of secondary importance have been sub-ordinated.
Although much has been written on the subject of wave'
common
analysis,
experience has been that
it is
indeed a laborious
task to familiarize one's self with the usual methods and to use
them for accurately analyzing a wave.

nate
all
In an endeavor to elimi-
unnecessary labor, the author has given explicit instruc-
tions for
wave
analysis that occupy only
two pages
(pp. 335-6), a
numerical example for determining the old harmonics up to the

seventeenth occupying two pages more.
ix
It is believed that this
PREFACE.
X
method, which
is
based upon the work of Runge, will be found
generally useful.
While the problems
in
Chapter XII.
may
should be looked upon as chiefly suggestive;

reader to undertake other than standardized
served their purpose.
Ithaca, N. Y.,
May
ij
1911.
prove useful, they

if
they inspire the
tests,
they will have
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I.
Direct Current Generators.

Page.
Experiment i-A.
Generator Study and Characteristics of a
Series Generator
Experiment i-B.
Characteristics of a
CHAPTER
Compound Generator.
13
11.
Direct Current Motors.
Experiment 2-A.
Operation and Speed Characteristics of a
Direct Current Motor (Shunt,
Experiment 2-B.
Compound and
Differential).
EfiSciency of a Direct Current
Generator) by the Measurement of Losses
CHAPTER
27
Motor (or
41
III.
Synchronous Alternators.
Experiment 3-A.
Experiment 3-B.
Alternator Characteristics
62
Predetermination of Alternator Character-
istics
73
CHAPTER
IV.
Single-Phase Currents.
Experiment 4-A.
Study of Series and Parallel Circuits Con-
taining Resistance and Reactance
Experiment 4-B.
and Reactance
Circle
Diagram
102
for a Circuit with Resistance
123
CONTENTS.
xii
Page.
CHAPTER
V.
Transformers.
Experiment S-A.
Preliminary
Study
and
Operation
of
a
128
Transformer
Experiment 5-B.
Experiment S-C.
Transformer Test by the Method of Losses. 150
Diagram
Circle
for
Constant
Potential
Transformer
179
CHAPTER
VI.
Polyphase Currents.
Experiment 6-A.
Experiment 6-B.
in
General Study of Polyphase Currents
196
Measurement of Power and Power Factor

222
Polyphase Circuits
CHAPTER
VII.
Phase Changers, Potential Regulators, Etc.

Experiment 7-A. Polyphase Transformation
Experiment 7-B. Induction Regulators
CHAPTER
241
250
VIII.
Induction Motors.
Experiment 8-A.
Preliminary Study of an Induction Motor
and the Determination of
its
Performance by Loading
257
Experiment 8-B. Predetermination of the Performance of an

Induction Motor by Means of the Circle Diagram
278
CHAPTER
IX.
Induction Machines: Frequency Changers and Induction

Generators.
Experiment 9-A.
Operation. and Test of a Frequency Changer
(Secondary Generator)
291
xui
CONTENTS.
Page.
Experiment 9-B.
Operation and Test of an Induction Gener-
ator (Primary Generator)
295
CHAPTER
X.
Synchronous Machines.
Experiment io-A.
Motor
Experiment io-B.
Experiment io-C.
Study
and
Operation
Synchronous
304
Study of a Synchronous Converter
Wave
321
XI.
Analysis.
Analysis of a Complex
of 18 Ordinates
Wave by the Method

331
CHAPTER
Problems
Special Study of a Synchronous Motor... 316
CHAPTER
Experiment ii-A.
of
XII.
345
CHAPTER
I.
DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS.

Experiment i-A. Generator Study and
Series* Generator.
PART
I.
GENERATOR STUDY.
I.
Faraday discovered (1831) that when a conductor cuts
lines of force
an electromotive force
is
generated in the conductor
proportional to the rate at which lines are cut, and

(or generators as they are
To
principle.
now commonly
generate an electromotive force,
fore to have a conductor
all
it is
to
have
lines
on
this
essential there-
(or several conductors combined by
various winding schemes) forming the armature as one
and
dynamos
called) operate
member;
of force or magnetic flux set up by field mag-
nets which form the second member.
For operation
it
is
neces-
sary also to have a source of mechanical powerf by which either
one of these members can be given a motion with respect to the

other.
armature
generator
or,
may have|
a revolving
nated as the revolving
field
a stationary
and stationary armature, desig-
field type.
Although the
for large alternators, serious objections to

in direct current machines, for
the brushes
tion
must
revolve,
and operation.
It
it
latter is useful
have been found
with the commutator stationary
which leads
is
and revolving
field
to difficulties in construc-
the custom, therefore,
to
build
all
* Where a series generator is not available, this study may be taken

without experimental work or in connection with Part I. of Exp. i-B.
t Power is required to overcome friction and other losses, and to overcome a counter torque ( 1-3, Exp. 2-A) which varies with the load.
t Outside of this classification is the inductor alternator which has a
stationary armature, a stationary field winding and a revolving inductor of
iron;
its
study should be taken up later under alternators.
direct current generators
[Exp.
and motors with a stationary
field
and
revolving armature.
2.
The
student should consult any of
many
excellent treatises
and
for a detailed discussion of different types of generators

possible should note one or
two machines
if
in the laboratory or
elsewhere which are examples of each important type.
Machines
noted should illustrate the following terms, some of which are

briefly explained in later
field,
bipolar,
paragraphs
Stationary
field,
revolving
multipolar, separately-excited, self-excited, series
wound, shunt wound, compound wound, magneto-generator, open
and closed
coil
drum armature, Gramme
armature,
{or ring)
armature.
Only the general structure of the various machines need be

Observe particularly the magnetic circuit of each machine
noted.
and the disposition of the

magnetic flux
is
field
proportional
winding.
to
Keep
magnetomotive
in
mind
force
that
(field
ampere-turns) divided by the reluctance of the complete magnetic

circuit,
etc.).
i.
e.,
As
the
sum of
the reluctance of any part of a magnetic circuit
to the length divided
meability,
the reluctance of each part (air gap, core,
it is
is
equal
by the product of the cross-section and per-
obvious that an unnecessarily long magnetic circuit
should be avoided, a fact neglected in some early machines.

3.
In a bipolar generator, one pole
south; in a multipolar generator (with

poles are alternately north
is
north and the other
4, 6, 8,
etc.,
poles) the
and south.
Each armature conductor accordingly passes
first
underneath a
north and then underneath a south pole and has induced in
an electromotive force
first
in
it
one direction* and then in the
*(3a). An exception is the so-called unipolar, homopolar or acyclic

dynamo, which has a unidirectional electromotive force generated in the
armature conductor; it accordingly delivers direct current to the line without commutation. Faraday's disk dynamo (one of the earliest dynamos)
was of this type. For years it was the dream of zealous electricians to
make this type of machine practicable, but it was considered only as an interesting freak, for at ordinary speeds the voltage generated is too low
SERIES GENERATOR.
1-A]
other,
i.
e.,
an alternating electromotive force.
of generator
is
is
is
The
simplest form
therefore the alternator, the current being taken
from the armature

armature
to the line without
any commutation.
stationary, the alternating current
taken directly to the line;
if
the armature
is
revolving, the
armature windings are connected to collector rings (or
from which the current
is
If the
from the armature

slip rings)
taken to the line by means of brushes.
In a direct-current generator the armature windings are connected* to the several segments or bars of a commutator, from
which the current
taken by brushes to the
is
nating electromotive force generated in each
mutated, or reversed in
its
connection to the
coil
alter-
thus com-
is
line, at
time of zero value of the electromotive force of the
The
The
line.
or near the
coil.
electromotive force in each coil increases from zero to
maximum and
back to zero, and
at
any instant the electromotive
forces in the various individual coils have different values rang-
ing from zero to a

coils.
The sum of
maximum, according
to the positions of the
these coil-voltages, as impressed
line as terminal voltage, is
however
upon the
practically constant.
for most purposes. But changed conditions have made it a practical and
important machine (i) driven at high speed by the steam turbine, or (2)
driven at moderate speed to generate large currents at low voltage for electrochemical work. Dynamos of this class are not included in this study.
For further information,

gerath, A.
I.
see " Acyclic
Homopolar Dynamos," by NoegHandbook, or Franklin and

For description of some structural im-
E. E., Jan., 1905; also, Standard
Esty's Electrical Engineering.
provements, see pp. 560 and 574, Electrical World, Sept. 12, igo8.
* (3b). The details of armature windings will not be here discussed;
they are amply treated in many text and handbooks. In almost all
machines a closed coil winding is used. (The Brush and T-H arc
dynamos and a few special machines use open coil winding.) In a closed
winding, the armature coils are connected in series and the ends closed.
There are two ways of connecting the coils in series wave winding and
In the wave or series winding there are always two brushes
lap winding.
and two paths for the current from brush to brush, irrespective of the
number of poles. In the lap or parallel winding, generally used in large
generators, there are as many paths (and brushes) as poles. The two
schemes are essentially the same in a bipolar machine.
:
4
4. Field
magnets are usually* energized by
passed through the
field
windings
[Exp.
direct
current
permanent magnets being used
only in small machines, called magneto-generators, used for bellringers,
etc.
generator
separately-excited or self-excited
is
according to whether the current for the

outside source or by the machine
itself.
field is
supplied by an
Alternators are sepa-
rately excited; direct current generators are usually self-excited.
5.
be
series
(2)
direct current
machine (either generator or motor) may
Series wound, with the field winding of coarse wire in
( I )
with the armature and carrying the whole armature current
Shunt wound, with a
winding of
field
fine
wire in shunt with
the armature and carrying only a small part of the whole current
(3)
Compound wound, with two
in shunt
and an auxiliary one
The compound generator
field
windings, the principal one
in series
is
in
with the armature.
most general use, being best
suited for all kinds of constant potential service, both
power and
lighting; the shunt generator performs similar service but not
so well.
fully in
The
The
characteristics of these
machines will be studied
Exp. i-B.
series generator
is
of interest because: (i)
the earliest types and of historical importance;
simplest type and illustrates in a simple
which underlie
all
manner
It is
(2)
It
one of
is
the
the principles
dynamo-electric machinery, both generators
and motors; (3) In a compound wound generator or motor, the

series winding is an important factor in the regulation of potential
or speed.
In
itself
the series generator
is
of relatively small
importance, because neither current or -voltage stay constant;

is
it
used only in some forms of arc light machines with regulating
devices for constant current.
In direct current motors,

ployed
series
wound motors
crane work, etc.; shunt and
*The
all
three types of winding are
em-
for variable speed service in traction,
compound wound (including
differ-
induction generator, to be studied in a later experiment, does not
come under
this classification.
SERIES GENERATOR.
i-A]
wound) motors
ential
for
more or
less constant
speed service
(Exp. 2-A).
PART
'
The
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SERIES GENERATOR.
II.
the magnetiza-
characteristic curves to be obtained are:
machine separately excited; the external
tion curve, with the
series characteristic, with the

characteristic,
which
is
Magnetization Curve.
6.
machine
self excited;
and the
total
computed.
This
curve shows the armature
voltage (on open circuit) corresponding to different field currents
when
the generator
as in Fig.
i.
No
separately excited from an outside source,
is
load
is
7. Data.
Readings
with
is
taken
current
zero,
reading
field
current from
outside source^
^-aM^W
showing the voltage due to

rn,
ihe
magnetism,
residual
"
1^-^
t,
.
field
Fig.
current
is
then
for vary-
14.
'CA/
_^_
first
Appendix,
are
mature voltage and speed;

the
see
field current, ar-
taken of
Means
put upon the machine.
ing the field current must be provided
Connections for magnetization
1.
curve,
separately
,
,.
.,
excited.
in-
maximum*
rating of the
"
"
machine, the readings taken at each step giving the ascending
The descending curve is then obtained by decreasing the
curve.
creased by steps from zero to the
field
current by steps again to zero.
ing curve
To
is
shown
In Fig.
3,
only the ascend-
see also Fig. 2, of Exp. i-B.
obtain a smooth curve, the field current must be increased
or decreased continuously; there will be a break in the curve if

a step is taken backwards or if the field circuit is broken during
*(7a).
density
is
Current Density. Vor

800-1,000 amp. per sq.
armatures, 2,000-3,000 arap. per

short time these limits can be
wire in circular mils

inch.
is
in.
field
windings an allowable current
(1,600-1,275 circ. mils per amp.)
sq. in.
much
the square of
(640-425
exceeded.
its
c.
mils per amp.).
The
for
For a
sectional area of a
diameter in thousandths of an
6
a run.
This
is
true of
[Exp.
characteristics or other curves involv-
all
ing the saturation of iron.

8.
Brush Position.
one position;
if
should be noted.
During the
run the brushes are kept in
for any reason they are changed, the
For a generator the
maximum
of least sparking and of
voltage,
amount
is
the position
which
locates the
best position
brushes on the " diameter " or " line " of commutation.

load this line
account of
is
shifted forward
field distortion
from
to avoid sparking.
little
desirable to keep the brushes in the
same position
the curves, with load or without load,
all
brushes at no load a
Under
load,
on
caused by armature reaction,* and the
brushes are accordingly advanced a

it is
position at
its
no
little
lead, but not
it
is
As
in taking
well to give the
enough
to cause
much
sparking.
9.
Speed Correction.
If the
speed varied during the run,
the values of voltage as read are to be corrected to the values they
would be
at
some assumed constant speed.
field current,
is
simply
Since, for any given
voltage variesf directly with speed, this correction
made by
direct proportion
each voltmeter reading
is
*(8a). Armature Reactions. Armature current has a demagnetizing

and a cross-magnetizing effect, the two effects together being called
effect
armature reaction, as discussed in various text books. The demagnetizing

effect due to back ampere-turns weakens the field; the cross-magnetizing
effect due to cross ampere-turns distorts the field (weakening it on one
side and strengthening it on the other) and shifts forward the line of
commutation. In many early machines this made it necessary to shift
the brushes forward or back with change of load to avoid sparking; in
modern machines the armature reactions are not sufficient to make this
necessary and the brushes are kept in one position at all loads.
If a very accurate determination of the neutral position of the brushes
is desired, it can be found by a voltmeter connected to two sliding points
which are the exact width of a commutator bar apart. The neutral posiis the position of zero voltage between adjacent commutator bars, and
tion
is shown by the voltmeter.

t (9a). If the speed can be varied at will, this can be verified for one
peripheral speed of 3,000 feet per minute is permissible
field excitation.
with the ordinary drum or ring armature.
this
SERIES GENERATOR.
x-A]
multiplied by the assumed constant speed and divided by the
observed speed.
Curve.
lo.
tization curve
field
After the speed correction
is
amperes, are proportional to
motive
field
applied, the
magne-
abscissae of this curve,
ampere-turns or magneto-
force; the ordinates, volts generated at constant speed,
are (by Faraday's principle,
The
is
The
plotted as in Fig. 3.
curve, therefore,
relation
1) proportional
to magnetic flux.
a magnetization curve
is
(shoviîng the
between magnetic flux and magnetomotive force) for
the magnetic circuit of the generator, which
The bend
with an air gap.
an iron circuit
is
in the curve indicates the saturation
of the iron.
II. External*
which
the
is
rents,
This
characteristic,
terminal
in
for different cur'
when
self excited
nal
Characteristic.
the operating or load characteristic of the machine, shows
variation
voltage
Series
the machine
resistance
varied.
is
The armature,
external
is
and the exter-
field
circuit
series, as in Fig.
are
and
in
2; read-
Fig. 2.
Connections for series characteristic,
self excited.
ings are taken of current.
voltage and speed, for an ascending curve as in Fig.
descending curve
may
be taken
3.
The
if desired.
For any point on the curve, the resistance of the external cir -^ /, or the tangent of the angle between the /-axis
cuit is i?
and a
line
drawn from the point
of the curve,
resistance will
it
to the origin.
will be seen that a small
make
Below the knee
change in the external
a large change in current and voltage.
* ( iia.) In any characteristic the term "external" indicates that the

values of current and voltage external to the machine are plotted the term
" total" indicates that the total generated armature current and voltage are
;
the quantities used.
[Exp.
If the speed varied during the run, the external characteristic
should be corrected* for speed as before (9).
The watts
is
output, for any point on the external characteristic
given by the product of current and voltage, and
may
be
plotted as a curve.
12. If the field coil
connected so that the current from
is
the armature flows through
in the
it
wrong
direction, so as to
demagnetize instead of building up the residual magnetism, the

will not " pick up."
machine
proper connection of the
For each direction of
field will
rotation, the
be found to be independent of
the direction of the residual magnetism.
Note the
vious magnetization (from an outside source)
effect of pre-
first in
one and
then in the other direction, and the effect in each case of reversing the field connections.
13. Total Series Characteristic.
The
total characteristic is
show the
derived from the series characteristic, so as to
generated
electromotive
force
of
instead
total
brush
terminal
the
voltage.
Resistance Data.
The only additional data needed are the
age drops through the

this is plotted as a
line.
With
source
is
current
nals.
field
and armature for
curve (Fig. 3) which
the armature
stationary,
passed through the
is
practically a straightt
current from an outside
or armature (separately)
field
measured and the difference of potential
is
The
ratio
E-^ I
gives the resistance.
* ( lib). This correction
is
volt-
different currents
This
the
at the termi-
is
called
meas-
applied to the external characteristic and
not to the total characteristic for convenience.
generated electromotive force which
is
Inasmuch
as
it
the
is
proportional to speed, to be accurate
the correction should be applied to the total and not to the external characteristic.
t ( 13a)- This would be a straight line if the resistance were constant.

resistance varies with temperature see Appendix, 15. The armature
The
resistance
also
varies
with current since
it
includes
the
resistance
brushes and brush contact, which depends upon current density.

resistance
is
to be
measured after the machine has run awhile, and
be considered constant.
of
The hot
is
to
SERIES GENERATOR.
i-A]
uring resistance by "fall of potential" method; see Appendix,
17Curve.
By
adding to the external characteristic the
for field and armature,
we
RI drop
have the generated voltage or
total
characteristic Fig. 3.
Interpretation.
tization curve
The
total characteristic falls
on account of armature
below the magne-
reaction, that
is,
the de-
magnetizing effect of the
armature current which
weakens the
field
and
hence reduces the generated voltage;
for,
in
taking the magnetization

curve,
there
armature
was
no
and
current
hence no armature reaction.
The
external char-
acteristic falls
total
tic,
series
below the
characteris-
on account of
resist-
ance drop.
The magnetization
curve would be higher
than the
AMPERES
total characterFig.
istic
for
in taking
all
currents, if
it
the brushes
were given no
lead, that is
3.
Characteristics
of a
series
generator.
were
in the position of
maximum
volt-
Giving the brushes a lead lowers the magnetization curve

age.
so that for small values of the current it may fall below the
total characteristic.
lO
DIRECT'
CURRENT GENERATORS.
APPENDIX
[Exp.
I.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
Current and Voltage Adjustment.
14.
values,
a wide range of adjustment
when
ance (Fig. i)
is
For
frequently inadequate and
current from a resistance R, as in Fig.
currents
of
small
desired, a series resist-
is
it
is
better to shunt off
4.
Fig.
Fig. 4.
5.
Methods for adjusting voltage or current.
By
under
adjusting the slider p, the voltage delivered to the apparatus

test can be given any desired value from zero up to the value
of the supply voltage.
modification which
ent employs two resistances,
made by
and C, Fig.
is
5.
sometimes conveni-
The adjustment
is
more or less of one resistance

The full amount of one resistance
short circuiting or cutting out
or the other, but not of both.
should always be in circuit.

15.
Temperature Corrections.
The conductivity of
copper varies
with temperature, according to the law given below.
Resistance
some specified temperature; known for one temperature they can be computed for any
other.
Temperature rise can be computed from increase in resistance.
In all cases where accuracy of numerical results is important,
values to be significant should therefore be for
as
'in
commercial
tests for efficiency, regulation, etc., definite
ture conditions should be obtained

tions of the A.
I.
To meet standard
required.
for this the detailed
E. E. Standardization Rules should be consulted.
requirements, a run of several hours
In practice work this
is
not necessary,
sufficient to specify resistances as cold
and hot when
tempera-
recommenda-
taken at the close of the
when taken
it
is
commonly
being usually
at the beginning
test.
Let Rf be the resistance of a copper conductor at a temperature
SERIES GENERATOR.
i-A]
C. At a higher temperature the resistance will be greater and

experiment shows that the increase in resistance will be in direct
t
proportion to the temperature
At
a temperature {t
The temperature
temperature
initial
resistance
+ 6)
rise.
C. the resistance
coefficient
t
(degrees
accordingly
is
(per degree C.) depends upon the
u,
C), or
the temperature for which the
taken as loo per cent, and has for copper the following
is
:*
values
,0042
From
.0041
12
i8
.0040
.0039
the formula given above,
if
25
32
.0038
.0037
40
.0036
the resistance
is
48
.0035
known
for one
temperature, the resistance can be computed for any other temperature or for any temperature rise.
From
16.
6,
above the
this
formula
initial
By
in resistance.
The temperature
we
can also compute the temperature
temperature
t,
corresponding to a
known
transformation the formula becomes
rise
above an
initial
temperature
t is
equal to the per cent, increase in resistance divided by

17. Fall of Potential
method
resistance
resistance
Method for Measuring
based upon the fact that the
is
is
not
fore,
fall
will carry a
itself a
coil, iield
accordingly
a.
Resistance.
This
of potential through a
R carrying a current / is E = RI
R which is to be determined may be
conductor whatever (transformer
which
rise
increase
(Ohm's Law).
The
the resistance of any
winding, armature, etc.)
measurable current without undue heating and
source of electromotive force.
must be stationary while
its
resistance
An
is
armature, there-
being measured by
method.
Connect the unknown resistance to a source of direct current
this
through a regulating resistance. Fig. 6 (see also 14), so that the

current will not unduly heat the resistance or exceed the range of
Take readings
instruments.
* A.
I.
E. E.
World, June
of the two instruments simultaneously,
Standardization Rules ; also, A. E. Kennelly, Electrical
30, 1906.
13
and without delay so
sistance
Fig. 6
is
equal to
as to
minimize the
is
The
effect of heating.
re-
E-~I.
shows the usual arrangement of apparatus,
meter current
[Exp.
in case the volt-
The voltmeter
but a small part of the total current.
leads should be connected diAdjueting Resistance
rectly to the resistance to be
AA/^
measured (not including unconnectors,
necessary
etc.)
or should be pressed firmly

against
Fig.
Measurement of resistance by
6.
fall-of-potential method.
its
terminals.
The
armature
an
resistance
of
winding
taken by pressing
is
^he voltmeter leads agamst

the proper bars i8o or 90
apart; if resistance of brushes and connections
voltmeter
is
In case the ammeter current

current
is
is
to be included, the
connected outside of these connections.

is
very small, so that the voltmeter
a considerable part of the total current, the voltmeter should
be connected outside the ammeter so as to measure the combined
drop of potential through the ammeter and unknown resistance.
With
the voltmeter connected either way,
an error
is
introduced
which may often be neglected but can be corrected for when particular accuracy
is
desired.
The voltmeter should always be disconnected

cuit is made or broken, or any sudden change is made
to avoid damage to the instrument.
18.
If the resistance being
measured
is
before the cirin the current,
highly inductive, not only the
instrument but also the insulation of the apparatus under test

be damaged by suddenly breaking the current through
it
may
on account
of the high electromotive force induced by the sudden collapse of

the magnetic
field.
This
may
be avoided by gradually reducing the
current before breaking the circuit.
The value of an unknown resistance can be found in terms*

known resistance placed in series with it by comparing the drops
19.
of a
in potential
around the two resistances, the current
the same value.
in
each having
COMPOUND GENERATOR.
i-B]
Experiment i-B.
I.
Introductory.
Compound* Generator.
13
compotind generator
purpose of delivering current
is
made
for the
at constant potential either at the
terminals of the machine or at some distant receiving point on the

line.
In the former case the machine
same terminal voltage
ideal being the
giving a practically horizontal
machine
latter case the
is
voltage
compounded, the
f,at
no load,
In
characteristic.
the
over compounded, giving a terminal
voltage which rises from no load to

line drop,
is
at full load as at
full
load to compensate for
so that at the receiving end of the line the voltage
will be constant at all loads.
Constant potential' service
both for power and for lighting.
is
used
Constant delivered voltage
essential in lighting for steadiness of illumination
and
in
is
power
for constant speed.

2.
For such
service, the series generator
not at
is
all
adapted,
voltage being exceedingly low at no load and, for a certain
its
range, increasing greatly with load.

3.
shunt generator almost meets the conditions, generating
a voltage which
is
nearly constant but decreasing slightly with
load (Figs. 4 and 6).
Obviously by increasing the
tion (field ampere-turns)
when
the machine
can be increased to the desired value

case the iron
is
not saturated and
it is
is
field excita-
loaded, the voltage
this is true,
however, only in
accordingly possible for the
increase in field ampere-turns to produce a corresponding in-
crease in the magnetic flux.
machine
(Compare Fig.
this increase in field excitation
increase in field current produced either
2.)
In a shunt
can be obtained by an
by an attendant who
adjusts the field rheostat or by an automaticf regulator.

* (ia). This experiment can be applied to a Shunt generator by omitting 20-25.
t ( 3a) Tirrell Regulator. Many older forms of regulators, which operated by varying field resistance, are superseded by the Tirrell Regulator.
This regulator operates through a relay as follows: (i) When the volt
age
is
too low,
it
momentarily short
circuits the field rheostat, causing the

compound
4. In a
excitation with load
is
generator, the necessary increase of field
simply and effectively obtained by means
of an auxiliary series winding.
winding
is
Since the current in the series
the load current, the magnetizing action of the series
winding (that
its
is
ampere-turns or magnetomotive force) in-
creases in direct proportion to the load.

netic flux
ent
This increases the mag-
and hence the generated voltage by an amount depend-
upon the degree of saturation of the
Looked
[Exp.
at in another
iron.
way, a shunt winding (which alone gives
a falling characteristic) and a series winding (which alone gives

a rising characteristic) are combined so as to give the desired
flat
compounding or a
As
certain degree of over-compounding.
the shunt winding alone gives very nearly the desired characteristic,
the shunt
is
the principal winding, the series winding
being supplementary and of relatively few ampere-turns.
The characteristic curves for a shunt or compound generator

may be classed as no-load characteristics, and load characteristics.
PART
5-
There
is
I.
NO-LOAD CHARACTERISTIC.
one no-load characteristic, the saturation curve,
which shows the saturation of the iron for different

tations
for this the generator
when
separately excited
is
field exci-
usually self-excited but
may
be
so desired.
6. (a) No-load Saturation
Curve.*This curve shows
the
terminal voltage for different values of field current.

7.
Data.
The
voltage to rise; (2)
machine
when
is
connected as a self-excited shunt
the voltage
is
the short circuit, causing the voltage to
too high or too low,
The
short circuit
is,
if
too high,
fall.
The
it
momentarily removes
voltage would be
the short circuit were permanently
made
much
or broken.
however, rapidly made and broken, and of a varying
may be applied
may be used
compound winding, and may be
duration, a nearly constant voltage being thus secured.

directly to a generator (D.C. or A.C.) or to
advantageously in connection with a
arranged so as to cause the voltage to
rise
its
It
exciter.
It
with load in the same manner
an over compounded generator.

* Also called excitation characteristic, or internal shunt
as in
characteristic.
COMPOUND GENERATOR.
I-B]
generator, Fig.
i,
and
is
Readings are taken of
The
field
current
is
driven without load at constant speed.
field current,
maximum
This
sistance.
curve
minimum
the
is
maximum
its
to
gives
the resistance
again to
terminal voltage and speed.
varied by adjust-
ing the field rheostat by steps from

position of
its
re-
ascending
then increased
for the descend-
If the rheostat, with re-
ing curve.
sistance all
in,
15
RHEOSTAT
Fig.
does not sufficiently
I.
Connections for no-
load saturation curve.
reduce the
rheostat
up " from
if
field
may
its
current,
a second
be placed in series with
" builds
The machine
it.
residual magnetism as does the series generator
the field winding
is
connected to the armature in the wrong
machine
direction, the
will not
pick up but will tend to be-
come demagnetized.
Should
the direction of rotation be

reversed, the field connection
should be reversed.
8. Curves.
Voltage
read-
ings are corrected by proportion for
any variation
Exp.
(9,
i-A),
in speed
and
curves plotted as in Fig.
the
2.
Interpretation of
Curves. The curves in Fig. 2
9.
show the saturation of

FIELD AMPERES
Fig. 2.
No-load saturation
curve.
as
series
dynamo.
the
and are much the same
iron
the
The current through
the
of
characteristic
armature
is
small,
being only a few per cent, of full-load current; the resistance drop
through the armature may accordingly be neglected and the measured terminal voltage be taken as (practically) equal to the
total
i6
fExp.
Likewise, the armature current
generated voltage.
that armature reactions are negligible,
and the curve
the
same
no
necessity, therefore, for taking curves both self-
practically
There
as a separately-excited magnetization curve.
By
rately-excited.
sible to obtain a
separately
so small
is
is
exciting a generator,
is
and sepais
it
pos-
higher magnetization and consequently a higher
generated voltage than can be obtained by self-excitation.
In design work and in manufacturing

is
commonly
tests,
the saturation curve
plotted with field ampere-turns, instead of amperes,
However
as abscissae.
plotted, the abscissae are proportional to
magneto-motive force and the ordinates to magnetic flux.*

lo. Saturation
are
two ways
any point
tion for
Factor and Percentage of Saturation.
for expressingf numerically the
saturation factor,
on the working part of the curve.
f, is
field excitation to the
OA -f- OB,
saturai )
The
the ratio of a small percentage increase in
corresponding percentage increase in volt-
age thereby produced.

the ratio
There
amount of
(2)
when
The percentage of
in Fig.
saturation, p, is
2 a tangent to the curve at
extended to A.
is
Compute
two for some one point on the curve, corre-
these
*(9a)- Magnetic
teins
of units
in
Units.
use
For
the
electrical quantities there are three sys-
C.G.S.
electromagnetic,
the
C.G.S.
electro-
and the practical or volt-ohm-ampere system. For magnetic quantities there is only one system of units in use, the C.G.S. electromagnetic
system; mag;netic units of the practical system would be of inconvenient
size, they have no names and are never used.
The unit of magnetic flux is the maxwell, which is one C.G.S. line of
The unit of flux density is the gauss, which is one maxwell per
force.
square centimeter. The unit of magnetomotive force is the gilbert, which
is (io-^4t) ampere-turn.
The unit of reluctance is the oersted, which
is a reluctance through which a magnetomotive force of one gilbert produces a flux of one maxwell. The maxwell and the gauss are authorized by International Electrical Congress, but not the gilbert and the
static
oersted.
Analogous to Ohm's
Law
(current
= electromotive
we have
force-;- resistance),
the corresponding law for the magnetic circuit: flux (maxwells)

magnetomotive force (gilberts) -H reluctance (oersteds).
t A.
I.
E. E. Standardization Rules, 57, 58.
COMPOUND GENERATOR.
i-B]
17
spending say to normal voltage, and check by the relation

/>
=
I
I//.
These terms are useful because they make possible an exact

numerical statement of the degree of saturation of a machine,
under working conditions, without the reproduction of a satura-
For a more complete

points and plot.
tion curve.
different
PART
The
II.
and / for
study, compute p
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS.
II.
compound
usual load characteristics are the shunt,
and armature
characteristics.
In takiiig the shunt and compound characteristics, the machine

is
left to itself
run, the curve
with the
field rheostat in
showing the variation
one position during the
in terminal voltage
with
In taking the armature characteristic the field rheostat
adjusted
stantly
the curve
shows the variation
in
is
load..
con-
excitation-
necessary to maintain a constant terminal voltage at different

loads.
The
differential
and
series characteristics are not
characteristics but are included to
istic.
fully the operation
(For full-load saturation curve, see
of the series winding.

12.
show more
commercial
33.)
(&) Shunt CharacterThis is the working
characteristic of the
when
operated
machine
normal
at
speed as a shunt-wound generator and shows the variation in terminal voltage with
Fig.
Connections for shunt chacac-
3.
load (Curve A, Fig. 4).

13. Data.
tions are
The
shown
in Fig. 3.
field current, line
Readings are taken of terminal voltage,
current and speed.
there being none which

is set in
teristic.
connec-
is
No speed correction is made,
simple and accurate.
one position and no change
is
made
in
The
it
field rheostat
during the run.
iS
The
14.
is
made
setting of the rheostat for commercial testing ( 21a)
For the purposes of
for normal voltage at full load.
experiment,
[Exp.
it is
this
usually preferable to set the rheostat for normal
voltage (or for any selected value of voltage) at no load; in

this case the shunt,
start
compound and
from the same no load
differential curves. Fig. 6, all
voltage.
The
load current
is
then
increased from no load up to about 25 per cent, overload and
then decreased,
if
Data are
The return curve
so desired, back to no load.
will fall a little below,
on account of hysteresis.
also to be taken for a characteristic starting at
no load
with a voltage below normal ( 18).
Armature
( 17,
resistance
is
measured by the
fall-of-potential
method,
Exp. i-A).
100
120
140
160
AMPERES
Fig.
15. Curves.
4.
Shunt characteristics.
The armature RI drop
is
plotted as
Curve
in
Fig. 4.
For the external shunt
characteristic
(Curve A, Fig. 4), plot
observed line current as abscissae and observed terminal voltage

as ordinates.
COMPOUND GENERATOR.
i-B]
For the
total
ture current*
total
19'
shunt characteristic (Curve B), plot total arma-
(line current plus field current)
and
as abscissae,
generated voltage (terminal voltage plus armature
RI
drop)
as ordinates.
16. Interpretation
An
ideal characteristic
{Armature Reactions and Regulation).

would be the straight horizontal line, Curve
As
C, indicating a constant voltage at all loads.
the terminal voltage (Curve
A)
at constant speed,t three causes for this
drop,
a matter of fact
decreases with load.

:
There
are,
armature resistance
( i )
armature reactions which reduce the magnetic flux
(2)
and (3) decreased field excitation as the voltage decreases.

The difference between Curves A and B shows the effect of
(i) resistance drop; the difference between
B and C shows
and of (4)
if
speed varies.
difference between
and
ture reactions (2) alone J
if
a run
The
show
made at
will
is
the effect of arma-
constant excitation
and constant speed, thus eliminating (3) and (4).

practical
chine
method for determining armature
may
17.
reactions.
This
is
the
The ma-
be self excited or (preferably) separately excited.
The
regulation of the generator
To
Curve A.
in
the
of (2) armature reaction and (3) decreased excitation,
effect
the rated voltage at full load
commercial
test,
is
shown by the drop
express regulation numerically as a per cent.,

is
taken as 100 per cent.
therefore, the curve
is
In a
taken by beginning at
full load at rated voltage (100 per cent.) and proceeding to open
circuit.
The
regulation]]
is
the per cent, variation from normal
* The difference between line and armature currents is so small that for
many practical purposes the distinction between them can be neglected.
t (i6a). Should the generator slow down under load, as when driven
by an induction motor,
this
would
t ( i6b). Included, as a part of
constitute a fourth cause (4).
armature reaction,
self-induction of the armature conductors,
ture current which (in any one conductor)
when
is
A.
I.
the effect of local
rapidly reversing in direc-
tion.
II
is
traversed by the arma-
E. E. Standardization Rules 187, et seq.
20
DIRECT'
full
[Exp.
(in this case the per cent, increase)
full-load voltage
from
CURRENT GENERATORS.
going
in
load to no load.
taken, with
i8. Characteristics
Low
Field Excitation.
On
short circuit a shunt generator has no field excitation and the

short-circuit current
monly
is
(depending on residual magnetism)
much
greater before short circuit
this excessive current, the
be obtained with the
show
The
less than normal full-load current.
the
rheostat
Curve
account of
setting.
To
characteristic, set the
field
much below normal, and
take
rheostat in
field
a no-load voltage
(Fig. 4)
com-
complete characteristic curve cannot
form of the complete shunt

for
On
reached.
is
is
current, however,
from open
normal
its
circuit to short circuit,
returning from short circuit to open circuit.
The
and Curve
form of these
curves should be interpreted.

19.
With a weak
voltage to
fall
field,
armature reactions cause the terminal
off with load
more rapidly than with a strong

field.
This is seen by comparing
SERIES
Curves
with Curve A.
FIELD
armature
of
least
when
and
The
effect
reactions
the
iron
is
is
highly saturated, for then
any decrease
in
magneto-
motive force (due to armaFig.
s.
Connections for compound char-
ture
ampere-turns)
does
not cause a corresponding
acteristic.
decrease in magnetic flux.
(Compare
Fig. 2.)
saturation curve.
shunt generator
It follows, therefore, that a
gives the best regulation

It will
when worked above
the knee of the
be found (22) that
this is not so for
a compound generator.
20.
(c)
taking the
The
Compound Characteristic.
compound characteristic, Fig.
the shunt characteristic. Fig.
3,
connections
for
5, are the same as for
with the addition of the series
COMPOUND GENERATOR.
i-B]
field
winding which
21
The same
series* with the armature.
is in
readings of terminal voltage, field current, line current and speed

are taken as for the shunt characteristic and no speedf corrections are
made.
ded)
Fig.
Series, shunt,
6.
compound and
differential characteristics.
21. In Fig. 6 are plotted shunt, compound and

characteristics,
beginning with the same no-load
The compound
straight line
characteristic
from no load to
cannot
full
load.
be
made
What
to have the terminal voltage at full load the
differential
voltage.:]:
perfectly
can be done
is
same as the no-load
*(2oa). Short Shunt and Long Shunt. The connection shown in

it would be long shunt if the shunt field were connected to the line terminals ac, instead of to the armature terminals ah.
Both methods of connection are used commercially, the difference between
Fig. 5 is short shunt;
them being
t (2ob).
it
is
slight.
generator
to operate.
When
is
it
compounded for the

is
to be driven
particular speed at
by an induction motor,
which
it
may
be compounded so as to take into account the slip of the motor, i. e.,

its slowing down under load.
t (2ia). In commercial testing, the compound and shunt characteristics
would be taken with the same normal voltage at full load (14). The
differential characteristic would not be taken.
22
[Exp.
voltage (flat compounding) or a definite percentage higher (over
compounding).
In either case the regulation
percentage deviation from the ideal straight

the
rated
characteristic,
(See
per cent.
17,
22. If the field
full-load
is
maximum
the
line at
any part of
loo
being taken as
voltage
and Standardization Rules.)
magnets of a compound generator are highly
saturated, the increase in field ampere-turns with load due to the

series
winding cannot cause a corresponding increase
netic flux
and there
will
straight line characteristic.
when
gives better regulation

is
in the
mag-
be considerable deviation from the ideal
compound generator accordingly
the iron
below saturation, which
is
opposite to the conclusion reached
for the shunt generator
(19)In a
compound generator
there
is
cause for sparking and
less
shifting of brushes than in a shunt generator,
the strengthening of
For
is
the field
by the
series
on account of
winding under
load.
compound generator
fluctuating loads, as railway service, the
accordingly superior and generally used.
Obviously, on account of the series winding,

to overload or short circuit a
many
series
much worse
compound than a shunt
Shunt for Adjusting Compounding.

of a compound generator rises more than
23.
too
it is
ampere-turns.
generator.
If the characteristic
is
desired, there are
These can be reduced without
changing the number of turns by reducing the current which

flows through them.
lel
This
is
with the series winding.
series turns
done by a shunt resistance
generator
i?
usually given
it
easier than
changing the number of
possible to change the
even after the machine

24.
{d)
this are the
more
than are necessary, the desired amount of compound-
ing being obtained by adjusting the shunt resistance.
much
in paral-
is
Differential
is
and makes
at
any time,
in use.
Characteristic.
same as for the compound
except that the series
series turns
amount of compounding
This
field
winding
is
The
connections
characteristic
for
(Fig. 5)
reversed so as to be in
COMPOUND GENERATOR.
i-B]
The
opposition to the shunt winding.
ing
now
is
to decrease
23
eilect of the series
wind-
(instead of increase) the magnetization
of the iron, as the armature current increases, causing the volt-
age to
fall off
As
alone.
with load more rapidly than with the shunt
there
is
no demand for
ential
winding are not used.
ential
winding
25.
(In a motor, Exp. 2-A, a differ-
useful in giving constant speed).
is
Series Characteristic.
(e)
field
generators with differ-
this,
This
characteristic
shows
the effect of the series winding alone, with the shunt winding not
The procedure
connected.
is
same
the
as
in
testing a series
generator, the connections being as in Fig. 2, Exp. i-A.
10000
10,100
8000
-7,900
CONSTANT SPEED
CONSTANT TERMINAL VOLTAGE
4000
2000
40
80
120
160
200
ARMATURE AMPERES
Fig.
7.
Armature characteristic or field compounding curve, showing that

more ampere-turns are needed than at no load for constant
at full load 2,200
terminal voltage.
26.
(/)
Armature
Characteristic.
This curve
is
used in de-
termining the proper number of series turns for compounding a

generator; and
curve.*
It
is
therefore frequently called a field compounding
shows,
Fig.
* This has also been called an

is
ambiguous since
it
may
the
variation
field
excitation
" excitation characteristic," a
name which
7,
in
be taken to mean the saturation curve,
6.
24
(amperes or ampere-turns*) necessary
[Exp.
at different loads to
main-
tain a constant voltage at the terminals of a shunt generator
driven at constant speed.f
The connections
are
shown
in Fig. 3,
readings being taken of field current, line current, terminal

voltage and speed.
higher excitation
The
tion.
is
voltage
is
be used
wanted than can be obtained by
load current
per cent, overload.
may
Separate excitation
is
when a
self -excita-
increased from no load to about 25
At each
load, before readings are taken, the
brought to the desired constant^ value by adjusting
the field rheostat.
The
27.
rise
in
armature characteristic shows the
the
in-
crease in ampere-turns of excitation needed to compensate for

loss in voltage
due to resistance drop, armature reactions,
etc.
(16).
If in service the
machine
the field rheostat as
is
to be operated as a shunt gene-
excitation can be obtained
rator, this increase in
was done
by adjusting
in obtaining this curve.
to be operated as a
compound gen-
erator, this increase in excitation is to be obtained
by the ampere-
If,
however, the machine
is
turns of the series winding.

28.
Determination of Proper
know from
Number
of Series Turns.
We
the armature characteristic the additional ampere-
turns of excitation which must be provided at full load to pro-
duce the desired terminal voltage.
We
know
also the amperes'
(load current) which will flow through these turns at full load.
The necessary number of turns
is
dividing ampere-turns by amperes.

*
To
sA Appendix
current gives the
number
Thus
number of
The number
plot in ampere-turns, the
be known;
accordingly readily found by

in Fig. 7,
we
turns in the shunt
note that
field
must
of turns multiplied by field

of field ampere-turns.
I.
t (26a). In case the generator is to be normally driven by an induction motor, with speed decreasing with load, it should be so operated in
taking the armature characteristic. (See i6a, 20b.)
t (26b). The curve may be taken for a voltage which increases with
load; such a curve would show the series ampere-turns to be added for"
over-compounding.
COMPOUND GENERATOR.
i-B]
25
for full load (200 amperes) there are needed 2200
The
turns excitation than at no load.
more ampere-
winding
series
be
will
traversed by the current of 200 amperes, and must accordingly
have II turns
in order to
make
the required 2,200 ampere-turns.
If the armature characteristic
turns calculated as
were a straight
line,
above would be the same
and the generator could be compounded so as
to
regulation and give an exactly constant voltage at
reached.
is
The
series
lated for
one
will be only approximately correct
definite load (full load)
series turns
characteristic
But
more after
loads.
turns are, therefore, calcu-
pounding
The armature
loads
all
have perfect
all
the armature characteristic always curves, bending
saturation
the series
for
com-
for other loads the
(21).
and hence the proper number of
for correct compounding, will differ for different
speeds and terminal voltage,
an
interesting subject for further
investigation.
APPENDIX
I.
29.
Determining the Number of Shunt Turns.
The
number
of
shunt turns on a generator can be more or less accurately determined,
if
the machine has a series winding or a temporary auxiliary
winding with a known number of turns.
With
the machine separately excited, take an ascending no-load
saturation curve, using the shunt field winding of
unknown
turns;
take a second similar curve, using the series or auxiliary field wind-
ing of
known
turns.
comparison of the two curves shows that
the shunt winding requires a

auxiliary winding to give the
much
smaller current than does the
same generated armature
voltage.
De-
termine this ratio of currents for equal terminal voltage (found for
several voltages
and averaged) and suppose
shunt turns are then 40 times as
many
it
to
be
ampere-turns for equal terminal voltage being the same.
example the auxiliary turns are
10, the
40.
The
as the auxiliary turns, the

If
for
shunt turns are accordingly
400.
30.
The number
of turns in two field windings can be compared
26
by the use of a
galvanometer (or voltmeter or ammeter used
ballistic
as a ballistic galvanometer)
that
[Exp.
the chief advantage of the
method
does not require facilities for running the machine.
it
is
With
the armature stationary and the galvanometer connected to the ter-
minals of one
field,
break a certain armature current and note the
throw of the galvanometer.
Repeat, breaking the same armature
current with the galvanometer connected to the other
galvanometer throws gives the desired ratio of
ratio of
It is best to
An
31.
from
The
take a series of readings and average the results.
estimate of the
measured
its
field.
field turns.
number of turns
in a coil can be
made
and mean length of turn.
resistance, size of wire
This can be used as a check, but the method
is
commonly only
approximate on account of the uncertainty of the data.
To Compound a Generator by Testing with Added Turns.

The proper number of series turns required to compound a generator
32.
can be ascertained by
With
trial
by means of temporary auxiliary turns.
the generator running at full load, pass current from an inde-
pendent source through these auxiliary turns and adjust

until the terminal voltage of the generator
This current (say 220 amperes), multiplied by the number
voltage.
of auxiliary turns (say 10) through which
it
extra ampere-turns are needed at full load.

is
this current
has the desired full-load
flows,
shows that 2,200
If the full-load current
200 amperes, the generator would accordingly require 11 series
turns.
33. Full-load
field excitation is
Saturation Curve.
For
obtaining this curve, the
varied and the load adjusted at each reading, so
that the external current remains
constant at
its
full-load value.
Field currents are plotted as abscissae and terminal voltages as ordinates.
nator;
time
is
Such a curve
it
may
limited.
is
to be taken later
(Exp. 3-A) on an
alter-
accordingly be omitted, in the present experiment,
if
CHAPTER
II.
DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS.

Experiment 2-A. Operation and Speed Characteristics of a
Direct Current Motor, (Shunt, Compound and Differential).
PART
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
I.
Generators and Motors Compared.
Structurally a
direct
current generator and a direct current motor are alike,* the

essential elements being the field
and the armature.
machine may accordingly be operated
The same
either as a generator or
as a motor.
Operating as a generator, the machine

chanical
counterf or opposing torque

erates
is
power which causes the armature

;
supplied with meto rotate against a
this rotation of the
armature gen-
an electromotive force which causes current
electrical
power
to flow
and
to be deHvered to the receiving circuit.
Operating as a motor, the machine
power which causes current
is
supplied with electrical
to flow in the armature against a
counterf or opposing electromotive force
this current creates a
torque which causes the armature to rotate and mechanical power

to be delivered to the shaft or pulley.
*(ia). Since generators are built in much larger sizes than motors,
one generator being capable of supplying power for many motors, there
may be a difference in design due to size. Moderate size machines, genefour being" common in small
rators or motors, are built with few poles,
motors. On the other hand, very large machines that is generators are
built with
In
all
many
direct
t (ib). There
is
no counter torque in a generator until current flows

is no counter electromotive force in a motor until
in the armature; there

is
generators or motors it is, common

and a revolving armature ( i, Exp. i-A).
current machines,
practice to use a stationary field
there
poles.
rotation of the armature.
27
28
It
is
[Exp.
seen that the operation, either as a generator or as a
motor, involves (i) the generation of an electromotive force and

(2) the creation of a torque, both of which depend
upon funda-
mental laws of electromagnetism.
2.
force
is
Generation of Electromotive Force.
An
electromotive
generated in a generator or in a motor due to the cutting
of lines of force, this electromotive force being proportional to

the rate at
which the
discussed in
lines of force or flux are cut, as already
Exp. i-A.
i,
In a generator this electromotive force causes

cause) a current to flow; in a motor,
it is
(or tends to
a counter electromotive
force and opposes the flow of current.

3.
Creation of Torque.
A torque
or motor due to the forces acting
current in a magnetic
field.
is
created in a generator
upon a conductor carrying
In a motor this torque causes (or
tends to cause) a rotation of the armature with respect to the

field
in a generator,
it is
a counter torque and opposes the rota-
tion of the armature.
The
creation of torque depends
mental principle
in
a magnetic
upon the following funda-
When a conductor carrying current
field, it is
is
located
acted upon by a force that tends to
move
the conductor in a direction at right angles to itself and to the
magnetic
flux',
the force being proportional* to the current and
to the flux density.
This force creates, a torque,

couple
that
is
a turning
moment
or
equalf to the product of the force and the length of the
* (3a). In C.G.S. units this force is equal to the product of the curconductor and sine of the angle between the
rent, flux density, length of
conductor and direction of
and flux are

are a
total
flux.
at right angles, as in
This sine
most
number of conductors, each conductor

torque of a motor
is
is
unity
electrical
is
when
the conductor
machinery.
When
there
subject to this force; the
therefore proportional to the total
number of
armature conductors.
t (3^). Torque may be expressed as pounds at one foot radius, poundkilogram-meters, etc. Power is proportional to the product of torque
feet,
SPEED CHARACTERISTICS.
2-A]
arm
radius or lever
follows that
to
torque
which the force
is
applied.
is
accordingly
It
proportional to armature current and to
is
the flux density of the field; this
armature
29
is
rotating* or not.
irrespective of
whether the
reversal of either the current
or the flux alone reverses the direction of the torque.
Of
the total torque, part
age and core loss
is
used
the remainder
is
in
overcoming
friction,
useful torque and
is
wind-
available
at the pulley.
4.
Automatic Increase of Current with Load.
electromotive force E'
The
ply voltage E.
the motor armature,

nections,
and the
is
always a few per cent,
difference
thus, if
due
than the sup-
to the resistance
drop
in
including brushes, brush contact and conany)
series field (if
E'
and speed;
is
The counter-
less
R.P.M.
that
is
= E RI.
(i)
revolutions per minute and
is
is
torque in
pound-feet
jjp
If
power
is
R.P.M.
^ 27rX33,000
known, torque may be found by dividing power by speed.
In pound-feet, torque
is
3'?,oco
2K
When power
"
y,
is
in watts,
it
is
H.P.
^ R.P.M.
frequently convenient to express torque in
synchronous watts " ; thus,
Watts
r.p."m:"
(One synchronous watt ^7.04 pound-feet.)

0.142 synchronous watt.)
(One pound-foot
Torque is also expressed in "watts at 1,000 R.P.M."
thus,
Watts
7-=i,oooXr:pm:*(3c). Torque with the armature at rest {static torque) can be determined for various field currents and for various armature currents by
means of a lever arm attached to the armature and a spring balance or
platform
scales.
Within the usual range of operation,

mercial motor
is
this
RI drop
efficiency are decreased
give the motor enough torque (which
and flux) to do
motor
work
its
will begin to
the
and
as the output
seen to be
is
is
not sufficient to
proportional to current
is
at the speed at
which
it is
running, the
slow down, thus decreasing the counter-
electromotive force E' (which
As '
com-
by the same percentage.
current which flows in the armature
under running conditions the current /
If
for a
only a few per cent, of the total line voltage.
Good design does not permit more, inasmuch

The
[Exp.
is
proportional to speed and flux)
decreases / increases. Until the torque
The
demands upon the motor.
is sufficient
to
meet
current accordingly increases
automatically with the load, and this increase can be continued

until the safe* limit,
On
the other hand,
determined by heating,
if
the current /
is
reached.
more than
is
is
needed to
give the torque required for the load at a certain running speed,
the surplus torque will cause the armature to accelerate, thus
increasing ' and decreasing / to a value which gives the proper
torque for the load and speed.

It will
change
be seen that a small change in '
in /
=:i04;
if
sufficient to
is
cause a large
and therefore in the torque. As an example, suppose '

loo,
an increase in speed causes E' to increase 2 per cent., that is
to 102, the current / will be reduced 50 per cent.
5. Relations
tive Force.
(5")
between Speed, Flux and Counter-electromo-
Counter-electromotive force
and flux
((^)
that
is
proportional to speed
is
'oc<^5-.
(3)
Hence, speed varies directly as the counter-electromotive force
and inversely with the flux
*A
motor
is
that
is
usually rated so that
it
25 per cent, over
its
rated load.
can be run for several hours at

2-AJ
31
E'
(4)
^"^-f'
or,
E-Rl
^^^This
is
is
the speed equation for a motor.
The
reduced the speed will increase.
nite
(5)
seen that
It is
numerical relations of the quantities involved.
increase in speed
more
is
Speed of a Shunt Motor.
6.
supply voltage has a constant

stant fiux.
equation 5)
this
is
causes
It is
it
nearly con-
is
(compare
by the effect of
(8).
may be
seen from equation (5) that the speed
creased or decreased by weakening or strengthening the
The process
When
is
explained as follows
the field
is
made
with constant
to decrease with load
later
is
current and therefore a con-
partially offset, however,
armature reactions, as seen

7.
A shunt motor
field
accordingly follows that the speed
It
The RI drop
stant.
Hoiv an
brought about by a decrease in flux
clear in 7.
if <^
equation shows the defi-
in-
field.
weakened the counter-electromotive force
reduced; this permits more current to flow
in the
armature, thus
The speed accordingly
giving greater torque* and speed.
creases until E' has increased so as to limit the current
hence the torque) to a value which
will give
is
in-
(and
no further accel-
eration.
The cause for increase of speed is surplus torque

If
8. Armature Reactions and Brush Position.
are given a backward lead (which
one direction,
in
is
the brushes
usual in motors running in
order to obtain better commutation) the
field is
As an example, suppose the field is weakened so that the flnx

reduced 2 per cent, and E' the same amount; and suppose the armature
current increases 50 per cent. Torque is proportional to flux and armature
current and in this assumed case is increased 47 per cent. ; for .98 x 1.50
This increase is only temporary, for the armature current and the
1.47.
* (7a)-
is
torque decrease as higher speeds are reached.
32
weakened by the demagnetizing

(8a, Exp. i-A).
effect
On
in the neutral position.
much
as
it
account of armature reac-
worse
voltage regulation of a generator
is
The proper brush position for

tion which gives minimum speed.
best
( i6,
is
the posi-
is
increased, the speed
of the motor under load can be increased tmtil
is
better; the
is
Exp. i-B).
commutation
backward lead of the brushes
ceeds the speed at no load.
adjustment
would with the
speed regulation of a motor
tions, therefore, the
9. If the
of armature reactions
This causes the flux to decrease with load,
so that the speed does not decrease as
brushes
[Exp.
it
equals or ex-
Such a control of speed by brush
not practicable, however, on account of bad com-
mutation and destructive sparking; the brushes should be given

the position of best commutation.
be made,
enough
ID.
much
to cause
Speed Control.
speed can
it
is
not
sparking.
From
speed of a motor can be varied

age,
A small variation of
by shifting the brushes, provided
desired,
if
equation (5)
:
it
is
seen that the
by changing the impressed
volt-
E; by varying resistance, R (series controller) or, by varyEach of these methods is in use for operating
;
ing flux,
<f>.
variable speed motors.
(a) Varying line voltage.

tained by using a
number of
Several line voltages can be obline wires.
Such a system
is
called
a multiple-voltage system.
(b) Varying resistance.
use with series motors;

of small
(c)
change
series controller
in
is
common
used occasionally with shunt motors
size.
Varying
in
flux.
excitation
reluctance; for flux

( I )
it is
The
This can be accomplished either by a
(magnetomotive force)
= magnetomotive
in
in
force -^ relvictance.
Speed control by varying excitation
motor by a rheostat
or a change
is
series with the field
obtained in a shunt
( 7)
in a series
motor, by an adjustable resistance in parallel with the
field.
2-A]
(The
method of
possible
33
by brush-shifting,
control
8,
is
not
used.)
Speed control by varying reluctance
(2)
obtained in certain
is
shunt motors by varying the air-gap.
limit to speed control
by a variation
either excitation or reluctance)
ture reactions
is
(by varying
in flux
reached on account of arma-
a considerable reduction in flux causes bad com-
mutation.
For varying the speed through a wide range,
fore, these
methods can only be used
reactions
are
was
torily
accomplished by the
first
Prof. H.
J.
was placed
winding
complished
generally ac-
by
the
constructed
easily
of
Ryan, which
in slots in the
now
is
Constant Potential supply
SatisfaC-
This compensa-
pole faces.
tion
there-
the effects of 'armature
overcome.
This
compensated
if
more
inter-
poles or commutating poles
of the interpole motor.
PART
II.
OPERATION.
/^
STARTING BOX
II.
the motor
is
compound, cut
the series coil out of the

circuit.
cuit
i.
start the motor, have
and
I.
Connections
operating
for
shunt motor.
main terminals of the motor and complete the
connections, as in Fig.
field
Fig.
Connect the sup-
ply lines to the
To
^ \
"\.
Shunt Motor. If
all
circuit
Note the
all
queries,
the starting
box
the field rheostat out of circuit;

is
complete.
The
circuits
15.
resistance in cir-
make
sure that the
should be so arranged
that closing the supply circuit will excite the field (which takes
4
34
an appreciable time) before* the armature

armature
starting
circuit is then closed
box
and
this is
[Exp.
The
circuit is closed.
commonly done by
the
lever.
Bring the motor, unloaded, up to speed by cutting the starting
box
is
resistance slowlyf out of circuit until the whole resistance
Note the ammeter during the process and the
cut out.
crease of speed as indicated by the

starting
box should be kept
(except in
special- cases)
hum
during starting, for
in circuit only
not
is
it
in-
The
of the motor.
designed
for
continuous
operation.
If the
motor does not now run
at
normal speed, the speed can
be increased by gradually varying the
Do
the field rheostat.
nor under any circumstances break the

will
current by means of
field
current too much,
field circuit,^
or the motor
run at a dangerous speed.
Note the speed

facilities
operate a
permit,
at
no load for several
for several
no- volt motor with
volts
excitations; also,
supply voltages.
when
(For example,
55 volts on armature and on field;
with 55 volts on armature and
no
field
not reduce the
no
volts
on
field;
but not with
on armature and 55 volts on field.)

Motors are commonly stopped by opening
12. Stopping.
the supply switch and not by
first
opening the armature
circuit.
* ( iia). If the starting box were made with suflSciently high resistance,
so as to properly limit the current irrespective of counter-electromotive
force, the
armature
This, however,
is
circuit could
be closed simultaneously with the
field.
not usual practice.
t ( lib). Starting boxes are sometimes made so that it is impossible to

manipulate them too rapidly. The "' multiple-switch " motor starter, used
particularly in starting large motors, has a number of switches, thrown
successively by hand; these give good contact for large currents and re-
quire time for cutting out the successive sections of the resistance.
t ( lie). Automatic Release. This danger is commonly guarded against

by a solenoid on the starting box which releases the lever and allows it to
spring back to the starting position when there is no current in the field
circuit. This also acts as a " no-voltage " release, giving protection against
damage which might occur were the current supply cut off and put on
again with the starting box resistance
all out.
2-A]
There
is
sequent
then no sudden discharge of

liability to
damage;
magnetism and con-
field
for, as the
35
armature slows down
it
generates a gradually decreasing electromotive force which maintains the field excitation so that
there
is
armature and
to a
too decreases gradually.
it
an automatic release on the starting box,

field circuits after the field excitation
it
(If
opens the
has decreased
low value.)
The
effects of
induced electromotive force caused by sudden
discharge can be reduced by absorbing
field
its
energy in a high
resistance shunt in parallel with the field circuit, or in a short-
around the
circuited secondary circuit
field core.
brass field-
spool will act in this way.
Throwing power suddenly

switch,
may
off the line,
To
case of large motors under load.

ply switch
is
armature
circuit,
to be opened; then the supply switch
Compound Motor.
winding strengthens the
On
starting or under
ture current
strong
field
avoid
opened, the starting resistance
ally introduced into the
13.
by opening the supply
cause fluctuations in line voltage,
is
In
heavy load
large)
a greater torque than
it
first
be gradu-
which, however,
is
not
opened.
the series
the armature current increases.

('.
the motor
and therefore has
may
in
before the sup-
compound* motor,
field as
is
particularly
this,
e.,
is
at times
when
the
arma-
accordingly given a very
for a given
armature current
would have with the shuntf winding
only.
whether a series winding is connected "compound" or

throw off the belt and start the motor (for a moment)
with the series coil only. If the motor tends to start in the same direction
as it does with the shunt coil, the winding is " compound " or "'cumulative;" if in the reverse direction, the winding is "differential."
t(i3b)- This means a greater torque than it would have with the
same shunt winding only. The motor could be given a different shunt
winding which would give as strong a field and as great a torque as is
Such a shunt winding,
obtained by means of the compound winding.
however, would give the strong field at all times whereas the compound
* ( 13a).
To
tell
'differentially,"
winding gives the strong

and under load.
field
only at particular times,
i.
e.,
at starting

36
Under load
the
[Exp.
compound winding, by strengthening

For
causes the motor to slow down.
the
field,
certain kinds of service
as in operating rolling mills, cranes, elevators, etc.
this is desir-
motor can work at great overload without the

demand for power which would be made by a constant
speed motor. As compared with a shunt motor, it works under
able in that the
excessive
load at greater torque and less speed, and can stand a greater
overload.
In this respect
18).
differs
there
It
is still
it
from the
is
similar to the series
motor
series
in that
motor (see
at light load
a certain strength of field due to the shunt winding,
and the speed, therefore, cannot exceed a certain value, whereas

a series motor will attain a dangerous speed
off.
Under some operating
if
the load
thrown
is
compound motor can
conditions the
accordingly be used where neither the shunt nor the series motor
would be
is
suitable.
If slowing
down with
desired at
all
load
is
not wanted and a constant speed
loads, together with a large torque at starting,
the series winding
is
used during starting only and
is
then cut
out or short-circuited.
14. Differential
Motor.
Since a
differential
ens the field as the load increases, such a winding
This
a speed which increases with load.
In some cases, however,
able.
speed
at full
sufficient to
slow
it
is
is
winding weak-
makes
possible
practically not desir-
desirable to have the
same
load as at no load and to use a series winding just
overcome the tendency which a shunt motor has to
down with
load.
their effect can be cut
If the series turns are too
down by
many
for this,
a shunt of proper resistance con-
nected in parallel with the series winding.
The
starting torque of a differential
motor
is
poor, particularly
under load, inasmuch as the large starting current in the

ential winding greatly
weakens the
a differential winding
is
used,
short-circuited during starting.
it
is
field.
For
this reason,
differ-
when
usually cut out of circuit or
w-A]
many
If there are
and no shunt
series turns
rent taken by a differential motor
may become
load increases, thus weakening the
field
or even reversing the

IS. Queties.
For
increasing the speed,
Why? What
or decreased?
why do you
field so that the
not close the
field
box connected
the starting
is
37
excessive as the
so that the motor races,
motor suddenly reverses.

is
the field current increased
the use of the starting
and armature
used, the cur-
is
box?
In starting,
Why
circuits simultaneously?
with the armature and not in series

with the line? Why is a strong field needed for starting? Does this
become of more or of less importance when starting under load? Would
is
an added
in series
winding be an advantage or a disadvantage in starting?

be dangerous to break the field circuit? What is the effect
of shifting the brushes? What is the proper position for the brushes?
What is effect of interchanging positive and negative supply lines? What
changes in connections are necessary to reverse the direction of rotation
Why
series
would
it
of the armature?
reverse direction,
if
(Be careful not to run more than a moment

the brushes would thus be damaged.)
PART
i6.
in the
III.
Shunt, Compound and Differential Motor.
It is the
pur-
pose of the experiment to determine the variation of speed with

load for the same motor connected in three ways,
pound and
the three runs.

all
constant throughout
The brushes should be
in
one position during
amount of any change
noted.
the motor connected as a shunt machine. Fig.
the field current by

runs,
on no
means of the
t,
adjust
field rheostat so that the
motor
load, at the speed for
which
it is
designed, and keep
the field current constant at this value during the run.
compound and differential, adjust

same no-load speed* and keep the
other two runs,

rent for this
com-
is
the runs (8), or the
With
shunt,
the line voltage
differential
For. the
the field curfield
current
constant during each run.

* ( i6a). Starting with the same no-load speed, and making runs from
no load to full load, gives the three speed characteristics of Fig. 2 coinciding at no load this is the best procedure for instruction purposes.
In commercial testing, the field should be adjusted so that the motor
runs at rated speed at full load. The curve is then taken from full load
to no load; the maximum per cent, variation in speed from its full load
;
value
is
the per cent, speed regulation.
(Standardization Rules, 195.)
38
Vary* the load on the motor by
steps
per cent, overload, reading line voltage,
[Exp.
between no load and 25

armaturef
field current,
current (or else line current) and speed, for each step.
Make
runs with the motor connected shunt, compound and differential.
With current
current)
as abscissae
and speed as ordinates,
the three runs as in Fig. 2.

1100
(either line current or
armature
plot speed characteristics for
2-A]
APPENDIX
39
I.
SERIES MOTOH.
i8.
motor.
series*
motor
Its characteristics are
shown
Operation.
rapidly as the load
is
is
distinctly
in Fig.
3.
variable speed
The speed
increases
decreased, becoming dangerouslyf great
The
p
t
I
if
the
series motor, therefore.
4
19. Torque.
would vary
Since
torque varies as flux
were proportional
as P, if flux
currents
below saturation
currents after saturation the
this
flux
torque increases directly as
/.
The torque
fore at
first
more or
20. Speed.
less parabolic
(Fig. 3)
is
less
practically
is
the torque
For small
For large
constant and the
true.
curve. Fig.
3,
is there-
and then becomes a straight
equation (5) it
For small currents,
and flux proportional
X current,
to current.
more or
From
versely with flux.
tion
is
[Exp.
line.
seen that speed varies in-
is
we
if
consider
RI
negligible
to current, speed varies as i/I ; the speed curve
For larger currents satura-
would then be an hyperbola.
reached, the flux becomes practically constant and the speed
more nearly
constant.
gradually decrease as
reached.
Series'
On
account of
drop, speed continues to
even after saturation
motors are sometimes overwound, that
more constant speed)
so that saturation (and hence

21. Test.
Rl
current increases,
The
load
is
is,
is
wound
soon reached.
varied between an overload (determined
is
by maximum safe current) and an underload (determined by maxi-
mum
is
safe speed).
The
line voltage is constant; a series resistance
used for starting and
may
method for loading can be

load, its output
the line.
be used for adjusting voltage.
used.
may be absorbed
(See 26, Exp. 2-B.)
been modified by A.
S. McAllister,
Any
If a shunt generator is used as a
pumped back into

The pumping back method has
so as to form a convenient method
in resistance or
for determining the torque of any kind of motor, direct or alternating
{Standard Handbook, 3-239 and 8^151

Current Motors,
22.
is
Power.
McAllister's Alternating
p. 185).
Power
is
equal to
directly proportional to /.
EI
In Fig.
when E is constant, power

power would be represented
and,
3,
through the origin.
by a straight
line passing
fore, that the
power required does not increase as rapidly as does the
torque.
It will
be seen, there-
EFFICIENCY.
2-B]
4^
Experiment 2-B. Efficiency of a Direct Current Motor*

by the Measurement of Losses.
(or
Generator)
I. Introductory.
The obvious and

a motor
is,
Efficiency
direct
is
the ratio of output to input.
method for determining the
efficiency of
therefore, to measure the outputf and the input and
take their ratio.

losses or stray
An
indirect method,
power method, avoids
known
the
as the
method of
measurement of output.
In this method the losses are measured and the output obtained
by subtracting the
losses
from the input
the efficiency
is
then
determined.
This method of losses possesses several advantages over meth-
ods that involve the measurement of output.

is
in
The motor output
some cases a troublesome quantity to measure, especially
accuracy
in the
is
essential
but, even with the
measurement of output and of
if
same degree of accuracy
losses, the efficiency
be as accurately determined^ from the former as from the
cannot
latter.
*With the appendices, this experiment covers the main features of the
usual methods for determining the efficiency of any machine, direct or
alternating. The main experiment is expHcit for determining the efficiency
of a shunt motor, and, it is suggested that the student, without reference
to the Appendices, first performs this main experiment. The Appendices
if desired, a second experiment made (either
or later) under some of the special conditions which are there treated.
t ( la). Direct Measurement of Output. The output of a motor can
be determined directly by electrical measurement (using for a load a
should then be read and,
now
calibrated generator, 24), or by mechanical measurement (measuring

.torque by means of a Prony brake, Brackett cradle dynamometer, etc.).
Power can be readily computed when torque and speed are known (3b,
Exp. 2-A). There are various forms of absorption and transmission

dynamometers conveniently arranged for the direct measurement of power.
For description of Prony brake, see Flather's Dynamometers and the
Measurement of Power and the usual hand and text books; also Electric
Journal, I., 419. For the cradle dynamometer, see Nichols' Laboratory
Manual, Vol. II., and elsewhere.
t(ib). Let us suppose that the error in measuring the input, output
or losses is one per cent, due to inaccuracies in the instruments or in
42
A
an
further advantage of this
be seen
essential, as will
method
later,
is
[Exp.
that a load run
when a
Conditions often arise, as in testing large machines,

test is impossible
It is
always
best,
and
is
not
and hence may be omitted.

load
advantage then becomes important.
this
however, to make the load run when
this
can
be done.
The method of
mining the
losses,
losses
is
general and can be applied for deter-
and hence the
differential or series
efficiency,
wound motor
ing paragraphs the directions are
of a shunt, compound,
In the follow-
or generator.
full
and
explicit for testing-
Modifications are outlined in the
a shunt-wound motor.
Ap-
pendices for applying the method to other types of motors and

generators.
For
2.
testing
to ascertain
any machine two runs are made
working
conditions,
a load run
and a no-load run (or runs) to
determine losses under these same conditions.

In making the no-load run for losses the machine can be driven
electrically as
mer method
is
used in
this
experiment ( 7)
described in 21 of Appendix
The
that
it
i-A).
is
to be
found by the
method both before and after the load run,
may
for-
the latter method
I.
resistance* of the armature
potential
The
a motor or mechanically as a generator.
is
fall
of
in order
be determined both cold and hot (see 17, Exp.
Since this includes the resistance of the brushes and of
brush contact, which varies with current, to be exact
it
would
be necessary to measure the armature resistance for each load

their reading.
100.
The
Assume
the true output to be 95
output, as measured, might vary
from 99
from
when
the true input
94.05 to 95.95
is
and the
from output,
hand with the same
percentage error in their determination, the measured losses might vary
from 4.95 to 5.05 and the measured input from 99 to loi hence the
efficiency, determined from losses, could only vary from 94.9 per cent, to
input,
might vary from
to
loi
hence the
efficiency,
93.1 to 96.9 per cent.
On
determined
the other
95.1 per cent.
*In measuring armature
resistance the voltmeter
the same points as in the load run.
is
to
be connected to
EFFICIENCY.
2-B]
No
current.
43
account will be taken of a possible difference be-
tween the contact resistance with machine running and that

measured with armature stationary.
Load Run (Shunt Motor).
3.
tain the
This
run
working conditions for which the
mined, that
is,
to ascertain the load current
for calculating copper losses
determined in the no-load run.
made
in
to ascer-
and hot resistances
friction losses are to be
(The load run
Exp. 2-A for obtaining speed
Connect the motor to the supply
4.
made*
and to ascertain the normal speed
and excitation for which the iron and

of the run
is
losses are to be deter-
lines,
is
a repetition
characteristics.)
the voltage of
which should remain practically constant during the run.

Fig.
of Exp. 2-A.)
Adjust the
(or the speed for which

field
efficiency
its
current by means of the

its
is
rated full-loadf speed

desired) and keep the
Care in
current constant at this value during the run.
keeping the
field
the results
it
tion
field
the motor runs at
field rheostat so that
is
(See
current constant will increase the accuracy of
not sufficient to leave the rheostat in one posi-
and assume the
field
current constant because
is
it
very
nearly so.
* (3a). Omission of Load Run. It will be seen that the load run is
not essential and that the method may be employed even when the load
run is impossible. Whenever it is possible, however, the load run should
be taken, since it serves to get the machine " down to its bearings," that is,
down
to its
When
working condition of
friction as well as of temperature.
and hot
by suitable temperature corrections or assumptions.
Values of field current and speed are determined for no load; values are
assumed for full load which it is believed will most nearly represent the
In a
operating conditions for which the efficieiicy is to be obtained.
motor, for example, we may assume a constant excitation and a constant
speed, or a speed which is say 5 per cent, lower at full load, etc. In a
generator we may assume a constant speed and a constant excitation, or
an excitation which is a certain amount lower (shunt generator) or higher
(compound generator) at full load.
t(4a). For commercial testing the speed should be adjusted to its
the load run
is
omitted, cold resistances are measured
resistances determined
rated value at full load; in laboratory practice the adjustment,

sired,
may
be
made
at
no
load.
when
de-
44
[Exp.
5. Beginning at about 25 per cent, overload, as estimated
from
the input, vary the load by steps from overload to no load or

vice versa; at each step
rent,* field current
may be used
brake
armature cur-
line voltage,
and speed.
The motor may be loaded
6.
measure the
any manner that
in
for this, but
it
is
is
convenient.
frequently
more con-
venient to load with a generator and to absorbf the output of

the generator by suitable resistances.
7.
ally 4
No-load
For
machine
is
Run (Shunt
Motor)
Machine Driven
a shunt machine one|| no-load run
is
The
object
is
to determine the losses for
different speeds at this constant excitation.
Before taking read-
ings the motor should be run awhile so as to attain
working condition of
the
made; the
operated as a motor at the same constant excitation
as in the load run.
With
Electric-
its
normal
lubrication, temperature, etc.
motor running unloaded, adjust the
field
current to
the same value as during the load run and hold constant at this
value during the no-load run.

force impressed
motor by
sible
By varying
the electromotive
on the armature terminals, vary the speed of the
steps so as to cover as
this will give
wide a range of speed as pos-
more accurate
range of the load run
is
results than if only the speed
covered.
At each
* See i6c, Exp. 2-A.

t If a direct current generator of suitable voltage
from the generator may be "pumped back"
step
is
into the
measure the
used, the current
motor supply
line
(26).
t ( 7a)
This run can be made with the machine driven mechanically
(21) instead of electrically.

(7b). Although a run at only one excitation is necessary for determining the efficiency of a shunt motor, runs at other excitations are
recommended. These additional runs may be taken by the two voltage
II
method (7d). They are necessary if hysteresis loss is to be separated

(Appendix I.) or if flux density is variable (Appendix III.). If a run
is wanted at a very high saturation, a higher voltage may be supplied to
the field than the rated voltage supplied to the armature.
EFFICIENCY.
2-B]
45
electromotive force impressed on the armature terminals, armature current,* field current and speed.
By
using two resistances,
B and
C, arranged as in Fig.
i,
the
electromotive force impressed

'^""'''"^ '''^"*''' ^"'p'^'
on the armature may be varied

by short circuiting more or
less
of
or of C.
series resistance
B may
single
suffice,
many
made with
but the adjustment in

cases can be better
An
two.
eHUNT
-^
'f)
independent genera-
FIELD
r^WM?W5
tor can be used as a supply

to obtain variable voltages for
the
armature
two
or the
circuit,
voltagesf
of
three-
Results.The
losses
wire system.
8.
of the motor include:

(i) Copper losses of field
Fig.
and armature
I.
'ConnecHqn for no-load run as
a shunt motor for determining losses.
(2) Iron losses of armature;

(3) Friction and Windage, or air resistance.
Losses (2) and (3) are rotation losses and are independent of
load.
* (7c).
For
the
reading ammeter
is
no load run the armature current

used,
it
is
small;
if
a low
should be short-circuited at starting to avoid
damage by the initial rush of starting

t(7d). Two-voltage Method. For
current.
instruction
purposes
complete
armature voltages and corresponding speeds is desirable. Where

two supply voltages (as no and 220 volts on a 3- wire system) are available, accurate results may be obtained by a two-voltage method, by taking
8 or 10 readings and averaging first with say 220 and then with no volts
impressed on the armature of a 220 volt motor. These points, accurately
determined, are sufficient for working up results by the straight line
method of Fig. 2, in which they are represented by black dots p and q.
By this method the trouble of adjusting armature voltage is avoided.
series of
46
Copper Losses.
9.
computed,
if
The copper
the current
are known, being equal to
any
circuit
and resistance through which
RP
The armature copper
rent.
losses for
[Exp.
where
resistance
is
loss is thus
computed
and /
it
can be
it
is
flows
is
cur-
a vari-
able loss, changing with load.
The
field
copper loss
veniently
circuit
is
a constant loss and does not vary with
RP,
can be computed by the formula
It also
load.
or more con-
from the formula EI, the product of current
and voltage supplied
of energy;
(The formula EI
at its terminals.
cannot be thus used unless copper loss
in the field
the only expenditure
is
cannot be used for determining copper loss of an
it
armature or other
circuit in
which there
a back electromotive
is
force.)
In a self-excited machine, in which a
under normal operation, the
field
rheostat
loss in the rheostat is to
is
used
be included
in the field circuit loss.

10.
Iron Losses.
and eddy currents
The iron
;*
losses are losses
due
to hysteresis
they are independent of load, but vary with
the speed and with the flux density in the armature.

stant speed, hysteresis loss
varies approximately as the 1.6
power of the
flux density; eddy
At
currents as the square of the flux density.
constant flux
density, hysteresis loss varies directly with the speed
currents with the square of the speed.

the motor
is
At con-
(within the usual working range)
and eddy
If the field current of
held constant, the flux density in the armature will
be practically constant for
all
loads.
It will
be modified under
loadf to a small extent by armature reaction, the effect of which

will
be neglected.
Hence
*This includes eddy currents
in a shunt
motor run with constant
in the pole pieces
and
in
armature copper
as well as in armature iron.
t ( loa). Loa</ Losses. Losses which occur under load in addition

and to the no-load iron, friction and windage losses are
to copper losses
termed load
loss.
Load
losses.
Any
loss
due to
field
distortion constitutes such a
loses are usually neglected as small or are estimated.
Standardization Rules 114-7.
See
EFFICIENCY.
2-B]
field current, the iron losses are
upon speed
47
independent of load and depend
alone.
and Windage.
II. Friction
The
and windage
friction
losses
are also independent of load and depend alone upon speed, being
(for
purposes)
practical
all
directly
proportional*
to
speed.
Friction includes frictions of brushes as well as of bearings.
Losses
12. Rotation
and Windage).
In
W^ {Combined
the no-load run the
Iron Losses, Friction
power supplied
to the
armature (product of armature voltage and current) gives the

rotation losses plus a small armature copper loss.
loss
is
losses.
These
losses are
The combined
will
(or neglected as small)
subtracted
same speed and
sometimes termed stray power.'f
rotation losses
be present at
all
Wo, thus determined
no
at
load,
loads and will have the same value for the

If the speed of the
excitation.
Wo
nearly constant, the
This copper
to get the rotation
losses will
motor
is
very
be correspondingly constant.
Rotation losses are commonly classed
among
the constant losses,^
inasmuch as they are independent of load and the variation due
any small change of speed
to
For determining
small.
is
efficiency there
is
no necessity for ascertain-
ing the separate losses due to hysteresis, eddy currents, friction
and windage,
13.
Wo
their
combined value
Wo
being
sufficient.
curve should be plotted showing the rotation losses
for constant field current at diflferent speeds.
curve accurately,
it
is best||
To
plot this
to first plot for various speeds the
*(iia). Windage increases more rapidly than the first power of the
speed; but windage loss is comparatively small and does not, at usual
speeds, materially aflfect the law of variation of the combined friction and
windage
losses.
The term stray power

t(i2a). The no-load
t
loss of the field circuit
armature)
II
applies to
any
losses are
loss except copper loss.
the rotation losses plus the copper
(and the practically negligible copper
loss of the
the no-load losses are therefore termed "constant."
( 13a). This
is
advantageous because a straight
more accurately than a curved

or irregular; two accurate points
one,
when
line
the observed
can be drawn
data are
few
are sufficient, but three are better as a
48
values of
Fig. 2.
Wo -^ speed,
At very low
which
[Exp.
will give the straight line
speeds, there
ac in
be a deviation from a
may
straight line, due possibly to errors in assumptions as to friction,

etc.,
at these speeds.
This, however, does not afifect the accuracy
of the construction; the straight part of the curve
tended back to
with speed, at constant
Wo
this line for
Wo
14. Efficiency.
curve.
Wo -i- speed,
For
The
pick off values from
many*
as
points as desired
fuller treatment, see
For any load
Appendix
I.
(corresponding to readings in
the load run, or assumed), the input

line current
to
friction,
and multiply by speed, thus getting
for plotting the
and windage)
overcome rotation
windage and hysteresis and
(iron losses, friction
The torque dc
field excitation.
After plotting
it
R.R M.)
composed of db to overcome
overcome eddy current loss.
losses is
bCj to
Variation of rotation losses
2.
to be ex-
a.
SPEED
Fig.
is
is
equal to the product of
and voltage.
losses are:
the (variable)
RP
loss in the
armature for
the particular armature current /; the (constant) copper loss of

always desirable to plot the results of any experiment, if
some curve whose law is
known. The arc of a circle is much used in alternating current testing.
* Obtained in this way, more points may be used in plotting Wo than
the number of observations.
check.
It
is
possible, as a straight line, arc of circle, or as
2-B]
EFFICIENCY.
49
the field; and the (ahnost constant) rotation loss Wo, obtained
from the curve
The output
in Fig. 2 for the particular speed
and excitation.
found by subtracting these losses from the in-
is
put; the efficiency
is
output divided by input.
Curves should be plotted with power output (or more

simply with armature current) as abscissae, showing separate and
15.
total losses, input, output, efficiency, total current
useful torque (watts output
-=-
speed)
and speed
see Fig. 3.
also
Compare the
curves of Fig. 3 with the curves for a transformer. Fig. 4, Exp.
S-A, and Fig.
8,
Exp. 5-B.
Field
BJ2l55
POWER OUTPUT
Fig.
Losses and efficiency of a shunt motor.
Maximum efficiency occurs when the variable

RP) equals the constant losses; see 28.
It is
seen that efficiency at light loads
both generators and motors.

are
commonly run
For
in parallel in
is
low
loss
(armature
this is true
this reason several
of
generators
a central station; as the
loM on
the station decreases, the generators are cut out one at a time,
so that the remaining generators will be
and
will
run nearer the point of
more or
maximum
less fully
efficiency.
loaded
APPENDIX
[Exp.
I.
INTERPRETATION OF METHOD; AND SEPARATION OF LOSSES.
1 6.
Interpretation* of Figure
2.
For constant flux density
sis,
friction
and windage are proportional
to speed
(con-
due to hystere-
stant field excitation in a shunt macliine), tiie losses
( lO, ii) and
may be expressed as AS, where A is some constant and S is speed.

Eddy current loss being proportional to the square of the speed may
be expressed as BS^, in which B is some constant. The total rotation loss is accordingly the sum
W.ÂS + BS',
which
is
we have
the equation of the
curve in Fig.
Dividing by S,
2.
the torque to overcome rotation losses
W,^S = A + BS,
which
is
the equation of the straight linet ac in Fig.
Extending
Exp. 2-A.)
ing the horizontal ab,
this line
we have
3b,
be the torque to overcome eddy cur-
rent loss (proportional to speed) and db the torque to

teresis, friction
(See
2.
back to zero speed at a and draw-
and windage (independent of speed).
overcome hysThese state-
ments and the statements made in the following paragraphs, hold

true throughout the range of speeds for
line,
which
17.
is
much more than
which W^-i-S
is
a straight
the working range of the machine.
Determination of Watts Eddy Current Loss.
For any speed,
*(i6a). The principle of the graphical method which is here used

was brought out by R. H. Housman and by G. Kapp, independently, in
1891 (London Electrician, Vol. XXVI., pp. 699 and 700)
each made use
of a straight line relation for plotting data obtained by running a motor
at constant excitation and varying armature voltage.
The details, as here
given, have been modified by the writer with a view to making the method
simpler and more useful. The original papers are excellent, but their
method has been made unnecessarily cumbersome by writers who have
followed them. Earlier, Mordey had used equations similar to those of
;
16 for analytical separation of losses.
t(i6b). Since,
strictly
at
constant
counter-electromotive
excitation,
force)
is
armature voltage
proportional
to
(or more
speed,
the
We
Wo
curve can be drawn with E' as abscissae instead of speed.

then
divide by E' (instead of S) and get the straight line ac, the ordinates of
which (JVa-h-E') are amperes.
EFFICIENCY.
2-B]
5'
multiplying be by S, gives watts eddy current loss; multiplying db
by
5"
gives watts loss in hysteresis, friction and windage.
eddy current
If the
horizontal line ab; the
showing that
zero, ac
i8.
Convenient Approximation.
commonly only a small part

it
is
say the rotation losses

19.
to speed
IV
changes in speed
would coincide with the
equation in i6 would become
would be proportional
Fig. 2 would become a straight line.
in
is
were
loss
first
Since
and the
W^ÂS,
W
curve
the eddy current loss
of the total rotation losses, for small
nearly correct and often very convenient to
are directly proportional to speed.
Further Separation of Losses.
Hysteresis
loss
can be ap-
proximately separated from friction and windage by additional runs

Friction and windage can not be separated
from each other by any simple means and hence are considered
together. There are various graphical and analytical methods for
at other field excitations.
friction and
power of speed and are independent of
flux density; eddy current loss varies as square of speed and square
of flux density; hysteresis loss varies as first power of speed and
separating losses,
windage
1.6
all
based on the following facts
losses vary as first
power of
At any one
flux density.
necessary to
make some assumption
speed, armature voltage
In any of these methods
taken as a measure of flux density.
it
is
is
or approximation; for this rea-
son the graphical methods are superior. (In the graphical method
given below the approximation consists in obtaining Oa^ by extrapolation to zero excitation.)
The
analytical
methods
will not be taken
obtaining several equations
up here; they consist
(based upon the above relations)
in
and
eliminating between them after substituting numerical values obtained
from observation of W at various speeds and flux densities.

Graphical Method. Various graphical methods for separat 20.
ing losses differ chiefly in detail; the following procedure (either
o or 6)
(a)
ous
is
suggested:
Make
a series of no-load
field excitations,
possible.
as already described, at vari-
riins,
extending these to as low a
Plot results as in Fig.
2,
(straight lines) ac with intercepts Oa^,

to various field currents.
It is
field excitation as
obtaining a series of curves
Oa Oa
etc.,
corresppnding
desired to find a value for an inter-
cept Oa for the supposed case of zero field current, for which of
52
Oa^,
Oa
Oa,,
back to zero
etc.,
field
obtain this, plot a curve showing
To
course no run can be made.
[Exp.
and continue the curve

get a value for 0% by extra-
for various field currents
current so as to
polation.
(&) It will be found by experience that the value of
a run at a very low
desired value Oa for zero excitation
low excitation are
the value
Oa
is,
from the
the iron losses at very
is
taken at as low an excitation
obtained from this run
of Oa which would be obtained
Referring to Fig.
that
Oa found by
little
Instead of a series of no-load runs
negligible.
and extrapolation, one no-load run

as possible
but
field excitation will differ
taken as the value
is
at zero excitation.
Oa^ obtained by either procedure just described
2,
the torque to overcome friction and windage, for at zero excitation
is
there
is
windage
no hysteresis
at
To
excitation.
To
loss.
obtain watts loss in friction and
any speed, multiply Oa by S;
this is
independent of
obtain watts loss in hysteresis at any speed for some
particular excitation, multiply aa (for that excitation)
21.
Mechanically by an Auxiliary Driving Motor.
machine driven mechamcally,
By
This method, with the
not limited to testing direct current
is
it
can be used in testing alternators, synchronous motors,
this
method separate values are found for the iron losses and
machines;
etc.
by S.
Determination and Separation of Losses; Machine Driven
for the mechanical losses; that
is,
for hysteresis
and eddy currents
combined and for friction and windage combined.
The preceding method, with the machine driven electrically (7),

gave directly the eddy current loss and the combined hysteresis, friction
and windage (17). Each method has its advantages; in the

is combined with eddy current, in the other with fric-
one hysteresis
tion
and windage.
The procedure
rately excited
is
and
as follows
is
(i )
The machine
to be tested is sepa-
driven as a generator* on no load at normal
speed and excitation by means of a shunt motor; compare 25. The

motor input is measured. (2) The generator field circuit is broken
and motor input again measured; the diminutionf in motor input

*
The armature winding
this test therefore can be made for

machine with armature unwound.
t(2ia). This assumes that the motor losses remain constant. The
small change in armature RP loss will usually be negligible; if not
is
idle
finding iron loss and friction of a
EFFICIENCY.
2-B]
53
gives the iron losses (hysteresis and eddy current) of the generator.
(3) The brushes of the generator are
input giving brush friction.
diminution in motor input
windage and the
The
These
belt is
next thrown
of,
the
giving the generator journal friction,
belt loss.
iron losses
speed.
now
the diminution in motor
lifted,
The
(4)
may
be found for various excitations at normal
losses should be determined for
an increasing excita-
tion; the losses with a decreasing excitation
would be more.
For obtaining iron losses alone, this method with the machine
driven mechanically is better than the method (7) with the machine driven electrically; for
from
and
friction,
of losses as in
it
20.
makes no assumption
is
it
gives iron losses directly, separate
not necessary to go through any separation
This avoids error due to extrapolation and
and windage are
that friction
directly propor-
tional to speed.
On
account of belt tension, journal friction will be more than in
the no-load test with the belt off ( 7).
with friction and windage.

it is
This
Belt losses are also included
may sometimes
be desirable, since
In a test of the motor per se,
the usual condition of operation.
these losses ought not to be included, but they cannot be simply sepa-
rated (24a).
If the loss found by lifting the brushes
is
excited than
when
If
it is
coil
and brush.
desired to separate the iron losses into components, hyster-
and eddy current
esis loss
loss,
runs are made with varying speed and
a constant excitation for each run.
For each run
as a straight line, similar to ac in Fig.
product &c
citation
more when the machine
by current circulating through
position, thus causing additional loss
an armature
is
not excited, the brushes are not in the neutral
-S^
Uhy^S
2.
plot iron-loss -
For any speed, the
gives watts eddy current loss for the particular exgives watts hysteresis loss.
Belt loss cancels out and

it should be taken into account.
does not enter into the determination of iron losses or brush loss.
negligible,
54
APPENDIX
[Exp.
II.
a Generator.
22. Efficiency of
as a generator, a load run
is
To find the efficiency of a machine
made
as a generator to ascertain the
working conditions of speed, excitation and voltage.

as a motor
should be
is
then made under these same conditions.
made whenever
the load run, the field
to
it
maintain the desired terminal voltage
(26, Exp. I-B), according to what
may be
Commercially the
conditions of the machine.
taken as the working

latter is
For a compound generator, see 31.

23. Efficiency of a Motor Generator.*
A load run
made
possible and measurements
to
be made
more
usual.
to be
is
made
of the various currents and
voltages for both motor and generator.

is
load run
can be omitted ( 3a). In

rheostat may be kept in one position ( 12,
possible, but
Exp. i-B) or changed so as
when
no-load run
The
(See 3a.)
no-load run
possible with the generator uncoupled; this deter-
if
mines the motor
losses.
Next make a run with the generator
coupled but not excited, the increase in losses over the no-load run
showing the
friction
and windage of the generator.
a run in which the generator has

in losses over the preceding
its
Follow
this
with
proper excitation, the increase
run showing the iron losses of the gen-
erator after copper losses have been taken into account.
This
run gives the combined rotation losses for both machines.
The cop-
last
per losses are computed and added to these to get the total losses;
knowing
these,
the efficiencies
are readily computed for the two
machines, combined and separately.

or motor, due care
is to
be taken in
As
all
in the case of a generator
the no-load runs to have the
proper speed and flux density in both machines.

in either
case in a
III.
The
machine was not constant
If the flux density
in all the runs (as wo.uld be the
compound or differential machine), take note of Appendix

test may be made by reversing the set, that is, running the
generator as a motor
this
makes
it
possible to determine the friction
and windage of the motor separate from iron losses.

24. Calibra,ted Generator for Measuring Motor Output.
*
The
see 21.
details of this test
The out-
can be modified according to circumstance
2-B]
EFFICIENCY.
put of a motor can be determined
whose
erator
if
known;
are
losses
55
for a load
is
it
it
drives a shunt gen-
best to have the generator
separately excited.
The motor output

tor, that is, to
The
losses.
is
equal to the power taken to drive the genera-
the measured generator output (EI) plus generator

the copper losses
are
losses
and the rotation
losses
picked from curves (as in Fig. 2) for the particular speed and exci-
added the
tation; to this should be
tain quantity.
be taken of
If the generator
field
copper
belt losses,*
small but uncer-
separately excited, no account need
is
loss.
25. Calibrated Motor for Measuring Power to Drive a Generator.
The power used
in driving a
generator can be determined
to drive the generator
ture) less armature
is
RP,
if it
be
The power taken
driven by a shunt motor whose losses are known.
equal to the motor input (EI for the arma-
less
for the particular speed
and exci-
tation, less belt loss (24a).
26. Return of Power to Line by "Loading Back."

current generator of suitable voltage
is
current motor, the current from the generator
back"
Used
into the
motor supply
as a method, of loading,
a direct
may
be " pumped
(or into any other supply line).
line
it
If
used as a load for a direct
saves power, avoids the necessity of
providing load resistances for the generator and introduces
little
complication.
The
is
variation in load put upon the motor in driving the generator
obtained by varying the generator
pose
that this
is
First let us sup-
field current.
adjusted until the generator generates a voltage
equal to the line voltage.
When
connected to the line (the positive
now
terminal to the positive line), the generator will
nor receive current, that
power from the

as a motor.)
it
line.
is,
will
neither give power
(At a lower
excitation,
it
will receive
If the field current of the generator
is
will generate a voltage higher than that of the line
power
to the line.
neither give
to nor receive
now
and
power
increased,
will supply
This power can be increased by a further increase
* (24a). Belt Losses. CotteriW (Applied Mechanics, p. 265) says: "In

ordinary belting this loss is small, not exceeding 2 per cent." The belt,
on account of its tension, also increases the journal friction of both
motor and generator.
56
in
excitation,
thus
increasing the load
[Exp.
on the driving motor as
desired.
When the loading back method is thus used simply as a loading

method and not as a testing method {%2'^), no measurements are
made on the generator; measurements are made on the motor the
same as though the generator were loaded with resistances.
Since one machine takes power as a motor and the other returns
it as a generator, the net power taken from the supply line is only
that which is required to supply the losses in the two machines.
If
27. Opposition Method for Testing Two Similar Machines.
two similar machines are operated as in the preceding paragraph
and measurements are taken on both, they can be tested by Kapp's*
opposition method and their combined losses determined.
There are various other opposition methods for accomplishing the
same object; in each of these two similar machines are run, one as
motor and the other as generator under load conditions. The two
machines are connected both electrically and mechanically, so that
power circulates between them and the only outside power taken is
that necessary to supply the combined losses. These losses may be
all supplied by the line (Kapp's method) or either partly or wholly

by an auxiliary motor or by an auxiliary booster, giving rise to the
various methodsf of Hopkinson, Potier, Hutchinson and Blondel.
Although opposition methods are economical of power, they are

not economical of time or apparatus; they are accordingly limited to
testing pairs of large machines
conditions
in
any other way.
efficiency tests are
made
in this
but (on account of the different
which could not be tested under load

Temperature runs, regulation and
way. Kapp's method is the simplest,
28. Point of
Maximum
Efficiency.
a certain constant loss (PF
(armature
RP) which
of the two machines)

some of the other methods.
field excitation
theoretically is not so accurate as
+ field
Consider
that a
machine has
copper loss) and a variable loss
varies as the square of the load current I
and
*This method and a modification by Prof. W. L. Puffer is fully described in Foster's Electrical Engineering Pocketbook; see also 27a.
t (273). For full description and complete references, see Swenson
and Frankenfield's Testing of Electromagnetic Machinery; see also R. E.
Workman,
Exp.
Elect.
Electric Journal, Vol.
I.,
1904, pp. 244, 289, 363; Karapetoff's
Eng.; and various text and handbooks.

EFFICIENCY.
2-B]
hence as the square of EI
These are shown
57
(the line voltage
in Fig. 4, in
being constant).
which the curve for
total losses is a
parabola.
At any
point
on the
a percentage oi EI,
POA.
is
total loss curve, the loss
PA-ÔA,
It is clear that this
But
have A'B'
= B'P'.
Hence:
c.)
(From
Od
is
PA, expressed
as
the tangent of the angle
efficiency
P' where
the total
at this point P',
a parabola,
erties of
is
percentage
minimum (and the

a maximum) for the point
the line OP' is tangent to
loss is a
loss curve.
which
we
the propbisected at
For any apparatus hav-
ing a constant loss and a variable loss

proportional to load current,
the
constant
are
equal.
shown
maximum
occurs at such a load that
efficiency
loss
and variable
The same
analytically
by
result
loss
can be
obtaining
an
expression for efficiency, differentiat-
ing and equating to zero (See Franklin and Esty's Electrical Engineering,
This
ciency
equal.
mum
I.,
is
137).
true for any apparatus; thus, in a transformer, the
is
maximum when
Within
effi-
the copper loss and constant core loss are
limits the designer
may make
the efficiency a maxi-
at the particular load he desires, giving due consideration to
expense and to the uses to which the apparatus
is
to be put.
58
The following
30.
Varying
is
[Exp.
suggested as a method for conducting the
Excitation,
Shunt Machine.
test.
First let us consider
the case of a shunt machine, in which the excitation varied during
the load run.
Make
three no-load runs at three excitations covering
From
the range of excitations used in the load run.
W-^S,
runs, after plotting
W for different speeds as

To get W^ for a particular speed,
showing
these no-load
(A, B,
plot three curves
in Fig. 5)
before.
erect a perpendicular in Fig. S,
corresponding to that speed.
This perpendicular intersects

the three curves A, B, C, giv-
ing (for a particular speed)

the values of
W^
currents.
field
for different
For
each
speed a derived curve
now
for
SPEED
be
plotted
different
giving
field
may
W^
currents.
Compound Generator.
Fig. s. Rotation losses Wg, for different
In testing a compound genexcitations.
erator, first make a load run
to ascertain the equivalent shunt excitation and then make no-load
31.
runs as a shunt motor.
Load Run.
Make
a load run as a
the values of terminal voltage

ent loads
in
compound generator, and note
and speed
at three
(or more) differ-
each case ascertain the equivalent shunt excitation,
i.
e.,
would give the same terminal voltage (and

density) with the machine run as a shunt* gen-
the field current which
hence the same flux
erator at the same speed.
No-load Runs.
Knowing
this
equivalent shunt excitation,
make
the three corresponding no-load runs as a shunt motor at constant

excitation, in each
run using one of the three equivalent shunt
field
currents just determined.
*(3ia). This equivalent shunt excitation may be determined after

each reading: without stopping the machine, the series winding should
be first short circuited and then opened; or, the machine may be stopped
and started. again. Instead of this the equivalent excitation can be found
from a separate shunt run (like an armature characteristic 26, Exp. i-B)
in which is determined the field current which will give for each loa.d
the same terminal voltage as in the compoimd run.
2-B]
EFFICIENCY.
59
Results.
Results are worked up as in the preceding paragraph.
Curves are plotted as in Fig. 5 and derived curves found showing
the variation of IV with field current for any speed.
Such a derived
curve is plotted for each speed observed in the load run.
Compound
32.
or Differential Motor.
load run
is
first
to find the equivalent shunt excitation; no-load runs are then
made
made
as a shunt motor.
Load Run.
Make a load run as a compound or
and note the speed
to cover the speed variation of the run.
differential motor,
(or more) different loads so chosen as
at three
i.
In each case ascertain the
the field current which would give
e.,
the same speed* (and hence the same flux density) with the machine
run as a shunt motor,
the load and the
line voltage being the
same
as before.
No-load Runs.
Knowing
this
make
the three corresponding no-load runs as a shunt motor at constant

excitation, each run using one of the three equivalent shunt field
currents just determined.

Results.
in
Fig.
From
5,
results
are worked up as in the preceding para-
the three no-load runs three curves are plotted, as
showing
W^
for varying speed at different excitations.
these curves a derived curve
tion of
is
The
From
graphs.
with
field excitation for
may
be plotted showing the varia-
any speed.
Such a derived curve
plotted for each speed observed in the load run, and from
value of
W^
it
the
obtained for the corresponding excitation.
*(32a). The equivalent shunt excitation may be determined

each reading by cutting out the series
The adjustment to a definite speed
particularly sensitive tachometer.
To
after
coil as in 31a.
is,
however,
difficult
without some
avoid this adjustment, proceed as
follows
shunt speed characteristics, that is make five runs

shunt excitations, determining speed for different
loads.
For each excitation plot speed as ordinates and armature current
as abscissas. By interpolating between these curves, we can find the shunt
excitation that gives a particular speed for a particular armature current.
Determine say
at
five
different constant
This will give the equivalent shunt excitation corresponding to any speed
and armature current found in the load run as a differential or compound motor. Knowing the equivalent shunt excitation, the corresponding no-load runs are made.
6o
33. Series Motor.
series
[Exp.
motor may be tested for losses in
same manner as a shunt motor. So far as losses

are concerned, a series motor is like a shunt motor in that the losses
are the copper losses, which can be computed, and the rotation losses
W^ which depend only upon speed and excitation. In a series motor,
however, speed and excitation vary greatly with load.
substantially the
Load Run.
A load run as
a series motor
no-load run
is
taken to obtain speed
is
and current for different loads; see Appendix

to be taken as in 36, the load
Exp. 2-A.
I.,
run
is
(If the
not a necessity.)
No-load Runs for Obtaining Rotation Losses; General Pro-
34.
cedure.
No-load
W
and
tations
may
ruiis
then be made at different constant exci-
found for different speeds by varying the armature
voltage and measuring armature input in the usual manner.
Read-
and armature volttake runs with constant armaAny convenient means may
ings are taken of field current, armature current
(The procedure
age.
is
sometimes
and varying
ture voltage
to
excitation.)
be employed for obtaining the proper constant excitation and the

desired armature voltage; the armature and field can best be supplied separately
and not
in series (see also
for each excitation, as in Fig.
5,
Instead of speeds, armature voltage
is
37).
commonly
Curves are plotted
for different speeds.

plotted as abscissae.
No-load Run for Obtaining Rotation Losses; Special Pro-
35.
cedure.
tell
showing
No-load runs, taken as in
34, gives curves (Fig. 5)
which
the complete story, giving rotation losses for different speeds
field
As
currents.
often unnecessary
and
a matter of fact such complete information

for,
is
with constant potential supply, a series motor
has a definite counter-electromotive force and a definite speed for
any particular current (see Fig. 3 of Exp. 2-A).
It is
necessary,
therefore, to get the rotation losses with each field current for the
one corresponding speed only, this speed being obtained by supplying

the armature with the proper voltage.
This proper voltage to supply the armature could be found
36.
by
trial
(being adjusted until the speed in the no-load run for a par-
ticular field current
current).
It
is
is
easier,
the same as in the load run for the
same
however, to compute this voltage without
making a load run.
We
know
that in
any run (load or no load) speed is proportional

same excitation. For a par-
to counter-electromotive force for the
2-B]
EFFICIENCY.
6i
we will, therefore, have the same speed in the

no-load run as in an assumed load run with current I, if in the noload run the counter-electromotive force (which in this case is the
impressed* armature voltage) is equal to the counter-electromotive
ticular field current I
force of the assumed load run.
But for the load run we can comE RI, for any assumed
pute the counter-electromotive force, E'

load current
(Here
/.
is
age for which the losses are desired;
armature and
field,
the rated or assumed constant line voltis
the hot resistance of the
Hence
including brushes, etc.)
this is the
voltage to supply the armature in the no-load run
current
/,
which
with
plied
proper
the field
is /.
In testing a series motor by this method the

current
when
corresponding proper
the
with
field is excited
given successive values, and the armature
is
E RI.
voltage,
is
sup-
(Or the
armature can be given successive voltages and I adjusted
to cor-
respond.)
37.
convenient method sometimes used for adjusting
field cur-
rent and armature voltage to their proper corresponding values

to connect the field
and armature
one regulating resistance
in series
For the
with the armature.
first
in series as a series
with the
line
is
motor with
and one in shunt
reading the series resistance
is
adjusted; after that, adjusting the shunt resistance alone will tend
and armature voltage to assume automat(For this condition the series

made equal to the armature resistance.) For modified
to cause the field current
ically their correct relative values.
resistance
is
ways of conducting the

I.,
test, see
R. E.
Workman,
Electric Journal,
169.
38.
No-load
Run
for Friction.
When
the field current
is
very
and eddy current losses are so small that W^

and windage loss; compare paragraph (&),
20.
A run at low field excitation can be made as in 34. This
run, however, can most conveniently be made with the field and
armature in series, the motor being run as a series motor on no load
gives
small, hysteresis
practically the friction
at a
low voltage.
series resistance;
The
voltage and the speed are controlled by a
no shunt resistance
rent through the field
is
is
used.
At no load the
cur-
so small that iron losses in the armature
are negligible.
* The copper drop due to armature resistance at no load can be neglected
or a small correction made.
CHAPTER
III.
SYNCHRONOUS ALTERNATORS.
Experiment 3-A.
Alternator Characteristics.*
Âlternating current generators are usually

Any machine
motor or converter
Introductory.
synchronous.
^generator,
said to be synchronous
is
when
the current which
it
delivers or
receives has a frequency proportional to the speed of the
chine; otherwise
it is
ma-
asynchronous! or non-synchronous.
In a synchronous machine, the current or electromotive force
has one half-wave or alternation

tive
for
cycle
is
first
positive
and then nega-
each pole passed by a given armature conductor.
a complete
machine, there
is,
wave of two
alternations.
In a synchronous
therefore, one cycle for each pair of poles
passed; the frequency (cycles per second)
is,
accordingly, equal
to the speed (in revolutions per second) multiplied
by the num-
ber of pairs of poles.
To
deliver current with a frequency of
60 cycles per second
(7,200 alternations per minute), a bipolar alternator

to be driven at
per minute
etc.
would have
60 revolutions per second, or at 3,600 revolutions
a 4-pole machine, at 1,800 revolutions per minute,
Alternators are
commonly made
multipolar, and usually
with manyj poles, so as to avoid excessive speed.

*
The curves used
to illustrate this experiment and Exp.
3-B
all
relate to
the same machine.
The
induction motor and the induction generator are asyninduction motor must run below synchronous speed, i. e.,
there must be a certain slip, in order to produce power. An induction
t ( la).
chronous.
An
generator, on the other hand, must be driven above synchronous speed in

order to generate an electromotive force.
X ( lb). The high speed of the steam turbine has made possible, in fact
made necessary, large alternators with only few poles for example, a
has
bipolar 10,000 K.
W.
turbo-alternator, 1,500 revolutions per minute,
62
is
men-
CHARACTERISTICS.
3-Al
Types
2.
63
Synchronous
of Alternators,
the following three types (compare Part
alternators are of
I.,
Exp. i-A)
Alternators having a revolving armature and stationary
1.
used only for small machines.
field,
Alternators having a revolving field and stationary arma-
2.
ture, the
most common
type.
Inductor alternators, having a stationary armature and sta-
3.
tionary
field,
the revolving part or inductor consisting only of
iron.
The
type corresponds to the nearly universal type of
first
direct current generator; there
alternating current
the line by
means of
from the armature winding
delivered
is
however, no commutator and
is,
collector (or slip) rings
second and third types, the armature
is
and brushes.
stationary and current
vantage
made
possible,
high potential machines.
in
tors, the field current is introduced
Each type
is
made
in several
The form most
an important ad-
In revolving
through
field alterna-
slip rings.
forms which
reference to standard works,* or better
machines.
is
may
be studied by
by examination of actual
desirable depends
upon conditions
of operation, character and speed of prime-mover,

cases,
ble
desirable to
in other cases
tors
it is
as
make
the
is
The con-
delivered directly to the line without collector rings.

tinuity in insulation, thus
to
In the
etc.
In some
moving mass as small as
possi-
in direct-connected engine-driven genera-
a certain fly-wheel
effêct is
advantageous.
Alternators of
the second type usually have an internal revolving
field,
a con-
spicuous exception being the umbrella form of external revolving

field
in the
vertical-shaft alternators at
Niagara.
In the old
.Mordey and Brush form of machine, the stationary armature

coils were in a vertical plane between the two parts of the revolvThe steam turbine has thus
tioned in Electric Journal, p. 550, October, igo8.
modified both alternating and direct current generators (33, Exp. i-A).
*See also "The Mechanical Construction of Revolving-field Alternators," by D. B. Rushmore, Transactions A. I. E. E., Vol. XXIIL, p. 253.
64
ing
inductor alternator, although possessing obvious
The
field.
[Exp.
handicapped by large magnetic leakage

and consequent poor regulation unless built in an expensive
mechanical advantages,
is
manner with much

3. Choice of
nating current,
material.
In the
Frequency.
early applications of alter-
when power transmission was not developed and
common
current was used for lighting only, the
frequencies in
America were 125 and 133J cycles per second, and these frequencies were satisfactory for the service. The efficiency of a
transformer increases with the frequency (Exp. 5-B), and from
this consideration
even a higher frequency would be desirable;
but as frequency
is
increased,
and poorer regulation
The
we have
greater inductive drop
and transformer.
in generator, line
rotary converter, introduced in the early nineties, required
a lower frequency.
The
highest frequency at which
can operate
it
and 25 cycles is better. With its advent,

the higher frequencies were abandoned 25 and 60 cycles became
standard, the former for power alone, and the latter for lighting
is
practically
60
cycles,
and (usually) for combined power and

motor has
its
Below 25
best* operation within this
same range.
cycles, or thereabouts, the flicker of incandescent
lamps of the usual types becomes prohibitive.

high speed of the steam turbine,
generators
The induction
lighting.
below 25
motor, which
is
cycles.
it
The
is
On
account of the
not adapted for driving
series
alternating
more economical the lower the frequency,
current
is
prac-
tically
the only apparatus for which a frequency lower than 25
cycles
is
desirable.
As
the art progresses,
it
some new application may be developed which

frequency
much
is
possible that
demand a
will
higher or lower than the frequencies
now
recog-
nized as standard.
* (3a)- In a discussion on the choice of frequency, A.
XXVI.,
p.
1400, June,
1907, Dr. Steinmetz stated that the
I.
E. E., Vol.
most
efficient
frequency for the induction motor is 40 cycles, the best frequency for small
motors being higher and for large motors lower. He also states that, for
converters, 25 cycles is better than either a higher or lower frequency.
CHARACTERISTICS.
3-A]
4. Characteristics.
One
65
Four
are
be taken
the no-load saturation curve.
the external
the
characteristics
to
no-load characteristic
Three load characteristics
characteristic,
full-
load saturation curve, and the armature characteristic.
These characteristics are similar
to the corresponding char-
acteristics of a direct current generator,
No-load Saturation Curve.*
5.
Exp. i-B.
This
minal voltage for different values of
curve shows the ter-
The connections
being driven at constant speedf without load.

are shown in Fig.
in the
i.
the machine
field current,
Data are taken
same way as for the no-load
saturation curve of a direct current
generator
(5-10, Exp. i-B)
alternator,
however,
is
the
^|
necessarily
aw
The
a
û
field
-jj-i.
current can be variedl by
if
Fig.
,
Connections for no-
I.
,
load saturation curve.
field rheostat in series, as in Fig.
(with a second rheostat in series with

necessary)
4 and
,S
rheostat
separately excited.
rri
cl
r
5,
it
to give greater range,
or by an arrangement of resistances as in Figs.
of Exp. i-A.
Voltage readings are corrected by proportion for any variation of speed,
and plotted as
ascending, values
may
in Fig. 2.
be plotted
when
Descending, as well as
The
desired.
saturation
factor and per cent, saturation are determined as in Fig. 2, of
Exp. I-B.
External Characteristic.
6.
in terminal voltage with load.
This curve shows the variation

The
alternator
is
driven at nor-
* (Sa)- If the alternator is motor-driven, it is commercial practice to

determine its core loss and friction at the same time that the no-load
saturation curve is taken. See 15.
t (Sb)- Speed and frequency are proportional; with a good frequency
meter at hand, it may be more convenient to observe frequency than
If the speed can be varied, note that voltage
speed.
is
proportional to
speed.
t(Sc). As in all such curves, the variation should be

ously and no back steps should be taken (7, Exp. i-A).
6
made
continu-

66
mal speed and
excitation, readings being taken of speed
current to see that they are constant.
[Exp.
The connections
and
are
field
shown
in Fig. 3.
The
characteristic
is
power
to be obtained for unity*
factor,
non-inductive variable resistance being used for a load. Readings are taken of termi-
and external
nal voltage
current from o to 25 per

cent, overload.
In commercial testing,
the excitation
normal
for
is
adjusted
voltage
at
Fig. 4 shows
full load.
the characteristic of
25 K.W.
9 10 11
13 14 15 16
FIELD AMPERES
in-
from 575 at full

627 at no load
of
regulation
(See
cent.
Exp. i-B.)
Saturation curve at no load, and at
Fig.
voltage
the
creases
a
3
in
which
load to
load (43.4 amperes at unity power factor).

Field ampere-turns equal field amperes multi-
alternator
It
9 per
14,
17,
is
de-
have the reg-
sirable to
full
plied by
number of
field turns, 464.
All curves in Exps.

the
same 2S-kiIowatt
3-A and 3-B
ulation
as
possible,
relate to
i.
"close"
e.,
smallest possible
factor
is
varia-
alternator.
tion in the voltage
no load
as
with the
to full load.
unity, the
from
Since with non-inductive load the power
power output
is
found by taking the product
of terminal voltage and external current.

7.
The
causes for the decrease in terminal voltage with load
are impedance drop in the armature (due to
its
resistance
and
inductance) and armature reactions, discussed more fully in the

*
7,
For other power
Exp. 3-B.
factors, see 13
take data as in
14.
Also see Fig.
67
CHARACTERISTICS.
3-A]
next experiment.
Compare
also 16,
Exp. i-B.
of a shunt generator (19, Exp. i-B),
demagnetizing
saturated,
the
the
and the
least
istic,
The
ellipse.*
'^
is
cuit),
highly
is
reaction
is
^|
an So'^>
practically
At one end
characteristic
in the case
external character- -slâ
Fig. 4,
armature
of
effect
As
the iron
regulation
the best.
8.
when
"-mdN^
RHEOSTAT
of the
(near open
Fig.
cir-
_i
Connections for loading an
3.
an alternator tends to.
regulate for constant voltage;
at the present day, this
usual working part of the characteristic.
At
is
the
the other end
(near short circuit), an alternator tends to regulate for constant

current.
The
earliest alter-
nators were constructed for
such
Constant
operation.
current alternators are used
now
(less
than
formerly)
For
for series arc lighting.

this
service
an
alternator
should have high armature

reaction so as to limit the
current on short circuit to

40
60
100
80
the desired value;
ARMATURE AMEERES
Fig. 4.
External characteristic of an
alternator at unity
power
factor.
(The
dotted parts of these curves were calculated according to Exp. 3-B.)
different field excitations.
ture will serve equally well.
9. Full-load Saturation
Curve.
at constant speed so as to give
The
its
a reac-
tance external to the arma-
The machine
is
run
normal full-loadf current
connections are as in Fig.
3.
at
To
obtain the curve for unity power factor, a non-inductive resistance

* See discussion of Fig.
t(9a)- Curves taken

three
fourths full load)
7,
Exp. 3-B.
and
between the no-load and full-load
at intermediate loads (one fourth, one half
would
lie
68
is
[EXF,
used as load; with constant armature current, readings are
taken of terminal voltage for different
field currents,
and plotted
as in Fig. 2.
For the
first
reading, adjust the field rheostat to
its
maximum
resistance;* with field circuit open, reduce the load resistance to
zero
{i.
e.,
short-circuit the
armature through the ammeter)
close the field circuit and adjust the field rheostat until the desired value of armature current is obtained.
For each succeed-
ing reading, increase the load resistance by a small step and readjust the field rheostat until. the desired value of armature
current
is
again obtained, taking care that the increase or de-
crease in excitation
is
continuous.
10. In Fig. 2, the excitation data are as follows
Excitation.
3-A]'
CHARACTERISTICS.
10
69
70
APPENDIX
[Exp.
I.
on Polyphase Generators. The tests described above

made on polyphase generators in the same manner as on
single-phase machines. The polyphase generator when loaded should
12. Tests
may
be
ordinarily be given a balanced load,
between the several
down one phase
Tests
circuits.
i.
e.,
one that
may
also be
is
divided equally
made by loading
only and taking measurements on the unloaded as
well as the loaded phases.
In plotting curves, plot voltage and current per phase (the more
usual
way)
or, line
See
voltage and equivalent single-phase current.
Exp. 6-A, particularly 28-30.

13. Power Factors Less than Unity.
alternator under load vary with the
The
characteristics of
power factor of the
an
With
load.
a power factor less than unity and current, lagging, the regulation
will be poorer, the full-load saturation curve will
nal characteristic lower

at unity
power
The
factor.
ing (instead of lagging), as

line or in the load, or
be lower, the exter-
and the armature characteristic higher than
when
reverse
is
may
be
it
when the
when there is
true
current
is
lead-
capacity in the
the load consists in part of over-excited
synchronous motors or converters.
may be
shown by calculation (Exp. 3-B), or

made with loads of different* power
If such runs are to be made, it will be more profitable to
factors.
make them after Exp. 3-B. At present, it will suffice to illustrate
these facts by a few readings only, as in the next paragraph.
14. Tests to Compare Effects of Inductive and Non-inductive
Loads. The difference between inductive and non-inductive loads
These
facts
by a complete
fully
series of runs
composite winding
is
not,
however, being extensively used, for it can not

all conditions
e. g., varying power factor
give constant voltage under
and the rectifying commutator is liable to spark. The Tirrell regulator

(33, Exp. i-B), applied to the exciter of an alternator, can maintain
constant voltage under all conditions of load.
* ( 13a). This will require special facilities for adjusting power factor;
for an inductive load, this can be done by means of an adjustable resistance and adjustable reactance in parallel. Runs should be made at one
high power factor, one medium, and one as low as can be obtained.
CHARACTERISTICS.
3-A]
can be illustrated by the following
may
1.
be devised by
Load
"the
or by modifications which
experimenter.
the alternator on inductive load, using for this any one
An
which can be conveniently obtained.
particular load
motor can be used for a load, as
in
commercial practice
induction
but a choke
serve fully as well.
coil will
With
tests,
7^
same speed and excitation as were used
the
external characteristic on non-inductive load. Fig.
in taking the
take readings*
4,
of load current and terminal voltage with the inductive load.
readings are plotted,! in Fig.
4,
as the point p,
which
These
one point on
is
(For more complete curves,
a characteristic for low power factor.

see Fig. 7, Exp. 3-B.)
Throw
off the load
the no-load voltage

is
thrown
2.
off gives the
With
and
at the
when
the load
per cent, regulation.
same speed and
the
same speed and excitation) read
the per cent, increase in voltage
excitation, repeat with a non-inductive
same load current as in i.

Note the terminal voltage under load, the no-load voltage when the
load is thrown off, calculate the regulation and compare with the
load, so adjusted as to obtain the
regulation in
3.
With
i.
the
same speed and terminal voltage as were used for
obtaining the armature characteristic on non-inductive load. Fig.
note the increase in
maintain constant terminal voltage and plot the point

4.
5,
current required with inductive load to
field
q,
Fig.
5.
Repeat with a non-inductive load (adjusted for the same load
current) and compare results.

15. Efficiency. If the
alternator
is
driven by a direct current
motor, the friction and core loss are conveniently determined by the
method of
wattmeter
21,
is
Exp. 2-B.
used to measure
If the driving
its
motor
is
alternating, a
input, the increase in
motor input
* ( 14a). If a wattmeter reading is also taken, the power factor can be

found by dividing the reading of the wattmeter by the product of current
and voltage.
t ( 14b). Since the same value of exciting current may at different
times give different amounts of magnetization (as in the case of the
ascending and descending curves), the point p thus located and the point
q as located later may not be exact in their positions, as compared with
the characteristics previously taken. They will, however, serve to illus-
trate the effects in question.
72
giving the friction and core loss of the alternator
motor
[Exp.
any
changes in
losses being corrected for, if necessary.
The copper
losses of field
ance measurements, and the
and armature are calculated from

efificiency so
resist-
determined.
If the armature has large, solid conductors, the loss in
them
will,
be
greater with alternating than with direct current, this additional loss
being a load
loss.
Load
losses are losses
which occur under load
addition to the losses already accounted for,
i.
e.,
in
in addition to core
RP, friction and windage. There is no simple and accurate

method for determining load losses in alternators. The A. I. E. E.
Standardization Rules (116-7) give a method for estimating these
in the absence of more accurate inforlosses by assuming them to be
loss,
mation
equal to one third of the short-circuit core
loss.
PREDETERMINATION.
3-Bl
ExPERiHBNT 3-B. Predetermination
73
of Alternator Charac-
teristics.*
I.
Introductory.
It is desirable to
be able to predetermine
the performance of any machine without loading, and this

particularly true of alternators
chines, the
of large ma-
for, in the case
found
regulation can not be conveniently
is
in
any
other way.
There are two simple methods for predetermining the

formance of an alternator approximately,
the
per--
electromotive
method and the magnetomotive force method. Although

other more complex methods are proposed for the more exact
determination, no one method has been found which is generally
force
accepted and gives correct results in
all
cases.
It is well to first
thoroughly study the electromotive force method, on account of

the insight
tor
and
it
gives into the general performance of the alterna-
into other
methods of dealing, with the
subject.
The
magnetomotive force method should then follow; after which,

other methods (essentially modifications of these two) can be
made a
special study
further.
2.
by those
(See Appendices
I.
who
and
desire to pursue the subject
II.)
There are primarily two causes for the change
in termi-
nal voltage of an alternator with load

1.
The
effect of
nite; this causes a
armature resistance, which
is
small and defi-
drop in electromotive force which
with the armature current and
is
equal to
is in
phase
I.
The efifect of the flux set up by the armature current, a

much larger and less definite efifect, discussed in the next para2.
graph.
3. All the flux set
*
To
up by the armature current
encircles the
be preceded by Exp. 4-A. See 9 for a statement of data to be

For a short experiment, take 1-18 and 26-30, plotting curves
for unity power factor only. The curves used to illustrate this experiment and Exp. 3-A all relate to the same machine.
taken.
74
There
armature conductors.
the flux
may
however, different paths which
follow, causing different inductive effects.
True Armature Reaction.
(a)
4.
are,
[Exp.
By one path, flux
set
up
armature conductors passes into the pole pieces and
by the
through the magnetic
magnets (Fig. 10),
circuit of the field
This flux has a
linking with the windings of the field coils.
demagnetizing
weakening* the
effect,
by a certain mag-
field
netomotive force produced by the ampere-turns of the armature.
This flux through the
armature conductors;
magnets
field
is
maintained by successive
in a single-phase alternator it is pulsating,
but in a polyphase alternator, due to the combined effect of the
armature currents
position
5.
and
in
in the different phases,
(&) Local Armature
flux set
Reactance.
up by the armature current
a different path,
armature con-
this flux (the fine lines
armature, or partly in the armature
in Fig. 9) is entirely in the
in the air gap.
By
encircles the
ductors without entering the pole-pieces
and partly
constant both in
is
it
magnitude.
The
flux surrounding
any particular
conductor varies periodically and produces a reactance electro-
motive force or reactance drop, XI, in quadrature with the armature current and proportional to
it,
as
in
any alternating cur-
rent circuit.
6.
By
another and somewhat similar path, flux encircles
the armature conductors by entering into and returning
from the
poles without linking with the windings of the field circuit; this
flux
is
shown by heavy
lines. Fig. 9.
flux and distorts the field;
it
incidentally to a small extent
cross-magnetization
is
conductor, as in (&)
stant in a polyphase
This
is
cross-magnetizing
does not weaken the
by saturating the pole
except
field
pieces.
This
alternating with respect to the armature
with respect to the pole pieces,
and pulsating
it
is
con-
in a single-phase alternator,
as in (o).
It
may
The
is
weakened by a lagging current, but strengthened by a
field
be treated separately; or with (a) or (&).
leading current, 46-8.
PREDETERMINATION.
3-B]
7. It
thus seen that there are two somewhat different
is
produced by the armature current: the
effects
magnetomotive force, which reduces
tlie field
the generated voltage; the second (6)
which
75
is
is
flux
first
(a)
is
and so reduces
an electromotive force,
subtracted from the generated electromotive force (in
the proper phase) so as to give a lower terminal voltage.
These two
eft'ects
voltage, the relative

details of design,
operate simultaneously to lower the terminal
amounts of the two varying according
saturations,
air-gap, shape of slots, etc.
take full and accurate account of the two effects
treating
to
To
one
as a magnetomotive force and the other as an electromotive

force
8.
is difficult*
We
and
will not be
undertaken here.
may, however, instead of treating the two
separately, treat
them combined, following
effects
either one of
two
methods
(a)
The magnetomotive force
assumes that
(&)
the effect
all
the effect
is
If the saturation curve
would be
magnetomotive force;
is
or,
electromotive force or reactance method, which as-
The
sumes that
all
or ampere-turn method, which
identical ;f for,
proportional
electromotive force.
were a
electromotive
however, not a straight
straight line, the
two methods
magnetomotive force would produce a
line,
With
force.
the saturation curve,
a given increase or decrease in mag-
netomotive force will cause a
less
than proportional change in
Hence,
if
we
consider that
a magnetomotive force,
voltage than
force.
mistic
if
we
we
all
will
consider that
The magnetomotive
the effect of armature flux
have a
all
force
method
drop
less
the effect
is,
is
in
is
terminal
an electromotive
accordingly, opti-
(Behrend) and gives the generator a better regulation
* See Appendix II.

fThis would be true if tlie details of the two methods were in all
respects the same. Differences in the details of the two methods, as
usually applied, cause differences in the results, even though the saturation
curve
is
straight.

76
than
actually has
it
other hand,
[Exp.
the electromotive force method, on the
pessimistic, giving the generator a poorer regula-
is
tion than the actual.
The two methods,
therefore, give the limits between
which
is
the true performance of the machine.

9. Data.
For
either method, the data required are obtained
from the following two* runs, which are made without loading
the generator:
An
1.
open-circuit run, giving the open-circuit voltage 0,
for different field currents,
e.,
i.
See Curve (i). Fig.
obtained as in 5, Exp. 3-A.

labor in the
many
the no-load saturation curve,
subsequent calculations,
it
is
i.
To
save
customary to
use only the ascending curve.

2.
short-circuit run, giving the short-circuit current Is, for
different field currents,

test,
as described
in the
called also
a synchronous impedance
See Curve (2), Fig.
next paragraph.
i.
These data enable us to ascertain the synchronous impedance

of the armature and hence to compute the volts impedance drop
for the electromotive force
tain the
method they
also enable us to ascer-
magnetomotive force required to overcome the mag-
netizing effect of the armature, for the magnetomotive force
method.
The hot armature

10.
dance.
resistancef
is
to be
found by the fall-of-po-
method.
tential
Test for Short-circuit Current and Synchronous Impe-
With the armature short-circuited through an ammeter,^
* (9a)-
Two
such runs are
common
in testing
many kinds
of appa-
ratus; note, for example, the open-circuit and short-circuit tests for trans-
formers, Exp. 5-B.

t (9h). On account of eddy currents, the resistance will be greater
for alternating currents than the value found by direct current. T'his is
of importance as affecting efficiency ( 15, Exp. 3-A), but is of little consequence so far as regulation is concerned, for RI drop has only a small
effect at high
be seen
power
factors
and
is
negligible at
low power
factors, as will
later.
J ( loa).
The ammeter
leads should be short and heavy; for, by the
PREDETERMINATION.
3-B]
10
11
77
12
13
14
15
16
FIELD AMPERES
Fig.
No-load saturation curve (i) and short-circuit current (2 and 3)

Also full-load saturation curves (4, 5, and 6)
I.
far different field excitations.

for zero
power
factor, current lagging.
the short-circuit current

current.
full-load
is
found for
diflferent
values of field
The ammeter should have a range of about three times

current. The speed should be normal, but special care
in maintaining constant speed
is
not necessary.*
methods of computations used later, any drop

impedance drop of the armature.
in
them
is
included in the
* ( lob). If facilities for varying the speed are provided, with constant
excitation vary the speed through wide range and note the practical
absence of change in the short-circuit current.

open-circuit voltage is proportional to speed.
Note, however, that the
How are these facts explained?
78
Beginning with the
[Exp.
weakly excited, increase the
field
field
cur-
rent by steps so that the short-circuit armature current (/s)
increased from, say, i normal to
At each
current.
step read field
as in Curves 2 and 3 of Fig.
In the short-circuit
test,
i^ or 2 times* normal
is
full-load
and armature currents and
plot
i.
we may have
either the field or the
armature under normal full-load working conditions, but not

both at the same time.
II.
The curve
for short-circuit current, will (as in Fig. i)
may
be a straight line through a wide working range, and
extended as a straight linef beyond the observed data.

ultimate bending of the curve depends
tions of various parts of the
magnetic
upon the
be
The
relative satura-
armature,
circuit,
teeth,
poles, etc.
Fig.
shows that normal
excitation,
OH = 7.33
(Normal
gives a short-circuit current of 116 amperes.

tion
is
amperes,
excita-
the excitation giving rated voltage, 575, at full load, unity
power factor; for
this
machine see
sponding no-load voltage

* ( loc).
By
is
Figs. 6
the
and 7
corre-
found to be 627.)
taking the run quickly, even higher values of current can
be reached.
Running an alternator on short circuit, as described, affords the best

means for drying armature insulation. An alternator in shipment may
have been unduly exposed to weather or have been allowed to stand in a
damp place. The insulation readily takes up moisture and is much
impaired thereby. In such a case, as soon as the alternator is installed
it should be run for one day with the armature short-circuited, the field
excitation being so low that the normal armature current flows; there is
no high voltage to break down the insulation. The armature is thus baked
and the insulation restored. This precaution, particularly in the case of
high voltage machines, may avoid a break-down of insulation upon
starting up.
t ( iia). Extrapolation as a straight line (2) gives (after saturation is

reached) a diminishing value for synchronous impedances Z
0 -=- Is,
as used later. It thus favors the machine by giving a smaller impedance
drop; in the electromotive force method this is justifiable because it parthe pessimistic tendency of that method. This justification
tially offsets
is
empirical.
Curve (3) has been extrapolated by assuming o-^/s to be constant.

PREDETERMINATION.
3-B]
An
excitation,
OG = 2.6
amperes,
is
required to cause normal
full-load current (43.4 amp.) on short circuit.
impedance voltage
generated voltage
is
is
= 234,
for
79
on short
The corresponding
circuit the
whole
used in overcoming the internal or armature
impedance.
12
Synchronous Impedance.
generated voltage
armature.
is
On
short circuit, the whole
equal to the internal impedance drop in the
Impedance
is
equal to impedance drop divided by
current; hence, the synchronous impedance of the armature

i.
e., its
impedance when running at synchronous speed
600
is
equal
8o
taking,
from
Fig.
Eventually there
corresponding values
i,
The
drawn.
Eo and
for
Is-
a tendency for the curve to bend, although
is
none within the range for which Fig. 2
in this instance there is

is
[Exp.
of any
ratio
ordinate
to
the corresponding
abscissa gives the value of the synchronous impedance; thus, in
234 volts for a full-load current of

5.4
43.4 amperes, and the impedance is, therefore, 234 -f- 43.4
ohms. The normal full-load voltage of this machine is 575 the
Fig. 2, the impedance drop
is
=
;
impedance drop
This
is
called*
open-circuit voltage of 627
is
seen to
accordingly, 40.7 per cent.
is,
An
the impedance ratio.
give a short-circuit current of 116 amperes, as already seen in

Fig.
I.
14. Resistance
resistance,
drop
is
found by the
plotted as a straight line. Fig. 2.
method,
fall-of-potential
the resistance drop, for 43.4 amperes,
is
0.17
is
is
7-4^
ally,
as in this case, resistance
is
small so that there
The
ohms;
X 43-4 = 7-4
x = V-Ez^ r^;
15. The reactance drop
== 233.9
amperes, reactance drop =
"v'234^
0.17
volts.
or, for 43.4
Usu-
volts.
is little
differ-
ence between the values of synchronous impedance and synchro-
nous reactance.
It
is
common,
therefore, not to calculate the
value of reactance drop, but to use the value of impedance drop

in its place.
Synchronous reactance
chronous impedance
is
is
proportional to speed; hence, syn-
practically proportional to speed.
Synchronous impedance and synchronous reactance are

tious quantities, comprising not only the real
ficti-
impedance and
re-
actance of the armature, but also including the effect of armature reactions.
It is instructive to
compare the curves of Fig. 2 with similar
curves for a transformer

16.
in
Exp. S-B.
see Fig. 7,
Aside from
Electromotive Force Method.
its
usefulness
predetermining the performance of alternators, this method
serves as an excellent illustration of the use of vector diagrams
Standardization Rule,
208.
PREDETERMINATION.
3-B]
problems
in solving alternating current
8l
a practical applica-
it is
tion* of the elementary principles discussed in detail in Exps.
4-A and 4-B. The

ing to
electromotive force method
general, apply-
is
transmission
classes of alternating current problems,
all
( 56), transformers
lines
(Exp. S-C),
For
etc.
this
reason the method will be

treated in considerable detail.
S
tor.
.0
^With a non-inductive
17.
Unity
power
load, the
the load
Power Fac-
is
i=43.4
'
t=575
factor of
"^
^"'-
unity; the cur-
3-
Electromotive force diagram, at
unity power factor
rent which flows

ingly, in
is,
accord-
phase with the
minal voltage.
This
is
tance drop,
Er^RIj
in
ter-
is
shown
is in
The armature
/.
Ex
= XI,-
is
in
sum
phase with
is
RI
to
the
accordingly the
de-
overcomef armature resistance and
XI
of the following three electromotive forces:

;
resis-
in quadrature with I.
generated electromotive force 0,
total
livered to the load

to
which the terminal
in Fig. 3, in
the direction of
current / ; the reactance drop.
vector
current in phase with
terminal voltage,
phase with the current
voltage Et,
The
B1:'C
overcome armature reactance.
* ( i6a) This application illustrate.s the way that general principles

can be put to practical purposes; the application was first made indepen.
and more or less simultaneously, by various engineers. The

method in numerical problems to illustrate the elementary
principles of Bedell and Crehore's Alternating Currents in the early nineties soon after the issue of that book, and applied it a little later to
laboratory data. The data and some of the curves here given are taken
from a laboratory outline prepared by the writer for student use and
dently,
writer used the
printed in the Sibley Journal, 1897-8,
p. 215.
t (i7a). The arrows show the direction of the vectors in the sense
that
and CA are electromotive forces to overcome resistance and
BC
CB and
motive forces produced by resistance and reactance.
reactance, respectively; in the reverse sense,
AC
are the electro-
82
Knowing
i8.
drop XI,
[Exp.
the values of resistance drop RI, and reactance
we may have
two problems
either of
to solve
Given the terminal voltage Et, to determine the open-
(a)
Eq;
circuit voltage
or,
(&) Given the open-circuit voltage Eq, to determine the terminal voltage Et.
The following examples
will
make
clear the solution of either
problem.
t=575; RI = 'J4; Z7 = 233.9.
(a) Given
Required to
find Eo.
Lay
off to scale the values of t,
Eq
construction
is
RI and XI,
found to be 627.
as in Fig. 3
Designating
by
the total in-
phase voltage by p, and the quadrature voltage by Eq;
we
have,
by computation,
Eq
The
^ V p^ + = V + ^^)' + C^-^)^
= V(57S + 74)" + 233-9' = 627.
-fcp'
regulation
is
9 per
C-fcx
cent.,
Eo
being 9 per cent, greater
than Et.
0^627; 72/^7.4;
(b) Given
Z7^ 233.9.
Required to
find Et.
Lay
off
RI and XI
and radius 0
drawn
to scale, as in Fig. 3.
= 627,
strike
as a continuation of
From A
an arc cutting at
BC.
By
as
a.
center
the line
this construction,
OB,
Et
is
found to be 575; by computation
x=Vo'-(^/)=-i?/=V627''- 233.9^ 7.4=575.

At
unity
always
19.
less
power
factor,
it
is
seen that the terminal voltage
is
than the generated or no-load voltage.
Power Factor Less than
an inductive
load, the
Unity, Current Lagging.
power factor of the load
is less
With
than unity
and the current, accordingly, lags behind the terminal electromotive force.
This
is
shown
in Fig.
4 in which the current I
lags behind the terminal electromotive force
30, the
0.866.
power factor of the
=
being cos 30 =
t by an
load, in this case,
angle 6
PREDETERMINATION.
3-B]
Fig.
is
drawn by
first
with two sides equal to
83
constructing to scale the triangle
RI and XI,
respectively,
ABC,
and then laying
Ccse = lr
cose=o
Fig.
4.
off
OB
Electromotive force diagram, at power factor 0.866

30 behind terminal voltage.
at
an angle
current lagging
with BC, so that cos 9 equals the power
factor of the load.
(a) Given
= S7S,
we
find
by construction 0
= 726;
or,
by computation
= V-Ep' + Eq'
= VI^ cos + Riy + (t
+ xiy
= V(S75 X .866 + 7.4)^ + (575 X + 233-9)' = 726.
sin 6
-5
The
regulation
regulation
is
is
26.3 per cent.
With
inductive load, the
always poorer than with non-inductive load.
dotted quadrant indicates the locus of the point
power
factors.
{b) Given
t.
The
for different
Lay
0 and power
factor; required the terminal voltage
off a line in the direction
BO
making the proper angle
6.
84
Strike an arc
from
the line
OB
[Exp.
as a center, with a radius Eo, cutting
at 0, thus giving*
OB = Er.
Power Factor Less than Unity, Current in Advance.

This case is shown in Fig. 5. The triangle ABC is drawn as before, and OB is laid off making an angle 6 with BC, so that cos B
equals the power factor of the load. The current /, for this
20.
advance of Et.
case, is 30 in
(a) Given
S75,
we
find
by construction Eo=^ô%;
or,
by computation,
= V EPITE^,
Xiy,
= V(t cos + Riy+ (t
233-9)' = 5o8.
^ V(57S X .866 +
X
+ (575
sin 6
7.4)'
The
regulation
is-
.5
-12 per cent.
terminal
Co?0 =
O.5,<''
Eq;
Given
(b)
the
Ei
voltage
is
by
found,
as
striking
an arc from
before,
as a center, with a ra-
dius Eo, cutting the line
OB
at 0.
For a leading current,

the terminal voltage
is
always greater than for

a lagging current or for
unity
may even
^
Fig.
Electromotive
5.
power factor 0.866
force
current 30
diagram,
in
power
at
factor,
be equal to or
greater than the no-load
advance voltage,
of terminal voltage.
21. bpecial
Zero Power Factor.

* ( 19a)
The
and
At zero power
factor, cos 6
..
Case of
0, sin
6=1.
graphical construction for this case will usually be pre-
ferred; an analytical expression for Ej, derived
El = VE6' {XI cos
from the
figure, is
eRI sin ey (RI cos e + XI sin 9).
PREDETERMINATION.
3-B]
From
tive,
4 and 5
JFigs.
it
seen, that the
is
85
RI drop becomes
ineflfec-
being at right angles to t, and can be neglected.
Hence,
practically,
For
XI,
= 0 + XI,
Et:=:Eq
for lagging current;
for leading current.
XI ^ZIÊz, and
Practically,
t
a value of 6 a
little less
= Eq z.
than 90
a straight line and tan 6
5^90, would
be exact for
OB A
so that, in Fig. 4,
forms
= XI -^ RI.
Given the Terminal Voltage at One Power Factor,
22.
Determine
Any Other Power
at
it
factor,
is
Factor.
Given
In conducting
mine t
tests,
often
it is
power
at unity or high
The value of t
required.
at
to
any
found by method (a) of the preceding para-
With 0 thus known, the value of t

any desired power factor by method (&).
graphs.
for
algebraically.
become
these expressions
This expression, approximate for
power
combined
this case, the various voltages are
difficult
factors,
is
readily found
or impossible to deter-
on account of the power
can, however, be found
by
test at a
low power factor (52) and then determined by calculation for

any desired high power factor. Usually 0 is found by test and
resistance drop
this case the
is
known;
procedure
is
the reactance drop
In Fig. 4, lay off resistance drop

indefinite line
At an
by
CA,
angle 6 with
test at
cutting
power
CA
values of
at
at
is
not known.
In
as follows
BC;
at right angles
draw the
the value of reactance drop being unknown.

BC,
lay
factor cos
The
A.
oiiE
BO
6.
point
equal to the value of
Draw OA
t found
= 0, as found by
test,
0 known,
being located and
any power factor are determined by method (b)
above.
In this manner,
tor,
it
if
the regulation
is
known
terminal voltage, the locus of the point
power facAt constant
for one
can be calculated for any power factor.
will be the arc
of a
86
with
circle
as a center; at constant excitation,
and the locus of
is
the arc of a circle with
[Exp.
constant
is
as a center.
Knowing
reactance* obtained
23. Application of Electromotive Force Method.

the armature resistance and synchronous
the electromotive
from the
force
short-circuit test,
method can
be used for predetermining the regulation, the external characteristic
and the
24.
Factors.
full-load saturation curve for
Predetermination
of
Regulation
any power
factor.
Different
at
Power
By method (a) of 17-20, determine the open-circuit
voltage Eq, corresponding to rated full-load voltage at rated full-
load current, for different power factors.

ture
RI drop and XI drop
be constant in
all
values of arma-
the computations,
and
being taken as con-
Plot the values of 0, thus obtained, with power factor
stant.f
(or B) as abscissse, as in Fig. 6.
and
The
corresponding to full-load current will
for leading currents.
of Fig. 6
to
This
Arrange,
is
also,
show the values of 0
to be done for lagging
a scale
as on the right
as per cent, of full-load
voltage.
25.
when
The curves show
full-load current
is
the increase (or decrease) in voltage
thrown
off at different
At power
in per cent., this gives the regulation.
power factors;
factor i.o, the
*(23a). Synchronous reactance .is practically equal to synchronous

impedance. In Figs, i and 2, synchronous impedance is Z
0 -=- 7s, and
it can be computed for the value of 0 or for
is more or less constant
the value of Is corresponding to working conditions.
Thus, for normal field excitation, corresponding to 0
627, we obtain
2 627-^116 5.4 ohms; the armature current 116 amp. is, however,
far above normal.
For normal full-load

ohms; in this case the
It is
thus seen that
current, 43.4 amp.,
we
field excitation is far
obtain
Z = 234 -4- 43.4 =: 5.4
below normal.
can be computed from the short-circuit test either
for normal field current or for normal armature current; but field and
armature currents can not simultaneously be normal. When Z is constant,
the two computations give identical results.
When Z
is
not constant, the
two computations give different results; either may be used, but

justifiable to use the method which gives the smallest value for
being least pessimistic. (See iia and 33.)
t See 26a.
it
is
as
PREBETERMINATION.
3-B]
regulation
it is
9 per cent.;
is
37 per cent.
power
factors,
at
it
is
at
power
power factor
factor 0.5 (lagging current),
0.0,
it
40 per
is
is
At high
while at lower power fac-
The reason
nearly constant.
is
appear from a consideration of the construction

This fact
cent.
seen that a small change in power factor
causes a marked change in regulation

tors the regulation
87
made use of
for this will
in Figs.
4 and
5.
in 52.
Mn-toaci voltage,
nagging current)
qe
Full-load voltage, 57S
100-j-O
a/
=
SO-j-lO
20"
30
10
-L-h
lift
0.9
L.
0.8
0.7
0.0
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
POWER. FAtTOR
Fig.
6.
Curves showing no-load voltage corresponding
to a constant full-load
voltage (575) for full-load current (43.4 amperes) at different power factors.
26. Predetermination
of External
definite open-circuit voltage
0 and
Characteristics.
For
various power factors, com-
pute (by method {b) of 17-20) the terminal voltage t, for

different load currents.
Armature XI drop and RI drop are
be taken as proportional to current

constant.*
i.
Data are thus obtained for
ternal characteristic,
e.,
and
to
are taken as
plotting the complete ex-
from open
circuit to short circuit, for differ-
and
same constant values of X and Z are

X and Z be considered constant for
ent power factors.

* (26a). In 24, 26
to be used.
In
26
it is
32, the
proper that
the reason that field excitation

is
constant, but not the
field,
is
constant.
and
strictly
In 24 the armature current

speaking
and Z might not
remain constant, although for simplicity and for ease in comparison they
are so taken. In the case of 32, X and Z should only be taken as constant for a certain range, and for very high saturations should be taken as
variable as in 33.
88
27. Fig.
power
cuit.
4,
Exp. 3-A, shows the characteristic for unity
Power is zero on open circuit and on short cirMaximum power is, in this case, obtained at about twice
factor.
full-load current
about
at short circuit, the current is
full-load current.
'
[Exp.
small short-circuit current*
is
2j-
times
an element
Koor
10
3a
30
10
50
60
70
80
90
100
AMPERES ARMATURE
Fig.
7.
110
120
130
External characteristics at different power factors.
of safety, obtained, however, by large impedance drop and poor

regulation.
Compare
24a,
Exp. 5-C.
28. External characteristics for different
current lagging and
power
factors, with
leading, should be plotted as in Fig. 7.
lowest possible characteristic
is
a straight line;
it is
a power factor (cos $) of such a value that tan

reactance-drop) -^ (armature resistance-drop).
The
obtained for
6= (armature
See 21.
The
*. (273). This
is the working part of the characteristic for constant
current operation, see 8, Exp. 3-A. The armature should have a high
reactance for constant current and low reactance for constant potential.
PREDETERMINATION.
3-B]
power factor
characteristic for zero
straight line for the limiting case
is
89
little
higher than the
the difference, however,
is in-
appreciable.
When
is
the scale used
is
such that the ordinate on open circuit
equal to the abscissa on short circuit, the characteristics are
with a 45
ellipses
Phenomena, 3d
line as axis
ed., p.
(Steinmetz, Alternating Current
304).
In any alternator, armature resistance
is
small and armature
reactance, relatively large, so that the armature

practically
all
impedance
reactance; this gives curves as in Fig.
is
If the
7.
conditions were reversed, resistance being large and reactance

negligible, the curves for cos
6=1
and cos
6^0 would
Unity power factor would give the poorest
be interchanged.
regulation and the straight line characteristic
zero power factor; for, with reactance zero,
of EtÊo XI,
place
have to
as in
now obtained for

RI, in
Et.= Eq
21.
Predetermination of Full-load Saturation Curve from
29.
No-load Saturation Curve.

pute the terminal voltage
By method
Ei
{b) of 17-20, com-
corresponding to the different open-
circuit voltages of the no-load saturation curve; this is to be
done* for full-load current
power
at unity
factor, current lagging.
tion curves are plotted for unity
power factor
and for zero power factor (Fig.
The
30.
zero power factor

that, for the
is
is
given in
10,
*It
3-A)
The curve
same terminal
voltage, the excitation
must be much
factor; or, for the
much
for
It is seen
same
lower.
determining the full-load saturation curves for any
factor,
is
Exp. 3-A.
capable of similar interpretation.
excitation, the terminal voltage is
for other
(Fig. 2, Exp.
of this experiment).
greater at zero than at unity power
power
at zero
interpretation of the full-load saturation curve for
unity power factor
31. In
power factor and
In this manner, full-load saturar,
and
can be taken as they are (somewhat vari-
unnecessary to construct intermediate curves for part load and

power factors, unless a special study is to be made.
[Exp.
The com-
or they can be assumed constant,* 32.
able, 33)
made by
putations can be readily

saturation that the
results
either
differ.
greater detail in the case of zero
method
it is
only above
This will be discussed in
power
factor.
32. For zero power factor, the terminal voltage (21)
EtÊo Ez',
In Fig.
I, if
saturation
33. If
impedance drop Ez
This
is
is
we wish
each excitation.
to extend the curve
a constant Ez,
i,
is
we
obtain
(jEz)
but above
ZÊo-^h,
it
is
computed from
that
Z
is,
for
and results
Instead of subtracting from Curve
subtract
= ZI = Vsj~Eo.
full-load current
and
above saturation,
for each value of Eo,
(4).
we now
Ez
Here /
saturation,
This gives a decreasing value for
Curve (5) instead of
Curve
taken as constant,
satisfactory below
Curves (i) and (2), Fig.
( I)
is
too pessimistic.
better to take a variable value,
in
is
subtracted
is
from Curve (i) by a constant distance
differing
vertically.f
the impedance drop,
is,
from E.
arithmetically
Curve (4)
that
(43.4 amp.)
Eo
is
taken from
the corresponding short-circuit current
from
Curve (2). The formula can be interpreted thus: if a current
Is uses up in the armature a voltage Eo, a current / will use up
( I )
Is
is
a proportional voltage,
z= (/-^/s)o.
* See 26a.
fBy the magnetomotive force method (Appendix I.), Curve (6) differs
from Curve (i) by a constant distance (Mz) horizontally; at high saturations this
is
too optimistic.
PREDETERMINATION.
3-B]
APPENDIX
I.
MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE METHOD.*

34.
In the magnetomotive force method, instead of combining
as was done in the electrothe corresponding magneto-
vectorially various electromotive forces
motive force method, Figs.
3,
4 and 5
motive forces are so combined.

35.
The magnetomotive
force corresponding to any electromotive
found by reference
and is
For a given machine, with
field turns, field amperes are proportional to
field ampere-turns and may be used as a measure of magnetomotive
force.
In Fig. i of this experiment and Fig. 2 of Exp. 3-A, it is
force
is
commonly expressed
constant number of
to the no-load saturation curve,
in ampere-turns.
seen, for example, that 627 volts corresponds to a field excitation of

7.33 field amperes, or 3,401 field ampere-turns, either of
which may
be taken as a numerical measure of magnetomotive force.

36. It
is
readily seen that a straight saturation curve gives
mag-
netomotive forces proportional to electromotive forces, so that the
same
results will be obtained
On
from the use of
either, if the
procedure
which
is
otherwise identical.
is
not straight gives values of magnetomotive forces not proportional
to
electromotive forces, so that different results will be obtained
the other hand, a saturation curve
according to whether magnetomotive forces or electromotive forces

are used.
37.
The
Method. t-
three magnetomotive forces
are combined vectorially, as in Fig. 8
cos 6
is
the
Mo, Mz and
Mt
power factor of
the load.
These three quantities Mo,
Mz
and
Mj may
be interpreted by their
correspondence:]: to the three electromotive forces 0,

*
No
additional data are required
z and Et,
see 43 for the particular application
of the method to be made.

t (37a). This is the common interpretation of the method (see Rushmore, p. 740, Vol. I., St. Louis Elect. Congress, 1904). In Franklin &
Esty's Electrical Engineering, Mo is obtained as the resultant of two magnetomotive forces which correspond not to t and Ez, but to p and q
(the in-phase and quadrature components of 0).
t(37b). If the saturation curve were a straight line and magnetomotive forces were proportional to electromotive forces, the triangles for
magnetomotive forces and electromotive forces would be similar and each

side of one triangle would be perpendicular to the corresponding side
of the other.
92
respectively.
magnetomotive force
Mt
[Exp,
required for a terminal
is
voltage Et, corresponding values being taken from the saturation
curve; at no load no other magnetomotive force
is
an additional magnetomotive force

overcome the magnetizing effect of the armature.
load,
netomotive force,
Mz
is
Under
required.
BA = Mz
is
required to
In terms of mag-
equal to the ampere-turns of the armature;
Cosff
cose=o
Fig.
8.
Magnetomotive force method.
in terms of its corresponding electromotive force,
it
is
a magneto-
motive force which will produce an electromotive force equal to the

armature impedance drop, z. The total magnetomotive force which
the field must provide is the vector sum. Mo. In this sense. Mo is the
resultant of Mr and Mz {^ BA ) in the same way that o is the
resultant of Et and z.
Interpreting these quantities further as magnetomotive forces:
,
Mo
is
the magnetomotive force produced by the field
the direction of armature current, 7)
produced by the armature
Mt
is
is
Mo
and
Mz
Mz (= AB,
in
the combined magnetomotive force
and produces the electromotive force Et.

resultant of
the magnetomotive force
In this sense.
=AB). On open
Mi
circuit the field
is
the
ampere-
PREDETERMINATION.
3-B]
93
turns (or amperes) give us the value of the magnetomotive force
Mt;
for, in this case,
On
Mz = 0.
short circuit, the field ampere-turns (or amperes) give us the
Mz;
value of
Mt = 0.
for, in this case,
That
is,
on short
circuit
the field and armature ampere-turns are (practically) equal and oppo-
(compare 21).
site
In Fig.
amp.)
is
it
is
seen that, on short circuit, full-load current (43.4
given by a magnetomotive force
turns (2.6 amperes)
in the electromotive force method, is
Procedure;
38.
Mz = OG =
121 ampere-
the corresponding impedance voltage, as used
Any Power
= GF = 234.
The value of Mz
Factor.
as in the preceding paragraph ; also the
power
known,
is
factor, cos
6,
of the
load.
Given t to
the
known
find
0.
values of
Mz
Et; the value of
to
OBA,
Construct the triangle
and cos
Mo
6,
Mr
and the value of
from
Fig. 8,
corresponding
and the corresponding value of 0
thus
is
determined.
Given 0, the converse procedure
The most important cases

39. Unity Power Factor.
is
followed to obtain t.
power
are for unity and zero
For
8) becomes a right triangle.
this case, cos
^=
The same procedure
i,
is
and
factors.
OBA
(Fig.
followed as in
the preceding paragraph.

40.
The following procedure, known
as the Institute*
Method
(proposed by a committee but not adopted) differs from the fore-
RI
going by taking special account of the armature
RI drop
is significant
power
at unity
factor;
it
Armature
drop.
becomes
less so as
the power factor decreases and becomes negligible at zero

factor.
"
The
When
in
Institute Rule is
power
synchronous machines the regulation
is
computed from the
terminal voltage and impedance voltage, the exciting ampere-turns corre-
sponding to terminal voltage plus armature resistance-drop, and the

ampere-turns at short-circuit corresponding to the armature impedancedrop, should be combined vectorially to obtain the resultant ampere-turns,
and the corresponding internal e.m.f. should be taken from the saturation
curve."
By
the reverse procedure
* Rule
71, p. 1087,
Vol.
XIX.
is
determined when
is
known.
94
41. Zero Power Factor. When cos 6

construction of Fig.
8,
Mz
and
[Exp.
seen that, by the
0, it is
are in one straight line; hence
Mr
Mo = Mt + Mz.
Mt = Mo Mz;
Mt (and t)
At no load-JWo = Mt. Under load,
or,
if
same value as at no load, the field excitation Mo

an amount Mz added in this case arithmetically*
42.
factor
is
to
have the
to be increased
Determination of Full-load Saturation Curve.
load saturation curve. Fig.
power
is
by
Given the no-
the full-load saturation curve for zero
found by adding the constant magnetomotive force
is
Mz = OG. The
two curves (i) and (6) are accordingly a constant
distance apart, measured horizontally.

43. Application.
force method,
it
To
the
illustrate
will suffice to apply the
the
of
use
magnetomotive
method, using observed data,
to the following typical cases
Using the
1.
Institute
Method,
40,
obtain Eo, corresponding to
rated voltage, Ei, at full load, unity power factor.

point p, Fig.
6.
Note that
this point is a little
by the electromotive force method,
e.,
the regulation
is
Eo
obtained
better.
Also, locate p by the method of 39.

By the method of 38 and 41, locate the point q, Fig. 6, that
2.
3.
i.
Plot this as the
lower than
corresponding to rated
that this
is
power
at full load, zero
considerably lower than
is
Note
factor.
obtained by the electromotive
force method.
4.
Construct a full-load saturation curve (42)
power
for zero
factor.
44. Justification
of the Magnetomotive Force Method.
The con-
struction of Fig. 8
shows that the armature ampere-turns are com-
bined with the
ampere-turns in such a
est efifect for
6=1;
will be
field
power factor
and intermediate
shown
zero, cos
=o
way
;
as to have the great-
the least effect for cos
This
effects for intermediate values of cos Q.
to be qualitatively correct, although quantitatively
it is
only correct approximately or under certain assumptions.

45. Fig. 9
under a north
shows two conductors of an armature

pole, the other
midway under
coil,
one midway
a south pole.
In this
position the electromotive force induced in the armature conductors

* (4ia).
The corresponding
electromotive forces at zero
are likewise added arithmetically;
o = t-|-z.
power
(See 21.)
factor
PREDETERMINATION.
3-B]
is
maximum.
flux set
The armature
current will likewise be a
phase with this electromotive force.
if it is in
95
maximum,
In this position, the
up by the armature current has a cross-magnetizing
effect;
the flux passes transversely through the pole piece but does not pass
through or link with the
field
winding and so does not directly oppose
the field ampere-turns.
shows the armature conductors midway between poles; the

which these conductors may be assumed to belong, is exactly
Fig. 10
coil, to
opposite a pole.
Fig.
In this position the electromotive force induced in
Distortion
g.
of
transverse magnetization,
field
Fig. 10.
by
magnetizing
or cross-
Weakening of
effect of
field by dearmature current
magnetizing
produced by a wattless or quadrature
rent
current, or
rent,
effect of armature curproduced by an in-phase curor component of current.
the armature conductors
is
zero
at zero
component of current.
power factor the armature
current
lagging 90
It will
be seen from the figure that in this position the armature has
behind the electromotive force
is
a maximum.
the greatest demagnetizing effect, the flux produced by the armature
passing through the
field
winding and directly opposing the
field
ampere-turns.
46. It is seen that
when
the armature current
generated electromotive force

netization
when
it
is
in phase with the
produces distortion and cross-mag-
is
in quadrature
it
produces
demagnetization without distortion, the armature ampere-turns being

in direct opposition to the field ampere-turns.
When the current has a phase displacement, with respect to the

induced electromotive force, between 0 and 90, it may be considered
as composed of
two components, an in-phase component producing
cross-magnetization and a quadrature component producing demagnetization.

47.
On
short circuit, the current in the armature lags 90
(or
96
[Ekp.
The armature
so, on account of high armature reactance).
and field ampere-turns on short circuit are, therefore, practically equal
and opposite. If they were exactly equal and opposite, there would
nearly
be no electromotive force generated; as a matter of fact, there
very small electromotive force equal to the armature
That the armature ampere-turns due
to
RI
by
this short-circuit test,
leading
and
its
current lagging 90
opposes or weakens (and does not aid or strengthen) the

verified
is
drop.
field
is
resultant small electromotive
force.
48.
strengthens the
current,
on the other hand,
directly
10, the reaction
of the armature has been considered for the particular

position
when
and
field.
In the foregoing discussion of Figs. 9 and
49.
aids
armature assumes successively
all
is
maximum.
positions
moment and
In reality, the
and the current takes
all
values; in intermediate positions, demagnetization and cross-magnetization are both present in varying amounts dependent upon the posi-
and the armature current
tion of the armature
general nature of the reaction, however,
by
its
character
when
the current
is
may
at
any
instant.
The
be considered as defined
maximum.
The
real effect is
a summation of the effects at each instant through a cycle.
more
complete discussion would involve some knowledge or assumption as

to flux distribution in the pole pieces,
As
and other design
factors.
a matter of fact, a sinusoidal flux distribution has been assumed
in order to
make
assumption
tacitly
it
possible to treat
made
is
Mo
as a vector in Fig. 8; the
that the field flux passing through an
arma-
ture coil varies as a sine function of time, so that the generated elec-
tromotive force (e
phase by 90.
= dcjy-i-dt)
This assumption
is
also a sine function differing in
justifies the
treatment of
Mo
and
as vectors at 90.
But distortion, by its very nature, disturbs the flux distribution and
makes the assumption necessarily an impossible one. No diagram
using plane vectors can exactly represent
justification of the
empirical.
all
magnetomotive force method
the quantities.
is,
found to give fairly good result on many modern

which armature reaction is large as compared with
It is
alternators in
armature reactance and in which too high saturation

it is least
The
therefore, partly
is
not reached;
accurate in alternators with high saturation and relatively
large armature reactance.
PREDETERMINATION.
3-Bl
APPENDIX
97
II.
OTHER METHODS.
There are a number of methods for determining the regula-
50.
and characteristics of alternators which are
tion
essentially modifi-
cations of the electromotive force and magnetomotive force methods,
or a combination of the two
these methods are based on test data
(obtained from open-circuit and short-circuit
alone
design data alone,
Methods based on
or partly on design
tests,
and partly on
9), on
data.
test
design data are of particular interest to the design-
ing engineer but cannot be taken up here; they include methods for
calculating armature reaction
and reactance and for predetermining

its construction.
(For further dis-
the behavior of a machine before

cussion, see references, 55.)
In
all
methods use
is
made
of the fundamental principles brought
out in the electromotive force and magnetomotive force methods,
which should therefore be carefully studied before other methods are

undertaken. For those whose object is a general understanding of
the behavior of alternators, a study of these two methods is sufficient
but those
who
desire to pursue the subject further should consult
the references in 55. It has been pointed out that, so far as results
are concerned, these two methods give the pessimistic and optimistic
Other methods give intermediate, and
limits.
correct results; there
In reference to
this,
is,
in
some cases more
however, no one absolutely correct method.
Mr. Behrend says
" It appears wise to admit the existing dilemma.
The question of
accu-
rately determining the regulation of alternators can not be solved.
seems to the speaker far more dignified and more in accordance with
the science that we are working in, to say that this case is so complex, so
intricate, there are so many factors to be taken into account, that it can no
more be solved than you can state to one thousandth of an inch the dis(A. I. E. E., Vol.
tance between two chalk marks drawn on the floor."
It
XXIIL,
p.
326.)
51. Test
Methods.
The
aim
in various
methods
is
to test the
alternator under real or equivalent load conditions with only a small
expenditure of power. The machine may be actually loaded and the

power returned by some opposition method (27, 27a, Exp. 2-B),
or
it
may be
tested without
any load by simulating working load
98
conditions.
[Exp.
In the preceding pages this was done by two
tests,
the
open-circuit test at normal voltage and zero current, and the shortcircuit test at normal current and zero voltage, in each test the power
But, inasmuch as
output being zero.
current, voltage and power factor,
power output is the product of

and I may simultaneously have
normal full-load values without involving expenditure of power

the power factor
zero.
is
This leads to the low power factor
if
tests
(52) and split field tests (53), concerning which only a brief statement will be made for fuller information consult references. These
;
tests are
used in heat runs and efficiency
well as in test for
tests, as
the determination of regulation.
Tests at
52.
factor,
Low Power
Factor.
an alternator may have
When
operated at low power
full-load current
with only a small expenditure of energy.
If
and normal voltage
Eo and t
are thus
determined for one power factor, their values and the regulation can
be calculated (22) for unity or any other power factor.
culation is usually
made
the same excitation
either for the
The
(same 0).
load
may
The power
factor
ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter.

or 0.25
may be
there
practically
is
field
field
no change
motor with low
known from readings of
Any power
factor less than 0.20
in regulation.
is
used, the generator voltage
is
adjusted
rheostat of the generator; the armature current by the
rheostat of the motor.
for low
is
considered as zero, for between these limits (see Fig. 6)
.When a synchronous motor

by the
cal-
consist of react-
ances, unloaded induction motors or a synchronous
or no-field excitation.
This
same terminal voltage or for
In this
way a
full-load saturation curve
power factor can be obtained (Fig.
i)
and compared with
the no-load curve; or points can be plotted for an external characteristic, as in Fig. 7.
When an alternator is operated at low

53. Split Field Method.
power factor with a synchronous motor load, as in the preceding
paragraph, electric energy is given out by the alternator to the motor
one quarter-cycle and is practically all returned the next quartercycle; power circulates between the two machines.
Circulation of
power in one machine was first proposed by Mordey*; this was
accomplished by dividing the armature coils in two parts, one opposed
to the other.
In this
and part as a motor.

*
W. M. Mordey,
way
part of the armature acted as a generator
This, however, proved open to objection.
Journal Brit. Inst, of Elect. Eng'rs, Vol.
II.,
1893.
PREDETERMINATION.
3-B]
99
Behrend (see his St. Louis paper, 55) has developed a method
power in one machine by dividing not the armature
for circulating
but the
field
The armature
and reversing the excitation of one part of the
and as a synchronous motor with respect

part of the field has
own
its
and the other the motor
way
field.
acts as a generator with respect to one part of the field
as though
Each
to the other part.
rheostat, one controlling the generator
action.
tion of this method, see paper
by
made in much
For a later
Tests are
two machines were used,
Smith,
S. P.
the same
modifica-
52.
55.
54. Arguments for and Against Specifying Regulation at Zero

Power Factor. The opinion is growing among engineers that regulation should be specified at zero power factor.
Tests at unity power
much
factor are objectionable, not only on account of the use of
power which may be

In Fig. 7
results.
prohibitive, but also on account of errors in the
seen that the difference in regulation for a
it is
small change in power factor
but
is
very small near zero power factor,
considerable near unity power factor.
is
At unity power
factor, therefore,
load introduces a large error.
any inductance or capacity
The use of
causes an error for this reason, for
though small,
than
it
is
suflScient to give
would have
if
the
it
in the
a water rheostat as a load
possesses a capacity which,
an alternator a better regulation
power factor were
unity.
Tests at zero power factor, on the other hand, have the advantage
that such errors are insignificant; furthermore, the tests are less
diffi-
make on account of the small amount of power required.

They can often be made when tests at unity power factor are not
cult
to
possible.
For these reasons, specification of regulation at zero power factor

power factor) has been advocated; such specification can be checked by experiment and, furthermore, it gives the
(rather than unity
On
regulation under the worst conditions.
objected to because, by
itself,
the other hand, this
the regulation at zero
power factor
is
is
no positive indication of the behavior of the machine at unity power

factor two machines with the same regulation at zero power factor
;
may have
very different regulations at unity power factor.
largely due to resistance drop, which

factor, but has practically
tion of regulation at zero
no
is
This
is
of importance at unity power
effect at zero
power factor
power
is,
factor.
Specifica-
therefore, insufficient
loo
[Exp.
unless, in addition, the resistance drop is separately stated.
zero power factor are also objected to because such
when
Vol.
the distorting influence of cross-magnetization
I.,
p. 761, Int.
55. References.
Tests at
tests are
made
absent.
(See
is
Elec. Cong., 1904.)
References
are given below to a few leading
articles on the subject of alternator regulation.
complete
list
would
be a long one, but the references here given are the best ones to consult
first;
they contain references to practically
on the subject.
all
that has been written
Rushmore's paper, with twenty- four references, sum-
marizes the work of others and
is
one of the best papers to read
particularly in connection with variations of the
and electromotive force methods.
The
first,
magnetomotive force
discussion, found at the
dose
of some of these papers, will be found very valuable.

Transactions International Elect. Congress, St. Louis, 1904:
The Regulation of Alternators, by D. B. Rushmore, Vol. I., p. 729;
The Testing of Alternating Current Generators, by B. A. Behrend,
Vol. L, p. 528;
Methods of Testing Alternators According to the Theory of Two Reactions,
by A. Blondel, Vol. L,
p.
620
Methods of Calculation of Armature Reactions of Alternators, by A.

Blondel, Vol. L,
p. 635.
Transactions American Inst, of Electrical Engineers:

The Determination of Alternator Characteristics, by L. A. Herdt, Vol.
XIX.,
p. 1093,
1902
The Experimental Basis
for the
Theory of the Regulation of Alter-
XXL, p. 497, 1903

Contribution to the Theory of the Regulation of Alternators, by
Hobart and Punga, Vol. XXIIL, p. 291, 1904.
nators, by B. A. Behrend, Vol.
Journal British Inst, of Electrical Engineers:

Henderson and Nicholson, p. 465, 1905 S. P. Smith, paper read
November 12, 1908 (also Lond. Electrician, November 13).
See also Guilbert, Elect. World, 1902-3; Torda-Heymann, Lond. Electrician, Vol. LHL, p. 6, 1904 C. A. Adams, Harvard Eng. Journal, 1902-3.
Parts of the subject will be found treated in various text-books: S. P.
Thompson's Dynamo Electric Machinery, Karapetoff's Exp. Elect. Eng.,
;
Franklin and Esty's Elect. Eng., etc
PREDETERMINATION.
3-B]
APPENDIX
lol
III.
56.
Transmission Line Regulation.
In
the
electromotive force
method, 16-22, a complete treatment is given of the effect upon

delivered voltage of resistance drop and reactance drop in the arma-
The treatment, however, is general and is not

The same treatment will apply to any resistance and reactance drop, wherever located, and may accordingly be
ture of an alternator.
limited to alternators.
applied to the case of a transmission line.
ment of any problem, resistance drop
is
In the geometrical treat-
always in phase with the
current, reactance drop in quadrature.
Given
a transmission line in which RI drop

XI
7.4
be the voltage 0 applied at the sending end of
the line to maintain a voltage of 575 at the receiver for a load of 43.4
amperes, at unity power factor, at power factor 0.866 (current lagging
30), and at power factor 0.866 (current leading 30)? Figs. 3, 4 and 5
show that 627, 726 and 508 volts, respectively, are required at the sending
end in the three cases, the corresponding line regulation being g, 26.3
12 per cent. In this example the same numerical values have been
and
used for a transmission line as were used in Figs. 3, 4 and S for an alternator. Practical values for a transmission line would give a relatively
greater resistance drop and smaller reactance drop, as in example 2.
Example 2. A transmission line gives 1,000 volts at the receiver. The
resistance drop is 100 volts, reactance drop is 200 volts ; what is the regula-
Example
drop
i.
= 233.9.
What must
tion for different
power factors?
Curves as shown
in Figs. 6
and 7 can be drawn for a transmission
These curves have been discussed for an alternator the discus-
line.
sion can, however, be applied to a transmission line.
In calculating the regulation of a transmission

resistance
and reactance can be taken from
line,
the values of
tables in various hand-
books and elsewhere.

In testing a transmission
an open-circuit
tors.
test
With a low
circuit the line
and a
line,
the reactance drop can be found by
short-circuit test, as in the case of alterna-
voltage, short-circuit the line and measure
and measure 0. The
the line reactance
is
X^ \/Z'
line
impedance
is
open-
Z = o-^/s;
R'.
In the laboratory a line with resistance and reactance can be tested

in this
way
ferent
power
as a transmission line; the regulation for loads of dif-
factors can be predetermined (Figs. 6 and 7) and
pared with actual load
tests.
com-
CHAPTER
IV.
SINGLE-PHASE CURRENTS.
Experiment 4-A.
Study
of Series
and Parallel Circuits Con-
taining Resistance and Reactance.
I.
Introductory.
The object of
this
experiment
is
to acquaint
one with the fundamental relations between currents and electromotive forces in alternating current
These
circuits.
relations will
be brought out by a study of series and parallel circuits containing resistance and inductance, the clear understanding of which
is
essential for one undertaking any study of alternating currents.
Practically every problem in alternating currents involves
be reduced to
a problem of
series
and
or can
A study
parallel circuits.
of alternator characteristics (see Figs. 3-5, Exp. 3-B)
is
a study
of series circuits; the transformer. (see Figs. 6-9, Exp. S-C) can
be reduced to equivalent series and parallel circuits, and so, too,
This
the induction motor.
is
true of nearly
of alternating current apparatus.
It will
all
types and kinds
be found that the study
of series and parallel circuits brings out the general principles

that are
common
to all alternating current problems.
cuits are studied, therefore, not

ject proper,
Such
cir-
merely as leading up to the sub-
but as actually being the subject matter of
all alter-
nating current testing.
Part
subject,
I.
contains an outline of the underlying principles of the
which
will be
found discussed in
detail in Bedell
Crehore's Alternating Currents and in other treatises.

describes the tests to be
derived from them.
made and Part
Part
and
II.
III. describes the results
For the convenience of the reader, some
paragraphs on theory are included in Part
III.
AND PARALLEL
SERIES
4-A]
PAKT
I.
ELEMENTARY
CIRCUITS.
103
PRINCIPLES.
2. Defining Relations.În a direct current circuit, the current which flows

cuit
IÊ^^R,
is
inductive or not; the
is
irrespective of whether the cir-
power expended
is
the product of
electromotive force and current.

3. In a non-inductive* alternating current circuit, this
true
the current
less
than
the product of electromotive
W = EI.
= E-^R;
The impedance,
4. In
is
thus,
resistance
also
determined by the resistance, as in a direct
is
current circuit, and the power

force and current
is
defined below, consists in this case of the
only.
an inductive alternating current
E^r-R and
power
the
than the resistance
less
circuit, the
current
is
than EI; thus,
W = EI X power
IÊ^Z
The impedance Z,
is
factor.
defined as the volts per ampere,
on account of the reactance
is
greater
thus,
Z = EÎ=yR^ + X''=^yR^-\-L'oy'.
The
value
reactance (defined in 40) for an inductive circuit has a
X^L(o, where L
is
the inductance, or coefficient of self-
induction of the circuit, and
second (1, Exp. 3-A).

in
ohms.
* (33).
It is
is
2ir
X frequency
in cycles per
Impedance and reactance are expressed
seen that inductive reactancef depends not only
when a current
when a current in
it sets up a magnetic
produces no magnetic
circuit is never entirely non-inductive, but may be made nearly
field.
This is practically accomplished when the outgoing and return conso.
ductors are placed so close together that the magnetic effects of the
currents in the two conductors neutralize each other. Iij a solenoid this
is accomplished by using a double winding, the currents in the two halves
field ( 14)
circuit
it is
is
inductive
non-inductive
in
it
of which flow in opposite directions.

t (4a). In a circuit with capacity C, the reactance is i/Cw. When L
and C are both present, the total reactance is the difference between the
capacity reactance and inductive reactance;
Xt=Lw i/Cw.
See 57.
I04
upon L, which
[Exp.
a constant of the circuit depending
is
upon
its
form and dimensions, but also upon the frequency of the alternating current supply.
The preceding
5.
The admittance
the amperes per volt,
The
equations can be written
of an alternating current circuit, defined as

is
unit of admittance
Power
6.
the reciprocal of impedance;
commonly
is
is
Power factor^ cos ^, where
6 is the
tane
The
first,
to
phase difference
later.
In a circuit
= X^R.
subject will be most readily understood
circuits
power
always less than (or equal
and I; see Figs. 2 and 7 discussed

with resistance R and reactance X,
between
mho.
factor, defined as the ratio of true
apparent power or volt-amperes El,

to) unity.
called the
F = /-^.
by considering:
with R, only; second, circuits with X, only; and
finally circuits
with both
and X.
7. Series Circuit with Resistance Only.
In
an alternating
current circuit containing only a resistance R, the electromotive

force required to
make
flow a current
E&
/, is
= RI,
as in a direct current circuit.
The
current
is
in phase with the electromotive force.
electromotive force rises from zero to a

to zero, the current
As
falls
the
again
at each instant is proportional to the electro-
motive force e at that instant;
when
maximum and
the electromotive force
is
is
= Ri.
zero,
and
The current
is
is
zero
maximum when
maximum.
8. If E- is repre"sented as a vector. Fig. 5, the current / is
represented as a vector in the same direction or phase as
E;
SERIES
4-A]
that
is,
AND PARALLEL
to cause a current / to flow
in-phase electromotive force equal to

9. Significance of Vectors.
CIRCUITS.
105
through a resistance R, an
RI
required.
is
In developing the theory of vec-
tor diagrams for alternating current quantities, the vectors rep-
maximum
resent the
In applying these diagrams, however, the vectors
to a sine law.
drawn
are usually
as
values of quantities which vary according
to represent the effective (or virtual) values,
measured by ammeter and voltmeter,
a sine wave being
^V^
times
the
maximum
its
effective value of
value.*
Furthermore,
vectors are used for currents and electromotive forces which do
not vary exactly as a sine law, although the results in these cases
In drawing vector
are not, in general, theoretically correct.f
diagrams,
it
is
implied, therefore, that the currents and electro-
motive forces have wave forms which are sine waves or may be
represented by equivalent sine waves of the same effective values.
The phase
difference
6,
between equivalent sine waves for cur-
rent and electromotive force, is determined by the

cos 6 =: power factor =:W -^ EI.
10. Direction of Rotation.
Counter-clockwise
relation:
rotation
is
usually taken as the direction of rotation of alternating current
vector diagrams, and this convention will be here followed.
By
considering a diagram as making one complete revolution
(360) in one cycle, the projections, from instant to instant, of

the various lines of the diagram
upon any
fixed line of reference
will be proportional to the instantaneous values of the quantities
represented by those
lines.
By
reversing
all
diagrams as
in a
mirror, the corresponding diagrams for clock-wise rotation will
be obtained.
11. Electrical Degrees.
grams, "angle"
is
In
alternating current vector dia-
a measure of time, 360 indicating the time
*See Bedell and Crehore's Alternating
Currents,
p. 38,
and other text-
books.
t (9a).
in gb,
Compare 60-64;
Exp. 5-C.
for further discussion, see references given
"
io6
[Exp.
of one complete period or cycle, 90 indicating ^ period, etc.

degree is, therefore, a unit of time, being sometimes designated
a " time-degree " or " electrical degree."
This designation
ever, unnecessary except in discussions
where
is,
how-
" space-degrees
are also used.

12. Series Circuit
with Reactance Only.
current circuit containing only a reactance oi
In
motive force required to make flow a current
Ex=^XI; and
as
shown
When
an alternating
X ohms, the electro/, is
= Ex^X,
in 14-17.
the reactance X,
due
is
force to overcome reactance
Ex
Reactance
is
the
same
force proportional to
it
to inductance, the electromotive
is
= XI^Lu>I.
an electromotive
as resistance in that
required to cause a current to flow,
is
the electromotive force being
and RI for
different
XI
from resistance
is
is,
in that
no energy; when the current

energy
for reactance
Reactance
resistance.
it
however,
consumes
increasing,
is
stored* in the magnetic field (as in
a fly-wheel), this energy being returned to

the circuit
when
the
current
decreasing.
is
In a reactance, the current and electromotive

force are not in phase but are in quadrature
with each other,
i.
e.,
the current and electro-
motive force differ in phase by a quarter of a

cycle or 90,
and when one
is
maximum
*(i2a). The energy of the magnetic
field
the other
is
responding to the energy of a moving body, l/^MV.
is
zero.
equal to ^/iLP, cor-
AND PARALLEL
SERIES
4-A]
107
CIRCUITS.
13. For inductive reactance,* the electromotive force to overcome reactance is in advance of the current by 90, as in Fig. i,
and is not in phase as in Fig. 5. The current lags behind the
electromotive force by 90, that
maximum
= EI cos =
power
When Rô,
maximum.
positive
the current reaches a positive
is,
| cycle later than the electromotive force reaches
0.
tan^
= Z-î?=
00
^=90"
and electromotive force
current
its
;
in
quadrature represent no power and are said to be "wattless.''

14.
Theory.
When
a current flows in an inductive circuit,
the current sets up magnetic flux which
When
is
linked with the circuit.
the current changes, this flux changes and a counter-
induced in the circuit tending to oppose
electromotive force
is
any change
current,
in the
the
current seemingly possessing
inertia.
The
electromotive force produced by self-induction depends
upon the
rate of change of current,!
e oc
The
di/dt
or,
and
is
=L
di/dt.
negative sign indicates that the electromotive force
is
counter
to the impressed electromotive force.
The equal and

come
opposite impressed electromotive force to over-
self-induction
is
e=^L di/dt.
* (i 13a). For capacity reactance, the electromotive force to overcome
X=i/C(i) is XI z=lI -^Ca and is 90 behind the current; the
current is 90 in advance of the electromotive force see 55.
reactance
t ( 14a). The electromotive force produced by self-induction, expressed

S d<l>/dt. (Compare 33,
in terms of rate of change of flux, is e
In the absence of iron, i and 0,are proportional to each
33a, Exp. S-A.)
=
Li =
S0 -i- i or, the

S<f>, and L
other and L is constant. In this case
inductance of a coil is equal to the flux-linkages or flux-turns S<l> for unit
Since 4>xSi, it follows that LocS', other things (including
current.
dimensions of coil and leakage) being equal; the inductance of a coil is
approximately proportional to the square of the number of turns. In the
are not proportional, and L is not constant but
presence of iron, i and
<j>
varies with saturation.
io8
The inductance
15.
When
equations.
circuit has
defined by the foregoing
in
amperes,
is in
henries.
ampere per second induces an
When
electro-
volt.
the current varies according to a sine law,
The impressed
/max sin
(of.
electromotive force
is,
= L di/dt = Lw/max cos =

at
The impressed
is,
% is
is
an inductance of one henry when a change of cur-
motive force of one
and
in volts
is
rent at the rate of one
16.
of a circuit
[Exp.
accordingly,
Lial^^j. sin {at
-\-go).
electromotive force to overcome self-induction
therefore, 90 in advance of the current; the current,
on the
other hand, lags 90 behind the electromotive force.

17.
to be
The maximum value of
La
times the
maximum
this electromotive force is seen
value of the current; hence, the
effective value of this electromotive force is
value of the current, that
La
times the effective
Ex = La>I = XL
is,
Fig.
and the
statements in 12, 13 are thus established.

18. Series
In
ance.
Circuit
with Resistance and Inductive React-
a circuit with both
and X, the electromotive force
required to cause a current / to flow consists of two components,
which have been separately discussed

RI,
in
phase with
XI, 90" ahead of
Thus
to
in Fig. 2, if
OD
is
overcome resistance and
come* reactance,
force.
OA
/,
/, to
preceding paragraphs
overcome resistance;
overcome reactance.
to
current,
CA
in the
is
OC
is
the electromotive force to over-
being the total impressed electromotive
These electromotive force relations are fundamental and
* ( i8a).
CA and OC are components of

In the opposite sense, as counterhave the counter-electromotive force AC, lagging
These electromotive
the impressed electromotive
electromotive forces,
we
forces,
force.
90 behind the current, produced by inductive reactance
electromotive force
resistance.
Compare
CO, opposite
15,
and, the counter-
in phase to the current,
Exp. 6-A.
produced by
SERIES
4-A]
are
shown by
AND PARALLEL
CIRCUITS.
109
the electromotive force triangle, Fig. 2, and by the
following equations
E = Ve^ + E^ = VRf + Lmf = iVR^ + noy\

The impedance
triangle, Fig. 3, is derived
tromotive forces. Fig.
2,
by
by dividing the
19. It is seen that the electromotive forces
added as vectors.
"o
several, the
instead of a single
RI
XI and RI
are
and R, there were
Electromotive force triangle.
Fig. 2.
etc.,
If,
elec-
/.
Fig.
3.
Impedance
triangle.
same procedure could be followed: RJ, RJ, RJ,

laid off in phase with I and XJ, XJ, XJ, etc., in
would be
quadrature with
/.
Electromotive forces in a series circuit are added as vectors.
Impedances, resistances and reactances in a series
added
circuit
are
as vectors.
20.
The
total
quadrature with /
drop in phase with /

is
SX7.
E=y{%Riy + {%Xry,
The
metical
total resistance of
sum
arithmetical
is
tRI
Hence, for any
and
the total drop in
series circuit,
Z=V(5i?)^+(5Z)^
a series circuit
is
seen to be the arith-
of the separate resistances; the total reactance
sum of
For further
is
the
the separate reactances.
discussion of series circuits, see 38-50; for par-
allel circuits see
51-53.
no
PART
II.
[Exp.
MEASUHEMENTS.
21. The following tests require a resistance, which

inductive and
is
designated R^
is
designated RzL^.
coil
and a
coil,
It is desirable to
which
is
is
non-
inductive and
have the resistance and the
take currents which are comparable in value with each other,
for the frequency at which the tests are

volts,
60 cycles, the
coil takes
from
5 to
20 amperes.
thus, if at
no
volts
Except for
it
takes a current of,
28, the coil should not
have an iron core, so that there are no losses except
For the
tests of
windings of the
coil
26a (which
may
RP.
precede the main tests), the
should be divided in two equal parts, which
can be connected in series and in

22.
no
a current of 10 amperes, the resist-
ance should be so selected that at

say,
made;
The instruments
parallel.
required consist of a voltmeter, capable
of reading the supply voltage and lower voltages; an ammeter

capable of measuring the combined currents of the coil and resist-
ance; and a wattmeter having a voltage range corresponding to

the range of the voltmeter and a current range corresponding to
the range of the ammeter.
A voltmeter
switch will be found convenient for the series tests
and an ammeter switch for the parallel tests ( 32-34)

( 29-31 )
On all tests the frequency should be known.
23.
(a) Resistance Alone,
series, as in Fig. 4,
(say
no
volts,
With
an adjusting resistance in
connect the resistance R^ to the supply circuit
60 cycles) and measure the current
at the terminals of R^,
and the watts
current coil of the wattmeter
and the potential
coil in
is
instruments
the voltage
The
connected in series as an ammeter
shunt as a voltmeter, the arrangement*
of instruments being shown in Fig.

* (23a). In these tests
/,
W consumed by R^.
no account
is
i,
Exp. 5-B.
ordinarily to be taken of the fact
themselves consume
a certain small amount of

power, as fully discussed in Appendix III., Exp. S-A; this fact, however,
should not be neglected in accurate testing, as for example in the accurate
that
the
determination of
by the impedance method,
47.
SERIES
4-A]
24.
Vary
AND PARALLEL
CIRCUITS.
the adjusting resistance,* and in this
1 1
way
take sev-
eral sets of readings.
any question as
If there is
to the accuracy of the instruments,
assume the ammeter and voltmeter
to be correct
and determine a
correction for the wattmeter, so that in (a) the watts as read by

the wattmeter are equal to the product of volts and amperes, as
read by the voltmeter and ammeter.
This serves as a calibration
of the wattmeter, to be used in this and subsequent

25.
Take
Repeat
(a) using the coil
26. (&) Coil Alone. t

as in Fig.
27.
6,
instead of the resistance
Take readings
28. Effect
at a
of Iron.
watch the ammeter
Gradually
is
to be noted
introduce an iron core and
few
At
at a time, thus
present, only the
and explained; a more com-
form of a closed magnetic
plete study of iron in the
in the subsequent experiments
coil i?2-^2 i" series,
circuit is
on the transformer.
29. (c) Resistance and Coil in Series.
ance Ri and the
alone,
second frequency.
or, introduce iron wires, a
general effect of iron
R^L^
i?i.
gradually increasing the amount of iron.
made
tests.
readings, in a like manner, at a second frequency.
Connect the
resist-
and, together with an adjust-
ing resistance, connect to the supply, as in Fig.
For a
8.
certain
current, take readings of the voltage drop, the current and the
watts consumed as follows
first,
for the resistance
second, for
* (24a). This adjustment should be so made that the readings of the

various instruments are taken at open parts of the scales.
t(26a). Series and Parallel Connections. It is instructive to use a
In this case, the regular tests should be
coil with two equal windings.
with the two windings either in parallel or in series and additive,

up magnetic flux in the same direction. If one winding is
reversed, it will oppose the other so that the resultant flux (and hence
the impedance) is small. A few volts may cause a very large current.
Preliminary Test. With, the resistance Ri in series as a safeguard, to
made
4.
e.,
setting
avoid excessive current, measure the current and voltage and determine
the impedance, of each winding alone and of the two windings connected
in series and in parallel, additively and differentially. The additive winding is inductive; the differential winding is non-inductive, except so far
as there
is
magnetic leakage.
112
the coil; and third, for the resistance
the current, by
means of the adjusting
and
coil
[Exp.
Vary
combined.
and take several
resistance,
being kept constant for each set;
sets of readings, the current
see 24a.
30.
The ammeter and
current coil of the wattmeter are in
series with the circuit for all readings
The voltmeter and
changed.
and
their location is un-
the voltage coil of the wattmeter
are in parallel with each other and are connected
first,
across the
terminals of the resistance; second, across the terminals of the
and
coil;
third, across the terminals
combined.
of the resistance and coil
These changes can be most readily made by means of
a voltmeter switch, the current being maintained constant during
one
set of readings
error
by means of
Some
the. adjusting resistance.
here introduced on account of the power consumed in the
is
instruments.
31.
Repeat
at a
second frequency.
32. (d) Resistance and Coil in Parallel.
ance
i?i
and the
coil
R^L^
in parallel,
Connect the
resist-
and, together with the
adjusting resistance, connect to the supply as in Fig. 10.
For
a certain constant voltage E, take readings of current, voltage
and watts:
coil alone;
first,
and
the
for
resistance
alone;
for the resistance
third,
and
second,
coil
for
the
together in
parallel.
Vary
the voltage
by means of the adjusting
resistance,
and take
several sets of readings, the voltage being kept constant for each
see 24a.
set;
33.
The voltmeter and
potential coil of the wattmeter are not
changed during the readings.
The ammeter and
the current coil
of the wattmeter are shifted from one circuit to another, being:

in series
first,
and
with the resistance
third, in the
the voltage
This
23a.
is
main
circuit.
second, in series with the coil
Since, during one set of readings,
maintained constant, the readings thus obtained*
would be true
if
the instruments themselves took
no power;
will
AND PARALLEL
SERIES
4-A]
113
CIRCUITS.
be the same as readings obtained simultaneously with three
ammeters and three wattmeters.

34.
Repeat
35.
(e)
ances
i?i
second frequency.
at a
Measurement
and
i?2
of Resistance.
by direct current,
PART
36. In each
test,
17,
Measure
the resist-
Exp. i-A.
RESULTS.
III.
and (d),
(a), (b), (c),
select say
two
sets
of readings at each frequency and construct vector diagrams
showing the magnitude and
parts
relative
Compute
currents and voltages.
phase positions of the various

for the various circuits,
of circuits, the power factor and the phase
The prime
between current and voltage.
clear understanding of the relations
object
is
and
difference
to obtain a
between the various quanti-
rather than to obtain exact numerical values.
ties,
vywvj
Besistance
Fig. 4.
Circuit containing resistance
i?i.
37. (a) Resistance Alone. For this case, the current and
electromotive force are in phase, and true power is equal to
the product, volts
cose=i;
0.
amperes.
See Fig.
38. (b) Coil Alone.
motive force
5.
The current /
by an angle
6,
indicated by the wattmeter,
apparent power, EI; thus

9
Power factor=H^-^/î;
as in Fig.
is
less
lags behind the electro7.
The
true
power W,
than the volt-amperes or
114
[Exp.
W = EI X power factor = EI cos

Hence
cos
The
angle 6
is
5^ power
f actor
^ PF
-e-
6.
/.
thus computed from the readings of the wattmeter,
voltmeter and ammeter.
In constructing Fig.
at
an angle
7,
OA = E
lay off
OD = I,
then lay off
determined as above, and construct the right
angle of electromotive forces,
tri-
OCA.
Adjusting
Resistance
wy^
Fig.
6.
Circuit containing coil R2L2.
Compute the components of electromotive force and

and verify the various relations discussed
in
the
current,
following
paragraphs.
39. Components of Electromotive Force.
described, the electromotive force
ponent,
Eq
Ef=OC,
= CA,
in
in
phase with
quadrature with
I.
In the manner
just
power com-
is
resolved into the
7,
and the wattless component,

These components are
E-pÊ cos 9Ê X power factor

q= sinS = X reactive factor.*
The
vector
sum
of these two components gives the total im-
pressed electromotive force.
=Vp^-f q^
* (39a). Designating power factor by p and reactive factor by
q'=i. Compare Standardization Rule 56.
seen that p^
q, it is
SERIES
4-A]
40.
From
AND PARALLEL
Resistance
electromotive
total
is
"5
CIRCUITS.
these electromotive forces,
Impedance
we have
the definitions
divided by current;
force
power or in-phase component of electromotive
is
force divided by current;
R=EcosO-Î.
motors, transformers,
are included in the circuit, this gives
etc.,
(In general,
when
apparent resistance.)
Reactance*
is
the wattless or quadrature
component of
electro-
X = Es{nd-Î.
In a similar manner, the cura power component, If = I cos
rent may be resolved
quadraphase with E, and a wattless component /q = /
motive force divided by current
41. Components of Current.'\

into
6,
sin
ture with
42.
E;
the total current
From
Admittance
these currents,
is total
is
I=^yiT^
we have
-{-
6,
in
in
Iq^.
the definitions
current divided by electromotive force;
YÎÊ.
power or in-phase component of current
divided by electromotive force; gÎ cos 6^- E.
Susceptance b is the wattless or quadrature component of curConductance g
is
the
rent divided by electromotive force;
We
bÎ sin 6^^ E.
have, then, the following relations;
Total current
= = X Y/
Power current ^/ cos 5^

Wattless current
5'-
Î sin 9^ EX b.
g=Y cos
b^Y sine.
6.
Admittance
= y/g^
-}- b^.
*This is the general definition, La, l/Cai, etc., being merely particular
values; see paper on Reactance, by Steinmetz and Bedell, p. 640, Vol.
XL, Transactions A. I. E. E., 1894.

t (4ia). As an illustration of the
other figures in
components for
circuits.
Exp. S-C.
It is
series circuits
resolution of current, see Fig. 2 and
usual to resolve electromotive force into
and current into components for
parallel
ii6
[Exp,
but conductance
is
not the reciprocal of resistance (as with direct currents), nor
is
Admittance
is
the reciprocal of impedance
susceptance the reciprocal of reactance.
43. Power.
EI cos 6, may be
PF
or,
It is
seen that the expression for true power,
written in two ways
= cos6X I
W^=
(resolving electromotive force);
IcosO'XE
(resolving current).
we
44. Resolving the electromotive force into components,
True power
have:
the
is
equal to the product of current (I) and
component of electromotive force (E cos
6)
which
in phase
is
with the current.

45.
power
Resolving the current into components,

is
we have
True
equal to the product of the impressed electromotive
force (E) and the component of current {I cos 6) which
is
in
phase with the electromotive force.

46. Calculation of
ance
is
force,
and
by Wattmeter Method.
React-
by definition (40) equal to the quadrature electromotive
x, divided by current.
Referring to Fig.
R^L^ are computed
7,
the reactance and inductance of the coil
as follows:
LjO) = X2 = CA -^ I, ohms
L^^X^-â^X^-i- 2Trn, henries.
By
method, X^ and L^ are determined by measurements
this
of E, I and
W, and
are independent of the
(See 47 and 49.)
and that
tani9
Note
also that
= Z2-î?2.
47. Calculation of
and
measured value of R^.
R^ÔC-Î^W -Î^,
by Impedance Method.
By the
impedance method, L^ depends upon E, I and the measured value

of
i?2,
and
is
culations are
independent of the wattmeter reading.
made
as follows:
Impedance (ohms) ==^2 ^-f-7.

Reactance (ohms)
^/Z^
Xj
= =
R^
The
cal-
SERIES
4-A]
AND PARALLEL
117
CIRCUITS.
Here R^ is the resistance of the coil, as measured by

current.
The inductance, in henries, is L2
X2^h2irn.
direct
For the accurate determination of L by either of

wave form of electromotive force should be
these methods,
the
sinusoidal
and
the losses in instruments should be taken into consideration, 23a.
48. (c) Resistance and Coil in Series.

there
one current which
is
is
the
same
electromotive forces are added vectorially,
around the separate parts of the
In
a series circuit
in all parts of the circuit;

i.
e.,
the voltage drops
when added
circuit,
as vectors,
give the total impressed electromotive force of the circuit.
O
Fig.
Fig.
Resistance and coil in
The
B.,1
8.
Rfl
9.
series,
three readings of the voltmeter, E, E^ and E^, are, accord-
ingly, drawn to scale

The current / is laid
so as to
off in
form the
triangle
OAB,
in Fig. 9.
phase with E^, since the current and
electromotive force in the non-inductive resistance are in the same
OCA
phase.
We
overcome
ance
i?2
= XJ,
is
the
is
then drawn as a right triangle.
have then the in-phase electromotive forces,
to
the resistance
R-^,
and
BC = RJ to
and the quadrature electromotive

overcome the reactance X^.
same
as Figs. 5
and 7 combined
OB = RJ
overcome the
force,
to
resist-
CA = L^ml
be seen that Fig. 9

one diagram so drawn
It will
in
that the current in both parts of the circuit
is
the
same
in
magni-
tude and in phase.

49. Three-voltmeter Method.
known
The
foregoing construction,
as the three-voltmeter method, enables us to calculate
L^
ii8
and X2, the
results being
[Exp.
dependent upon three voltmeter read-
and current, and not dependent upon the wattmeter (as
ings
the wattmeter method, 46), nor upon the measurement of

ance (as in the impedance method, 47).
Referring to Fig.
9,
in
resist-
we have
hence
and
L2
= X2
-T-
<D
= X2
-T- 2iTn.
In applying the three-voltmeter method, greatest accuracy

obtained
error
is
when E^^Ê^.
If an electrostatic voltmeter
is
is
used, no
introduced on account of power consumed in the instru-
ment, 23a.
50.
Three-voltmeter Method for Measuring Power.
Before
the
perfection and general introduction of the wattmeter, the three-volt-
meter method for measuring power was used

practical testing.
The procedure was
this is
now
obsolete for
as follows
Given a device RJ^^ (which might be, for example, a transformer)

power in which is to be measured. Connect in series a non-
the
inductive resistance R^, as in Fig.
power
8,
and read E,
E^,
E^ and
/.
The
in R^L, (see Fig. 9) is
W,
= EJ cos 0,= (I-^ 2E,) (^ E^' /)
See Bedell and Crehore's Alternating Currents,
p.
232.
The weak
make large
point in the method
is
errors in the result.
The three-ammeter method, with a non-inductive
that small errors in observation
resistance in parallel with the apparatus under test as in Fig. 10, is
open
to the
same objection.
51. {d) Resistance and Coil in Parallel.

cuits,* currents
vector
sum
In
parallel cir-
combine vectorially, the main current being the
of the branch currents.
* (Sia). Currents are proportional to admittances; hence admittances

be added as vectors. The admittance of several circuits in parallel
may
SERIES
4-A]
The main
AND PARALLEL
current /
is
CIRCUITS.
laid off, in Fig. ii, as the diagonal of a
parallelogram with sides equal to the branch currents I^ and
The
electromotive force
is
I^.
laid off in the direction of I^, since
Bih C
/s
Fig. 10.
Fig. II.
Resistance and coil in parallel.
the current and electromotive force in the non-inductive branch
are in phase.
is
the
is
common
terminal electromotive force and
same for both branches.
the
For the inductive branch, the electromotive force

is
constructed, as in (&).
motive force
force
is
CA
as Figs. 5
OC,
is
For
this branch, the
and
7,
The
power
OCA
electro-
phase with Z^; the wattless electromotive
in quadrature with /j.
Fig.
11
drawn with a common
Fig. 9, these figures

52.
in
triangle
is
seen to be the same
and combined.
were combined with a common
right triangle
OCA
is
In
/.
tri-
angle for an equivalent* single circuit, R'L', which could be substituted

is
for
the
two
parallel
circuits.
sum of the admittance of

we may add as vectors either
circuits we may add as vectors
the vector
Since OC'^=R'I, and
the separate branches.
In parallel
circuits
currents or admittances
series
either electromotive forces or im-
while in
pedances, 19 and 20.

* (S2a). For a more complete discussion of equivalent resistance and
inductance, see Bedell and Crehore's Alternating Currents, pp. 238-41.
Both
7?'
and L' depend upon frequency and are not constants of the
is not the same for
circuits; the equivalent resistance of parallel circuits
alternating as for direct current.
I20
[Exp.
C'/4=L'(o/, the resistance and reactance of this equivalent

cuit are
cir-
computed as follows
R'=OC'Î;
L'u>=C'A-~I.
53.
parallel circuits, the total current in
For any number of
phase with
is
5/ cos
the total quadrature current
is
S/ sin 0.
Hence
/=V (5/ cos

Dividing by E,
The
is
^H- (5/ sin e)^
we have
conductance of a number of parallel circuits
total
sum
arithmetical
ance
(9)
is the
of the separate conductances; the total suscept-
the arithmetical
sum
of the separate susceptances.
(Com-
pare with 20 for series circuits.)
APPENDIX
CIRCUITS
54. It
is
I.
WITH CAPACITY.
not intended in this experiment that tests with capacity
be included, the following summarized statements concerning capacity
being made for reference and for comparison with the relations
already discussed concerning inductance.
55. Circuits
with Resistance and Capacity.
In
theory, circuits
containing capacity (C) can be treated exactly the same as circuits

containing inductance,
Inductive reactance
if
the following differences are noted
= L<u
current lags behind impressed electro-
motive force.
Capacity reactance
i -=-
Cm
current
is
in advance of impressed
In either circuit, tan 6
= X ^~R.
All diagrams for inductive circuits can be applied to capacity cir-
cuits
AND PARALLEL
SERIES
4-A]
by writing i-i-C<a
in place of Lai,
(as in a mirror) so that current
is
121
CIRCUITS.
and reversing the diagrams
leading instead of lagging.
Inductance produces effects similar to mass in a moving mech-
anism; capacity produces
Inductance and
effects similar to a spring.
capacity store, but do not consume,* energy; the stored energy being
^Lr
in inductance
56.
and ^CE^
As frequency
is
in capacity.
increased, the impedance of an inductive cir-
becomes greater; the impedance of a capacity circuit becomes

Furthermore, as frequency is increased, 6 in an inductive circuit
becomes greater; 6 in a capacity circuit becomes less.
cuit
less.
57. Circuits
with Inductance and Capacity.
tains both inductance

is
and capacity, the
When a circuit con-
total reactance of the circuit
the difference between the inductive reactance and the capacity
reactance
X = La> i/C<a.
tralize each other.
When
Inductance and capacity tend to neu-
the inductive reactance
is
greater than the
capacity reactance, the current lags behind the electromotive force,

as in an inductive circuit ; when, on the other hand, the capacity react-
ance
the greater, the current
is
force, as in a capacity circuit.

58.
Voltage Resonance.
may, therefore, be
and the
total
less
In
is
in
advance of the electromotive
In either case, tan d

a series
= X -i-R.
circuit, the total
impressed voltage may, accordingly, be
The
voltage drop around part of the circuit only.

part of the circuit
is
impedance
than the impedance of part of the circuit only,
thus increased by resonance so
less
than the
voltage around
as- to
be greater
than the impressed electromotive force.

59.
Current Resonance.
In
parallel circuits with
two branches,
one with inductance and the other- with capacity, the current in the
inductance branch is lagging while the current in the capacity branch
is
leading.
The two branch
currents are to a certain extent in phase
opposition so that the total or main line current, which
sum of
Due to
the two,
may
is
the vector
be less than the current in either branch.
resonance, a local circulating current
is
obtained which
is
greater than the current from the generator.

60.
Non-Sine Waves.
When
the impressed electromotive force
does not follow a sine law, there are present

* In an inductance with iron,
in addition to the
some energy is lost in magnetic hysteresis

amount of energy is lost in dielectric
similarly, in a condenser, a small
hysteresis.
122
fundamental
harmonics
with frequencies
[Exp.
higher
than
the
fun-
damental.
6i.
In
inductive
Inductive reactance
circuits,
is,
reactance
with
increases
frequency.
accordingly, greater for these harmonics than
and
more nearly a sine wave than is the wave of
impressed electromotive force.
For this reason, vector diagrams
can be used for representing experimental results, obtained from
for the fundamental; harmonics in the current are choked out
the current
wave
is
measurements on inductive
62. Capacity reactance,
quency and harmonics
without
circuits,
the impressed electromotive force
is
much
even when
error
not a true sine wave.
on the other hand, decreases with fre-
in the current are, accordingly,
hence, a small distortion in the electromotive force
augmented;
wave may make
a large distortion in the current wave.

63.
For
this reason, vector
diagrams are
less accurate for rep-
resenting experimental results for capacity circuits than for inductive

circuits,
when
is
not a true sine wave.
For
example, in the laboratory without special precautions, capacity react-
ance can not be measured by alternating current methods as accurately as inductive reactance.
64.
When
capacity and inductance are both present, a small dis-
tortion in the electromotive force
wave may be much exaggerated
by the resonance of a particular harmonic, with corresponding error

in
any vector representation.
CIRCLE DIAGRAM.
4-B]
Experiment 4-B.
Circle
Diagram
123
with Resist-
for a Circuit
ance and Reactance.
is
I.
Introductory.
If a circuit with resistance
and reactance
supplied with a constant impressed electromotive force, the
current will have a certain value and a certain phase position
with
reference
to
the
electromotive
force,
discussed
in
be changed,
if
as
Exp. 4-A.
/==-=- V^'
+ ^';
= X-î?.
tani9
These values of current and phase angle
will
either the resistance or the reactance of the circuit

2. In a circuit in
resistance
is
is
which the reactance
varied, the value of /
decreased; as resistance
and
the current
3.
-^Z
6 will increase
and the
when
and
more out of phase with

when
:
(in the case of inductive react-
behind the electromotive force; when
lags 90
0,
is
changed.
In the limiting cases
reference to the electromotive force.
-R=o,
is
constant,
is
cut out of circuit, the current will,
is
accordingly, not only be larger but will be
ance)
and
The
object of this experiment
Rôo,
0.
is
to
show the change of
cur-
rent in magnitude and phase, in a circuit with constant inductive*

reactance,
when
tromotive force
the resistance
is
locusf of the current vector

Fig. 2
this is true of
reactance
is
varied and the impressed elec-
is
maintained constant.
is
It will
be found that the
the arc of a semicircle, as in
any constant potential
circuit, in
constant and the power consumption
in a transformer
(Exp. S-C) or
in
is
which the
variable
as
an induction motor.
* (3a).
similar experiment may be performed with capacity reactance; see Appendix I., Exp. 4-A.
A converse experiment may also be made with constant resistance and
variable reactance, in which case the diameter of the semi-circle locus is
in the direction of E, instead of at right angles to
it
see reference,
3b.
t (3b). Established by Bedell and Crehore, Alternating Currents, pp.
223 and 275.
124
in
4. Data.
Let the
which R^
is
shown
circuit be as
[Exp.
Exp. 4-A,
in Fig. 8,
a non-inductive resistance and
i?2-^2 is
(with-
coil
out iron) with resistance R^, inductance L^ and reactance X^.
The impressed
electromotive force
varies, all readings should be
should be constant; in case
reduced by direct proportion to
correspond to some constant value of E; an adjusting
shown
ance, as
Exp. 4-A,
in Fig. 8,
is
resist-
The
unnecessary.
fre-
quency should be constant.
With an ammeter, measure

measure the various
falls
pressed electromotive
the current
force; E^, the
the non-inductive resistance i?i
The
With a
/.
of potential as follows:
E.^,
voltmeter,
E, the im-
fall
of potential around
the
fall
around the
coil
error due to the current taken by the voltmeter, although
negligible for a circuit in
when
appreciable
by using an
which the current
the current
is
small
electrostatic voltmeter,
is
large,
may
this error
becomes
be avoided
which takes only
sufficient
current to charge the instrument.

5.
Take a
of readings for decreasing values of
series
throughout the range that
it is
possible to read
i?i
E^ and E^.
6. Repeat at a second frequency.

7.
Repeat
at
one frequency with an iron core in the
8. Measure the
fall-of-potential
coil.
resistance of the coil, R^, by direct current,
method,
For one
9. Results.
17,
Exp. i-A.
set of readings,
draw a
triangle,
with the observed values of E, E^ and E^ as the three
Fig.
I,
Lay
off
OD
convenient
in the direction of
scale.
Produce
OB
OB, equal
to
OAB,
sides.
to the current /, in
C by an amount BC^=RJ,
any
the
electromotive force to overcome the resistance and supply the
RP
losses in the coil.
come the
OC
is
the electromotive force to over-
resistance of the entire circuit.
tromotive forces are
now
The
current and elec-
represented in magnitude and direction
for one value of the resistance.
Fig.
is
the typical diagram for
CIRCLE DIAGRAM.
4-B]
125
a series
circuit, being the same as Fig. 9, Exp. 4-A, and Fig.

3,
Exp. 3-B, for the alternator; compare, also. Fig. 9, Exp. 5-B
and the transformer diagrams, Exp. 5-C. As explained in 11,
OCA
is
in the
not an exact right angle.
For a second
10.
same way
set of readings, locate the points B',
as the points B, C,
Locate points in
this
manner for
all
were
Resistance=i
o
Method
Fig. i.
of plotting
results.
located.
II. It
is
J!-i-X
and D.
Resistances'!)
Circle diagram for a constant po-
tential circuit with constant reactance,
resistance
D',
the readings, thus defining
the curves in Fig. 2, which are the loci of the points B,
Fig.
C,
is
when
varied.
seen that, as the resistance
is
decreased, the cur-
rent increases and lags more and more behind the electromotive
force.
which
If the impressed electromotive force,

flows, are sinusoidal,
if
there
is
and hence the current

no power
lost in the
power electroRJ^
BC=^RJ), OCA will be a right triangle. In this
locus of C will be a semicircle with diameter OAÊ,
reactance coil R^L^, except
motive force
case, the
and
(supplied by the

[26
and the locus of

diameter
E-^X,
circles are
12. If,
is
i?2/^,the locus
theoretical semi-
lines in Fig. 2.
of
will be flattened so as to
coil
inside
lie
This would be the case in a reactance with iron,
likely to be the case
even in a
coil
Eddy
of eddy currents in the copper.

increasing
The
however, the power consumption in the reactance
more than
is
(the current locus) will be a semicircle* with

at right angles to E.
shown by dotted
of a semicircle.
and
[Exp.
without iron on account
currents have the effect of
R^ above the value determined by

that
RJ,
direct currents, so
in Fig. 2,
BC
increased from
The
locus of
by energy
losses,
wave form.
13. The
should be
but not by
current
(the locus oi
BP.
to
affected
is
D)
locus
not
will
be affected by energy losses,

but will be flattened
current
is
the
if
not a sine wave
due to an impressed electromotive force which
Resistance
Fig.
Values of / and 9 for different
3.
values of R.
When
caused by hysteresis.
the current
is
not a sine wave, the apparent value of
somewhat with R;
since
is
not a
is
sine wave, or to distortion
varies
not constant, the locus of Z?
is
not
an exact semicircle.
14. Constant Current. Operation.
large,
i.
e.,
when
X-^R
stant, irrespective of
and
is
is
any variation of
and
6;
between ^
= 90 the value of the current varies only 6 per
* ( iia). If this is a semi-circle,

accords with facts (see Fig.
accordingly proved.
I=(,E-i-X)
2,
is
remains nearly con-
the condition for constant current operation and
this
when
seen that
It is
large, the current
sin 9
= 70
cent.
is
and XI
This
obtained
=E
sin 9;
Exp. 4-A) and the proposition
is
CIRCLE DIAGRAM.
4-B]
in
to,
127
any apparatus by means of high reactance within, or external

the apparatus.
Constant current generators (8, Exp. 3-A,
27, 27a, Exp. 3-B) and constant current transformers (24,

24a, Exp. S-C) are so constructed.
15.
Rectangular Coordinates.
The
coordinates, in Fig. 2, should also be

nates, as in Fig. 3, the values of /
results
shown
and
it
in
polar
in rectangular coordi-
6 being plotted for different
values of the total resistance of the circuit.
shown
For small values of
will be seen that the current is nearly constant.
CHAPTER
V.
TRANSFORMERS.
Experiment S-A.
Preliminary Study and Operation of a
Transformer.
PART
I.
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
transformer consists of three elements
a core of lami-
nated iron; and a primary and a secondary winding upon this

core.
The two windings
usually from the core
from each other and
are insulated
they are in close proximity to each other
or are so inter-spaced that practically
all
through one must pass through the other
the flux
i.
e.,
which passes
there
is
the least
possible magnetic leakage.
The transformer
is
used on alternating current circuits to
increase or step-up the voltage, or to decrease or step-down the

voltage, in the ratio of the
(S-îS^); there
is
rent in the ratio S^
by a decrease
number of primary
to secondary turns
a corresponding opposite change in the cur:
î,
an increase
in current,
in voltage being
and vice versa.
accompanied
It is chiefly the trans-
former which makes alternating current superior to direct current for

tial
power transmisssion, for
on the transmission
line,
it
makes
possible a high poten-
with consequent copper economy
(50, Exp. 6-A), and any desired lower potential at the generating and at the receiving apparatus.
2. In operation, the
nating current supply
primary winding
(see 'Fig.
i).
primary which magnetizes the core,
i.
is
e., it
connected to an altercurrent flows in the

sets
up an alternating
magnetic flux which induces an electromotive force in the secondary winding and,
when
the secondary
128
is
closed through a resist-
STUDY AND OPERATION.
S-AJ
ance or other load,
this
129
electromotive force causes a current
to flow.
The
former
condition very nearly attained in the operation of a transis
the transference of
secondary without
loss,
power from the primary
the current
20,000
to the
and voltage being one
in-

TRANSFORMERS.
130
The
lost
amperes are due to the
[Exp.
even on no load,
fact that,
a transformer takes a certain exciting current to maintain the

flux
and to supply the core
sion, see
3.
in
For a more
detailed discus-
Exps. 5-B and 5-C.
Structurally, transformers are of
which the core
coils;
losses.
and the
is
two
types, the core type
on the inside and not the outside of the
shell type
in
which the core
is
not only on the
inside of the coils but also encloses them, to a certain extent,
the outside so as to
form a divided return magnetic
hand-books and text-books.)
on
(See
circuit.
Variations in structural arrange-
ments depend on commercial considerations, and do not affect

at all the principle of operation.
Transformer
former
is
losses
eventually appear as heat and a trans-
so designed that this heat can be radiated or disposed
The
of without exceeding a limiting safe rise in temperature.*
magnetic circuit
For
all
is
laminated to minimize the eddy current
usual purposes, the magnetic circuit
is
closed.
loss.
trans-
former with an open magnetic circuit takes excessive magnetizing

current and
it
is
while
it
might be used for some special purpose
never used for power and lighting.
(The "Hedgehog"
transformer was of this type.)
* ( 3a) Heating of Transformers. This necessitates, on the part of

the designer, a consideration of radiating surface, etc., or the provision of
special means of cooling. The radiating surface usually found necessary varies between 2 and 4 sq. in. per watt. For the allowable rise of
temperature, see Standardisation Rules which at present allow a rise of
some
Run
transformer iron ages,

While this has been
true of the iron ordinarily used for years in transformer construction, it
is less true of the improved alloy steels which are being introduced.
Hence, aging ceases to be a factor and the allowable temperature rise
50 C. above the
i.
e.,
air.
at higher temperatures,
the core losses increase in the course of time.
might be increased as much as the insulating material will stand.

Good
insulation will stand continuously a temperature of go C.
This will
increase the rating of a given size transformer, or will reduce the size
and cost of a transformer of a given rating.
In rating new iron the
allowable magnetising current, and not temperature,
ing consideration.
may become
the limit-
S-A]
131
4. In the majority of cases transformers are used on constant potential systems, the primary
and the secondary
potentials
The secondary current, accordThe primary current varies nearly
being substantially constant.

ingly, varies with the load.
in proportion to the secondary current
and
Trans-
to the load.
formers connected in different parts of a constant potential

system are in
parallel,
i.
e.,
the primary of each transformer
connected directly across the line so as to receive the

voltage.
It will
is
full line
be seen (compare Appendix II.) that a constant
potential transformer
is
essentially a constant flux transformer.
Other usesf of the transformer may be considered
Commonly, transformers
are
made
special.
for single-phase currents,
there being a single primary and a single secondary winding.
On
polyphase
circuits, several single-phase
transformers are used
special 3-phase trans-
(see Exp. 6-A), one on each phase.
former, with three primary and three secondary coils
is
frequently
used (see 26, Exp. 6-A).
The object of
5. Object and Apparatus.
to familiarize one with the structure
experiment
this
is
and general behavior of a
transformer and with some of the more important relations be-
tween the different quantities involved
in its operation.
Sub-
sequent experiments go more fully into test methods (Exp. 5-B)
and theory (Exp. S-C), parts of which can be read

in connection
A
turns
transformer with several

is
to advantage
with the present experiment.

coils
having the same number of
well suited for the purposes of this experiment.
The
may
be mentioned the series or current transformer, with

and secondary supplying current for an
ammeter or wattmeter; the constant current transformer for supplying
(constant current) arc lights from a constant current series circuit, one
t (4a). Here
primary
in series with the line
time of importance; arc-light transformers for supplying (constant curfrom a constant potential primary circuit, depending for
their operation on magnetic leakage, the present form being the "tub"
rent) arc lights
type with movable secondary which
balanced by weights.
is
repelled by the primary and counter-
TRANSFORMERS.
132
following outline
is
having four equal
may
[Exp.
written specifically for such a transformer
coils,
each for 55 volts, but the experiment
be modified so as to apply to a transformer
other manner.
See Appendix
I.
for polarity
wound
and
in
some
on
ratio tests
a commercial transformer.
PART
6 Polarity Test
Use one
coil as
Series
and Parallel Connection
a primary and connect
series as a safeguard)
Use
TESTS.
II.
it
manner
to a 5S-volt alternating current supply.
them
in series
that the three electromotive forces are additive
To prove
and do not oppose one another.
this,
measure the
electromotive force of each coil and the electromotive

across the three; the latter value should equal the
three other values.
7.
With
ondary
(with a resistance in
the other three coils as a secondary, connecting
in such a
of Coils.
force
sum of
This establishes the polarity of the
the
coils.
the primary circuit unchanged, join the three sec-
In doing this
coils in parallel.
it
is
necessary to
make
sure that terminals about to be connected together are of like

polarity, as in connecting batteries.
When
the polarity has been
already established, as in the preceding section, the proper parallel
The following procedure, how-
connection can be readily made.
ever, insures the right connection independent of previous
edge of polarity, two
coils
being
first
knowl-
joined in parallel and the
third coil being then joined in parallel with these two.
To
deter-
mine which terminals should be connected together to connect
two
coils in parallel, join
a terminal of one coil to a terminal
of the other coil and connect a voltmeter to the two remaining

terniinals.
If the voltmeter reads zero, the
nected to the voltmeter

will be in parallel.
may be
two terminals con-
joined together and the two coils
If the voltmeter does not read zero or very
nearly zero, the terminals connected to the voltmeter cannot be

joined together without causing a short circuit of the two coils
S-A]
which would give
I33
excessive current and burn out the
rise to
transformer.
Marking
8.
Polarity.
It is
common
convenient and
to desig-
nate tht polarity of several coils by some systematic marking;

thus,
all
terminals of one polarity
may
be marked prime
To
those of opposite polarity be unmarked.

parallel,
marked terminals are connected
marked terminals
the next
is
In marking polarity
and
and un-
marked
connected to the tmmarked terminal of
as in Figs, 2, 3 and
coil,
to one line
to the other; to connect in series, the
terminal of one coil
(')
connect coils in
it
is
5.
always best to have the marked sec-
ondary terminals of the same polarity as the marked primary
Some
terminals.
positive convention* of this kind becomes im-
portant whenever proper polarity
essential, as in the case of
is
transformers supplying the same secondary main, transformers
on polyphase
6-A and 7-A),
circuits (Exps.
transformers used
for reducing the current or voltage supplied to wattmeters,
For
polarity
Appendix
and
ratio tests
etc.
on commercial transformers, see
I.
Compute
9. Ratio Test.f
and
verify,
experimentally, the
different ratios of voltage transformation, E-^-^-E^, which are
possible with the transformer.
force of a coil
where
is
is,
At any
instant the electromotive
by Faraday's Law,
number of turns and
<f>
is flux.
The instantaneous
value of the voltage, and hence the effective or virtual value,

accordingly proportional to the
is
ratio of voltages in
any two
turns in the
(See Appendix
coils.
number of
coils is the ratio
turns,
and the
of the number of
I.)
* In connecting together transformers of different makes, care must be

may be indicated by different systems.
taken, for their polarities

t
For current
ratio
and
tests
on commercial transformers, see Appendix
I.
TRANSFORMERS.
134
If
any combination of
coils gives
[Exp.
a voltage which
the range of the voltmeter, these tests can be
lower supply voltage;
it
may
lo.
down
line,
Prove that the voltage of the secondary
is
either in phase,
To do
this,
and one terminal of
join together one terminal of the primary
the supply
connected to the terminals of the primary.
Measure
the secondary, so that the

is
thos step-
to a lower voltage in the secondary.
or i8o out of phase,f with the primary voltage.
voltage
beyond
be found convenient to connect
the high potential side of the transformer to the
ping the voltage
is
made by using a
two windings are
in series
the voltage across the primary, the voltage across the secondary,
and the voltage across the two, measured between the terminal
of the primary and the terminal of the secondary which are not
joined together.
Either the
sum or
the difference of the first
the
sum
or the difference will depend on which terminals of the
two
two readings will equal the third reading; whether

windings are connected together.
different phase, the total
sum
If the
would be found
it is
two voltages were of

to be not the algebraic
but the vector sum.
11. Use as an Auto-transformer.
transformer has two independent
As
circuits,
ondary, and any particular winding
is
ordinarily used,
a primary and a sec-
used as part of one of
t ( loa). The secondary eletromotive force is in the same phase as the

primary counter electromotive force, being induced by (substantially) the
same flux; hence it is opposite in phase. to the primary impressed or line
electromotive force. It follows that the secondary current, when the
transformer is loaded, is nearly opposite in phase to the primary current,
This opposition of currents
this being discussed more fully in Exp. S-C.
is verified by the auto-transformer test, ii.
That primary and secondary currents are opposite to each other in
phase may be further illustrated by the following experiment. Take a
straight upright core surrounded by a primary circuit.
Place around it
(loosely) a closed ring forming a secondary circuit.
Connect the primary
to an alternating current supply. When the primary circuit is closed, the
secondary will be thrown off violently, showing that the currents in the
two circuits are in opposite directions. The secondary ring may be held
down by threads, so as to float as a halo.
S-A]
I35
In the auto-transformer,* or single-coil transformer,
these only.
part of the windings
is
common
Connect the transformer
to both
coils
primary and secondary.
an auto-transformer, and
as
To do
verify the different values of voltage transformation.
and consider any one or more of
this connect all coils in series
the coils, as
may
be desired, to be
primary or secondary.
the
coils
will
at
the
Some
110 Volt Supply
of
same time
-R,
form part of both primary and

secondary; these
therefore,
both
coils
the
will
carry,
a'
c d
b'c
primary and
the secondary currents, which are
opposite in phase
give a resultant current approxi-
mately
equal
Jto
the
Load
and so
( loa)
arithmetical
d'
^Jl!lfiiI/^JiafliLkQfilHLT^^
g^^^.^^^^
p^^_^_
former, using coils
P""ary;
coil
is
J^^l
A B C D
as
also used as
secondary.
difference of the two.

12. Connect the coils as a step-down auto-transformer (Fig.
2) and as a step-up auto-transformer or "booster"
Using
each
(Fig. 3).
suitable resistances as a load, determine the currentf in
coil,
and
in the resistance
their relative values.
The
in the supply line
and explain
currents and voltages for other com-
binations of coils can be computed and compared, or determined
Suppose a 3 2 ratio
as primary, how would the use of C,
experimentally.
is
desired
with A, B,
as secondary
compare
with the use oi B, CI

13.
Advantages of the Auto-transformer.
It will be
found
that the auto-transformer requires less copper than a transformer
with separate primary and secondary

only lower
first
better efficiency
cost but less
coils;
it
has, therefore, not
copper loss and copper drop, giving
and regulation.
The saving
in space
on account
* Also called " balance coil " or " compensator " ; the term auto-converter
should be discarded.
t In making measurement of current, it will be found convenient to use
one ammeter and a 3-way ammeter switch.
TRANSFORMERS.
136
makes
of less copper
it
[Exp.
and
possible to reduce also the iron
iron loss.
This advantage of an auto-transformer will be seen to be

greater the nearer the ratio of transformation
For a
1:1.
is
comparison of output of transformers and auto-transformers,
Exp. y-B.
see 8, 9,
no Volt
An
auto-transformer cannot be used
when complete
insulation
of
the
Supply
from
primary
secondary
the
necessary, as in house lighting
high potential
is
from
lines.
The step-down auto-transformer

__pl
of Fig. 2
^MMAAMMMM/VWV-'
Load
is
in
starting device
common
use as a
for induction
Resistance
FiG.
Step-up
3.
ô^s, giving a
auto-trans-
former or booster, using

as primary; coils
coils
j^
voltage while the motor
line
full
ABCD
^BC
mo-
lower voltage than
^^ ^ ^^ ^
^^^j
^^^ p;
g^
are used as secondary.
Exp. 7-A.
common
use of the step-up arrangement of Fig. 3
is
as a
booster to raise the voltage on remote parts of a distribution

system, say from 2,000 to 2,200 volts.
For
this
a standard
2,000/200 volt transformer can be used, with the low-potential

with the primary to boost the voltage, as in Fig.2,
coil in series
Exp. 7-B.
This becomes a "negative booster"
tions of the low-potential coil (coil
(If a standard transformer

lOO-volt
90
circuit
may
is
if
the connec-
are reversed.
in Fig. 3)
to be tried in the laboratory, a
no
be boosted to
volts,
or reduced to
volts.)
14.
Transformers are usually
Constant Potential Operation.
operated from a constant potential circuit, so as to transform

either step-up or step-down
from
a constant primary potential
to a constant secondary potential.
15.
Open
Circuit.
supply circuit across
Connect
no-volt alternating current
two of the transformer
coils in series, as

S-A]
Measure the no-load primary
a primary.
when the two primary

e.,
i.
coils are in parallel
two
I^
called the
when
the
to a
Compare
the
of primary turns, ampere
cases,
and
turns, volts, volts per turn
Measure
I,,,
and connected
half the preceding voltage.
for the
relative values,
current,
Predict, and then measure, the value of !
exciting current.
SS-volt supply
I37
flux density.
two primary
coils are in series,
and con-
nected to a 55-volt supply; and interpret the results (see Fig,

2,
Exp. s-B).
Commercial transformers are commonly
maries for connection

(for 1,100 volts)
(for, say,
16.
no
parallel (for
Operation Under Load*
or
a secondary
be desired.
say
supply
ment of
make such
coils in series
coils in series to
form
other arrangement of coils as may,
Connect the primary with an alternating current
no
volts,
60 cycles
coils adopted.
With
in series
volts).
Join twof of the

appropriate
voltmeter,
connected J in the primary, as in Fig.

17.
with two pri-
and two secondaries for connection
220 volts) or
form a primary and join the other two
to
built
in series (for, say, 2,200 volts) or parallel
to
the arrange-
ammeter and wattmeter are

i.
the secondary on open circuit, measure the primary
voltage, the primary current (in this case, the no-load current,
/(,)
and the primary power (in
this case, the no-load or core
losses, Wf,).
*
Time should not be
spent in an attempt to get very accurate results

it is to be followed by the more accurate test
in this test, particularly if
by the method of
losses,
Exp. 5-B.
t ( i6a). Where there is a choice of coils, select an arrangement which

avoids great magnetic leakage. If each coil forms one layer or section, to
take the first two for primary and the other two for secondary would not
be a good arrangement. In a commercial transformer, the primary and
secondary windings are so placed as to reduce magnetic leakage to secure

however, all the windings should be used, that is, no coil should
be left idle. An arrangement of coils commonly used is as follows low,
;
this end,
high, high, low, potential.
With instruments arranged
(See Appendix
III.)
as in Fig.
i,
no corrections need be made.
13S
Load
18.
[Exp.
means of
suitable non-inductive
the secondary by
Change
resistance.
TRANSFORMERS.
this
by steps so as
resistance
to vary the
secondary current between no load and 25 per cent, overload.

At each step measure the primary voltage 1, current I^, and
power,
rent
I^.
Wii also the secondary* voltage E^, and secondary

The product of the secondary voltage and current
In practice, a load of incandescent lamps
motor
inductive, but not so a
Measure the
19.
IS,
will
power W,, the secondary load being non-
give the secondary

inductive.
cur-
is
non-
load.
resistance of primary
and secondary.
(See
Exp. 5-B.)
20. For each load, compute the power factor (W^-i-EJ,^)

also the angle 6
by which the primary current lags behind the
(Power
Plot
of
Wi, power
/i,
and for secondary
(i?i/i^)
value of
W^
'that
regulation
to
no
E^
6.)
andW^
for different values
{RJ^) and
circuit)
which
constant at
is
for primary
the core loss Wf, |*the

all
loads, as
Exp. s-B.
in Fig. 8,
Note
on open
6,
= cos
Plot, also, the copper loss
in Fig. 4.
as
I2,
factor,
factor
E^ decreases with load.
the per
cent, increase in
Determine the per
E^
in going
from
full
cent,
load
load.
Note the current
ratio for different loads.
It will
be seen that
as the transformer becomes loaded (by decreasing resistance in
the secondary) the secondary current becomes

to the primary current
more nearly equal
(multiplied hy S^-^S^).
In a loaded
transformer, primary and secondary ampere-turns are practically

(but not exactly) equal.
It is seen that in
in
amperes and a
While
a transformer there
loss in watts, this last
is
a loss in volts, a loss
determining the
efficiency.
best for illustrating the operation of a transformer, the
* By means of
may be used for
one voltmeter and one ammeter

both primary and secondary.
suitable transfer switches
S-A]
loading method
efficiency
is
139
not so good for the accurate determination of
and regulation.
These can be computed much more
_0e7iîrcuit_yoltage
10
15
20
25
SECONDARY CURRENT; AMPERES

Fig.
4,
Curves for 2,000/100
volt,
K.W. transformer
see also Fig. 8, Exp. SB.
accurately from the losses, determined without loading, as in
Exp. S-B.
21. Load the transformer with an inductive load and take
one reading of the instruments.
ondary voltage
load
that
is,
is
somewhat
the regulation
It
than
less
will be seen that the secit
was with non-inductive
poorer.*
is
This happens when
induction motors are operated from transformers.

the secondary current
is
leading, the secondary voltage in
instead of decrease, with the load.
those obtained for an alternator
In this case
If the secondary current
lagging.
some cases would
The
were
increase,
results are similar to
see Exp. 3-B, particularly Fig. 7.
22. Design Data and Computation of Flux Density.
Note
the construction and essential dimensions of the transformer,

* (2ia). If the leakage reactance of a transformer
with
its
factor ;
resistance, the regulation
compare
28,
Exp. 3-B.
may
is
small,
be better at low than
at
compared
high power
TRANSFORMERS.
14
[Exp.
including the cross section of the magnetic circuit and size of

parts, destroy insulation or
damage the
transformer in any way in seeking this information.
Data fur-
remove
wire, but do not
nished by the maker can be used for this purpose.
Compute
23.
and
the current density in amperes per square inch
in circular mils per
ondary windings.
ampere, for the primary and the sec-
Current densities from 1,000 to 2,000 circular
mils per ampere are
common, but
less
copper was often allowed
in early transformers.
24. Compute the
maximum
Flux
where
is
and n
is
frequency.
Compute
The
is
is
for any coil,
the volts per turn.
II.
value of the flux density in gausses
Xio^
R
= S_.
= ^^^
-^,
gausses
English units
is
is
is
in
multipHed by 6.45, the formula gives
for, unfortunately, this
in
If
the flux density in lines per square inch.
If A, in square inches,
25.
is
the cross section* of the core in sq. cms.
square inches, 5max.
Bma.%. in
E-^S
thus
.
r-1
^
Flux
density
number of turns
the
Appendix
maximum
(flux per sq. cm.)
5"
quantity
formulae, see
the
thus
= ^X5...= AXi2L
the voltage and
For proof of
where
value of the total flux in C.G.S.
maxwells (see 9a, Exp. i-B)
lines or
common
The computations
mixture of C.G.S. and
use.
for
should be
made
for standard
frequency (60 cycles), and two other frequencies (30 and 120)
with the same value of E.

able,
If values of
and
5"
are not obtain-
assumed values may be assigned for practice computations.
If the cross section of the core

* (24a).
The
net cross section
is,
is
not uniform,
will
have dif-
say, 15 per cent, less than the gross
cross section on account of lamination.
S-A]
H'
From
ferent values for different parts of the magnetic circuit.
these computations
if a
transformer
is
it
can be seen whether
rated and at the same voltage.
be changed to maintain
the
Practically, transformers are
changing E,
if
will
be more or
less,
in
same
at different
should
frequencies.)
not too far below the frequency
is
For a discussion of the
designed.
is
frequency upon core
In transformer design,*
what manner
(Note
run at different frequencies without
the frequency
for which the transformer

effect of
operated at a higher or lower frequency than
loss, see
is
8-14, Exp. 5-B.
given a wide range (4,000-14,000
gausses at 60 cycles), being sometimes greater in small than in

large transformers
and greater
in transformers designed for
than in those for high frequency.
B may
given,
In design,
and
more
5"
to suit his purpose, increasing
may
and decreasing
5"
to use
iron and less copper, or zdce versa.
26.
From
the formula for flux density,
it
will be seen that

is
propor-
number of turns
in the coil, a fact already noted.
volts-per-turn should be
computed as a constant for the
tional to the
may
be one third or
half, being greater for large transformers,
perhaps 2 to 4
For small transformers
transformer.
one
determined.
adjust the values of
the electromotive force of any coil of a transformer
The
low
and n being
XS
be assumed and the product
This product being fixed, the designer
this
K.W. The reciprocal gives the turnsper-volt.

The volts-per-turn, when known for a certain type and
size of transformer, may be used as a design constant.
27. Other data of interest to the designer (which may be determined when worth while) are the weight of copper and of iron,
This may range from 5 to 25 lbs. per K.W.
total and per K.W.
for either copper or iron.
The space factor for copper is the
for transformers above 30
* (2Sa).
For more complete design
same
loss.
data, see handbooks, etc.
As mag-
improved, higher magnetic densities are possible for the

While densities of 4,000-8,000 were used with ordinary grades
netic material
is
of iron, densities of 6,000-12,000 are
now common
with alloy
steel.
TRANSFORMERS.
142
ratio of the cross section of
the windings,
and
copper to the total cross section of
to the cross section of copper plus insulation
e.,
i.
[Exp.
Similarly the space factor for the iron
air space.
is
the
ratio of its net to gross section.
APPENDIX
I.
POLARITY AND RATIO OF COMMERCIAL TRANSFORMER.

28. Polarity; Alternating Current Method.
nected in series, two at a time, and notice

voltage around the two
voltages.
As an example,
1,000 volts each
50 Volt
-^1
Supply
x^
let
are con-
or the difference of the separate
in
which
this
can be carried out.
us take a transformer with two primaries for
nect the terminals of one* of the primaries
3
s.
sum
coils
taken whether the
and two secondaries for 50 volts each. Connect the

two 1,000-volt primaries in series and con1
to
-i-i|)0
I
the
Polarity
test
cur
a erna ing
y
method.
a low potential supply circuit, say 50
volts, as in Fig. 5.
5b
"
Fig.
the
is
There are several ways
The
is
two
If a voltmeter across
coils together reads zero, reverse
the connections of one of the coils.
The
voltmeter should then read 100 volts across

the two coils together, and 50 volts across
each one separately.
Terminals
and
are
now
of one polarity;
terminals A' and B' are of the opposite polarity, to be
a prime (') or
marked with
X-
Each secondary is then connected in series with one primary, the

primary being connected to the 50-volt supply circuit; the secondary
in series with
two
it is
so connected that the voltmeter reading around the
coils in series is greater (52.5 volts)
than the potential from the
mains (50 volts). If the reading is less (47.5 volts), reverse the
secondary.
Secondary terminals are marked with a prime (') or
to correspond with the primary.
Small transformers are commonly so wound that, when the primary

and secondary leads on one side of the transformer are connected
* If the
two
coils in series
out might result
if
were connected
to the supply circuit, a burn-
the coils were opposed to each other.
5-A]
H3
together, the voltage measured across the two primary and secondary
leads on the opposite'side will be the
sum
of the voltages of the two
windings.
29. Polarity; Direct Current Method.
method
be.
is
found convenient.
alternating current
The primary
is
method
will
supplied with a direct current
reading on a direct current voltmeter connected
sufficient to give a
The voltmeter
primary terminals.
to the
The
usually preferred, but sometimes the following
terminals are then con-
nected to what are supposed to be corresponding terminals of the

If, when the primary circuit is closed,* the voltmeter
thrown in the same direction as the preceding reading, the
voltmeter has been connected to the secondary terminals correspond-,
ing to primary terminals; i. e., the voltmeter lead from the primary
secondary.
needle
is
terminal (') or
(')
or
is
connected to the secondary terminal to be marked
If the voltmeter needle
X-
the reverse
is
thrown
in the opposite direction,
is true.
30. Potential Ratio.
Where one transformer alone
is
to be tested,
the transformer should be supplied with any convenient voltage and

the voltage of each circuit measured either by two voltmeters, one of
which has been calibrated
in
terms of the other, or by one voltmeter
reading direct on the low potential side and with a multiplier on the
high potential side.f
When
one transformer has been tested
potential transformer of accurate ratio
is
in this
manner, or a small
available,
two transformers
can be run in parallel from the same circuit and their secondary
voltages on open circuit compared by readings taken with one voltis known.
two similar transformers are connected in
opposition, any difference will be shown by a voltmeter
meter or with two voltmeters whose relative calibration

If the secondaries of
series
and
in
connected across the two.

31.
Current Batio.
transformer, test
For
commercial testing of the ratio of a
may be made by comparison
secondary currents instead of voltages.

short-circuited
*The
through
an
of
primary
The secondary
ammeter of low
resistance
and
circuit
is
and the
current should be small so as not to injure the voltmeter

circuit is made and broken.
by-
slamming the needle when the

t
It
When
is not necessary to run the transformer at full rated potential.

high potentials are used, due caution should be observed.
TRANSFORMERS.
144
[Exp.
primary and secondary currents measured when a proper voltage (a
few per
cent, of
normal primary voltage)
is
applied to the primary,
so that about the normal current flows.
Current Test.
32. Circulating
As a shop
test,
after one standard
transformer has been tested, other transformers designed for the same
ratio
may
at a time
be operated from the same primary mains and tested one
by connecting each secondary to be tested in parallel with
the secondary of the standard, terminals of the same polarity being
connected together.
If
an ammeter shows a circulation of current
through the secondaries, the two transformers are not of the same
ratio.
Commercially a small difference in ratio
is
allowable as
shown by
the circulating current, which, however, should never exceed one per
Instead of an ammeter a suit-
cent, of the rated full-load current.
able fuse
may be
conveniently used, and more safely where
may
difference in ratio
much
exist.
APPENDIX
II.
RELATION BETWEEN FLUX AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE.

The fundamental
33.
force
relation
turns embracing a varying flux
is
S-d(j)/dt.
secondary.
force
is
between flux and electromotive
expressed by Faraday's law; that
is
<^,
is,
in a closed circuit* of
the induced electromotive force
In a transformer, this applies alike to primary or
In the case of a primary coil this induced electromotive
a counter electromotive force and requires to overcome
it
an
equal and opposite impressedt electromotive force

e
34.
Sine Assumption.
to be a sine
Not
wave,
Assuming the wave of electromotive force
we have
limited to a transformer.
t (333)-
The
actual terminal voltage includes also resistance drop, thus

e
The
= Sd<^/dt.
= Ri-\-S-d'i>/dt.
resistance drop, however,
transformer on open
circuit.
is
practically negligible in the
primary of a
5-A]
Sd^
The maximum value of
niax. sin tat dt
the flux
*Pinax.
and the flux per unit area
R
^max.
To
HS'
is
max.
is
^.
V>max.
-^max.
-^
o^
-^
'
express in terms of effective voltage, substitute
VÊ
for Emax.-
Multiplying by lo' to change from C.G.S. units to volts, and remembering that 0) is 2-n- times the frequency (n), we have as a working
formula for flux density
_ V 2 X
"^''-
It
lo'
2,rnS^
_
~
Xio
"
4.45m5-^
follows from this formula that a constant potential transformer
is
a constant flux transformer.
is
maintained in the transformer, the voltage in any
tional to the
number of turns
It also follows that, if
in that coil.
a certain flux
coil is
For further
propor-
interpreta-
tion, see 24-26.
35.
Without Sine Assumption.
tion
d(j)
We
have the fundamental
rela-
= edt/S.
Integrating for half of a period T, during which time the flux changes
from a minus
to a plus
maximum.
2<^max.=av.AX7'/2.
Writing i/n for T, and multiplying by
^^^^
Dmax.
This
is
<Pmax.
10' to
reduce to
volts,
we
Vio'
^ E ^^^^
true of any shaped electromotive force wave, of which
is
TRANSFORMERS.
146
the average value.
seen that the
It is
[Exp.
maximum
value of the flux
depends upon the average and not the effective value of electromotive
If
force.
we
let the
average value, ef t.
For a
sine*
form factor / designate the

/-Eav. ^^d
ratio of effective to
wave /=i.i,
substituting
which gives the formula of
APPENDIX
34.
III.
USE OF A WATTMETER, VOLTMETER AND AMMETER; ARRANGEMENT OF INSTRUMENTS AND CORRECTIONS TO BE APPLIED.
36.
The ordinary measuring instruments consume,
usually only a few watts.
a small amount of power,

this
in themselves,
many
In
cases
can be neglected, particularly in testing apparatus requiring
considerable power, but in precise measurements of small quantities

the effect of these losses should be considered.
run in the present experiment
is
So far as the load
concerned, the losses in instruments
can be neglected; the errors and the methods of correcting for them
should, however, be noted for use
Some arrangements
others.
whenever necessary.
of instruments introduce larger errors than
Furthermore, the errors can be readily corrected for in some
cases and not in others.
In selecting a method for arranging instruments, choose one in

which the errors (even if large) can be best corrected for, or else
choose one in which the errors are as small as possible and no correction is necessary.
So far as convenience is concerned, the latter
is to
be preferred.
37.
current
The Wattmeter.
coil,
wattmeter has two
coils
a series or
connected in series with one line of the circuit as an
ammeter, and a shunt or potential
coil,
connected in shunt, from one
line to the other, as a voltmeter.
* ( 3Sa). For a sine wave,
fi^^,
=|Sâx.
>
and E^^^
= -L^max.-
See
1/2
page 37, Bedell and Crehore's Alternating Currents.

Form factor is
(Form factor was first used by
f =:E^j^ -T-E^^ =:!.! for a sine wave.
Roessler as E^^ -^êti.> which for a sine wave is .9.)
S-A]
wattm'eter*
147
may
38. In the first
be connected in two ways, as follows.

and usual method, Fig. 6, the potential
connected between the line wires on the supply
side.
coil
is
In this method,
TRANSFORMERS.
148
fExp.
This correction
resistance of the potential coil of the wattmeter.
might be, for example, 5 watts in a loo-volt wattmeter, 10 watts in a
The
200-volt wattmeter, etc.

readily made, the value oi
R^
correction, however,
is
exact and
is
usually being given with the instrument.
In precise work, this method should be used and the correction made.
If,
however, no correction
method, in which
40.
is
to be
made,
better to use the first
it is
the error is smaller.
Use of a Voltmeter with a Wattmeter.
When
a voltmeter
and wattmeter are used together, the voltmeter should (usually) be

connected between the same points as the potential coil of the wattmeter. There are, therefore, the same two methods of connection as
with a wattmeter alone.
41. First
Method.
on the supply
The voltmeter
side of the wattmeter.
RI drop
and may often
is
connected between the lines
The reading
of the voltmeter
includes the
in the current coil of the wattmeter
small
be neglected.
42.
Second Method.
The voltmeter
is
the error
is
connected on the load side
The voltThe wattmeter, however, includes the

watts consumed in the voltmeter. The reading of the wattmeter
should, accordingly, be corrected by subtracting E' -4- R^, where Ry is
the resistance of the voltmeter. The whole correction for the wattmeter is now E'(i/Ry,-{- i/Ry), which is to be subtracted from the
of the wattmeter, directly to the terminals of the load.
meter reading
is
now
correct.
wattmeter reading.
43.
Use of an Ammeter with a Wattmeter.
If
an ammeter
is
connected in circuit on the load side of a wattmeter, as the current

coil in Fig. 6, the
ammeter reads the true load
current.
The
watt-
meter reading, however, includes the watts loss in the ammeter

small error which
is
neglected.
ammeter
is
connected on the supply side of the wattmeter,
If the
no error
however,
is
introduced in the wattmeter reading
is
too large,* since
it
the
ammeter reading,
includes the current in the potential
* (43^). Ammeter Correction. The ammeter reading can be corrected

by subtracting (i/i?^+ i/R^^W/I. The current which flows in the potential circuits of the voltmeter and wattmeter is E/R^-\-E/R^.
This is in
phase with the electromotive force and not with the current, and must be
multiplied by the power factor of the load W/EI to get its component in
phase with the current.
5-Al
coil of the
wattmeter.
current
large.
is
This error can be neglected, when the load
The ammeter reading would be
potential coil of the wattmeter (and voltmeter,
opened when the ammeter
is
44.
more
correct
one
if
read; sometimes this
steady conditions, but simultaneous readings of

usually
149
is
all
is
if
the
used) were
allowable under
instruments are
accurate.
Combinations
Instruments.
of
In
the
combined
use
of
ammeter, wattmeter and voltmeter, the best method to use depends
somewhat upon
the conditions of the test.
The arrangement
of Fig.
for most purposes, as good as any; no corrections are made.
is,
In the short-circuit test of a transformer, the reading, of the current

is
most important; hence. Fig.
6,
Exp. 5-B, the ammeter for
this test
For
can best be connected on the load side of the other instruments.

the
open-circuit
ammeter
is,
as in Fig.
test,
voltage
is
important
and not current; the
therefore, in the supply line and the instruments arranged
i,
Exp. 5-B (requiring a correction) or as Fig.
of this
experiment (requiring no correction and hence simpler to use).

3a,
See
Exp. 5-B.
45. Multipliers.
To
extend the range of a voltmeter, either a
series resistance (called a multiplier) or a potential transformer can
be used.
The
potential range of a wattmeter
is
extended in the same
way.
To extend
the range of an ammeter, a current transformer
the primary of the transformer
is
The
ratio
is
used;
line,
The
cur-
the secondary being short-circuited through the ammeter.

rent range of a wattmeter
is
connected in series with the
extended in the same way.
of transformation of any potential or current trans-
former must be accurately known, and, for a current transformer,

this ratio must be known in connection with the
ment and secondary leads with which it is to be
particular instruused.
Any
small
phase shifting, due to the fact that primary and secondary quantities
are not exactly in phase opposition, introduces no error in the use
of instrument transformers with ammeters or voltmeters, but with
wattmeters such phase shifting
may
introduce considerable error and
For a comneeds to be taken into consideration for accurate work.

plete discussion, see Electric Measurements on Circuits Requiring
Current and Potential Transformers, a paper by L. T. Robinson, read
at the June, 1909, meeting of the A.
I.
E. E.
TRANSFORMERS.
15
[Exp.
Transformer Test by the Method of
Experiment 5-B.
Losses.
Introductory.
I.
loss,
which
The
a transformer are the core
losses in
dependent upon and varies with voUage, and the
is
copper (and load) losses, which are dependent upon and vary
The most accurate* and
with current.
method for
testing a transformer
is
to
the
most convenient
measure these
losses sepa-
without loading the transformer, and compute the
rately,
effi-
ciency and regulation.
This requires two simple
ammeter and wattmeter:
tests,
each employingf a voltmeter,
an open-circuit or no-load
determining the no-load or core loss

at various voltages, particularly at.
circuit test at a
test
for
and the exciting current
normal voltage; and a short-
low voltage (a few per
cent, of
normal) for
determining the copper and load losses and impedance drop for
various currents, particularly for normal full-load current.
The
and leakage
react-
latter test gives, also, the equivalent resistance
ance of the transformer.
Measurements are
also
made
of primary and secondary re-
'sistance.
2.
This method
whether
it is
may
be employed in testing any transformer,
intended for constant potential, constant current or
other service; the method will be described in detail with refer-
ence to
its
application to a constant potential transformer.
* ( la). This is most accurate for the reasons explained in ib, Exp.
It is not practicable to determine' efficiencies accurately by loading
2-B.
Exp. 5-A) and measuring the input and output

exceeding care be taken the two quantities measured
being so nearly equal. The indirect method of losses is, furthermore,
most convenient because no load is required and no high-potential measa transfofmer
unless
( i6,
directly
uremerits are necessary.

t In
many
pare 44.
Exp. 3-B.
cases the
Two
same instruments can be used
similar tests are
made
in the
two
tests
in testing alternators;
com-
see 9,
TEST BY LOSSES.
S-B]
151
In a constant potential transformer the magnetization and

hence the core loss and exciting current are (siibstantially) the
same
dependent upon voltage and not upon
at all loads, being
The copper and
current.
load losses, on the other hand, depend
upon current and vary with
the load.
(In a constant current
transformer, the conditions are reversed; copper losses are con-
and core
stant
PART
With
3.
with the load.)
loss varies
OPEN-CIRCUIT TEST.
I.
the secondary open, measurements are
made on
the
primary with ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter, one method
making the connec-
for
being shown in
tions*
Fig.
Although any
I.
coil
or combination of
coils
could be used as a
=> .2
S o Oi
O
O -CMg^
primary
in
most
is
this
test,
convenient
it
Fig.
to
for open-
and exciting current.
See 3a for method of connecting instruments requiring no corrections.
use a low potential coil

(50,
One method of connection
1.
circuit test for core loss
100 or 200 volts)
as primary to suit the instruments and supply voltage available;
furthermore, there
is less
danger in working on the low potential
side.
.
For the same degree of magnetization,
in a
1 00- volt
ampere turns being the same.

*(3a)- For
desired;
the
is,
the
accordingly, a simple matter
The arrangement of
should be followed when the highest accuracywattmeter reading is to be corrected by subtracting
'(i/i?^-|- i/i?y), which
is
the
the wattmeter and voltmeter.

It is, however, much simpler
power consumed
See Appendix
III.,
in the potential coils of
and in many cases suificiently accurate
arrange the instruments as in Fig.

tion.
It
coil,
selection of instruments, see 44.
instruments shown in Fig.

is
the exciting current
times as large as in a 1,000- volt
coil is ten
^to
Exp. S-A.
of Exp. s-A, and to
make no
correc-
TRANSFORMERS.
152
to reduce the exciting current
to
its
is
the
fExp.
measured on a
same measured on one
coil as
coil
of one voltage
The watts
value for a coil of another voltage.
core loss
on another, for the same
magnetization.
CAUTION.
I'f
two
to avoid a burn-out
it is
be connected in parallel or
coils are to
necessary to
first
make
series,
sure of their polarity,
and 28, Exp. 5-A.

Be careful of the high-potential terminals in this test. It should be
made impossible for loose wires, or for persons making measurements, to come in contact with these terminals. Although the testing
current and instrument are all of low voltage and although the highpotential coil is open and has no current in it, the potential is there
and must be respected.
as described in 6
4. Data.
At normal frequency, say 60
cycles,
vary the
volt-
from say ^ to i^ normal and determine the core

loss Wf and exciting current / for various voltages.
Note the
frequency at which the test is made.
It is desirable that the
age (4S)
frequency be maintained constant, and that the voltage be of

sine
wave-form.
Take very accurate readings
at
two
points (within, say, 5 or
10 per cent, of half and full voltage) by taking at each of these

points a series of five readings
method
and averaging.
This two-voltage
very convenient, since normal and half voltage (as
is
5S/iio or 110/220) are often available
or
their equivalent can
be obtained by series and parallel connections, as described in

46.
As
will be seen later, Figs.
2 and
5, it is
very accurate for
transformers built of ordinary iron, at normal and higher frequencies, but not at frequencies far below normal.
For trans-
formers with improved iron, the two-voltage method

rect unless
little
one observed point
is
taken very near
is
not cor-
full voltage,
error being then introduced by obtaining values for full
voltage from the curves.
5. If possible, repeat the data at a second frequency.
If
TEST BY LOSSES.
S-B]
the frequency
is
'53
higher than normal, complete data can be taken
as before.
If the frequency
transformer
is
is
lower than that for which the
intended, the core loss and exciting current will
be greater and the voltage should not be raised so that they
become excessive for the transformer or the instruments;* W^

should not exceed say twice and I^ four or five times their
respective values at normal frequency.
however, that these
will be understood,
It
limits are only arbitrary.
6. Curves for Exciting Current.
For
each frequency, plot
a curve showing the exciting current for different voltages, as

in Fig. 2.
Fig.
cies; 2
i!.
Locate by heavy black dots the two points accurately
Observed exciting current for varying voltage at different frequen-
K.W. transformer,
the 2,000-volt
coil,
loo-volt coiL
To
obtain the exciting current for
divide these values by 20.
* (5a). The current coil of the wattmeter has a certain rated current
carrying capacity which should not be exceeded for any length of time.
It may, however, be exceeded for a few moments only by 30 or even 40
per cent.; readings are taken quickly and the wattmeter
is
then cut out.
TRANSFORMERS.
154
determined at about half and
full
[Exp.
voltage and note
how
closely
a straight line drawn through them coincides with the curve
through the working range.

line construction,
the transformer
(It will be
found that
this straight
when
based on two readings, can not be used
is
worked
at a very high flux density, as in the
29-cycle curve of Fig. 2.)
Take from each curve the value of
7.
Resolve the exciting current,
(48).
/,
I^ for
normal voltage
two components:
into
power component In (which supplies the core
the in-phase
due to hysteresis and eddy currents)
losses
and the quadrature mag-
These are determined by the following
netizing* component, Imrelations
In
The
= W,-Ê.
value of W^,
is
h^-s/In^
taken from curves. Fig. 3 and Fig.
At no
described in the next paragraph.
If the transformer under test

steel,
less
with
less core loss, the
than indicated in Fig.
much
common
for
power
5,
factor
component 7h would be somewhat
On
2.
account, however, of the very
Jm (due
to the higher flUx
with such iron), the total exciting current /
would be greater than shown
the
load,
had a core made of improved
greater value of the component
density
+ hi\
Furthermore,
in Fig. 2.
tl;ie
point
normal voltage would be near the knee of the curve, so that

straight
line
construction
would not be accurate, as has
already been pointed out.
Compute, as
in Fig. 2, the values of
/(,,
Is.
and /m as per
cent,
of the normal full-load current of the coil on which the test
made;
is
K.W.
thus, the
cent., the results will

*
Usage
full-load current
transformer. Fig.
is
2, is
for a
loo-volt coil of a
20 amperes.
Expressed as per
apply to any
coil.
not fixed in regard to the terms " exciting " and " magnet-
izing" currents, these terms being not infrequently interchanged.
TEST BY LOSSES.
S-B]
8. Curves for Core Loss.

the open-circuit test
'55
The readings
of the wattmeter in
made,
(after corrections are
if
there are
any, 3a) gives the core loss

plus a small
RI^
loss
due to
the heating effect of the exciting current.
The
latter loss
can be computed and deducted
from the wattmeter reading;

it
will
generally
be
found
negligible.*
The
curves
change of core
showing
loss
the
with volt-
age can be plotted on ordinary

cross-section paper as in Fig.
Fig.
3.
Watts core
loss for varying
voltage at different frequencies
transformer, loo-voIt
K.W.
coil.
3; a derived curve, showing
the variation of core loss with frequency, being plotted as in

Fig. 4.
It is
much
better,
however, to use a logarithmic scale
for ordinates and abscissae, in which case the curves become
(within limits) practically straight

is
lines.
For
this purpose,
it
convenient to use logarithmic cross-section paper.
Above normal
voltage, as higher densities are reached, the
curve tends to bend upwards, due to the fact that the hysteretic
exponent (which has a value of about
becomes greater.
1.6
up
to 10,000 gausses)
Transformers with improved iron are run
at higher densities, so that at
normal frequency
this
bend may be
reached at normal, or even below normal, voltage.

9. For each frequency plot a curve on logarithmic paper
* (Sa.) Although any
Rio
loss should be deducted for obtaining true
it is better not to make such a

deduction but to include the Rlt^ loss with the iron loss Wa.
t This paper can be obtained from the Cornell Cooperative Society, or
Andrus and Church, Ithaca, N. Y.
The same results can be obtained on plain. paper by plotting the loga-
iron loss, for the calculation of efficiency
rithms of the observed quantities

slide rule as a scale.
laborious process
or
by using a
TRANSFORMERS.
156
showing the core
[Exp.
W,,, for different voltages, as in Fig. 5.
loss,
Locate by heavy black dots the two points accurately deter-
mined
at about half
and
Draw a
voltage.
full
straight line
through these points and note that at normal and higher frequencies this straight line gives the curve accurately through
the working range, so that
JVo for normal voltage can

so
be readily obtained from
At
or*"
it.
much below
frequencies
CO
densities,
CO
II-
relation
<ô20
Fig.
may
high flux-
at
this
straight
line
not hold.
was impossible to get

data for any curve up to
li
40
60
80
100
120
FREGUENCT: CYCLES PER SECOND

Watts core
4.
loss
for
140
it
normal valtage, extend the
diflEerent
frequencies at normal voltage; 2 K.

^
and
normal,
^^
a
o
"20
curve that far as a dotted
W.
,.
t-,,
transformer.
extension
1 his
line.
is
quite accurate at frequencies

niear
normal or higher, but can not be depended upon
at fre-
way below normal. The curves, however, can be more

and more accurately extended on logarithmic paper than
quencies
readily
on ordinary coordinate paper.

lo.
The
horizontal)
(the actual tangent with the
slope of these curves

is
the exponent (a) of
or
in the
formula show-
ing the law of core-loss variation for different voltages and

flux densities at a constant frequency;
J^
oc
E"
oc
B".
This exponent (o) should be determined and interpreted; see
49-51 II.
Variation of Core Loss with Frequency.
logarithmic sheet, see Fig.
On
5, plot a derived curve
the same
showing the
core loss, W^, at normal voltage for different frequencies.
If
TEST BY LOSSES.
S-B]
157
Frequency; Cycles per Second
60
40
100',20
80
100
120
160 180 200
140
90
80
70
60
50
w40r
u
E
I
fe
iiiZO
IQ,
'20
30
60
40
VOLTS
Fig.
S-
Curves for
100
120
140
two frequencies and hence only two
points on this curve, plot
it
as a straight line
as
it
practically a straight line through a considerable range.
the test
The
is
made
will
be
(When
one frequency, see 52.)

line gives the exponent (b), showing the
at only
slope of this
law of core-loss variation for different frequencies
The exponent
160 180 200
core loss plotted with logarithmic scale.
for only
there are data
80
{Logarithmic Scale)
(b) should be determined; see 51.
ordinary coordinate paper, this curve appears as
at constant
Plotted on
in Fig. 4.
TRANSFORMERS.
IS8
12. Fig.
shows a core-loss curve corrected for 60
also
[Exp.
no measurements were made at that frequency.

Such a derived curve can be drawn for any desired frequency.
cycles, although
becomes
13. It is seen that core loss
increased.
transformer designed
for
as frequency
less
is
frequency can,
one
therefore, be operated more efficiently at a higher frequency, the
Operated at a lower frequency,
voltage remaining unchanged.
however, the transformer will have larger core loss and will
more
heat up
therefore,
unless
operated at a lower voltage
and reduced output.
The transformer
same core
perature
100
which Fig.
to
when run
volts, 66.2 cycles;
at 81 volts, 29 cycles;
For the same
transformer
is
98
volts,
60 cycles;
The volt-ampere
118 volts, 140 cycles.
capacity of any transformer

quencies.
have the
and so would have the same tem-
loss (41.6 watts),
rise,
5 refers is seen to
accordingly, less at lower fre-
is,
capacity, a larger
and more expensive
required.
If transformers
were the only consideration, the frequencies
of 125 and 133 cycles in early use would not have been abandoned
for lower ones.
14.
Flux
frequencies,
(See 3, Exp. 3-A.)
Densities.
Compare the
for normal voltage.
flux densities at different
The
values of flux density
can be computed, as in 33-35, Exp. 5-A,

turns and iron cross-section are known.
the actual values and without
if
the
number of
Without calculating
knowing the construction data of
the transformer, the relative values can be found by the relation
oc
E-^n.
Thus,
flux density at 30 cycles
if
at
is 2.0,
60 cycles
at
is
120 cycles
taken as
0.5, etc.
i.o,
the
i59
TEST BY LOSSES.
S-B]
PART
15. Data.
RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS.
II.
The primary and secondary resistances are meas-
ured by means of a bridge or by direct current,
fall-of -potential
method (17, Exp. i-A). Disconnect the voltmeter before the

current is thrown off, to avoid damage by inductive kick. Avoid
heating the coils and so causing their resistance to increase; the
testing current should not exceed 25 per cent, of the full-load
current for the
coil,
or should not be long continued.
of the ammeter to be used
is
The range
known
thus determined from the
value. of full-load current.
The range of voltmeter
is
found by assuming an approxi-
mate value for resistance drop;
were one per

this
cent, in
would be 10
if
the
drop
resistance
volts in
a 1,000-volt
coil
and
If only one fourth of full-load current
volt coil.
testing,
thus,
primary or secondary for full-load current,
the voltage readings
would be
2.5
volt in a 100-
were used
and 0.25
volts,
foi
re-
spectively.
The
resistance
measurements by
.
direct
current are to be
used as a check and for comparison with the results obtained

in the short-circuit test.
Temperature conditions should be taken account of (22).

From the measured
16. Equivalent Primary Resistance.
values of R.^
* ( i6a).
The
and R^, compute the equivalent resistance* R,

equivalent resistance
must have such a value that
Rh' = RJ^ + RJ,\

Dividing by I^ and writing the ratio of turns (î
of currents (/2-7-/1), we have
-=-
Si) in place of the ratio
R = R,-\-(S^-^S,yR2.
It is obvious, also, that
Any
R= (copper loss)
-i-Ii'.
resistance in the secondary, either within the transformer or in the
external circuit, has the same effect as though
it
were multiplied by the
square of the ratio of turns and placed in the primary

be noted here that the same is true of reactance.
circuit.
It
may
TRANSFORMERS.
i6o
which
is
[Exp.
the joint resistance of the pritnary
and secondary
in
terms of the primary:
The value
thus determined will be used for comparison with the
(R^Wc^Î")
value
determined from the copper loss in the
short-circuit test.
PART
17.
Method
of
SHORT-CIRCUIT TEST.
III.
Test.
For
the
short-circuit
ondary (low-potential side) of the transformer
and
er
3.=
is
test,
the
primary
the
sec-
short circuited
potential side)
is
(high-
supplied
with a small difference of

potential, just sufficient to
cause the full-load or deConnections for short-circuit test

FiG. 6.
for copper loss and impedance voltage.
sired current tO floW.
by an ammeter
ammeter on
rarely
more than
5 or
Instruments* are connected in the
per cent, of normal voltage.
primary, as shown in Fig.
This
is
6.
The current might be measured
in either circuit, but
it
is
betterf to have the
the primary side with the voltmeter
and wattmeter.
* ( ^7^)- The most important reading to have correct is that of the

ammeter, since the wattmeter reading varies as P and the voltmeter reading varies as /, and all results are calculated for values of current. For
this reason it is well to place the ammeter directly in the primary circuit,
as in Fig. 6, in which case no correction is necessary. If the ammeter is
connected in the supply line, as in Fig. i, and the instruments are read
simultaneously, a small error
is
introduced (tending, in
tliis
case, to favor
See Appendix III., Exp.

the wattmeter usually needs no correction;
the transformer) unless a correction
is
applied.
Connected as in Fig. 6,
S-A.
but for the accurate measurement of small power the method of connection
shown
in
Fig.
7,
Exp. s-A, should be used and a correction
applied.
For
selection of instruments, see 44.
t (i7b). It is important for accuracy to have the short circuit of the

secondary as " short " as possible, i. e., with practically zero impedance
i6i
TEST BY LOSSES.
S-B]
In this
test,
when
full-load current flows in the primary, full-
when
load current flows in the secondary;
half-load current
flows in the primary, half-load current flows in the secondary,

etc.
The
no core
flux density
copper losses
current.
i8
is
very low, so that there
The wattmeter reading
loss.
both primary and
is
practically
gives, therefore, the total
secondary
for
any particular
Included with the copper losses are the load losses.
Load
Losses.
rents in the copper
Load
and are
due chiefly to eddy cur-
losses are
greatest, therefore, in large solid
They have the efifect of causing a greater loss in a

conductor when traversed by alternating current than when
conductors.
traversed by direct current, the resistance being apparently increased.
The term
load losses includes
all
losses*
which
in-
crease with load and depend upon current, over and above the
copper losses as determined by direct current.
Evidently such
losses should be taken into consideration in calculating efficiency,f
and the Standardization Rules of the A.
I.
E. E. so specify.
An ammeter and its leads in the secondary,

sometimes used, tends to give the transformer a poorer regulation and
efficiency.
It is instructive, however, before taking readings, to insert an
ammeter in the secondary, as well as the primary, and to note that the
outside of the transformer.
ratio of currents
If there are
put in parallel
is
practically equal to the ratio of turns.
two secondaries, it makes no difference whether they be

or in series; two primaries should be put in parallel or
series to suit the range of instruments.

*
For example, eddy-current
No
coil
loss in the core
should be
due to
left idle.
local flux set
up by
the current in a loaded transformer in addition to the normal core loss.

t(i8a).Very commonly, however, this is not done, copper losses
(neglecting load losses) being determined by direct current measurement
of resistance. This tends to favor the transformer. In justification of
this, it may be said that it has not been fully established that the load
losses under actual load conditions are the same as those obtained on
short circuit it being held that they may be less. The two methods serve
as a check. If the losses by the wattmeter are only slightly greater than
by direct current, the
result
is
satisfactory for the transformer.
Any
con-
siderable difference, however, shows the existence of load losses. For an

accurate comparison, great care is necessary in regard to temperature
conditions and the calibration of instruments.
TRANSFORMERS.
62
Although these
losses
[Exp.
be considerable in large transformers,
may
in small well built transformers they are usually insignificant.

19.
Impedance Voltage.
In
an
ideal
transformer on short
with zero secondary resistance and no magnetic leakage,
circuit,
the only voltage necessary to cause a given current to flow
be
i?i/i, to
The
overcome the resistance of the primary.
of secondary resistance
would
effect
to apparently increase the resistance
is
of the primary to
and the resistance drop
On
is,
X,
ently has a reactance

(in terms of the
called leakage reactance;* this causes
primary) a reactance drop XI^, in addition to
For a given frequency,
the resistance drop, RI-^.
due
this reactance
to leakage is a constant of the transformer, the

It is the
resistance.
is
accordingly, RI.^.
account of the magnetic leakage, the transformer appar-
the
same
The
at
total
same on open
no load or
same as
circuit or short circuit,
and
full load.
impedance, which limits the flow of current in the
short circuit
test, is
a combination of the equivalent resistance
and leakage reactance, being
Z^y/R'^-^X^.
The voltmeter reading
gives the total impedance voltage,
Ez=yRn\+XH\,
necessary to overcome both resistance and leakage reactance.
20.
Data.
At rated frequency,
take, say, five readings of the
impedance voltage (.Ez) and the copper
loss
{Wc)
for various
currents from about ^ to i| full-load current.
21. Readings at various currents are chiefly for illustration
and are not
essential.
When
facilities
for varying the current
are lacking, one accurate reading (or better the

* Discussed
more
fully in
Exp. S-C.
mean
of five
TEST BY LOSSES.
S-B]
163
readings) at any convenient value of current
wave form
Slight changes in
results.
series resistance or
is sufficient
for
all
are immaterial and a
any other means may be used for adjusting
the current (45).
22. These readings vary with temperature, being dependent
upon
and should be taken
resistance,
some
ture or under
definite
some
at
definite
tempera-
temperature conditions to be specified
in the report, as hot after a heat run of a certain duration, or
cold before the transformer
is
In this latter case
heated up.
readings must be taken quickly to avoid rise in temperature due
Commercial
to the testing current.
tests
should be under speci-
commonly after a three hour heat run

equivalent, the room temperature being 25 C.
fied service conditions,

full
load or the
A.
this the
at
in
E. E. Standardization Rules should be consulted
I.
and followed.
23. At a second frequency repeat the readings.
mercial
It
test,
found that the copper
will be
(In a com-
readings would be taken at rated frequency only.)

loss
and apparent resistance
vary but slightly with frequency and that the leakage reactance
is
proportional to frequency.
be computed for any

24. Results.
Known
for one frequency,
can
The
impedance voltage, Ez, and the copper
Wc, can be plotted directly from the voltmeter and watt-
losses,
meter readings, with primary current as
and Fig.
25.
meter
it
other.
It is better,
8.
From
value for
all
the readings of the ammeter, voltmeter and watt-
in the short-circuit test,
values of Z,
abscissae, as in Fig.
however, to proceed as follows:
compute, for each observation, the
and X, as given below, and determine an average
the observations.
Impedance
Resistance
Reactance:
Z = z -^ A.
R = Wc -J- Ii"X=^/Z' R''
TRANSFORMERS.
i64
These are equivalent or apparent values,
and include the
is
terms of the primary,
in
The
of both primary and secondary.
effect
effect of load losses
[Exp.
included in the values of
Wc
1.05
0.75
0.5
and R.
AMPERES, PRIMARY
Fig.
7.
Short-circuit test, 2
due
to
K.W. transformer,
2,000-volt coil.
Voltage drop
impedance resistance and leakage reactance.
26. Compare this value of

resistance measurements of
i?i
with the value found from
and R^
in 16.
Where tests are made at different frequencies, compute

mean value oi X-i-n for each frequency; the value should
27.
the
be about the same for
while the values of
RI
affect
regulation but not efficiency;
affect not only regulation
drop) but also efficiency (on account of
Curves for Voltage Drop.
29.
and
frequencies.
all
The values of
28.
Using
RP
(on account of
loss).
the values of Z,
drops for different values of primary current, as in Fig.

curves being straight
lines.
Compare
For normal
in volts
fnll-lpad
and as per
girrpnt,
cent, of
7,
these
th ese curves with the cor-
responding curves for an alternator. Fig.

l^
thus determined (25), plot curves for ZI^, RIj_ and XI.^
mark
2,
Exp. 3-B.
the value of each drop
normal full-load voltage.
The per
TEST BY LOSSES.
5-B]
impedance
cent,
drop
also
is
i6s
impedance
called
ratio
(13,
Exp. 3-B).
30.
%, I
Curves for Copper Losses.
and li
Calculate RI^^
for
^,
\, I,
Plotted as in Fig. 8, these give the values of
load.
95.38
121.9
80.3
41.6
-0.25
0.75
0.5
AMPERES, PRIMARY.
Fig.
8.
125'
1.0
Losses and efficiency of a 2 K.W. transformer.
the copper loss, including load losses, for different currents; the
curve
is
a parabola.
It is seen that the
copper
loss, in watts,
is
pro-
The copper loss, expressed
portional to the copper drop, in volts.

as a per cent, of rated volt-amperes,
for a given load
is
equal to the copper drop,
expressed as a per cent, of rated volts.

Per
cent, copper loss =:
PART
IV.
is
Per
cent, copper
drop
^ RI/E.
RESULTS. EFFICIENCY AND REGULATION.
31. Efficiency.
put and
RPIEl.
Efficiency
readily determined
is
equal to output divided by in-
when
the losses are
known.
For
a particular frequency and normal voltage, take the value of

core loss from the curves already determined. Figs.
3,
4 and
5.
TRANSFORMERS.
66
Thus,
let
W(,
= 4i.6 watts.
The
The
Fig. 8.
IJ
found by adding
total losses are
copper losses for each load, as in
this constant core loss to the
and
[Exp.
efficiency* should be
computed for
-^j ^, ^, f,
load.
The computations
At full load.
for full load and half load are as follows:
Output
= 41.6
51.4
= 93.0
= 2,000.0
Input
== 2,093.0
Core
loss
Copper loss^
Total loss
T-.
Per
,1
cent, loss
^^^ =
= 100 X mput = 100 X 2,093
total loss
^
^^
Emciencyt = 100 100
.
9'?
, ,
4-44'
total loss
mput
= 100 4.44=^95.56.
At
half load.
=41.6
Core loss
Copper los's^
Total loss
Output
1,000.
Input
Per
cent, loss
Efficiency
* (3ia).
The
12.85
= 54-45
=
= 1,054.45
= 100 X ^^
=
1,054.45
= 100 5.16 ^94.84.
efficiency will
S.i6.
be different for different frequencies and
for different rating of voltage and current
exact method of determining
Wo
see 48.
See
57 for a
more
for full-load voltage.
S, the core loss at 100 volts is 41.6 for the frequency

used in the test. Corrected for 60 cycles, Wo := 43.3, it
being possible to thus determine the efficiency for a frequency not used in
the test. This is useful in comparing guarantees.
t (3ib). This formula will be found much better for making computations than the equivalent and more usual form.
Referring to Fig.
(66.2 cycles)
Efficiency =:
Output
-=-
Input.
TEST BY LOSSES.
S-B]
Maximum
32.
per loss
Note the
in Fig. 8,
efficiency* occurs at such a load that the cop-
equal to the core loss; in Fig.
is
167
similarity
8, this is at 0.9 full load.
between the curves for a trans former, shown
and the corresponding curves for a shunt motor,
Fig. 3,
Exp. 2-B.
33. All-day efficiency
5 hrs. full load
made
and 19
is
hrs.
computed on some assumption, as

no
Other assumptions can be
load.
Except under
to suit specific service conditions.
term "all-day efficiency" has no useful
ditions, the
34. Regulation.
transformer
is
going from
full
The
of
regulation
the per cent,
special consignificance.
constant
potential
increase in secondary voltage in
See Appendix
I.,
Exp. S-C.
There are various graphical methods for determining
regulation,
load to no load.
which are necessarily unsatisfactory on account of the small

values of some of the quantities and the consequent difficulty
in
making an accurate drawing
analytical methods,
on account of
many
to scale.
There are
also various
of which are equally unsatisfactory
their involved character
and the unnecessary labor
required in using them.

regulation of a transformer can be determined for
The
all
factorscurrent lagging or leadingby the same method
power
used in determining the regulation of an alternator by the

electromotive force method ( 16-22, Exp. 3-B), either graph-
as
is
ically or analytically.
modified method, however,
former on account of the

drops
in a
35.
easier to apply to a trans-
fact that the resistance
and reactknce
transformer are comparatively small.
What
practicable
is
the writer believes to be the simplest and most
methodf for determining the regulation of a
trans-
* See 28, Exp. 2-B.
t (3Sa).
World, Oct.
From
8,
a paper "Transformer Regulation," by F. Bedell, Elec.

is now dropped on account of
1898; the term with in
difference of definition (see
Appendix
I.,
Exp. S-C).
TRANSFORMERS.
68
former
[Exp.
given below, any errors being less than the usual
is
errors of observation.
computed for non-inductive load and for

loads of various power factors, with current lagging and leadRegulation
(It
ing.
is
to be
suggested that the reader compares the results ob-
is
tained by this
method and by other methods with which he may
be familiar, and that he also compares the labor required in

applying the different methods.)
Let r be the per cent, resistance drop arid
the per cent,
reactance drop, as determined by the short-circuit

in Fig. 7,
36.
load
is
r^2.$y and
Non-inductive Load.
The
ample
regulation on non-inductive
computed as follows:
Per cent, regulation
For
Thus,
test.
and .0176).
^.-1=1.76 (not .0257
all
will
-1
-.
+r)r.
;
2(100
practical purposes, as a glance at the numerical ex-
show,
this
may
be written
Per cent, regulation
x'
r
-1
For example, when r^^2.57 and .^=1.76;

In-phase
drop=
Effective quadrature
drop=
=2.57
x^
=0.015 per
Regulation
It is
seen that the regulation
is
per cent.
= 2.585
cent.
per cent.
practically determined
by the
resistance drop; the effect of reactance drop on non-inductive
load
is
cussed
nearly negligible.
lat^r.
This
is
seen in Fig. 9 which
is
dis-
In computing the regulation, therefore, the accu-
racy of the results depends directly upon the accuracy with
which the resistance
is
determined.
Regulation varies with tem-
perature and to be definite must be for a specified temperature.

37.
For Lagging Current.
When
the
load has
a power
TEST BY LOSSES.
S-B]
169
factor (cos 6) less than unity and the current
regulation
is
Per
cent, regulation
For example,
let
In-phase resistance
cos $
=r
= 0,866;
drop^r
cos 6
cos 6-\-x sin

sin 6
For Leading Current.
= 2.57X0.866=2.23 per
When
the
3. r i
per cent.
is
leading, the
practicallyf
Per
cent, regulation
r cos
x
=
sin
6.
= 0.866;
drop = cos = 2.57X0.866^2.23 per
reactance drop = j;sin ^1.76X0.500=0.88 per
For example,
let
cos 6
sin 6
In-phase resistance
In-phase
cent.
load has a power
factor (cos d) less than unity and the current

is
d.
= 0.5;
Regulation
regulation
lagging, the
g= 1.76 X 0.500=0.88 per cent.
In-phase reactance drop ^j; sin
38.
is
practically* as follows:
0.5;
cent.
cent.
Regulation := 1.35 per cent.
Fig. 9 shows a simple graphical method for obtain 39. Proof.

(Compare also Fig. 11, Exp.
ing regulation at non-inductive load.
5-C, in which the same lettering is used, and Fig. 3, Exp. 3-B.)
Referring to Fig.
voltage
Fig.
a:
9.
j=ioo
9,
lay off
per cent.
equal to the secondary full-load
of volts could be used,
scale
r = per cent, resistance

^ . ^ 2.585. (This Fig.
Method for determining regulation
= per cent, reactance drop
drawn
AL
(A
regulation
if
drop
not
is
to scale.)
*(37a)- For greater accuracy, a term for effective quadrature drop

(g"-^20o), should be added, 42. In the present example this term is
only .0003, making the regulation 3.1103. In any ordinary case, on lagging
current, this term can be neglected.
t (382). For greater accuracy, a term g''-i-200 should be added, 43;
in the present example, this
term equals
.039.
TRANSFORMERS.
17
Lay
desired, instead of per cent.)
AK = E,
lation
As
LJ
off
the secondary terminal voltage at
= 2 =
=r
no
and,
JK = x. Then
Per
load.
cent, regu-
2.585.
already stated, the graphical method can not be accurately
on account of the small values of r and
applied
method
we have from Fig.
graphical method, an analytical

40. Analytically,
or,
fExp.
more simply
From
the
9,
2(100
-!-')
we have
Regulation
"
=E. 100 ^r A
'
41. Expressed more generally,
x.
derived as follows.
(see 41),
=ioo + -4
Transposing,
is
-,
2(ioo
+r)
;
rr-
let
/>^per
cent, in-phase voltage drop,
g^per
cent,
quadrature voltage drop.
= V(ioo + /,r + g'=ioo + ^ + ^-^-^.
This practical identity* can be seen by squaring, or by solving a

Transposing, we have
numerical example.
= E. 100 = * 2(100
+
for practical purposes, = p+ (<f-^2oo).
Regulation
"
or,
-I
"
"^
-.
'
,. ,
/>)
Regulation :=( in-phase drop) -(-(effective quadrature drop).

in-phase drop that chiefly determines the regulation of a
transformer; effective quadrature drop is small.
It is the
42.
= cos
Lagging Current. For a lagging current, with power factor

the resistance drop r makes an angle
with the terminal
6,
*(4ia). Theorem. In a right triangle in which the height is small

compared with the base, the hypotenuse
base -|- [(height)'' -=-2(base)].
convenient in solving many alternating current problems.

For example, let base =: 100; when height := 5, hypotenuse := 100.125
(true value
100.124922)
when height =10, hypotenuse
100.5 (true
This
value
is
=
= 100.498756)

TEST BY LOSSES.
S-B]
voltage
would then be drawn as Fig. 4, Exp. 3-B,

makes an angle 6 with the line OB.
Fig. 9
jBj.
which the
i?'
line
BC
Resolve r into an in-phase component, r cos
component, r s\nB; resolve
a quadrature component,
into
cos
In-phase drop
and a quadrature
0,
an in-phase component,
x sin 0, and
0.
= p ^r cos x sm0.
= x cos r
-\-
Quadrature drop =^q

Regulation
in
sin
0.
^r-rr= '^^2(100
+
= p-\- (5^-^200), approximately.
/ -j
-.
/')
For
practical purposes
= p = r cos ^
Regulation
43.
-j-
x sin
0.
Similarly, for a leading current,

pz=zr cos X sin
Leading Current.
0.
q^x cos B -\-r sin
0.
^pT^^ * ^ 2(100
+
= /+
200), approximately.
2
Regulation
"
-,
'^
/)
(?''-;-
APPENDIX
I.
44. Selection of Instruments.
In selecting instruments, the neces-
sary range can be approximately told by assuming some reasonable
Thus, in a 2 K.W. transformer,
value for efficiency or losses.

us assume that the efficiency
and copper
circuit and
losses are equal.
short-circuit tests to be 0.66.
In the open-circuit test the core loss will be 50 watts
and current
of
1.5
let
95 per cent, and that the iron losses

Assume the power factor in the open-
is
coil
amperes,
loo-volt coil
the
ammeter
of the wattmeter must, accordingly, carry a current

if
the test
is
made on
a 50-volt coil; 0.75 amp. for a
0.37s amp. for a 200-volt
In the short-circuit
test,
coil, etc.
the copper loss will be 50 watts;
if
the
TRANSFORMERS.
172
made on
test is
a 2,000-volt
coil,
[Exp.
full-load current will be
and the impedance voltage will be 75 volts; for a

values become 2 amp. and 37.5 volts, etc.
many
In
one
by a proper connection of
cases,
set of
instruments
may
method of
ampere
the
coils in series or parallel,
be selected which will be suitable for
both open-circuit and short-circuit

this
1, 000- volt coil,
tests.
be understood that
It is to
selection will give only the
For
approximate range.
much below normal, it is to be borne in mind that

will be much greater than at normal frequency and
the
frequencies
current
in-
struments with say four or five times the current-carrying capacity

will
be required.
Adjustment of Supply Voltage.
45.
voltages for the open-circuit test
is
The best way to get various
by means of a transformer or
An
adjustment of
voltage by means of a series resistance distorts the
wave form and
an auto-transformer with a number of
taps.
hence introduces error in the readings of core loss and exciting curThis error
rent.
resistance
is
small if the reduction in voltage caused by the
small, as
is
of series resistance
is
from
no
to 104 volts,
permissible.
It
and in
for large reduction in voltage or in any case
when high accuracy
by a
series resistance caused a decrease in core loss
magnetizing current of about 6 per cent.)

used, less error
is
introduced
when
is
no
(In a particular case,* reducing the voltage from 220 to
wanted.
volts
this case the use
should not be used, however,
and
in
If a resistance is to be
the resistance
is
bridged across
the line and the transformer supply shunted off of part of the resist-
ance than
is
introduced with the resistance in series.
It is best,
how-
ever, to avoid resistance control entirely.
Another way
to vary the voltage is to vary the field excitation of
the supply alternator.
No
other load should be on the alternator,
nor should the transformer under

the alternator ; otherwise change in
the core loss.
46.
(A change
form an appreciable load on

wave-form may materially change
test
of 20 per cent, can be thus produced.)
The two-voltage method (9)
voltage adjustment.
If
obviates
the
necessity
of
normal and half voltage are not available, the
method may often be used with one voltage only by connecting
coils
* This was for an old transformer.

With the new transformer iron
and higher densities, the errors due to wave distortion become greater.
TEST BY LOSSES.
S-B]
in parallel
first
i73
on the appropriate normal voltage and then
on the same voltage (which
in series
thus,
two
55-volt coils in parallel on a 5S-volt circuit give the reading
for
will
normal voltage, while the two
then be half normal)
coils in series
give the reading for half normal voltage.
on the 55-volt
circuit
For the same degree of
magnetization, the wattmeter will indicate the same core loss what-
ever
coil
is
used; the ammeter will read twice as
parallel as for the series
much
for the
arrangement (the ampere turns being the
same) and the ammeter reading must, accordingly, be divided (or

by two to reduce all readings to common terms. The
multiplied)
voltmeter reading must be multiplied (or divided) by two.

47. In the short-circuit test, the matter of
no consequence the only
cally of
wave form
is
practi-
result affected is the reactance drop
and only a very large change in wave form could materially affect
value.
For the short-circuit test, therefore, any means of adjustment may be used which is found convenient.
its
48.
Normal Voltage and Current.
In
determining normal
full-
load values of current and electromotive forces, the assumption
commonly made
that the efficiency
is
and voltages are transformed exactly

in a 2,000/100 volt, 2
K.W.
in the ratio of turns.
be a
Thus
transformer, the secondary current
taken as 20 amperes and the primary current as

strictly the latter should
more)
trifle
is
100 per cent, and that currents
taken as 100 volts and the primary 2,000
is
ampere (whereas
the secondary voltage
is
volts, neglecting the fact
that these no-load values of voltages do not strictly hold at full load.
Any change
of rating changes the results of a
test.
If the voltages
are rated as 2,200 and no, the corresponding primary and secondary
currents are 0.909 and 18.2 amperes; the copper loss is less and the
core loss greater.
In comparing transformers and their guarantees,
each transformer should be tested at

formers for a specific service, the
common
rating.
In comparing transshould be
voltage according to the conditions of the service.
curve sheets
one
its
tests of all
it is
set of data.
made at a
From the
very easy to pick results fdr different ratings from

In the laboratory, to facilitate comparison of data,
certain voltages should be adopted as standard, as 100-200/1,000-2,000,
110-220/1,100-2,200,
49.
etc.
Core Losses and. Their Variation.
Eddy currents flow in local
short-circuited secondary circuits which are practically non-inductive.
TRANSFORMERS.
74
If e
[Exp.
and r represent the electromotive force and resistance of one of

But eccE. It accordingly
is e'-^r.
these circuits, the watts loss
follows that eddy current loss* varies as the square of the voltage
and
is
independent of fjjpquency and wave form.
As
the tempera-
ture of a transformer increases the eddy current loss decreases.!
Referring to Fig.
we would have
the core loss were due to eddy currents,
5, if all
and a
2.
The curve
for losses at different
frequencies and constant voltage would be a horizontal line; the
curves for losses at different voltages and constant frequency would

slope at an angle with a tangent 2.
50.
Hysteresis loss in watts per cu. cm.
is
practically equal to
Here jy is a coefficient of hysteresis, equal:]: to about .002

for what was formerly good iron, but is now little more than half that
value for the best alloy steel. The hysteretic exponent 1.6, first
rfiB^'io-''.
determined by Steinmetz,
is
only approximate, being less than this
for low magnetic densities and considerably more than
high
this for
densities.
Referring to Fig.
would have
&
= a=
I
51. In
5, if all
we
the core loss were due to hysteresis,
(taking 1.6 as the hysteretic exponent)
1.6
and
0.6.
an actual transformer both hysteresis and eddy current
loss are present, so that a has a value
between
1.6 (hysteresis)
and 2
0.6 (hysteresis)
and o
(eddy currents), and b has a value between
* (4ga). In terms of B, eddy current loss in watts per cu.
cm.
is
"l^dnBy 10"^, where d is the thickness of lamination expressed in mils

and 7 is the conductance (the reciprocal of resistance in ohms per cu.
cm.) of the material for iron, 7 is about 10. There is a very slight
change of eddy currents with frequency and wave form due to local
;
inductance and " skin efifect " in the local eddy current circuit.
By decreasing the thickness of transformer plate, eddy current loss is
diminished; but hysteresis loss is increased, since some iron is wasted and
is
greater in the remainder.
thickness between 10 and 15 mils gives
the least total loss, according to particular conditions; see Elec.
Dec. 31, 1898.

t (49b). Hysteresis
The
less
loss, also,
total core loss of a
World,
decreases with increase in temperature.
tran^rmer when
hot
may be
6 or 8 per cent.
than when cold.
" aging " due to heat, this coefficient increases in

t ( Soa). By so called
the course of time. Although not entirely eliminated, this effect has been
reduced in the best
steel
now
used.
TEST BY LOSSES.
S-B]
(eddy currents).
Hysteresis
determining a and
and
&,
is
I75
the chief loss and has most weight in
Hysteresis loss*, and hence the values of a
b.
wave form.
are affected by
hysteresis exponent 1.6
is
It will
be understood that the
not a constant but r^resents a fair ^.verage
value for moderate ranges of flux densities; at high densities the

hysteretic exponent
52.
known,
may have
a value as high as 2 or more.
One-Voltage and One-Frequency Method.

it is
possible,
having determined the core
If
a and b are
loss at
one voltage
for a particular frequency, to compute the core loss for any other
voltage and frequency.
former
It
then becomes unnecessary to test a trans-
at the exact rated voltage
which
and frequency
is
indeed
difficult to do.
Taking as average values 0:^1.666 and
&^ .4474,
correction
factorsf for variation of core loss with frequency and voltage are
given in the following tables.
CORRECTION TABLES.
Variation of Core Loss with Voltage.
Volts (per cent, normal)
TRANSFORMERS.
176
E" =
lower* voltage
[Exp.
n''
,
', let the core loss be
W".
We may
com-
pute the watts eddy current loss at the higher frequency (') and
normal voltage by the formula
Watts eddy currents
Eddy current
If^'
loss is substantially the
^"
^J
n
y,
same for
all
frequencies, but
varies as the square of the voltage and so can be computed for any
frequency and voltage. Hysteresis loss is found by subtracting eddy
loss
from
total loss.
* ( S3a)- If the
cies
different,
is
wave form of electromotive force for the two frequenthe form factor / is the
E" = {n"f" ^n'f')E', where
ratio of the effective to the average value.
The eddy current

voltage
is
(For a sine wave, f=:i.i.)

and normal
loss in watts at the higher frequency n'
then
[r>--]-[?~(r:)"]The above
equations can be derived as follows:
Eddy current
loss,
and wave form (49), varies as E' and equals

oB^ where o is a constant. Similarly, for any wave form, hysteresis
loss equals bnB^, where b and x are constant; no assumption is made
1.6.
At the two frequencies the total losses are
that X
irrespective of frequency
W" =a(Ê'y + bn' (B'r;
(i)
W" = a(iE"y-\-bn"(B")\
(2)
For B", write
being the condition of the test; for E", write

Multiply (2) by n'-^n", subtract from (i) and solve
E'(,E"-Ê').
for eddy current loss a (')'
When the wave form of electromotive
force is the same at the two frequencies, ("-=-')
(n"-Hn').
B', this
The separation of
made by Steinmetz
measurements at two frequencies was first

the influence of form factor was introduced by
Roessler. There are various methods for making the calculations, differing somewhat in detail. The formulae here given are from a paper by the
author before the Cornell Electrical Society, May 4, 1898. Note 35,
Exp. S-A, and Appendix I., Exp. 2-B also Bedell's Transformer, p. 312
(Some of these references, following Roessler, use form factor
et seq.
M. G. Lloyd has recently pubas the reciprocal of /, as defined above.)
lished a very complete investigation of the subject; see Bull. Bureau 0/
losses by
Standards, February, 1909.
i77
TEST BY LOSSES.
5-B]
54- Insulation
and Temperature
mercial importance but need no
full
Tests.
These
tests are of
discussion here.
com-
The Standardi-
zation Rules specify fully the conditions under which they are to
be made; details of the tests are described in the usual handbooks.

55. Insulation.
The
insulation
is
tested between each winding
The applied voltage is increased gradually, so

as to avoid any excessive momentary strain. This is usually done
by some means of primary control in a special testing transformer.
Various companies make testing transformers for obtaining high
and
other parts.
all
potential for this test
The
voltage
is
and furnish detailed instructions for
their use.
preferably measured by means of a spark gap with
a high protective resistance in series with
The
it.
test consists in
seeing that the apparatus withstands a specified over-voltage for a
down.
specified time without breaking

56.
Heat Runs.
These
are
made under
voltage and
full-load
full-load current for a specified time, temperatures being found
by
The heat run could be

made by actually loading the transformer, but is usually made by
some kind of opposition or pumping back method, of which there are
thermometers and resistance measurements.
several.
No
load
is
then required and no power, except enough to
supply the losses.
common form
of opposition run employs two similar trans-
formers: the two secondaries (low potential side) are connected in

parallel to source A, of normal frequency and normal voltage, which
supplies the core loss; the
opposed
to
two primaries are connected
in
series,
each other, and are then connected to source B, which
supplies the normal full-load current.
(Source
requires a voltage
equal to twice the impedance voltage of one transformer and can be
of any frequency,
i.
All windings
/J.)
Instruments in
e., it may
now have
or
may
not be the same frequency as
full-load current
give
instruments
voltage.
(The two transformers need not be
in
will
Instead of connecting source

modification
is
identical.)
in the high potential side, a
to connect the high potential
transformers directly
in
and exciting
copper loss and impedance
current;
mon
and normal voltage.
give, if desired, the core loss
will
opposition and to insert source
with the low potential winding of one of the transformers.

13
com-
windings of the two

in series
This has
TRANSFORMERS.
178
[Exp.
the advantage that all connections with supply lines
are at low potential; see Electric Journal,

322, Karapetoff's
p. 64,
and instruments
Vol. VI., and Fig.
Exp. Elect. Engineering.
modified form of opposition test can be applied to a single
transformer; see Foster's Handbook.

57.
j,=
Note
on
ioo, the
Efficiency.
If
rated
the
secondary
customary and most simple procedure
is
voltage
is
to take the
core loss for this voltage from Fig. 5 (thus, W

4i.6) and to
compute the full load efficiency as in 31. To be accurate, however,
the secondary core voltage or flux voltage, E^, should be taken as
RI drop. Taking this drop as 1.28 (,= ir in

we have 5:= 101.28 and the corresponding core loss,
Ej plus the secondary
35)'
W = 42.5;
this gives the correct efficiency of 95.51 .instead of 95.56.
The
difference between these values
31
is
is
so
little
method of
that the
usually sufficiently correct.
Approached
W^4i.6.
another way,
in
Then
put of 2 K. W., since E^
by the factor
i -4-
we might
2= 100 1.28 = 98.72.
98.72.
is
consider Eg
To
= 100
and
get the rated out-
decreased, the current must be increased
The copper
loss
must then be increased by
the factor (i-;-98.72)^ giving an efficiency of about 95.5.

CIRCLE DIAGRAM.
S-C]
Experiment 5-C.
tial
Diagram
Circle
179
for a
Constant Poten-
Transformer.
Introductory.
I.
the resistance
is
has been seen, Exp. 4-B, that
It
when
varied in a series circuit with constant reactance
the vector representing the current follows the arc of a circle
In a similar manner, the primary current of a con-
as a locus.
stant potential transformer follows the arc of a circle as a locus
when
the secondary resistance
an induction motor when
motor
this fact in practical

will, accordingly,
its
serve to
is
varied.
load
is
testing.
make
The same
is
true for
and use
is
made of
varied,
The following experiment
clear certain principles of the
induction motor as well as of the transformer; upon these principles is
based the method of transformer testing developed in
detail in
Exp. S-B.
In Part
I.
the general principles governing the action of a
transformer will be discussed; in Part

be applied
sults,
in
in constructing
so far as commercial testing
Exp. 5-B.
The
II.
these principles will
a circle diagram.
is
The
practical re-
concerned, are
all
given
actual construction of a diagram to scale
gives one a definite and concrete idea of
what might otherwise
Furthermore, the abstract diagrams
be vague and abstract.
given here (Figs, i-ii) and elsewhere are so grossly exaggerated

that they give very
which
is
wrong
more nearly
2. Data.
Even
ideas of real values.
to scale,
is
much
Fig. 12,
exaggerated.
The same data are required as
in
Exp. 5-B.
See
25 of this experiment.
PART
3.
The
I.
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF THE ACTION OF A

TRANSFORMER.
action of a transformer will be most readily under-
stood by considering
circuit
its
action
and then with a
load.
first
without a load
i.
e.,
on open
TRANSFORMERS.
Transformer on Open Circuit.
4.
open
it
it
When a transformer
on
accordingly has no magnetizing effect on the core.

current flows in the primary which magnetizes the
small
Let us see what determines the magnitude and phase of
core.
this open-circuit
5.
Assuming
primary current.
No
Core Loss.
The
open-circuit diagram for
a perfect transformer, in which there are no losses,

in Fig.
/fl
is
secondary winding has no current flowing in
circuit, the
and
[Exp.
The primary
I.
to flow
and
electromotive force
up a
this current sets
flux
This
(j>.
alternating, causes a counter-electromotive force
When
primary impressed electromotive force.

cuit is closed, the current /,
and the flux
<^
shown
is
causes a current
being
flux,
opposed to the
the primary cir-
which
it
sets up,
assume such values that the counter-electromotive force
just
is
equal* to the impressed electromotive force.
This primary counter-electro'Bp
motive force has, at any instant,

the
value
the
equal
e'
= S^{d^-^dt),
and
im-
opposite
pressed electromotive force being ev=^Si{d4>-^dt).
It will
be seen that the electromotive

_ Phase
~B and
Flux^
of
force
I.
lags 90 behind the impressed
Open-circuit diagram for a
<^,
which
magnetizing force
*The primary
neglected.
it
produces.
is
resistance
force
the
p,
as
in
absence of core
the current /
is
in
phase
When permeability is constant,
proportional to I^ and
on open
that the flux
I.
6. In
loss.
loss,
with the flux
flux
Fig.
transformer with no core
the
electromotive
Fig.
when
zero
is
maximum and
is
circuit
is
is in
phase with
very small and can be

CIRCLE DIAGRAM.
S-C]
and proportional
i8i
The
to the flux density B.
B-H
straight line, instead of the familiar hysteresis loop,
no hysteresis
The
current
The
and there
is
Iq,
shown
as
flux
is
in Fig.
i,
is
in
quadrature with the
wattless.
links with the secondary circuit
</)
and induces
secondary an electromotive force Es, lagging 90 behind
in the
the
is
loss.
electromotive force and

7.
curve
The
flux.
instantaneous
value of the secondary electro-
motive force
It is
actly
opposite to
and
is
Sîd^-^
^s==
is
seen that
dt).
Ep
in
is
ex-
phase
equal to Ep, multiplied
by (S,^S,).
8.
The
flux
^H
throughout
<l>
this discussion refers to the flux
which
with both primary
links
and secondary, and p and Es
B.r
Core-loss
/^
flux,
but
this
main
an
in
former there
is,
is
-B
Magnetising
Con:^ponent
In an ideal
<^.
transformer there
are the induced or flux voltages,*

proportional to
^%
Component
no other
actual
trans-
in addition to
n.
flux, a relatively small

Fig. 2.
local or leakage flux,
which
links
with the turns or part of the

turns of one winding only and
Open-circuit diagram for
a transformer with core
loss,
show-
ing the two components of exciting
current and the angle
a of hysteretic
advance.
causes a reactance called leakage

reactance.
On
account of the drop due to leakage reactance and
the drop due to the resistance of the transformer windings, as
discussed later, the terminal voltages, E^ and E^, are slightly different from the flux voltages
* (8a). Strictly speaking E-p
opposite thereto.
Ep and
is
s.
not the flux voltage but
is
equal and
TRANSFORMERS.
iS2
With Core Loss.
9.
[Exp.
A transformer with an iron core
from the ideal transformer just discussed because there
differs
is
a loss
The opendue to hysteresis and eddy currents.

The flux
diagram now becomes as shown in Fig. 2.
with
accordance
in
still in quadrature with Ep and s,
in the iron
circuit
ij>
is
Faraday's
^
=S
fundamental
(dfj)
~- dt)
law
The
of
/>
longer be a wattless quadrature current, for
however, can no
it
must have an
due to
in-phase power component to supply the core losses

hysteresis
The
exciting current
an angle
It
is
/,,
is,
accordingly, advanced in phase by
a, called the hysteretic* angle of
/m which
advance.
is
constant)
two components
and the true magnetizing
/h
wattless and in phase with the
citing currentf is the vector
sum
flux.
component
The
total ex-
of these two components
constant potential transformer (one in which

is
is
core loss-f-p.
seen, therefore, that / consists of
the core loss component
10.
This core loss component
and eddy currents.
Jh^ watts
force,
electromotive
induced
exciting current
a constant flux transformer.
It
is
therefore follows
As here defined, this angle includes the effect of eddy currents.

t(9b). The exciting current of a transformer is distorted, i. e., has
a wave form different from that of the electromotive force, on account of
harmonics introduced by hysteresis.
(See Appendix II., Exp. 6-A.)
These harmonics currents of 3, S, 7. etc., times the fundamental frequency are necessarily wattless. They do not appear, therefore, in the
power component In, but are included in the wattless componeflt /m.
Strictly speaking, alternating currents in which harmonics are present can
not be represented by vectors in one plane; for practical purposes, how* (9a).
the plane vector diagram, as here given, is sufficiently accurate.

(See 47, Exp. 6-A; also "The Effect of Iron in Distorting Alternating
Current Wave Form," by Bedell and Tuttle, A. I. E. E., Sept., 1906; and
" Vector Representation of Non-Harmonic Alternating Currents," by B.
These harmonics have the same value
Arakawa, Physical Review, 1909.)
at all loads; at full load they form such a small part of the total current
that the distortion which they produce is very small.
ever,
CIRCLE DIAGRAM.
5-C]
that la.
loads.
In and /m are constant, and remain constant under all

This would not be quite true in a transformer in which
the primary line voltage E^
not p)
II.
The
(and
constant; the difference
is
two cases
in the
183
very small.
is
Transformer Under Load.
diagram
complete
for
constant potential transformer un/Circle Locus,
der non-inductive load

Fig.
Primary
in
This will be seen to be
3.
exactly
shown
is
same
the
Fig.
as
the
2,
open-circuit diagram, with certain
As
additions.
in Fig. 2,
forces
electromotive
the
we have
p and
s opposite to each other in phase

and in quadrature with the constant flux
On
<j).
open
primary current
circuit, the
flows
Ig
as
al-
ready discussed.
12.
When
Secondary
Quantities.
secondary
the
circuit
B,I.
is
connected to a load, a secondary

current
I^
flows,
upon
which
depends
With
non-inductive
current would be
On
perfect.
reactance,
lags a
in
Fig.
mind
scale,
tions
little
3.
in
the
of
load.
Circle Locus of
I
f Secondary Current
/
load,
this
phase with
transformer
the
if
s,
value
the
were
Fig.
tive
flows
account of leakage
X^,
the
current
I^
behind s, as shown
It
is
to
Complete diagram for
3.
a transformer onder non-induc-
When
load.
in
current
/(jj
current
secondary,
the
flows
in
/j
a load
the
pri-
mary, opposite in phase and of

equal ampere turns,
/j
/(a)
all
to
ratio of turns.
be kept in
that Fig. 3 and other diagrams here given are not at
being exaggerated in order to show more clearly the rela-
between the various
quantities.
iS4
TRANSFORMERS.
The secondary
terminal voltage, E^,
[Exp.
is
little
(perhaps one
per cent.) less than s on account of reactance drop XJ^, and

resistance drop RJ2> the former in quadrature and the latter
in
phase with
rent, 1 2,
in
is
For a non-inductive
I^.
the
power
would lag behind E^ by an angle
d,
where cos
factor of the load.)
13. In the secondary,
it is
seen that
Es
is
constant (flux being
and the secondary may, accordingly, be treated as
constant)
a simple constant potential
The
circuit.
current, as the load resistance varies,
(For an
phase with the terminal voltage, E^.
inductive load, I^
is
load, the secondary cur-
is,
locus of the secondary
accordingly, the arc of
as in any constant-potential circuit with constant react-
circle,
(See Exp. 4-B.)
ance.
14.
Primary Quantities.
cuit the
It
has been seen that on open
primary current assumes a certain value
/,
cir-
so as to
produce a flux that generates a counter-electromotive force just

equal and opposite to the impressed electromotive force.
a secondary current I^ flows,
it
disturbs this equilibrium by
This allows more current to
tending to demagnetize the core.
Bow
in the primary.
When
The primary
current increases until (in
addition to /) a current /(j) flows in the primary, the magnetizing effect of
which (ampere turns) just balances the magnet-
izing effect of the current I^ in the secondary.
The magnet-
izing effect of the secondary being thus neutralized, the flux has
the
same constant value
as before
(as though produced by I^
alone), so that the counter-electromotive force produced by the

flux continues to be just equal
and opposite
to the impressed elec-
tromotive force.
In Fig.
3,
the total primary current
of the constant / (which
which
is
is
I^, is
seen to be composed
small) and the load current
I^^-,,
opposite to the current I^ in the secondary and equal
to 1 2 multiplied
hy (S^-^S-^).
mary load current
I^2^,
is
In a
transformer, the pri-
equal to the secondary current 1 2-
CIRCLE DIAGRAM.
-C]
15. Fig.
4 shows
loaded transformer, the resultant
that, in a
ampere turns are constant; hence the

counter-electromotive
the
equals,
the
As
of
load
flux
constant, so ihat
is
force
impressed electromotive force.
irrespective
185
the load changes, the primary current assumes such a value that the
ampere
resultant
and
constant
remains
turns
condition
this
of
.'7
equilibrium
is
maintained.
The primary
16.
thus
force,
electromotive
by
balanced
counter-electromotive force,
Referring to
Fig.
it
3,
the
p.
is
be
will
seen that the terminal impressed

electromotive force, E^,
is
little
greater (say one per cent, greater)
than ?, on account of the RÎx
and XJ.^ drops, due to primary

resistance and to leakage react-
Fig.
4.
^^^
*""^^'
Diagram of ampere
resultant
ampere
turns are constant.
ance.
The
17.
circle
locus of the secondary current I^
(13).
Hence
7(2) in Fig. 3, is the

/i,
measured from
Some
18.
simplified diagrams will
may
The
to P, follows this
Representation
foregoing discussion,
former
arc of a circle.
it
is
the arc of a
the locus of the primary load current,
of
will
now
total
same
primary current,
locus.
be discussed.
Transformer
Circuits.
From
the
be seen that the circuits of a trans-
be represented as in Fig.
5, in
which the resistance
and leakage reactance of the two windings are considered as

external to the transformer.
rent,
/fl,
is
Furthermore, the exciting cur-
considered as flowing in a shunt circuit, also external
to the transformer.
This shunt circuit consists of two branches
86
TRANSFORMERS.
[Exp.
a non-inductive branch for the in-phase component, Is, and an

inductive branch (without resistance)
component /m-
ture
equivalent
shunt
The
circuits
currents which would flow in such
correspond exactly
/h and /m which actually flow
/(,,
for the wattless quadra-
to
the
currents
in a transformer.
j-T'T'5WM/WVTr-|
*-'\/\/\fr-^Wsir^
Load
Fig.
is
s.
The
Complete equivalent of a transformer.
considered as flowing in a shunt circuit.
The
exciting current /
resistance
and leakage reactCorresponds to
ance of primary and secondary are considered as external.

Fig.
3.
The transformer
19.
the
all
losses
and Ef
1,
is
proper, in Fig.
being treated
= Es{Si-^S2).
as
The
5, is
external;
considered as ideal,
/(2)=/2(5"2-f-5'i)
voltage at the primary terminals,
more than p on account of the drop
in
X^ and
Likewise, the voltage at the secondary terminals, E2,
Es on account
of the drop in
X^ and
jHW/VTMS^
The
total
I^^-,,
primary current
plus
I^ is seen to
(vectorially)
20. Equivalent Circuits.
than
'TTOBir'-^/vvv*
Equivalent circuits as level (1:1) transformer.
current
in i?i.
less
in R^.
s
Fig. 6.
is-
Corresponds to Fig.
be equal to the load
the small no-load current
The
7.
circuits of a
transformer
/.
may
be represented more simply by the equivalent circuits of Fig.
6,
CIRCLE DIAGRAM.
s-c]
which
in
all
187
quantities are expressed in terms* of the primary.
This will be most readily understood by treating the transformer

as a "level" (1:1) transformer;
we have
then,
p^s;
and
'(2)=-'2-
The diagram corresponding
to Fig.
seen to be the same as Fig. 3 with
is
is
all
shown
in Fig. 7
and
secondary quantities
expressed in terms of the pri-
mary and drawn
the
in
first
quadrant.
21.
The
Simplified
equivalent
considered
Circuits.
so
far
and
6)
circuits
(Figs.
and the corresponding diagrams

(Figs.
and
exact and
tically
prac-
are
7)
may
be used
for the accurate solution of any
transformer problem.
noted
be
that
the
It
will
resistance
and reactance for the two wind-J
ings
are
treated
separately,
7?iXi in the primary and i?2^2

in
secondary.
the
By com-
bining these into a single equivalent
former
Fig. 7.
Exact diagram as level
transformer, corresponding to Fig. 6,
The same
as Fig. 3 with secondary
quantities expressed in terms of the
primary.
and
X,
the
with
translittle
error, be simplified in either of
*(2oa). To express secondary
quantities in terras of the primary:
circuits can,
two ways
multiply current by (.S^-i-Si)
multiply voltage by (Si-^Ss)
multiply
It will be understood that

See i6a, Exp. S^B.
by (Si^S^y.
secondary quantities thus represented in the primary are not the real
secondary quantities but the equivalent primary quantities which could
produce the same results thus, in a 10 i transformer, i ohm in the
primary is equivalent to o.oi ohm in the secondary.
To express primary quantities in terms of the secondary, divide instead
of multiply by these factors.
and
TRANSFORMERS.
i88
I.
be
[Exp.
All the resistance and leakage reactance are considered to
primary, as in Figs. 8 and lo.
in the
-is,xB.
^r-^/\/w^^R^R^'-TJOSiNVVVV
>^x
Simplified circuits
Fig. 8.
2.
and
all
Corresponds to Fig.
in primary.
lo.
All the resistance and leakage reactance are considered to
be in the secondary, as in Figs. 9 and
Each of these
11.
simplifications differ very
little
from the more
exact representations already discussed.
In the actual transformer, as represented in Fig.

that the current
which flows through XJi^
ferent current 7^ (slightly larger, due
to
/(,)
In the simplifications, the same current
through i?iî and R^X^ which are
is /(j),
6, it is
seen
while a dif-
flows through XJi^.
is
considered to flow
now combined
into a single
-iJ,X-
y-^tN\r'^ssss^-''ms^-^m^
?
p?
s.
Simplified circuits;
Fig. 9.
and X,
this current
and
all in
secondary.
Corresponds to Fig.
being either I^ (as in Fig. 8) or
7(2,
11.
(as
in Fig. 9).
If
and
7(,
all
were
zero, Figs. 8
the representations
and 9 would not differ from Fig.

would be identical.
In fact, !
so small that either simplification and
its
6,
is
resultant diagram. Fig.
CIRCLE DIAGRAM.
s-c]
189
10 or II, may, for most practical purposes, be considered as
This makes
correct.
values for
and
it
possible to use the
single
equivalent
obtained by the short-circuit test of Exp.
5-B, and does not require separate values
of
ondary
22.
/(,
and
for the primary
and
circuits.
Again, the voltage which causes ^^
to flow
p, as
is
is
seen in Fig.
the simplifications, this voltage

as 2 (Fig- 8) which
less,
or as
per
say,
is,
(Fig- 9)
fi^
is
taken
per cent.
which
more than
cent,
make
an
value
the
In the
small.
of
say,
is,
value of
the
This
change
insignificant
/
latter
which
is
is
itself
depends
case /
only upon line voltage and
In
6.
in the actual cases of Fig. 6.
would
in
sec-
independ-
ent of load.
23. Diagrams
Compared. Let
compare the exact diagram,
us
.,.-,.
.
.,
the Simplifications, Figs. 10 and 11.
In Fig.
/i
7,
and
The phase
the primary and secondary

/(j,, respectively,
the
XI
shown
in the figure.
and
all
RI
in pri-
to Fig. 8.
drops are in phase
drops being in quadrature.
is small
much smaller
The primary and secondary
difference between I^ and 1(2)
in fact than
Simplified dia-
10.
mary. Corresponds
with
pic.
Fig. 7, with gram;
drops may, accordingly, be combined with
little
error.
This
may
be done by taking the combined resistance drop in phase
with
/i
bined reactance drop
is,
in
combined resistance drop.
each case, at right angles to the

In an actual case
introduced by these simplifications and either

is
The com-
(Fig. 10), or in phase with /(j, (Fig. 11).
most convenient.
little
may
error
is
be used, as
TRANSFORMERS.
190
PART
24.
THE CIRCLE DIAGRAM AND ITS CONSTRUCTION.
n.
The
tion in the
circle
diagram for a transformer shows the varia-
primary current for different values of load
1 1.
Simplified diagram
current
is
and
all in
secondary.
Corresponds to Fig.
OP, being composed of the no-load current
load current
AP.
As
the load resistance
finity to zero, the point
take the position
P" on
is
OA
If
it
and the
and
were possible to
will
elimi-
nate the resistance of the transformer windings, the point

* (24a). If a
reactance
(or
if
transformer
a reactance
is
9.
decreased from in-
will trace the arc of a circle,
short circuit.*
resist-
In Fig. 11, the primary
ance with constant impressed voltage.
Fig.
[Exp.
constructed so as to have a large leakage

included in the circuit external to the
is
transformer), the short-circuit current and the diameter, Ei-{rX, are

reduced. The transformer may then be operated at or near short circuit,
in which case ,the current will be nearly constant.
This method is used
for obtaining constant current from a constant potential line.
(See 4a,
Exp. 5-A.) Large reactance or magnetic leakage in any apparatus tends
towards constant current operation.
See 8, Exp. 3-A, 27, 27a, Exp.
3-B, and 14, Exp. 4-B.
CIRCLE DIAGRAM.
s-ci
would complete the
{E^-^X)
current in this case

reactance,
The
X.
and assume the position
semi-circle
P'", the
being limited only by the leakage
short-circuit current of a transformer oper-
ated at full voltage would be, however, greatly in excess of the
carrying capacity of the transformer windings, and, in actual
operation, the point
See also Fig.
P'.
does not go far beyond the full-load point
which
12,
is
The
25. Data Necessary.
/h and /m,
/(,,
X,
more nearly
to scale.
data necessary are the values of
to locate the point
A, and the leakage reactance
to determine the diameter of the semicircle.
These data are obtained from the open-circuit
and short-circuit
of Exp. 5-B.
tests
All quantities are to be in terms of the pri-
mary
Exp. 5-B, the values of

ured on the lOO-volt
Fig.
2.
In and /m, meas-
/,
coil,
in
thus,
side;
(high-potential)
are divided by 20 to
obtain the corresponding values for the 2,000-
This gives us
volt primary.
= .03025
The reactance
35.2
ohms;
Is.
= .0208
for the
see Fig. 7,
From
.0220.
same transformer,
Diagram from Experi-
the data given above, lay
off (Fig. 12)
Fig. 12.
OBÎh; BA=Îm; 0A=I.

The diameter
The
amperes.
large
whole
of the circle
radius p
compared with
ampere.
It
is
Exp. 5-B.
26. Construction of
mental Data.
7m
is,
^ 1
is
-=-
Z = 28.4.
== -03 ^"d
accordingly,
semicircle, as in Fig. 11,
cle
diagram.
1^-^:^2,000-^35.2
2
full-load
Con-
struction of cir-
= 56.8
These values are

current
I^2,
not practicable to construct the
which
is
not at
all to scale.
TRANSFORMERS.
192
For a working range

which
12,
Lay
ofif
is
it
more nearly
AD=Ii^.,
can be readily constructed, as in Fig.
ior-jl^,
^,
taken as practically equal to
volt,
i, I, f, i
AP
AD
2 K.W., transformer,
and
.01, 0.1, .25, .50, .75, i.o
[Exp,
to scale, as follows
to be noted that, in Fig. 12, the angle

is
is
or
and i^
DAP
is
load.
small
(It is
hence
AD
Thus, for a 2,000-
/(a).)
laid off, successively, equal to
1.25 amperes.
For each value of AD, the point
is
located by laying off
DP=p~Vp^ Aff
which can be derived from the figure and
circle referred to
as an origin.
The
is
line
the equation of a
DP
represents the
quadrature component of primary current due to leakage reactance.
This
is
always small and would be zero when
for the diameter of the semicircle (see Fig. 11)
The power component

It
is
AD
is,
is
then
X = o,
infinite.
therefore, practically equal to
AP.
to be noted that
CP
From
= DP + BA;
2.nA0C=0B-\-AD.
these values, compute* for different loads
=0P = TÔC'-f- CP\

factor= OC OP.
Primary current
Power
The curves
in Fig. 4,
Exp. 5-A were thus computed.
4ia, Exp. 5-B.

* (26a). It will be seen, also, that
Watts
Watts
input,
Wt=OCXE^;
output, W-i
= Wi losses
This gives a possible method for determining the total voltage drop.
Note
CIRCLE DIAGRAM.
5-C]
APPENDIX
'93
I.
NOTE ON REGULATION.
27. Definition of Terms.
Regulation
is
defined by the Institute
as follows
In constant-potential transformers, the regulation is the ratio of the rise
of secondary terminal voltage from rated non-inductive load to no load
(at constant primary impressed terminal voltage) to the secondary terminal voltage at rated load.
(Compare 34, Exp. S-B.)
If the secondary terminal voltage is at
load, the regulation
no load and E^
at full
is,
= ( E^) -^ E^
regulation depends
E
Regulation
The drop on which
is
term the regulation drop.
E^,
which we may
This drop, expressed as per
cent, of
gives the regulation.
The
28.
1
a
E^
little
in the
and
drop, in terms of a 1:1 transformer,
is
a Httle more than the regulation drop, because E^
is
total voltage
is
more than on account of the drop due

primary winding.
The per
cent.; or,
E^) -v-E taking E^
taking
E^
E^) -Ê^,
as 100 per
(,
cent, voltage drop is {E^
cent, voltage drop " is small.
was commonly employed

is
between " regulation " and " per
In earlier usage,* the term regulation
to designate " per cent, voltage drop."
This
one cause for the differences between various methods
which have been used (and
as 100 per
cent.
29. Numerically, the difference
confusion
to exciting current
still
are used) for determining regulation.
difference arises, also, according to whether E^ or E^
is
taken as
IQO per cent.

* (29a). See the following articles, in the Elec. World, on the predetermination of transformer regulation Bedell, Chandler and Sherwood,
:
A. R. Everest, June 4, 1898 F. Bedell, October 8, 1898.

See also Foster's Electrical Eng. Pocket Book, p.- 492, fifth edition, 1908.
August
14
14,
1897
TRANSFORMERS.
194
30.
An
illustration will
make
[Exp.
this clear.
Let
= 99.9; , =
Regulation drop = 2 ^
Per
regulation =
h- 97 = 2.99 per
^3
Total voltage drop =E^
Per
100 = 3 per
voltage drop ^ 3
= 3 ^- 97 = per
,= 100;
97.
2.9 volts.
cent,
2.9
-=-
cent,
3.1
This drop
is
cent.
or
cent.
drop depends upon the difference between E, and
31. Regulation
E^.
cent.
volts.
-Ej
due to load current, and does not include any drop
due to exciting current, which affects and E^ alike and, practically,

does not affect their difference.
The
E^.
total voltage
This drop
is
drop depends upon the difference between , and
chiefly
due to load current, but includes, in addition,
a small drop due to exciting current which affects E^ but not E^ and
so directly affects their difference.
32. Computations.
problem: Given
To compute
compute
To
to
compute regulation drop, we have the
compute
total voltage drop,
we have
the problem: Given
to
j.
For determing regulation, we compute

E, = V(. + ^+?^ where
in-phase drop =/> =
quadrature drop^=q = XI^^y
33. Regulation.
i?7(,j,
It is seen that exciting current
may be expressed
does not enter.
either in volts or in per cent.
The various drops

The working details
of the method are discussed in 34-43, Exp. 5-B.

For determining total voltage drop,
34. Total Voltage Drop.
we
compute
E,=vTH^fr+?.
The in-phase drop
p, consists principally
of
i?/(,),
but includes the
RJ^ and XJn, which are drops caused by the

two components of the exciting current flowing through X^, R^.
small additional terms
Without much
error, X^, R^
may be
taken as half of X, R.
Hence
CIRCLE DIAGRAM.
S-C]
'95
In a like manner
q
The
last
35.
=
+ XJn
= XI^,, + iXlH iRIu.
i?j7M,
-X^^cz)
two terms are small and nearly cancel each
other.
Other methods of analysis may be employed for determining
the total voltage drop, and the form in which the results are ex-
pressed will vary according to the manner in which the various terms
are combined and the approximations which are introduced.
In any
some small and troublesome terms are introduced, which affect

the result very little and which do not enter in the determination of
" regulation," as defined by the Institute. The results are affected
less by these small terms than by variations in the value of R, depending upon whether, in its determination, load losses were included or
not, and whether steady temperature conditions were maintained
case
during the
36. It
test.
might well be held that regulation should be so defined that
magnetising current should enter into

since magnetising current has been
improved iron worked
much
its
determination, particularly
much
at higher densities
increased by the use of

;
on the other hand,
it
is
simpler to define regulation independently of magnetizing cur-
rent and to specify the value of the magnetizing or exciting current
as a separate item.
CHAPTER
VI.
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
Experiment 6-A.
Study
General
Polyphase Cur-
of
rents.*
PART
I.
Introductory.
In
phase currents differing

into
one system.
The
a
in
I.
polyphase
several
system,
single-
phase from each other are combined
circuits for
each phase
may be
independ-
The phase
ent, without electrical connection, or interconnected.
difference between the currents of the several phases
is
usually
90 or 120, the corresponding systems being called two-phase

or three-phase.
A'
''inioooooiiiio^*
B'^
(a)
Fig.
Two-phase connections for generator or receiver
I.
system with independent phases,

connected
3-wire system,
or,
circuits,
a,
4-wire
Quarter-phase, stard.
Quarter-phase,
ring-connected.
we must have
a polyphase system
single-phase electromotive force
amounts.
c.
4-wire system with interconnected neutral,
or,
mesh-connected
To form
h,
which
several sources of
differ in
phase by proper
For a symmetrical polyphase system these
electro-
motive forces must be equal and differ from each other by equal
phase angles, as in the 3-phase and quarter-phase systems soon
* ( la). In making polyphase measurements, some form of voltmeter
and ammeter switches will be found convenient, so that all readings can be
made with one voltmeter and one ammeter. The same switches will serve
to transfer one wattmeter from one circuit to another.
196
GENERAL STUDY.
6-A]
to be discussed.
in
principle
The
i97
sources of these electromotive forces are
several rigidly connected single-phase generators,
but in practice they are generator
coils
on a
single armature.
The secondary
coil
of a transformer
generator
The
currents from these sources
coil.
may
be considered as a
may
be utilized
separately as single-phase currents (as in lighting), or jointly as
polyphase currents (as in an induction motor).
Fig. ii. Three-phase connections for generator or receiver circuits,

a, Independent circuits see 3a. b. Star- or y-connected.
c, Mesh- or delta- (A)
connected,
d, T-connected.
e, K-connected
or, open delta.
;
2.
The
load on a polyphase system
is
polyphase system the flow of energy

ter
and more general
is
In a balanced
uniform, which
a bet-
In a single-phase system or
unbalanced polyphase system, the flow of energy

discussed further in
all
is
definition of such a system; (see Steinmetz,
Alternating Current Phenomena).
pulsating in
when each
balanced
phase has an equal load with equal power factor.
i,
The torque
Exp. 7-A.
single-phase machinery; whereas
is
is,
pulsating,
accordingly,
it is
uniform
in
polyphase motors and in polyphase generators on balanced load.
Furthermore, a polyphase induction motor on account of
its
rotating field can be given a good starting torque, whereas a
single-phase induction motor has none in itself and has only a
small starting torque
when
auxiliary starting devices are used.
Polyphase machinery has a greater output than single phase for

a given
size,
economy of 3-phase
pared with single-phase transmission,
phase systems
These
or has a smaller size for a given output.
features, together with the copper
see
Appendix
III.
all
as
com-
favor the use of poly-
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
198
[Exp.
Methods of Connecting Phases. Generating or receiving

may be combined in various ways, the common
3.
or circuits
coils
ones being shown* diagrammatically in Figs,

I
and
phase positions of their several electromotive forces.f
black dotsf
may
potential
is
the difference of
between them phase, as well as magnitude,

;
is
shown
in
way.
this
To
the
same polyphase system, a number of
differently con-
may
be connected at
nected polyphase generators and receivers
same time
thus,
on a 3-phase system, some apparatus may be
From
and some star-connected.
delta-
induction motors
may
(c) or {d), Fig.
(o),
the
On
be taken as line wires in cross-section.
paper the distance between any two dots
the
In Figs.
2.
the relative positions of the various coils represent the
2,
relative
The
and
same system with
a 4-wire 2-phase system,
be run simultaneously
i.
when connected
as
Connection (b) can be combined on
(a), but not with (c) or {d).
This
is
an
objection to 3-wire 2-phase distribution, inasmuch as synchron-
ous motors and converters as well as generators are frequently
wound
quarter-phase and so cannot be run from a 3-wire system.
further objection, that the line drop in the
the voltages unsymmetrical,

4.
Object.
is
In performing
common
wire makes
discussed later, 14.

this
experiment, the object
is
to
gain a knowledge of the connections of polyphase circuits and
polyphase apparatus, and to understand their electrical relations
and
Make
various
diagrammatic
methods
for
representing
them.
a study of whatever polyphase supply circuits are available
and by means of transformers obtain, so far as

systems indicated in Figs,
* (3a).
The arrangement of
and
possible, all the
2.
Fig. 2 (o) is never used for independent

used only for connecting transformer secondaries to
so-called 6-phase synchronous converters, 27.
t(3b). Although the diagram of connections can not in general be
taken as the vector diagram of electromotive forces, this can be done in
the simpler cases and makes the introduction to the subject more clear.
t (3c). This representation by dots is called by Steinmetz the topographic method.
3-phase circuits;
it is
GENERAL STUDY.
6-A]
Note
also
199
the connections on various pieces
of polyphase
etc.) which may be available,

and note for what kind of polyphase system the apparatus is
apparatus (as generators, motors,
intended.
PART
5.
Two-phase Measurement.
same
the
ratio
of
II.
Take
transformation
two transformers* with
(say
primary of one transformer to phase
and the primary of the other transformer

the secondary voltages
when
Connect the
1:1).
of a 2-phase circuit,t
Measure
to phase B.
the secondary circuits are inde-
pendent, thus forming a 4-wire system with independent phases.

Fig.
(a).
6.
Addition of Electromotive Forces.
ondaries as a 3-wire system. Fig.
(&),
Connect the two
sec-
and measure the voltage
of each phase (Ea. and b) and the voltage
between outside
Lay off these voltages as a triangle and note how nearly

Ea and Eb are at right angles, so making a true 2-phase system.
This triangle may be drawn as in Fig. 3, 4 or 5.
wires.
n,
Ua
\v
\.
O
Topographic
method.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Addition
Fig.
method.
Ha
5.
Subtraction
method.
we use the topographic method of Steinmetz and omit

we can represent the electromotive forces of the 2-phase
7. If
arrows,
3-wire system by Fig. 3 (see Appendix

* It
is
I.).
This electromotive
preferable that each secondary consists of two equal coils
we might have primary no
thus,
secondaries SS volts each, giving in

Note the various possible
series no volts with a middle or neutral point.
voltage transformations for each transformer.
volts;
t It matters not whether the supply circuit is 3-wire or 4-wire, or how

connected. If several kinds of supply circuits are available, use each one
in turn.
Compare
Fig.
6.
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
200
force diagram
Fig.
[Exp,
seen to be similar to the circuit diagram (&) of
is
1.
we
8. If
(imagining
we
sary),
take one outside line, say B, as our starting point
we wish
if
BO
by the vectors,
Fig. 4.
9.
that
it
is
grounded, but
unneces-
this is
b and a represented
the direction sh5wn by arrows in
have the electromotive forces
and OA,
in
The sum of these two vectors is BA:

If, as is common, we take the neutral
as the starting
point (say ground), the differences of potential between the side
OA
wires and ground are
and OB, the direction of the vectors
being from the starting point as in Fig.

potential between
and OA, Fig.
which
OB)
and
and OA, Fig.
as
BO,
OA they
is
now
the difference between
as
(Fig. 5).
OB,
For the simple case
OA ^they
if,
the addition
application;
( 32,
readily applied.
method
it
is
Appendix
mesh add up
is
used, as
common
we
must be subtracted
two
it
is
more general
capable of
For
this addition
method,
Law
around any
that the differences of potential
to zero.
elec-
point, the difference
based on the statement of Kirchhoff's
I.)
con-
For more complicated networks
taken consecutively, from feather to

II. If
however,
away from a com-
at hand, involving only
tromotive forces connected to a
method may be
OB
(equal
take electromotive forces in sequence
must be added (Fig. 4)
point
joining
BO
the same as the svim of
sider each electromotive force in a direction
mon
difference in
4.
we
10. In general, if
B
is
The
5.
all
arrows are
tip.
each transformer has a secondary winding, consisting
of two equal
coils,
connect the secondary coils of the two trans-
formers so as to form a star-connected and a mesh-connected

quarter-phase system, as in (c) and {d) of Fig.
voltages and
all
the
mesh
draw diagrams of voltages for the
i.
star
Measure
and for
connection.
In the mesh connection, the two secondaries of one trans-
former are connected as the opposite sides of a square, due
GENERAL STUDY.
6-A]
attention being given to polarity; the
201
two secondaries of the
other transformer form the remaining two sides.
Before
clos-
ing the square, connect a voltmeter between the two points about
them only
to be connected and proceed to connect
mesh
ing any
12.
in case the
This precaution should be taken in mak-
voltmeter reads zero.
connection.
convenient laboratory supply board
is
obtained from
2-phase secondaries, the secondary circuit on each phase consisting of four equal coils in series so as to form a 5-wire system
on each phase.
With
two phases intercon-
the neutrals of the
nected,, this gives supply voltages, as Fig. 6.
age of each phase
is
2-phase voltages as
220
follows:
and 220 volts; 3-wire

volts;
155.6
voltages, 123
also
55,
4-wire
no,
no
77.8 and
single-phase
additional
and 165
The
volts.
in Fig. 6, as
the discussion of Figs.
4 and
3,
hi
th
Aa
off
shown
5.
"2
^1
voltage
between any two points can be scaled
from the drawing
If the total volt-
volts, this gives
*Bj
in
When
the transformer secondaries cannot be so
^^<^-
6-
"
'^^
^
ages.
Two-phase
^"^^ ^ '
subdivided, the result can be obtained by
connecting across each phase of a 4-wire system an autotrans-
former made of four equal

lation or
coils.
Verify these voltages by calcu-
by measurement.
The preceding study has brought out

phase
circuits, the single-phase voltages
the fact that in poly-
of interconnected gen-
erator or receiver coils are combined geometrically to give resultant
Although
voltages.
2-phase circuits,
it
will
this
was shown
particularly
for
be understood to be general and to apply
as well to a 3-phase circuit or to any circuit whatsoever.

13.
Addition of Currents.
Currents,
also,
when of
differ-
ent phases, are added* vectorially to obtain the resultant current.
To show
this
proceed as follows
* Branch currents, flowing to or from a common point, always combine

by addition not by subtraction to give the total current. See Appendix I.

POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
202
From
[Exp.
a 3-wire 2-phase supply, connect two resistances as load,
one on each phase.

resistance
and the
currents, /a
total current / in the
the two currents /a
/=V/a= + /b='
Measure the
and I3
differ in
and
common
each
/b, in
conductor.
phase by 90,
we
will
If
have
This will be true for an inductive as well as

for a non-inductive load, provided the
load
on each phase has the
power
If
factor,
i.
e.,
a and b
angles, or 6a
same
6a=^0b-
are
not
at
right
and Ob are not equal, the
currents /a and /b will no longer be at

right angles
still,
the branch currents will
however, add as vectors to give
the total current, as in Fig.

14.
Fig.
7.
Line drop.
To
7.
illustrate line
Addition of currents.
drop, with the same circuits and re-
sistances just used, insert a small additional non-inductive resist-
ance in the supply wires to represent resistance in a long supply

line.
Construct a triangle
OAB
for the supply voltage
and O'A'B'
for the delivered voltage for the following three cases:
B'
Fig. 8.
lines
Resistance in
and B,
B'
Fig.
9.
Resistance in
common
conductor.
Fig. 10.
all
Resistance in
three lines.
With resistances in lines A and B only. Fig. 8;

With a resistance in the common conductor
only. Fig. 9;
With resistances in all three lines. Fig. 10; in this third case
measurements of voltages O'A and O'B are also to be taken.
For the first case (Fig. 8), the supply voltages, OA and OB,
GENERAL STUDY.
'6-A]
shrink to the delivered voltages,
resistance in lines
There
and
is in
203
OA' and OB';
the drop due to
phase with the currents /a and
same phase difference (90 ) between the

ered voltages as between the supply voltages.
/b.
For
is
the
common
the second case (Fig. 9), the line drop in the
conductor
is
phase with
in
/,
and
it is
deliv-
seen that, on account of
drop, the phase angle between the delivered voltages
this
greater than between the supply voltages.

Fig. 10.
This, also,
This lack of symmetry in delivered voltages
is
is
is
true in
one dis-
advantage of the 3-wire system; see 3.

15. These diagrams illustrate the topographic
or mesh
method for representing electromotive forces. The direction
assigned to any line depends upon the sense in which it is taken.
Resistance drop consumed by resistance is in phase with current; resistance drop produced by a resistance
current, as discussed in Exp. 4-A.
in applying the
mesh
principle,
It is
is
opposite to. the
taken in this latter sense
Law
(i) of Appendix I. that

mesh have a vector sum of
the electromotive forces around any
Thus, in
zero and can be represented as a closed polygon.

Fig. 10, proceeding around the
lowing electromotive forces
AA' produced by
mesh OAA'O', we have
OA
the fol-
produced by the generator
and opposite to 7a; A'O'

the counter electromotive force produced by the load (the elecresistance in line
tromotive force delivered to the load being O'A')
duced by resistance
The
in the
common
line
O'O
and opposite
proto
I.
line drop for a single-phase circuit can be similarly repre-
sented.
With inductance
discussed, there
is
in the lines, besides the resistance
drop just
a reactance drop at right angles to the cur-
rent; this reactance drop
is
90 ahead of the current when con-
sidered as consumed by reactance, and 90 behind the current
when
2,
considered as produced by reactance.
Exp. 4-A, and Figs.

16.
The
line
3,
4 and
5,
drop diagram. Fig.
(See 180 and Fig.
Exp. 3-B.)
10, is true for
any 3-wire
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
204
system, and
triangles
may
[Exp,
be applied to a 3-phase system by making the
more or
less equilateral.
4-wire system or any other
system can be treated in a similar manner.
Furthermore,
method
the
discussed
just
not limited to non-inductive loads, but
is
for
drop and reactance drop in
effect of resistance
is
the
treating
conductors
line
applicable as well to
other loads, either with leading or lagging currents.
(See 56,
Exp. 3-B.)
17. Conclusion.
In the main
circuits are essentially the
same
has been seen that 2-phase
it
two single-phase
as
circuits
and
Three-phase circuits are likewise essentially
can be so treated.
three single-phase circuits and the conception of polyphase circuits is thus
made
In any polyphase circuit the funda-
simple.
mental principles for the vector addition of currents and electromotive forces apply as in single-phase
circuits,
For 3-phase
circuits.
however, there are modified forms of treatment that are
found practically convenient; these
PART
18. Three-phase
will
now be
considered.
III.
The most important 3-phase
Measurement.
connections (Fig. 2) are the star and delta connections, the electrical relations
Line Vohage
first
of which will
be studied. Other 3-phase
connections will then be studied with reference to various
arrangements of transformers
on 3-phase
19.
circuits.
Star-connection.
a 3-phase
line,
connect three
approximately
Fig.
Star- or F-connection of
load resistances.
XY, YZ and ZX;
Some measurements
equal
resist-
ances* in star-connection; see

Fig.
voltages
On
II.
Measure the
line
these are also called delta voltages
should also be
made with unequal
resistances.
GENERAL STUDY.
"6-A]
205
and for clearness may be designated by the subscript d
When
d.
nothing further
a 3-phase line or machine,
specified than the voltage
is
thus,
of
is
this delta or line voltage that
Measure* the star voltage Es
(called also voltage per phase
it
meant.
is
or phase voltage, 30) from each line to the junction O, Fig. 11.
Also measure the star current Is for each phase. The line current
always the star current, as
is
Compare
is
evident for this case.
Ed and s
the measured values of
with the expres-
sion (which should be proved)
Ed=V3
Compute
20.
-Es.
power for each
the
This
resistance.
is
obvi-
ously, as in a single-phase circuit, equal to the product of volts
amperes
load),
non-inductive
the product of star voltage and
e.,
i.
(for
For
star current (s/s) for each phase.
an inductive load in which the current

lags
by an angle
6,
as in Fig.
power
for each star circuit
When
Es, Is and 6
we can
phase,
each
12,
the
Is cos
6.
for each
multiply the power for
phase by 3
power;
s
are the same
is
to
obtain
the
total
Fig.
nected
thus,
radial
Total power
= 3Es/s
12.
voltages
in
Currents and
a
3-phase
star-concircuit,
method of represen-
tation.
cos
6.
But
= D-f- V3;
hence
Total power =:
*(i9a).
II.,
or later
-Ed/s cos
If the neutral point of the supply
6.
is available, measure the

and O, and test with a telephone as described in Appen44. This can be done either in connection with the present test
in connection with Appendix 11.
voltage between
dix
Vs
it
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
206
Since line voltage
is
Ed and
[Exp.
line current is 7s,
we may drop
the subscripts and write
Total
where
power:^ 1/3 EI
voltage and I
is line
mary formula
.
cos
for
power
in
6==
is line
Vs EI X
power
current.
This
is
the custo-
any balanced 3-phase system, no

matter
^,
Line Voltage
factor,
how
In the
connected.
-*.^
next paragraph
it
be de-
will
rived for a delta-connection.
21 Delta-connection.
Con-
nect the same three equal* resistances in delta to a 3-phase
supply, as in Fig. 13.
Measure
the current and voltage for each

resistance,
Fig. 13,
Delta- or mesh-connection of
load resistances.
namely
current /d and the

voltage Ej).
and the
line current /
supply system
Compare
is
the
the
Also measure the
star voltage s, if the neutral
accessible.
It is seen, as
delta
delta (line)
of the
above, Es = Eo-~ V3-
measured values of / and lo with the expression
(which should be proved)
Compute the power for each resistance d/d, and compare

with the power found for the same resistances in star-connection.
For an inductive load, we should multiply by cos 6 to obtain
If d, /d and 6 are the same
the true power in each resistance.
for each phase,
we
find total
power by multiplying by 3; hence
GENERAL STUDY.
6-A]
Total power
207
= V3 EbI cos
= V3 EI
= V3 EI X power
6,
cos
0,
factor,
E and / are line voltage and line current. This is the

customary power formula for any balanced 3-phase system, as
where
has already been found for the star-connection.
The
22.
currents and voltages for the delta-connection can
be laid off by the radial method (see Appendix
mon
center, giving a
Another method
is
diagram similar
shown
from the
rents
as
in
(from
to
radially
The cur14 are drawn
Fig.
which the voltages are
method) and the currents
corners.
These
lagging.
are Ixy
from a com-
to Fig. 12.
in Fig. 14, in
laid off as a triangle (polygon
I.)
currents
(from
to Z),
and 7zx (from
With
X).
to Y), lyz
sign reversed,
the latter becomes /xz, meas-
ured from
X to Z.
The sum*
of /xY and /xz gives
we wish
sum
the
is
zero,
/.
If
to select signs so that
of these three vectors
we must
sign of / so as to give the line
current
and /xz
/'
all
Fig. 14.
reverse the
Currents and voltages in a
delta-connected
3-phase
circuit,
poly-
gon or mesh method of representation.
we now have
/', /xy
measured from X, so that
Law
(3) of Appendix
I.
is satisfied.
23. Transformer-connections
on 3-Phase Circuits.
former secondaries and primaries

ceiving circuits
can be connected
T- or F-connections,. shown
like
Trans-
any generating or
to a 3-phase circuit
by
re-
A-, Y-,
in Fig. 2.
*(22a). The current / is the sum of /xz and /xv (both measured
from X), or the difference between /zx and /xy (measured one towards
and the other away from X). See Laws (,^) and (4), Appendix L

POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
2o8
The most convenient and
method for studying the
instructive
relations of these connections
electrical
[Exp.
is
to use three trans-
formers with the same ratio of transformation (say i: i), the

primaries and secondaries of which can be connected in any
desired manner.
With three such transformers and with a 3-phase supply

make connections in the following six ways:
With three transformers:
(i)
Secondaries star-connected.
Primaries star-connected.
"
(2)
(3)
"
"
"
delta
"
"
"
"
(4)
With two transformers
"
delta
"
star
"
delta
Secondaries T-connected.
(5) Primaries T-connected.

"
"
(6)
"
In each case measure
given,
electromotive forces and construct
all
electromotive
^.
diagrams,
force
comparing computed and meas-
I1
'
ured
results.
The
tions
and delta-connec-
star-
have
been
already
dis-
cussed; the special relations of

the T- and F-connections, will
now
*'
Fig.
24.
Relation between currents
is.
,
,,
86.6
when
and voltages
be considered.
,.
T-connection.
rr,
For
T-connection.
,.
.,
age OZ, Fig.

it is
XY
is
100.
rents, 7x, Iy, Iz, are equal.
the current in transformer
For a balanced
15,
is
and note that
load, the'three cur-
For a non-inductive*
XY
the
-connection, measure the volt-
load, Fig. 15,
out of phase with the elctro-
motive force by 30 and the power factor (cos 30)
is
0.866;
* (243). For an inductive load, the currents take the positions shown
lines in Fig. is; /x is now out of phase more than 30, and /v
by dotted
less
than 30.
GENERAL STUDY.
6-A]
in
transformer
OZ
the current
giving unity power factor.
non-inductive load,
we have
is
in
209
phase with the voltage,
For a current of 100 amperes, on
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
2IO
power than apparatus
capacity for the same
and voltages are
26.
in
which currents
in phase.
Comparison.
In comparing the
transformer-connections,
transformers
[Exp.
is
it
to be
relative advantages of
borne in mind that three
of somewhat smaller aggregate

more than two. The F-connection
voltage per transformer and the least insulation
(even
though
capacity) will usually cost

gives the least
grounded; for
strain, particularly if the neutral is

is
to be preferred
On
over.
tage that,
lines, say,
this
reason
it
20,000 volts or
the other hand, the delta-connection has the advanif
one transformer breaks down, the remaining two

F-connected; at moderate voltages
operate
will
on high potential
20,000 volts) the delta-connection

In the delta-connection,
if
is
(say,
under
accordingly to be preferred.
one transformer breaks down, each
remaining transformer will have J instead of ^ of the whole

power and will have to carry the line current instead of the
By what
delta current.
per centages are current and power in
This increase would cause

For the same heating (same current) show
each transformer thus increased?
abnormal heating.
two transformers F-connected
that the
as
will carry
57! per cent,
much load as the three delta-connected transformers.

With transformers delta-connected, the voltage of the system
can be increased by using the same transformers F-connected.

In a
new
system, the delta-connection
is
sometimes installed with
a view to changing later to a F-connection and a higher voltage.
single 3-phase transformer requires less material
single-phase transformers of the

is
more
efficient.
transformers
all
into use.
27.
in case
three
single-phase
of breakdown one third and
the equipment needs be replaced
single 3-phase transformer
more
The
cheaper or more readily obtained because
more nearly standard, and

not
same aggregate capacity, and
(See Handbooks.)
may be
than three
is
Six-Phase Circuits.
in other respects the
preferable and
Â
is
coming more and
6-phase circuit
is
a 6-wire cir-
GENERAL STUDY.
6-A]
cuit, the potential
use
diagram of which forms a hexagon.
in connecting transformer
is
chronous converters.*
a 6-phase circuit
211
Its only
secondaries to 6-phase syn-
The usual and
best method for obtaining

by means of the diametrical-connection, as
is
Three transformers have primaries connected
follows.
3-phase
The
circuit.
six wires of the 6-phase circuit
to
may
a
be
represented by the apices of a hexagon; the three transformer

secondaries, Fig. 2 (a), are connected so as to form diagonals
The
or diameters of the hexagon.

of the secondaries may, or
may
three neutral or middle points
not, be interconnected.
Connect
transformers in this manner, with the neutrals interconnected, and

test
with a voltmeter; for present purposes
this
one
test will
be
sufficient.
If each transformer has
two separate secondaries of equal
voltage, these six coils can be used as a 6-phase supply by a ring-
or mesh-connection (each
of a hexagon)
double
or,
coil
forming diagrammatically one side
a 6-phase
or double delta, one
supply can be obtained, by a
or delta being reversed with
respect to the other.
diametral-connection.
One advantage of the diametral-cona neutral which may be used as a " derived
nection
is
that
it
gives
double F-connection
is
the
same
as the
neutral " for a 3-wire system on the direct current service from
the converter; this
is
particularly useful in lighting systems.
PART
28. Equivalent
tities
IV.
Polyphase
Single-phase Quantities.
quan-
are sometimes reduced to equivalent single-phase values for
* (273).
3-phase converter
may
be increased in rating 40 or so per
no increased losses and with a corresponding higher efficiency

when changed to 6-phase by the addition of three more collector rings and
A most valuable paper
(if necessary) an extension of the commutator.
on this subject is one by Woodbridge (A. I. E. E., February 14, 1908), who
cent, with
W. of railway converters, one third are 6-phase

one company makes all converters 6-phase. See also
.Chap. XL, Alternating Current Motors, by A. S. McAllister, where 6-phase
transformer connections are given in detail.
states that of 1,000,000 K.
above 500 K.
W.

POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
212
simplicity in
[Exp.
working up and comparing data relating to poly-
phase machinery.
The
equivalent single-phase current
(sometimes called
I'
current) in any balanced polyphase system

multiplied by the line voltage
(total)
and power
is
total
the current which,
factor, gives the true
power; hence
Total power
For a 2-phase
= EI' X power
factor.
circuit, the equivalent single-phase
current
/' is
evidently twice the line current.
For a 3-phase
V3
circuit, the equivalent
times the line current.
that this
is
single-phase current
(In a delta-connection,
three times the delta current,
it
is
is
seen
hence the significance
of total current.)
29. Equivalent single-phase
resistance R'
is
the resistance
which, multiplied by the square of the equivalent single-phase

current, gives the total copper loss {=R'I'^).
It will
be found*
that for star- or mesh-connection, or any symmetrical combination
of star and mesh,

resistance
For a 2-phase
For a 3-phase
test
^2-phase as well as 3-phase,
measured between
circuit, this
circuit,
lines of
R'
is
one half the
one phase.
becomes apparent upon inspection.
with the three equal resistances r under
connected star and connected delta, determine R' and /'; in
each case compare R' with r and with the resistance measured
between any two line-wires.

Equivalent single-phase reactance and impedance are likewise
one half the measured values between lines of one phase.

30.
Current and Voltage per Phase.
Current per phase and
voltage per phase (or phase voltage) are
more commonly used
than equivalent single-phase quantities; the meaning

definite,
but can generally be told from the context.
is
not so
The terms
* See Standard Electrical Handbook; or Alternating Current Motors, by

A. S. McAllister, in which equivalent single-phase quantities are extensively used.

GENERAL STUDY.
6-A]
are usually so used that the total
power
213
in a 2-phase circuit is
twice the product of current per phase, voltage per phase and
power
factor; the total
the product of current
power
in a 3-phase circuit is three times
and voltage per phase, and power
In a 2-phase system, there
is little
factor.
chance for ambiguity.
In a 3-phase system, the current and voltage per phase (as

defined above)
may
be either the star (line) current and star
voltage, or the delta current

case, the total
line current,
power
is
we must
and delta
In either
(line) voltage.
three times the
power per phase.
Using
Hse star voltage; using line voltage,
we
must use delta current. It will be remembered that, if line current and line voltage are used, the total power is V3 times their
product multiplied by power factor.
APPENDIX
I.
VECTOR ADDITION OF ALTERNATING CURRENTS AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCES IN A NETWORK OF CONDUCTORS.

31.
Laws
of Vector Addition and Subtraction.
considered to be up or
is
down according
walking; the difference in level

In the same
negative.
way
Any
may
is,
may be
which one
be considered positive or
difference of potential
may be
as positive or negative according to the sense in which

that
hill
to the direction in
it
considered
is
taken
according to the direction one takes in proceeding around a
circuit or
from point
to point in a circuit.
Consider a network of highways in a

starting point one proceeds by
hilly country.
any route or
circuit
point, he will find himself at the original level
If
from any
back to the starting
the plus hills and the

minus hills adding up to zero. On different trips he may traverse
the same hill in opposite directions, giving it one time a plus and the
other time a minus sign. This would be true at any instant, even if
the surface were rising and falling, as in an imaginary earthquake or
on the surface of the ocean.

Consider
now
a network of conductors.
one proceeds by any route or
circuit
If
from any starting point
back to the starting point, he
will
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
214
reach the original potential
the algebraic
sum
[Exp.
of the potential differ-
ences at any instant, taken in the proper sense, adding up to zero.
For an alternating current

algebraic addition
is
which currents and potential

and can be represented by vectors,
circuit in
differences vary harmonically
used for instantaneous values and vector addi-
maximum or for effective values; hence,

values we have the modified statement of
tion for
effective
for
maximum
Kirchhoff's
or
Law:
Law (/). Vector Addition of Electromotive Forces: GenLaw. In proceeding completely around any mesh or number of
meshes in an alternating current system of conductors, the vector
32.
eral
sum
is
zero; such vectors form a
this vector addition, electromotive
forces are represented by
of
the differences in potential
all
closed polygon.
For
arrows, the tip of one to the feather of the next, which must be in
sequence according to the direction in which
circuit.
vector
coil
XY,
as
we proceed around
the
xy may have an electromotive force represented by a

measured from x to y. Taken in the opposite sense
(by traversing the circuit in the opposite direction) the electromotive

force would be
To
a
YX,
the same vector with arrow reversed.
illustrate* further this addition,
two paths ascend: one
hill, let
other to
ascends to
A (+
let
two men
100) and the other to
now
O on
the side of
(elevation 100)
the
A, descends to O,
starts at
case of subtraction,
one quantity be reversed:
level is
man
and back to A, the ascents and descents add to zero
(100; +9o;-j-io).
To illustrate the special
to
If a
(elevation 90).
from a point
to the point
start
if
the sense or sign of
from O, one ascending
B (+90). The
the difference between
-\-
100 and
difference in their
+ 90, which illustrates
the following law
33.
Law
Special Law.
(2).
Vector
Subtraction
forces are separately measured
and
B)
OB)
will
of
Electromotive
In an alternating current system,
if
Forces:
two electromotive
away from a common
point (as
the difference in potential between their outer ends
OA
{A and
be the vector difference of the two electromotive forces
{OA
and OB).
*
For unvarying
tials this is
it is
potentials or instantaneous values of varying poten-
a correct analogy
merely an
illustration.
for the vector addition of varying quantities
GENERAL STUDY.
6-A]
The
discussion of Figs.
3,
215
4 and 5 illustrates the application of Laws
(i) and (2).
The modified form
Law
Law
of Kirchhoff's
becomes
for current
Vector Addition of Ciirrents: General Law. At

any point in an alternating current system the vector sum of the
34.
(j).
currents measured
all
towards or
all
away from
that point
is
zero;
such vectors form a closed polygon.
Law
35.
any point
in
Vector Subtraction of Currents: Special Law.
(4).
together, if one current
from that
At
an alternating current system where three currents come

is
measured towards and the second away
point, the third current will be the vector difference of
the two.
The
Laws
discussion of Fig. 14 illustrates the application of
(3)
and (4).
There
36. Notation.'
phase
circuits.
is
no universally adopted notation for poly-
The most complete and
to letter every junction or point
two
to use
letters
(as subscript
least
ambiguous method
if
desired)
in the
proper sequence
to designate the vector current or electromotive force between,
Thus, from
points.
or
xY
to,
Y we may
of the currents
XY or
/xy
have electromotive forces
YX or yx
and YX or /yx.
in the reverse sense,
(being unessential or obvious) and a single subscript
In some cases,
is
is
not needed
then simpler,
In general the double-subscript notation

its
XY
This makes definite the
particularly the simpler ones, the complete definiteness
recommended on account of
two
we may speak
similarly,
direction or sign of the vector quantity in every case.
as Ed, Es, I a, /b.
is
on the diagram of connections and
is
to be
exactness, as illustrated in the dis-
cussion of Fig. 14.
37. In applying Law (i) it is necessary, in order to obtain a

vector sum of zero in proceeding from a generator around a circuit
and back
to the generator, to take the generated electromotive forces
or counter electromotive forces in each part of the circuit: thus, the
electromotive force produced by self-induction 90 behind the current (not that to overcome self-induction 90 ahead of the current)
and the electromotive force produced by
resistance,
in
direction
exactly opposite to the current (not the electromotive force to over-
come
resistance
which
is
in
phase with current).
This becomes
obvious upon inspection of the triangle for the electromotive forces
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
2i6
in a simple circuit, the hypotenuse of
the other side

.
38.
XI;
the principle
which
is
[Exp.
E, one side
Rl and
applied in the discussion of Fig. lo.
is
Polygon or Mesh Method of Representation.
As
applied to
method of representation a certain sirnilarity between the diagram of connections and the diagram
for electromotive forces. It seems a natural method to apply in
many cases, as in Figs. 8, 9, 10. There is no essential difference
electromotive forces, there
between
directly
is
in this
Law (i), above, applies

it and the topographic method.
and the electromotive forces around any mesh have a vector
sum of zero, introducing arrows with feather to tip in sequence.

(Compare analogy of network of highways, 31.)
As applied to currents, the three currents drawn radially in Fig.
12 may be drawn as a closed polygon.
So also in Fig. 7. Compare
likewise Fig. 14.
39. Radial
Method of Representation.
for currents and electromotive
common
center.
This method
In
this method all vectors

drawn radially from a
advocated by some for all cases
forces are
is
(Porter, Electric Journal, September, 1907), together with the double

subscript notation, in order that in involved problems ambiguity can
For a star-connection the application is obvious.

For a delta-connection, we have the same radial diagram as for the
be minimized.
star-connection.
See Fig.
12.
modified radial method, with vectors from several centers,
illustrated in Figs. 14
illustrated, possesses
40.
and
15,
is
and for particular cases, as in those
some advantages.
Preferred Method.
It is
not proposed to advocate here a par-
ticular convention but rather to assist in
making underlying
principles
One may choose or develop one method and apply it in all

cases;' or he may select the method which is simplest or clearest for
each particular case. The important point is to see clearly the sigclear.
nificance of whatever
method
is
used.
GENERAL STUDY.
6-A]
APPENDIX
21?
II.
TRIPLE HARMONIC IN DELTA AND STAR CONNECTION.

41. In a circuit supplying current to a transformer, induction
motor or similar apparatus with iron, hysteresis in the iron introduces* in the exciting current odd harmonics of 3, 5, 7, 9, etc., times
the fundamental frequency.
In a 3-phase system,
if
three transformers have their primaries
either star- or delta-connected, the currents in the three transformers

will
have a phase difference of one third of the fundamental period.
The
third
harmonic due
to hysteresis will accordingly
phase in each of the three transformers.
have the same
This will be seen by
sketching curves for the fundamental and third harmonic, and shifting the curves to left or right one third of the fundamental period,
which
all
is
one
full
period for the third harmonic.
harmonics divisible by
3,
as the 9th, isth,
In a 3-phase system
etc., will
likewise have
the same phase in each transformer.
For a
be
5, 15,
5- or
7-phase system, the harmonics thus appearing would
25 and
7, 21, 35, etc., respectively.
In an even phase (single- or 2-phase) system, even harmonics only

could appear; but no even harmonics are produced by hysteresis.
These facts can be shown by curves taken by the method of instan-
taneous contact or the oscillograph.

published and discussed by E.
42.
J.
set of
such curves has been
Berg (Electrical Energy,
Thirdt Harmonic in Delta-connection.
If
the
p.
154).
transformer
primaries are delta-connected, the harmonics due to hysteresis for

the three transformers are in phase and form a current which circulates
around the delta but does not appear
in the line.
The
delta
current Id may accordingly be 5 or 10 per cent, more -than the line

is the current (third and higher harcurrent /, divided by \/3- If
monics)
*
Compare
Form," A.
I.
"
The
^V
Vs)"
+ H'-
Effect of Iron in Distorting Alternating Current
Wave
caused by hysteresis,
we
have:):
E. E., September, 1906, and
its
/d
(j^ -^-
discussion by Steinraetz.
tThe third harmonic is mentioned, being most important; it will be

understood that the ninth, fifteenth, etc., are included when only the third
is mentioned.
t ( 42a). If A and B are currents or voltages of any two frequencies,
the total effective value is Â' -f- S^ This is easily shown experimentally
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
21
Suppose, for example, /
173 and Id
is
[Exp.
105 instead of 100
is
H=
100''
increase of 5 per cent.); then
îo5'
In the laboratory measure / and Id and calculate
as per cent, of /-=-
Vs;
also
compute the per
Although noticeable
/ H- V3-
no
at
practically disappears under load, for

is
relatively smaller
43.
when
(an
32.
H.
Compute
cent, increase in
Id over
load, the percentage difference
remains constant and hence
and Id become
Third Harmonic in Star-connection.
large.
If the transformer pri-
maries are y-connected, the third harmonic caused by hysteresis
same phase
will be in the
in the three transformers
and
will tend to
The star
more than the line voltage E divided by V3,
'\/{E-i-\/^y-\-EH, where En is voltage due to hystere-
flow to or from the neutral simultaneously in the three.
Es
voltage
thus
sis.
Es
will thus be
If the neutral
can flow.
insulated no current due to these harmonics
is
If there
is
a return circuit frdm the neutral, through
ground or a fourth wire, a current of
triple
no current of fundamental frequency
will flow in the neutral if the
frequency will flow; but
line voltages are symmetrical.

44.
The
by a resistance
in the neutral can be prettily shown in

means of a telephone, which should be protected
harmonic
third
the laboratory by
in series, or in shunt, or both, or
Connect
a transformer.
other coils* with iron; the
more nearly
Let O' be the neutral of the three

the supply system.
coils
similar these are the better.
and
(If the supply system has
obtained by three y-connected resistances.)
between
and
0'.
let
if discernible, is
circuit, the
If there is
be the neutral of
If the coils are well balanced, the fundamental
very clearly an octave and a

the ninth,
no neutral, one may be

Connect the telephone
will be perhaps scarcely discernible; the third
a 64-cycle
by connecting through
3-phase supply three transformers or
to a
fifth
the
harmonic
will
sound
{do to sol) above the fundamental;
same interval above the

is C with harmonics g,
fundamental
any question as to what
is
third..
On
d", b", etc.
the fundamental,
it
can
usually be told by listening to various apparatus in the laboratory;
or by connecting the telephone, with a series resistance, to the supply

circuit.
by measuring the
in series.
Do
total
and separate voltages when two sources are put
not short circuit one source on the other.
Shunt choking-coils used for
series lighting are suitable for this.
GENERAL STUDY.
6-A]
If,
219
instead of coils with iron, three resistances are used, the har-
monics cannot be heard; the fundamental will no doubt be heard

due to lack of perfect symmetry, and will become louder if the circuits
are thrown
more out of
an
45. If
and O'
balance.
electrostatic voltmeter is available, connect
it between
and measure the hysteresis
(in place of the telephone)
'
Measure also from one line wire X, the voltages

En.
and O'X, the latter being the larger on account of hysteresis
voltage,
OX
harmonics.
Compute O'X from
the formula
pare with the measured value.
O'X
It is to
O'X =s. By what per cent,

What per cent, is En of h- V3 ?
and
46.
With
O'X, O'Y, O'Z and lay them

out
is
the
is
s greater than
XYZ
a voltmeter* measure the line voltage
struct a triangle as in Fig. 16.
neutral
= VjpX) + En" and combe noted that OX = -h V3
Measure
off as
not necessary for this
diagram on the heavy
^-V3?
and con-
also the three star voltages
shown, each one twice.

test.
Cut
lines
and
supply
fold on the light lines, bringing the three
points 0' together so as to form a pyramid.
The height
voltage
47.
En
of the pyramid represents the
due to hysteresis harmonics.
The foregoing
illustrates
the
fact
that vectors in a plane can exactly represent
currents
and electromotive forces
which are simple sine functions; the error
due to harmonics is commonly neglected.
If there is a third harmonic
48. Generator Coils.
only
in the generated
electromotive force, with the generator coils delta-connected
it
cannot
appear in the line but will appear as a circulating current in the delta.
may cause appreciable heating if the harmonic

49. The third harmonic can appear on the line
This
is
large.
only in case the
generator coils are F-connected and have the neutral connected to
ground or a 4th wire.

*
Use an
If the line is not
electrostatic voltmeter
grounded also
although this
is
at the receiv-
not important with
becomes necessary in case the coils or transformers

are small, as the current taken by an ordinary voltmeter may cause conlarge transformers,
siderable error.
it
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
220
[Exp.
ing end or a 4th wire return used, the potential of the line as a whole
by
will be raised
of triple frequency.
this electromotive force
APPENDIX
III.
COPPER ECONOMY OF VARIOUS SYSTEMS.

50. In figuring copper
tems compared are
to
economy,
have the same
it is
assumed that
to be
all
sys-
line loss and per cent, resistance
drop.
As
a general principle, in any given system, the
amount of copper
necessary varies inversely as the square of the voltage; thus,

voltage
to
is
one fourth, increasing
in the line
Any comparison
This gives the same
four-fold.
and the same per
cent.
RI
may mean
line wires or the voltage
made on
either the greatest voltage
Neutral.
On
consider
all
the basis
between
is
grounded.
to
symmetrical alternating systems give the
this basis all
same copper economy, as
loss
Same Voltage s from the Line Wire
the Basis of the
On
RP
between any wire and the neutral.
This latter becomes more significant when the neutral

51.
the
drop.
of systems should, therefore, be
of equal voltage; this
any two
if
doubled, the current will be halved and the copper reduced
will be seen
from the following.
Let us
wires to be of a given size and to carry a given current
thus giving the same drop and loss per wire.
We
/,
then have
=
=
=
=
amount of copper 2 power

2 Esl.
amount of copper 3 power
3 s/.
Quarter-phase,
4 wires: amount of copper 4; power
4 s/.
w-phase,
n wires amount of copper n power
n Esl.
The amount of power is seen to be proportional to the amount of
copper, giving therefore equal copper economy for all systems on the
basis of equal voltage between the line and the neutral or ground.
Basis of the Same Voltage Between Line Wires.
52. On the
Single-phase,
2 wires
Three-phase,
3 wires
Between
line
wires the voltage
is
2s for the
single-'phase
quarter-phase) system and ^/Ês for the 3-phase system.
(or
To make
the voltage between line wires equal in these systems, the voltage in
the 3-phase system can be increased in the ratio
V3
2.
The amount
of copper can accordingly be reduced (see 50) inversely as the

square of this ratio, namely, 4 3. Hence, for the same line voltage,
:
a 3-phase system requires 75 per cent, as

phase or quarter-phase system.
much copper
as a single-
GENERAL STUDY.
6-A]
221
53. Direct Currrent System. A direct current system has the

same copper economy as a single-phase system, when the direct cur-
rent voltage
is
made
equal to the effective (sq.
of
rt.
mean
sq.) value
of the alternating voltage.
however, the direct current voltage
If,
maximum
the
current voltage
is
increased so as to equal
value of the alternating current voltage, the direct

is
increased in the ratio of
decreased as the inverse square of this
and the copper
wJt.
The
ratio.
is
direct current
system then requires only one half the copper of a single-phase or
two thirds the copper of a 3-phase system, on the

age between wires.
direct current system would, therefore, be
basis of equal volt-
more economical of
copper than any other system, at the same voltage.

54. Choice of Systems.
On
account of copper economy and the
simplicity due to the use of only
two wires,
superior to any alternating current system,
direct current
if it
would be
were not for lack
of simple and suitable means for transforming direct current so as

obtain the advantage of high potential transmission with low
to
potential generation
and
utilization.
rents, these
means are provided
alternating
current
systems
In the case of alternating cur-
for by the transformer
so
that
flexible
they
which makes
are
practically
always* used for long distance transmission, instead of direct current.

In comparing alternating current transmission systems, the choice
made between
be
is to
fewer insulators,
much
copper.
single-phase
systems would be more
common
the poorer copper economy.
ing factor, however,
its
is
than they are, the simplicity offsetting
An
important and perhaps a determin-
compared with
for this reason a polyphase system
is
preferred, quite aside from considerations of copper econ-
omy.
Of polyphase
and
therefore the system in general use.
is
simpler line construction,
the superiority of polyphase as
single-phase machinery ( 2)
commonly
with
and
3-phase, requiring only 75 per cent, as

If these were all the factors, single-phase transmission
etc.
systems, the 3-phase system
is
most economical
* (543)- In a few cases high potential direct current has been used for
power transmission, notably in the Thury system. This is essentially a
constant current system. The high potential is obtained by generators in

the motors are likewise in series. See Land. Electrician, March
series
;
19,
1897
New York
Elect. Rev., January, 1901.
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
222
Experiment 6-B. Measurement
of
[Exp.
Power and Power Fac-
tor in Polyphase Circuits.
PART
Preliminary.
I.
GENERAL DISCUSSION.
I.
For
tem, the best method
is
measuring power in any 3-wire sys-
method
the two-wattmeter
particular case of a balanced 3-phase load,
23
for the
some one-wattmeter
method, 32-9, may be used.

For measuring power in systems with more than three wires,
the n
wattmeter method of 16
is
correct for
all
cases; for
the particular case of a balanced 2-phase load, on a 4-wire sys-
tem, the method of 10, employing two wattmeters,
An unknown
It will
may
be used.
load should not be assumed to be balanced.
be understood that, in cases where several wattmeters
are described as being required, a single instrument
may
used and shifted by suitable switches from circuit to
be
circuit,
readings being taken successively in the different positions.

2.
power
Separate
is
Phase
Loads.
In
any
single-phase
system
measured by means of a wattmeter, the current
being connected in series and the potential

the circuit, as discussed in
sion of this
Appendix
method can be applied
III.,
coil in parallel
Exp. 'S-A.
An
coil
with
exten-
to a polyphase system, if the
phases are separately accessible so that the load of each phase
can be separately measured.
phase load, with current
wattmeter
coil in series
is
then used for each
and potential
coil in parallel
with the particular load being measured, the total power being
the arithmetical
For example,
sistances
sum
to
of the several wattmeter readings.
measure the power
on a 3-phase
circuit
by
would be required, each current
in three star-connected re-
this
coil
method, three wattmeters
carrying the star (or line)
current and each potential coil being subjected to the star voltage.
With
three resistances delta connected, three wattmeters
would

MEASUREMENT OF POWER.
&-B]
223
also be required, each current coil carrying the delta current
each potential
3.
coil"
and
being subjected to the delta (or line) voltage.
This method of measuring the separate phase loads
simple in principle and
(6), but
is
commonly used on
a 2-phase circuit
not capable of general application inasmuch as
is
it
On
phase loads are not always separable.
a 3-phase circuit
example, a 3-phase induction motor
in testing, for
is
may
it
be
impossible to measure delta current or star voltage, so that some
method not requiring

necessary;
of these measurements
either
furthermore, the method
is
open to objection on
account of the number of measurements required,
assumption
is
made
that
all
phases are
ments are necessary on one phase

4.
Polyphase Power Factor.
the voltage, current and
power factor for
unless
the
measure-
alike, so that
only.
bination of single-phase elements.
becomes
Â polyphase
If E, I
system
and
a com-
is
are, respectively,
power for any separate element, the
that element
is
W-ÊI,
by
When
definition.
the separate elements or phases of a polyphase system have the
same power
5.
factor, this is the
When, however,
factors, there
is
power
factor for the whole system.
the separate elements have different
no one power factor that has a

for the whole system.
physical significance
power
definite value or
It
is
convenient,
however, to obtain a kind of average power factor for the system,

the value of which will depend
determination.*
An
upon the method used
average power factor
may
be satisfactorily
determined when the separate phases are nearly

little
6.
meaning when they are widely
alike,
but has
different.
Two-phase power
Two-phase Load.
in its,
is
usually measured
by two wattmeters, one on each phase, as just described.

7.
When
the phases are independent, as in
6-A, the measurements
made on
differ in
a,
Fig.
i,
Exp.
no respect from measurements
single-phase circuits.
*(Sa). See A.
Burt, Three-phase
S.
McAlIiser, Alternating Current Motors,
Power
Factor, A.
I.
E. E., p. 613, Vol.
p.
XXVIL,
12; A.
1908.
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
224
On
8.
a 3-wire, 2-phase circuit, as in
same method may
also be used, the
being located in the two
With
two
b.
Fig.
Exp. 6-A, the
i,
wattftieter current coils
" outer " conductors,
the wattmeters thus located, the
[Exp.
sum
and B,
of their
respectively.
two readings
power (23) for any load whatsoever, even

when part of the load is between A and B. (These connections
will give the true
are seen in Fig.
and
is
there
in
common
the
When
9.
i,
which
and
are the outer conductors
conductor or return.)
the load in a 3-wire 2-phase system
wattmeter
balanced and
is
no load between the two outer conductors
is
and B, one
may be conveniently used by connecting the current

common conductor; one end of the potential coil is
to the common conductor and the other end connected
coil in the
connected
first to
is
one and then to the other outer conductor.
taken in each position and the algebraicf
power.
(The connections are seen
common
conductor.)
sum
in Fig. 7, in
3-wire 2-phase circuit
reading*
gives the total
which
is
is
the
Hkely not to
be balanced ( 14, Exp. 6-A) and the method should be used
with caution.
10.
On
d, Fig. I,
the correct
may
the
a 4-wire, quarter-phase, 2-phase system, as in c
and
Exp. 6-A, two wattmeters, one on each phase, will give
power only when the load
is
balanced.
The method
be used for testing a smgle machine, but not for measuring
power of a
* (9a).
circuit
when
For a balanced
load,
the character of
its
load
is
unknown.
power can be determined from a
single
reading of the wattmeter by connecting the current coil in the common

conductor and connecting the potential circuit from the common conductor
two approximately equal non-inductive resistances,

connected across the two outer conductors as in Fig. 5.
sino-le
to the middle point of

i?i i?2,
reading of the wattmeter gives one half the total power, if the wattmeter,
is calibrated as a single-phase instrument with i?, and R2 connected in
parallel with each other and in series with the potential circuit (36a).
See also 33a.

t (9b). For low power factors, when e exceeds 45, the reading of the
wattmeter in one position is negative. The similar case for a 3-phase
circuit
is
fully discussed later.
6-B]
That the method
is
225
not generally correct will be seen by assum-
ing the current coils of the two wattmeters to be connected in
two of the
as
lines,
and B; neither wattmeter would then
record a single-phase load drawing current from the other two

A'B'.
lines,
On
a 4-wire system, with unbalanced load, at least three watt-
meters must be used,

II.
16.
Power Factor
in
a Two-phase Circuit.
are measured on one phase of a 2-phase circuit,
power factor for
method for determining power
when
may
This
that phase, 4.
factor,
and
If E, I
-^ EI
is
the
be called the cosine
since
-i-
EI
^ cos
currents and electromotive forces are represented by sine
waves.
12.
The following
tangent method for determining power
from two readings of the wattmeter
factor
will be
found simple
and often convenient.
The current
phase
voltage
of the wattmeter
the potential coil
is
coil
Ek-
is
is
connected in one line of
connected across phase A, whose
The wattmeter now
reads the power volt-amperes
or true watts
W,=EJocose.
(i)
Transfer the potential
The wattmeter now

amperes (sometimes
coil to
reads
the
phase B, whose voltage

wattless
or
is
quadrature
b.
volt-
called wattless, or quadrature, watts),
W^ÊÎA sine.
(2)
Dividing the second reading by the
(3)
first,
wr'E.'^''^-
Tan^, and hence power factor (cos

ratio of the
two readings.
IV2 -^ fî-
The power
16
Usually
6),
is
determined by the
EbÊa,
so that tan 6
factor thus determined
is
the
power
226
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
factor of phase
A;
6 is the
The method assumes
phase difference between 7a and Ea-
a and b
that
[Exp.
90 in phase and that
differ
electromotive forces and currents follow a sine law.
The advantage of
the tangent
method
is its
and inde-
simplicity
The method can be
pendence of the calibration of instruments.
used for determining the power factor of a single-phase load,
drawn from a 2-phase
supply, and a
somewhat
similar
method
can be used for determining the power factor of a 3-phase load,
28,38,41.
13.
sine
The
method
value of 9 and power factor can be found by the

directly
from (2);
thus, sin 6
a single-phase or 2-phase load there
method, which
14.
The
useful, however,
" cosine "
and
definition
is
is
is
= H^2 ~^
For
-Sb/a-
advantage in this
little
on 3-phase
circuits, 43.
method gives correct power factor by
general, being independent of
The
wave form.
"tangent" and "sine" methods are based on the assumption

that voltages
and
and currents follow a sine* law.
The
" cosine "
" sine "
methods require carefully cahbrated instruments.
The
three methods are seen to be based on the relation,
15.
power volt-amperes
total volt-amperes
sm
volt-amperes
= wattless
volt-amperes
;
-.
total
tan
^= wattless
volt-amperes
.
power volt-amperes
16. General Method for Measuring Power;

meters.
This method
consists in selecting
a system and considering

others.
One wattmeter
is
it
as a
Watt-
any one conductor of
common
return for
all
the
then used for each conductor, except
*(l4a). With non-sine waves, the value of power factor by the

tangent method would, theoretically, be a little larger than the true value
by the cosine method; the value by the sine method would be a little
larger than the value by the tangent method.
6-B]
this
common
No
return.
wattmeter
circuit; thus, for a 2-wire system,
no wattmeter being needed
is
227
required for a return
one wattmeter only
is
needed,
in the return conductor; in a 3-wire
system, two wattmeters are used, none being needed in the re-
turn conductor,
If m
etc.
is
number of
the
To measure power
except one
circuit
line
in
each wattmeter having
and
lines
its
less
line wires; the total
sys-
i.
any system, connect a wattmeter
in every
{considered as the return conductor^,

current coil in series with one of the
its
potential coil connected
One
conductor.
conductors,
For a 3-wire
wattmeters are, accordingly, required.
tem, the connections are shown in Fig.
line
wattmeter
power
is
from
return
required than the number of
the algebraic
is
this line to the
sum
of the individual
wattmeter readings.
To
17.
read positive power each wattmeter
in the positive sense,
measuring power
that
is,
is
to be connected
connected in the same
way
as for
in a 2-wire system, direct or alternating.
If,
when connected in this mariner, the needle of any wattmeter

deflects the wrong way, the connections of its potential or current
coil are to
Compare
18.
be reversed and
its
reading
is
to be considered negative.
25.
This method of measuring power
the current
may
is
absolutely general
be direct or alternating and
law whatsoever; the system
may
may vary by any
be single-phase or polyphase,
balanced or unbalanced, symmetrical or unsymmetrical.
As
a. particular case, the two-wattmeter
system
is
method for a 3-wire
of special importance with reference to 3-phase circuits
(23) in detail.
has been explained by considering
method
19. The foregoing
one conductor as a common return for all the others, and for
The method with
most purposes this explanation is sufficient.
and
will be considered later
wattmeters can be rigorously established (22) by
developing the
method with n wattmeters,
20.
first
228
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
In
n Wattmeters.
20. General Method,

system,
a wattmeter
if
is
[Exp.
any star-connected
connected in each line
the
current
connected in series with the line and the two ends of the
coil
and
potential coil connected, respectively, to the line wire
junction or neutral point of the system
the
to the
power of the
total
system will be the sum of the separate wattmeter readings, as

discussed in
2.
21. This arrangement of wattmeters, however,

to star-connected circuits
The
point accessible.
nor
true
is it
is
not limited
necessary to have the neutral
power of any system whatsoever may
he measured by connecting one wattmeter in each
line,
with cur-
rent coil in series with the line and potential coil with one end
connected to the
point
or
and the other end
may
sum of
to
any point
not be the neutral.
connected the potential
is
algebraic
line
may
system, which
To
of the
this potential
of every wattmeter.
coil
The
the wattmeter readings gives the true power.
general proof of this
is
given in 53
it
can be verified by ex-
periment, 45-49 22.
The
fact that
the potential point
one wattmeter
let
is
any point of the system may be taken as
leads to the practical simplification by
Wattmeters
the line wire n be taken as the potential point.
A, B, C,
etc.,
a, b, c, etc.,
will
Wattmeter
etc.
have current
and potential
which
In a system of line wires, a,b,c n,
omitted.
coils
coils
connected in series with
connected from a to n, from h to n,
would, accordingly, have
its
potential coil
connected from w to m; as both ends of the pressure
would
co;!
thus be connected to the same point, this wattmeter would always
read zero and, accordingly, can be omitted.
wattmeters, 16,
23.
is
the
is
thus established.
Two Wattmeter Method
method
for
any 3-wire system.
This
generally used for measuring 3-phase power.
ing a particular application of the

16, the
The method of
Be-
wattmeter method,
two-wattmeter method can be applied to any 3-wire
6-B]
system* and
is
229
independent of any assumptions as to wave form
or the nature of the load.
The arrangement of instruments
24.
wattmetersf are inserted in any two

wire
being considered as a
is
shown
lines, as
common
in Fig. i.
The
and Y, the third
return.
ULL
w.
Z-2
W.
Cn
Fig.
I.
Two-wattmeter method for measuring power
in
any
3-phase
or
other 3-wire circuit.
The
total
power
two wattmeters.
will
is
the algebraic
For high power
sum
of the readings of the
(more than 0.5) this

be the arithmetical sum, both wattmeter readings being posi-
tive.
For low power
wattmeter
is
factors
factors (less than 0.5), the reading of one
case being the arithmetical difference
shown
25.
power in this
of the two readings, as
to be considered negative, the total
later in 31.
There are several ways for
telling
whether one reading
is
negative or not, the principal ones being as follows

(a)
From
the sense of the connections, 17.
* (233). If each end of a 3-phase line has
becomes
virtually a 4-wire system; the
unless the load
is
ground
its
neutral well grounded,
circuit
it
can not be neglected
practically balanced.
^ ( 24a). Polyphase Wattmeter. Instead of two single-phase

meters, a single instrument combining the two is commonly used.
watt-
This
two wattmeters, one above the other, with the moving elements
mounted upon a common shaft. The reading of such an instrument gives
The electrical connections are the same as for two
the total power.
consists of
separate instruments.
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
230
For the given load
(b)
or
is
known
tions,
substitute a load that
have high power factor;
to
[Exp.
is
non-inductive
with certain connec-
if,
both wattmeters deflect properly, their readings for these
When
connections are positive.
one connection needs to be re-
versed to obtain proper deflection, one reading

(c) Disconnect one* potential circuit
and connect
to the outside wire,
it
verses, the readings of
or
negative.
is
from the middle wire
ii
the wattmeter
re-
one of the wattmeters must be considered
negative.
Method
(c) can be readily applied during test,
when using
the
two-wattmeter method on a 3-wire system, but does not apply to
more than three
a system with
Method
(a)
is
general and can be applied to a system with
any number of wires.
may
be marked
The
once for
polarity of the wattmeter circuits
all,
instruments of one
make being
The instruments can be properly connected
similar.
tive sensef in
advance and confusion during the
26. Two-wattmeter
Load.
wires.
Method with
As has been already
stated, the
general for any kind of 3-wire circuit.

particular case
is,
in the posi-
test avoided.
Balanced
Three-Phase
two-wattmeter method
is
Detailed proof for each
accordingly, unnecessary.
discussion of
its
application to measuring a balanced 3-phase load will, however,
prove 'instructive as an illustration and will serve to make clear
power factors.
show a method for obtaining 3-phase power
the negative reading of one wattmeter at low
Furthermore,
it
will
factor.
27. Fig. 2
is
the diagram for a balanced 3-phase load,
assumed that currents and voltages follow a sine law.

*(2Sa).
On
reading
is
circuit,
being
sufficient to do this with one

should be done, successively, with
a reversal of either instrument indicating that one
a 3-phase circuit
is
it
potential circuit only; but in general
each potential
it
For unity
it
negative.
t(2Sb). This
also indicates the direction of the flow of
" Polyphase
Power Measurements," by
January
1907.
19,
C.
power; see
A. Adams, Elect. World, p. 143,
6-B]
power
factor
{6^0),
heavy arrows Ix,

for lower
power
Fig. 2.
If
The
factors, ^
= 30, ^^60"
two wattmeters are connected as

its
the
show these currents
and
= 90.
the phase
coil,
30".
in Fig. i,
current coil and a voltage

difference between
The component
accordingly, Ix cos {9
30)
hence
wattmeter (i)
xz
this
across
its
current and
Exz
Exz and
of Ix in phase with
^writing
for
/x^wattmeter (i) reads
/ for
W^
dotted arrows
Currents and voltages in a balanced 3-phase system.
voltage being 6
is,
shown by
the three Hne currents are
Iy, Iz.
has a current Ix in
potential
231
= EI cos (e 3o)=-E/ (cos 30 cos +
sin 30 sin ^).
In a like manner, wattmeter (2) has a voltage Eyz and a current Iy, having a component Iy cos {6
-\-
30) in phase with Eyz-
writing E for Eyz and / for /ywattmeter (2)

30
W^ = EI cos + 30)=/ (cos 30 cos
Hence
(e
Adding W2
to W.^,
-,_-{-
(9
sin
we have
W2=^ 2EI cos 30
cos
= \/2EI cos
0,
reads
sin e).
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
232
which
is
circuit
seen to be the expression for the total
(20, 21, Exp. 6-A).
a balanced 3-phase load

28.
is
[Exp.
power
The two-wattmeter method
for
thus established.
Subtracting W^ from
= EI
W^W^ = 2EI 30
Power
in a 3-phase
Factor.
we have
W^,,
sin e
sin
sin
6.
Hence, by dividing, we have
W^
^x
The value of
3-phase circuit
is,
W,
+ ^.
and of power factor (cos
larger reading
reading, W^,
may
V3"
6)
for a balanced
accordingly, determined by the tangent formula
tan^=V3
The
tan^
is
W, W,
w^ + w,-
W^, and
is
always positive; the smaller
be positive or negative.
29.
To
putation,
plot
it
save labor in comis
curve.
convenient to
Fig.
power factor (cos

dinates
and the
meter readings,
abscissae.
with
3,
6)
as or-
ratio of watt-
W2 -j- W^,
as
Points on this curve
are determined by the relation
W^ __ cos {6 4- 3 02
fî^cos \ezoy
6-B]
Wi-i-Wi
COS
.60 .40
I.
.80
.064
.143
.240
233
O +.20 +.40 +.60 +.80 +1.
.20
.359
.5
.918
-803
.6ss
Intermediate values can be found by interpolation.

that the curve
is
if
Since the assumption
is
made
= =
obtained
This
current.
which
more accurate
/), greater accuracy

is
actually the
is
the two-wattmeter method.
may
be
is
made (42)
all
The
all
Referring
to Fig. 2,
values of 6 from o to 90, the projections of
Eyz
The
watt-
sign, being positive
when
sign.
than 60 (power factor more than 0.5) and negative

6 is more than 60 (power factor less than 0.5).
In all
less
when
cases
W-i^ is
On
the larger,
and
non-inductive load, 9
reads half the total power.

total
is,
decreases as 6 increases, be-
meter reading W^, accordingly, changes

is
W^
cases positive.
projection of /y upon
comes zero when 6^60, and then changes

6
factor
for slight variations in voltage.
/y upon zx have the same sign; the wattmeter reading

therefore, in
same
In either case, corrections
Negative Reading of Wattmeter.
seen that for
power
for determining
7,
than
31.
is
and W^.
accomplished by using the one wattmeter method
is
of Fig.
it is
^^
that the current in the wattmeter
same for the two readings (/x

/y
if the current in the two cases
the
is
seen
one wattmeter
used, successively, in the two positions to determine
is
It is
i.
not symmetrical.
Errors of calibration are avoided
30.
.982
power
is
W^
is
the smaller, reading.
= o and Wi^W^; each wattmeter

When = 90, Wj^=^ W2 and the
^
zero.
Three-Phase Power with One Wattmeter.
32.
^With
only
one wattmeter, 3-phase power can be measured by the two-wattmeter method (23) by using suitable switches for throwing the
wattmeter from one position to the other. This procedure gives
the true
power
for unbalanced as well as balanced loads and
is
generally the best one to follow.
The
line to
transfer of the current coil of the wattmeter from one
another
is
not always convenient or possible and,
when
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
234
the load is
balanced, the
power
TExp.
a 3-phase system can be
in
measured with only one wattmeter without such transfer by one

of the following methods.
With Neutral Available.
33-
When the neutral
available,
is
the current coil of the wattmeter can be connected in

line circuit
neutral.
and the potential
For a balanced
coil
When
the load
is
is
power -will be
The power factor
load, the total
the reading* of the wattmeter.
W-i-EI, where /
any one
connected from that line to the
the line current and
three times
is
equal to
the star voltage.
is
not balanced the total power will be the
sum of
three readings, one on each phase.
With
34.
able,
an
equal
Fig. 4.
It is
Artificial Neutral.
artificial
^When the neutral
not avail-
is
means of three
neutral can be created, as by
star-connected non-inductive resistances,
R-^,
R^,
R^
in
The method of
33 can then be applied.

necessary that these resistances be relatively low, as com-
Rw
pared with the resistance of the potential circuit

wattmeter.
them
The
will then
of the
current
in
be relatively
large, so that the potential of
the neutral will not be
dis-
turbed by the connection of

the
Fig. 4.
Measuring power with one
wattmeter connected
to
the neutral in
potential
wattmeter.
circuit
of
the
The power taken
in the resistances
may
be in-
a balanced 3-phase circuit.
cluded or not in the measured
power
as desired; correction for this
power can be made when
necessary.
R^ and R^ should each be equal to the

joint resistance of R^ and Rw in parallel.
In this case there is
no need of making the resistances low this leads to the method
35. Strictly speaking
of 36 in which R^
is
omitted entirely, that
is,
R^^=iaa.
*(33a). Calibration for Total Power. In this method, or in any

method depending upon a single reading, the wattmeter can be cahbrated
to read total power.
6-B]
^With a balanced load and with one
With Y-Multiplier.
36.
wattmeter, the current
One end
line.
line,
235
coil
of the wattmeter
of the potential circuit
is
connected in one
is
connected to the same
the other end being con-
nected to the junction of two
and R^, which
resistances i?i
are connected to the other two

lines, as
shown in Fig. 5. The

R^ and R^ are non-
-mMW-
resistances
inductive and are each equal*
Rw,
to
the resistance of the
potential circuit of the watt-
Fig. 5.
Measuring power with one
wattmeter and a Y-multiplier in a balanced 3-phase system.
meter.
True power
is
three times the reading of the wattmeter, cali-
The
brated as a single-phase instrument.

times put up
resistances are some-
in a special volt-box or Y-multiplier for 3-phase cir-
the
cuits;
may
instrument
then
be
calibrated so as to read total power,
33a.
27-
^y Means
of T-connection.
In a 3-phase system, with three lines
X, Y, Z, connect the current
coil
of
the wattmeter in any one line, as Z,

Fig.
from
6.
Connect the. potential

to
point
0,
the
point of a transformer coil across
See Fig.
15,
ever the load
Exp. 6-A.
is
the total power.
XY.
In any balanced 3-phase system, how-
connected, the wattmeter will
(This
coil
middle
may
now
be seen as follows
give one half
If the wattmeter
*(36a). Provided Ri and R2 are approximately equal to each other,

same method may be used without having i?i and R^ equal to R^^,
The instrument is calibrated as a single-phase virattmeter with R^ and R^ in
parallel with each other and in series with i?w; a single reading then
gives one half the total power. Compare pa, 33a.
this
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
236
were connected with
its
increased 50 per cent.
on the star voltage, the watt-
potential coil
meter would read one third the
see Fig. 2,
power; with
total
[Exp.
it
will read
its
potential
one half the
total
power.)
The power
38.
factor
The power
fF -^ oz/z.
is
factor
can be found from the tangent formula, by taking one reading,
Wi, of the wattmeter with the connections
and a
as described
second reading, W^, with the potential circuit of the wattmeter

transferred to
XY.
Eoziz cos
W-i_
W^.
Two-reading Method.
39.
This
one of the simplest and
is
most satisfactory methods for measuring power and power fac-
current coil
Z, Fig.
7,
is
connected in one
nr
w
Y
Fig.
7.
two
nected, successively, to
Measuring power
of one
readings
wattmeter
in
line.
other end of the potential coil
balanced
rcading taken
algebraic
jg
in
sum of
the total power.
j^
line, as
one end of the potential circuit
being connected to the same
by
The
with one wattmeter in a balanced 3-phase circuit.
tor
is
The
con-
and Y, and a
each position.
The
two readings gives

(The smaller readings,
the
considered negative whenever
it
3-pnase circuit,
is
necessary to reverse the potential or
current coil of the wattmeter to obtain a proper deflection.)

40.
Fig. 2,
law.
The proof of
the
method
will
be seen by referring to
which assumes that voltages and currents follow a sine
The two
readings of the wattmeter are
Wi = EI cos
(e
30);
W^
= EI cos (i9-f 30).
Hence, the sum of the two readings gives the total power, 27.
41. The power factor (cos 6) is determined from the tangent
formula, 28,
6-B]
By
referring to Fig.
from the
42.
237
power factor can be found
3,
directly
W^ s- Wi.
ratio
When
there
is
an appreciable difference between the
phase voltages (which we

potential circuit
may term E^ and E^)
connected
is
when W^ and W^
across which the

^ê read, a
more
accurate value of power factor will be obtained by correcting

W.^ or IV2 by direct proportion to obtain values correspond-
ing
to
equal
The ratio M-^^ -^ ^1 then becomes

The power factor thus determined is quite
voltages.
EJV2 -^- EJV.^.
accurate, being independent of the calibration of any instrument
and of any
slight inequality in the phases.
balanced load,
is
it
Even
the phase difference between 7z and the voltage
midway
in
for an un-
gives accurately the value of cos 6 for Iz, where
phase between
XZ
and YZ.
OZ
The method
(Fig. 2)
is
more
accurate with one than with two wattmeters, 28.

43.
Power Factor by Sine Method.
The power factor of a
balanced 3-phase circuit can be determined by the sine method

( 13)
with only a single reading of voltmeter, ammeter and
The method
wattmeter.
available,
nor does
it
does not require the neutral to be
require any auxiliary resistances or other
devices.
Representing the three
and the current

as Z.
coil
line wires as
X,
and Z, the ammeter
of the wattmeter are connected in one
The voltmeter and
the potential coil of the wattmeter
are connected across the other two lines,
and Y.
The watt-
meter reading gives the wattless or quadrature volt-amperes,
WÊxyIz
from which
and cos
line,
sin 6,
9 are determined.
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
238
PART
Many
44.
[Exp.
MEASUHEMENTS.
II.
of the methods just described for measuring poly-
phase power and power factor can best be taken up as occasion

arises for their use.
Without undertaking
ment
to subject all of these
select
a few of them for
trate
and make
methods to
trial in
clear the
in the present experi-
test, it will
be well to
the laboratory in order to
methods as a whole.
For
illus-
the
this
following tests are suggested.

45. Verification of
Methods
for
Measuring Polyphase Power.
With a single-phase non-inductive
load,
forming a 2-wire sys-
tem, measure the total power with two wattmeters.
Each
line
to contain the current coil of one wattmeter, the potential coil
is
of which
is
connected from the line to a
The experiment
21.
consists
in
common
connecting
point P, as in
to
different
parts of the circuit, of various potentials, and noting that the
sum of
algebraic
When
as
is
comes
46.
the
the two wattmeter readings is constant.

power indicated by one wattmeter becomes greater,
changed, the power indicated by the other wattmeter beless.*
For example,
Exp. 6-A.
tential, as
all
let
the supply lines be
Connect P, successively,
fli,
a^,
on phase A.
the neutral O,
When
phase
able, proceed, also, to connect
a-â^,
as in Fig. 6,
to points of different po-
A^ and A^, these points being

of a two phase supply is avail-
successively to points 5^, b^,
B^ on phase B.
&2,
47.
Repeat with an inductive load.
48. Repeat in some modified manner, as by using Oj&i as

supply lines and connecting P, successively, to various points as
described above.
49.
When
points, as in Fig. 6,
Exp. 6-A, are not available,
a resistance can be bridged across the circuit

*
positive reading decreases
and the point
a negative reading increases.
b-B]
239
The load
re-
to using 3 wattmeters
on
connected to different points on this resistance.

sistance itself can be thus utilized.
The experiment might be extended
a 3-wire system, 4 wattmeters on a 4-wire system,
The method
seems hardly necessary.
etc.,
but this
of n wattmeters, n
wattmeters and two wattmeters may, in this way, be experimentally verified.
From
Two-phase Power Factor.
one phase, A, of a
2-phase supply draw a single-phase load.
Take measurements
50.
with a voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter and determine the

" cosine method," 14.
power factor by the
Transfer the voltmeter and potential
of the wattmeter
coil
to the other phase, B, and determine the
power
factor by the
"sine method," 13, and by the "tangent method,"
51. Three-phase Power and Power Factor.
12.
With a
3-phase
balanced load supplied from a 3-phase circuit, take two readings
Determine the
total
power factor by the tangent formula,
28,
of a wattmeter connected as in Fig.
power
calculate the
and by the
52.
ratio of
7.
wattmeter reading. Fig.
Transfer the potential
coil
3.
of the wattmeter to the third
phase, so as to read the "quadrature" volt-amperes; take the
necessary readings of the wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeter, and
determine power factor by the " sine method,"
APPENDIX
43.
I.
53.
ductors
General Proof.
a,
b,
c,
In
etc., let
these conductors be
ia,
any system, with any number of con-
the instantaneous values of the currents in
H,
ic,
etc.
Designate by
e,
ej,,
e^,
etc.,
instantaneous values of the potentials of the several conductors.

currents and electromotive forces
soever.
There,
is
may vary
in
the
The
any manner what-
no limitation as to the arrangement or method of
connection of the generator and receiver circuits.
POLYPHASE CURRENTS.
24
The
total
power
at
any instant
w = eaia +
(i)
[Exp.
is
eiij,
ecic
=%ei.
Let ep be the instantaneous potential of any point

Since
it is
known
that S
V"o+V'i>
(2)
Since (2)
affecting
is
its
equal to zero,
value
+ Vo
it
of the system.
follows that
may
=ep%i
o.
be subtracted from (i) without
hence
(3)
The
o, it
ii'={ea
ep)ia+ (ei
power at any instant
total
ej,)it,+ (e
is
ej,)ia
seen to be the
sum
=-S,{e
ej,)i.
of the products
of the instantaneous currents in each conductor and the instantaneous

differences of potential between the respective conductors
and the
point P.
The mean power

power over a time equal
is
to
found by integrating the instantaneous
one period, T, and dividing by T.
^= |'X%a-^|.>y'+ tSo^^'"-'^^'^'^^^ YS^^'-'i>*But each one of these terms represents the power, as read by a
coil in series with one conductor and with
wattmeter with current

potential coil connected
power
from
that conductor to the
sum
common
point P,
and the
total
nected.
For an w-wire system, n wattmeters are required, the
is
the
of the several wattmeters so contotal
power being
When
the point
coincides with one conductor, the wattmeter for
that conductor reads zero
and can be omitted;
wattmeters are
then required.
The method
wattmeters,
is,
for
n wattmeters, for n
or the character of the load.
by A. Blondel,
Chicago, 1893.
wattmeters, and for two
accordingly, proved without reference to
p. 112,
This general proof was
wave form
first
given
Proceedings International Electrical Congress,
CHAPTER
VII.
PHASE CHANGERS, POTENTIAL REGULATORS,
ETC.
Experiment 7-A. Polyphase Transformation.

Possible Kinds of Transformation.
I.
power
in a single-phase system
character of the load.
is
The transmission of
pulsating,
no matter what the
This can be readily seen by sketching
assumed curves for the instantaneous values of an alternating

electromotive force and current, and plotting the products of the
ordinates from instant to instant as a
power curve.*
In a bal-
anced polyphase system, however, the pulsations of power in the

different phases are seen to so
sion of
power
is
combine that the
uniform,t without pulsation.
total transmis-
(See 2, Exp.
6-A.)
2. Polyphase to Single-phase Transformation not Possible.
In a transformer, neglecting the slight modification due to

the
power given
into the
primary
power taken out of the secondary

sible,
therefore, simply by
* ( la).
The
at
any instant
is
at that instant.
means of transformers
losses,
equal to the
It is
to
not pos-
change a
area included between the power curve and time axis rep-
resents energy, this energy being positive (supplied to the line) or nega-
from the line) according to whether the current and electromotive force have, at the time, like or unlike signs.
It is instftictive to
sketch curves for currents differing in phase from the electromotive force
tive (returned
by
0.
45 and go degrees.
t ( lb). This can be shown for a 2-phase system by drawing, for each
phase, sine curves for electromotive force and current and plotting the
product as a power curve.

each phase, and
it
Two power
hollows in the other, the algebraic

constant.
curves are thus obtained, one for
will be seen that the crests of
The sum of
the three
sum
power curves for a 3-phase
be shown to be constant in the same way.

17
one correspond to the
of the two power curves being
241
circuit
can
PHASE CHANGERS,
^42
ETC.
[Exp.
pulsating into a non-pulsating transmission of power, or vice

versa.
It is accordingly not possible, by means of transformers, to
draw single-phase current from a polyphase system and draw
from the several phases equally, so that the flow of energy is
non-pulsating.
made of
To
accomplish such
driving a single-phase generator.

flywheel, storing
for the
a transformation,
a motor-generator* consisting of a polyphase
and restoring
momentary
The moving
is
motor
parts act as a
kinetic energy, thus accounting
difference between the pulsating output
non-pulsating input of electric energy.
This method
cated for running single-phase railway feeders
transmission
use
is
and
advo-
from a polyphase
line.
3. Single-phase to
It is likewise
Polyphase Transformation not Possible.
not possible, by means of transformers, to change
a single-phase into a balanced polyphase system.
This too can
be done by means of a motor-generator, or by running a poly-
phase induction motor on a single-phase
circuit,
a 2-phase or a
3-phase motor giving 2-phase or 3-phase currents.
Various
sta-
tionary phase-splitting devices will give difference in phase sufficient for starting induction
motors on single-phase
circuits,
but
such devices cannot give balanced polyphase currents.

4.
ever,
Polyphase Transformation Possible.
It is possible,
how-
by various arrangementsf of transformers to change from
one balanced polyphase system to any other balanced polyphase

system, the flow of energy in each system being uniform.
is
termed polyphase transformation and
of this experiment.
its
study
is
This
the object
The various methods of polyphase transmade of the factj
formation are similar in principle, use being
* Such a motor-generator has been installed in the chemical laboratory

of Cornell University to supply 2,000 or 3,000 amperes of single-phase
current for the electric furnace.
t(4a).
Two
transformers, only, are necessary;
are used in some arrangements, as Fig.
X Fully discussed in Exp. 6-A.
4.
but more than two
POLYPHASE TRANSFORMATION.
7-A]
that, if
two
is
with electromotive forces differing in phase are
coils
connected in
243
two
series, the electromotive force across the
the vector
coils
sum
(or difference) of the two separate electro-
resultant electromotive force of any desired
motive forces.
phase can thus be obtained from a polyphase supply by means

of two transformers.
The transformation from 2-phase
to 3-phase, or vice versa,
is
most important on account of the copper economy* in 3-phase

transmission and the sometime advantage of 2-phase generation
or utilization.
5.
Two-phase
by
versa)
to
Three-phase
This
T-connection.
C. F. Scott,
in Fig. I, in
first
shown diagrammatically
which A and B are the two
(and vice
published by Mr.
is
phases of a 2-phase system; X,

represent
Transformation
method,
the
three
wires
line
and
of
3-pha&e system.
TWO PHASE
PHASE A
A
c
A'
-ry55ffVT5555">-
Let the transformation be from 2phase to 3-phase.

used.
One has
Two
transformers are
a primary
AA' on
in
phase
of the 2-phase system and has a sec-
ondary (XY) wound,
let
PB'
us say, for 100

Fig.
volts with a middle tap at O, dividing the

coil
into
two parts of 50
volts
each.
ca
< u
0<
I.
Transformation
from 2-phase (.AB)

phase
(XYZ),
or
to
3-
vice
versa.
The second transformer has a primary

BB' on phase B of the 2-phase system and has a secondary
(OZ) wound for 86.6 volts (86.6=100 X 4V3). which has
one end connected, as shown, to the middle tap of the
former.
ZX,
It will
be found that the three vohages,
first
trans-
XY, YZ and
are equal and differ in phase from each other by 120, thus
making a 3-phase system. These voltages are represented in

They should be interpreted as in Exp. 6-A; see also
Fig. 2.
Appendix
I.
to this experiment.
* See Appendix
III.,
Exp. 6-A.
PHASE CHANGERS,
244
6.
This method of transformation
[Exp.
ETC.
reversible
is
XYZ
3-phase system be connected (see Fig. i) to

2-phase circuits
7.
may
be taken from
A A'
In
Double Transformation.
if
i. e.,
as primary,
and BB' as secondary.
Fig. 3
is
shown a double
transformation, from the 2-phase gener-
Y^X/
ating circuits A,
mission
to the 3-phase trans-
X,
circuits
Y,
Z,
and
from
these to the 2-phase receiving circuits A,
2.
Voltage and cur-
Fig, 2.
and B,
B.
The
may
be used together, as for operating
receiving circuits,
polyphase motors, or separately as for
rent relations.
lighting.
8.
As
a further explanation of the T-connection, referring
to Fig. 3, suppose the connections OZ',

that, instead,
Z' and Z'
a fourth wire
2'
OZ' were
transmission circuit,
^wires
xy
its
place use
is
the
acting in parallel as a single conductor.

coil
ZZ'
flows to
and
differentially, so as to
of
XY.
the coil
With
XY
wound
zz' for
phase B.
z'
is
two wires x and
y,
The current from
divides, passing
OX
through
have no magnetizing
effect
and
the
OY
on the core
from
respect to the current
are
and
the fourth wire
3,
made of
independent 2-wire
its
for phase
In making the T-connection of Fig.

omitted* and in
out and
(not shown) were used to connect
each phase would then have
left
Z', the two parts of

They should be intermagnetic leakage and con-
non-inductively.
spaced so as to have the least possible
sequent leakage reactance, which would give poor regulation on
phase B.
This precaution
is
necessary in winding any T-con-
nected transformer.
The
regulation of phase
and of phase
are as independent
of each other with three wires (Fig. 3) as they would be with

four wires making separate circuits
phase
B may
have a heavy
*(8a). There is obvious copper economy in this case in changing

from a 4-wire 2-phase to a 3-wire 3-phase transmission; see Appendix IH.,
Exp. 6-A.
HS
7-A]
motor load with 50 per
cent, drop, while
has a lighting load
with, say, 2 per cent, drop, unaffected by the starting and stop-
They
ping of the motors on B.
are absolutely independent of
each other.
Composite Transmission.
9.
were generated and
If the phases
utilized separately,
JljO
MW
A'gg
it
and B, Fig.
3,
would not be necessary

for B to differ from A
degrees;
ninety
^y
ll
could have any phase,
even the same phase as
Fig
3.
A.
"^
"f^^^"^
Two-phase generator and receiving
Again
might
be
circuits with 3-phase transmission.
of
frequencies
m fact
r
and
different
.1
they
can be treated as two independent transmission systems* whether

In the same
of the same or of different frequencies.
way
a direct
and alternating current can be combined with economy of copper

and independence of
10.
regulation.
Test.--First note
the single-phase transformations
which
can be made with the transformers to be used, and determine
whether or not the transformers are suitable for the purpose.

Connect the transformers so as to transform from a 2-phase
system to a 3-phase system and make measurements of the
primary and secondary

T-connected
Make
coil,
line
checking
and the voltage of the
voltages,
all
by computation.
corresponding transformation
from a 3-phase
to
2-phase system.
If the transformers are provided with
parallel
and
series connection,
make
tions with all possible voltage ratios.
two
sets
of
coils,
for
the polyphase transforma-
Compute
the volt-ampere
*(9a). Various methods of composite transmission will be found in

the followiiig: Elect. World, February 28, 1903,' pp. 347 and 3Si, Vol. XLI.,
No. 9; Am. Electrician, April, 1903, pp. 189 and 177, Vol. XV., No. 4;
Elect. Review (New York), March, 1903, p. 362, Vol. 42, No. 11; Elect.
Age, March, 1903,
p.
14-
p.
179, Vol.
XXX., No.
3; Mill Owners, April, 1903,
PHASE CHANGERS,
246
ETC.
[Exp.
capacity for the 3-phase side of each transformer
power output, on non-inductive
load,
when
100 watts
is
the total
see
24,
Exp. 6-A.
II. Instructions
for Special Transformers.
two transformers,
relate to
DEF
and
These
instructions
Each transformer has

The
series or in parallel.
a^SyS.
two primaries, which may be connected
in
windings are as follows:
Primary
a,
Primary
|8,
no (or 165) vojts.

no (or 165) volts.
Secondary
y,
368 (or 55) volts.
Secondary
8,
36! (or 55) volts.
The
cycles
first
the
and
specially
in parallel
made
for use at either voltage.
on one phase, and a and
the other phase of a 2-phase system, connect
y and
(or 165) volts.
number gives normal voltage for highest efficiency at 60

number in parenthesis is 50 per cent, above normal voltage.
These transformers were
With
no
Primary D,
Primary , no (ori6s) volts.

Secondary P, 63.5 (or 95.25) volts.
in parallel
to the middle point of
connected in series, thus making a 7"-connection.
no
on
From
(and also 165 volts) obtain 3-phase

secondary voltages by computation and measurement. Make the
^-phase circuits of
volts
primary connections from no-volt 4-wire 2-phase system, and also
from
lo-volt 3-wire 2-phase system.
Repeat with primaries in series instead of in parallel
compute and
measure secondary 3-phase voltages.
Perform corresponding transformation from no-volt 3-phase to

What two 2-phase voltages can be thus obtained?
2-phase.
12.
In
Monocyclic Transformation.
the monocyclic system
(no longer being installed) a single-phase voltage

with a quadrature voltage of one fourth
Exp. 6-A, a monocyclic voltage

is
is
an unsymmetrical 2-phase system.
its
value
is
combined
thus, in Fig. 6,
obtained from A-Â^b^.

If
two
It
transformers
are used, the primary of one being connected to A^b^, of the
other to A^b^, the secondaries
(with two ends together for a
3-wire system) will give a monocyclic voltage the same as the
primary.
reversed.
voltages.
This secondary voltage
is
an open delta with one side
Test this with a voltmeter and draw a diagram of
7-A]
Reverse the primary or the secondary
coil
now form an open
the secondary voltages
247
of one transformer;
making very
delta,
nearly an equilateral triangle, and hence forming a nearly sym-
Compute
metrical 3-phase system.
these voltages and verify by
This method was used for
measurement.
obtaining polyphase current for operating
3-phase motors upon what was
initially
single-phase circuit with a so-called "tea-
zer"
circuit {b^) added.
It
was introduced
by Steinmetz; the name indicated a pulsating (monocyclic) flow of energy instead
The
of a non-pulsating (polycyclic) flow.
transformation
its
is
instructive, even
pj(,_
Transforma-
^_
from
tion
3-phase
^"P''^"
JJJJ
though
introduction has been discontinued.

13. Miscellaneous
Several
Transformations.
Try
formations are here indicated.
of volt-amperes over watts

14. Fig.
trans-
these by experiment, so far
Compute
as time and facilities permit.
other
for each case the excess
see 24, Exp. 6-A.
4 shows a method for transforming from
3- to 2-
The primaries are connected to

The secondaries of the first
two transformers are OX and OY. The third
phase, with three transformers.
a 3-phase supply.
transformer has two secondaries, whose vol-
AX
tages are
and YB.
What must
values of these, in order that
be the
will give
true 2-phase voltages?
z
Fig.
AOB
Trans-
s.
formation
from
p ase
3-
^'
phase (xys).
IS- Fig-
shows a method, occasionally
of laboratory use, of using three auto-trans-
formers
XYZ
will be obtained
for
to xys.
'^
^^-phase
What
transformation
from
ratio of transformation
by using three auto-transformers with a middle
tap?
16. Fig.
6 shows two F-connected auto-transformers for
3-phase transformation from
XYZ
to Xyz.
This
is
method
PHASE CHANGERS,
248
commonly used
The
the
\
Q
changed, but not
is
YZ,
Although
this
would
have the disadvantage of requiring an additional auto-transformer; furthermore, this ar-
^2,
rangement could not give
Auto-
6.
where
auto-transformer,
third
continuous operation,
for
better
y/-..\z
FiG.
phase.
might be used, with a tap at O.
/
Y
taps y and z can be located
be noted that the voltage
It is to
[Exp.
for obtaining a low starting voltage for 3-phase
motors and converters.

desired.
ETC.
transformers on 3phase circuit.
^^gg^ ^jj^
than half vol-
less
would make a reversal of phase
in
,
changmg from
low
,
ning) voltage, which
is
to high
(startmg to run-
not desirable in starting a synchronous
machine from the alternating current end.

17.
Two-phase to
practical
method for
being inverted; (thus

It is
laboratory.
Transformation.
this consists in
primary circuit to two

be used.
Six-phase
most
transforming from a 2-phase
sets
of T-connected secondaries, one set
and
I,).
not necessary to
(Detailed
The
Two
make
connections
or four transformers can
this
are
transformation in the
given
in
McAllister's
Alternating Current Motors; see also 27, Exp. 6Â.)
APPENDIX
I.
18.
Further Interpretation of T-connection.
A general discussion
of the vector combination of electromotive forces
6-A
(particularly
Appendix
I.),
is given in Exp.
and the general principles there given
can be applied to the T-connection.
The following
is
a more detailed
discussion of this particular case.
The electromotive
force of any alternating current coil
sented by a vector in a certain direction.
of a transformer connected to a secondary
may be
repre-
If this coil is the secondary

line,
as in the present case,
the electromotive force impressed upon this line will be represented
by the same vector.
If in connecting the coil to the line the termi-
nals are reversed, the vector representing the electromotive force
7-A]
impressed upon the line
Thus, in Fig.
likewise reversed.
is
XY
electromotive force of the coil
may be
a vector
connected in the opposite sense, the electro-
motive force of the
YX is
coil
the vector
249
XY
vv
YX.
the
I,
when
it is
'00
xn
50
Fig. 7 shows these vectors for the secondarycoils of Fig.
From
I.
shown
ciples can be
100
these elementary prin-
YO
OX
the delta and the star
equivalents of a T-connection.
Fig.
Delta Equivalent of T-connection.

The electromotive forces between the terminals
19.
XYZ
of Fig.
or Fig.
in a certain order,
XYZ
order, as
Two
senses
which vectors can
be considered.
should be considered
2,
XYZ
shown
in
7.
or
ZYX.
vector
Let us consider them in the
Going from
in Fig. 8.
XY
as shown.
we have the
we have
to Y,
From Y
to Z,
the vectors YO and OZ (compare Fig. 7)

which combine to give YZ. From Z to X,
we have the vectors ZO and OX which com-
bine to give
are thus
ZX.
shown
phase by 120".
Fig.
Delta equivalent
8.
three resultant vectors
The
and
to differ in
line voltage, thus obtained
is accordingly the same

would be obtained by three 3-phase genera-
by the T-connection,
as
of T-connection.
The
to be equal
tor coils,
XY, YZ, ZX,
connected in delta.
Star Equivalent of T-connection. Suppose the neutral point

A^ (either actual or imaginary) in the coil OZ divides its voltage
20.
into i
and
and
28.9
of
NO
we have
A''
we have
and
and OX.
the vector
OY; and
0N =
NO
with arrows down
with arrow up as drawn.
28.9,
neutral
I; thus, in Fig. 9,
NZ = 57.7,
NX
It follows that
NY,
From
the
the resultant
NO
NY and NZ are
the resultant of
NX,
each equal to S7-7 volts (57-7= 100 -f- Vs)

differ in phase from each other by
and
Fig. g.
120.
the
The
line
T-connection,
voltage,
is
the
thus
obtained
Star equivalent
of T-connection.
same as would be
obtained by three 3-phase generator coils

connected.
by
NX, NY, NZ, when
star-
PHASE CHANGERS,
25
Experiment
Types
I.
7-B,
[Exp.
Induction Regulators.*
of Potential Regulators.
plies current
ETC.
When a generator
a
either alternating or direct
sup-
single line, the
to
desired voltage at a distant receiver can be maintained by vary-
ing the excitation of the generator, either by a hand-operated

rheostat or by
some automatic device as the
(3a, Exp. i-B).
This
is
Tirrell regulator
also accomplished, to a certain ex-
by a compound winding (4, Exp. i-B) or composite
tent,
winding ( iia, Exp. 3-A) on the generator.

When, however, a generator (or several generators in parallel)
supplies several lines or feeders, with independently varying
loads, this simple
method of regulation
for at any particular time the voltage
is
on one feeder may be too
high, while the voltage on another feeder

is
no longer possible;
is
too low, and there
no change of station voltage which can be made which
will bring the delivered voltages
on
all
feeders to their proper
values.
In direct current distribution systems, the proper voltage can
be approximately maintained by inter-connecting the various

feeders and proportioning the amounts of copper according to
average load conditions.
In large stations, a step further
is
taken by maintaining in the station several sets of bus bars at

so that feeders
different voltages,
may
be supplied with the
proper voltage according to conditions, long feeders being supplied with a higher voltage than short ones.
of auxiliary batteries, motor-driven boosters,

tions,
Use
etc.
is
also
made
In early sta-
wasteful series resistances in each feeder were sometimes
used.
2. In
an alternating current system, the most satisfactory

by the use of a potential regulator in each
resultsf are obtained
* Note that an induction motor with wound secondary can be used as

an induction regulator see 4.
t (2a). Series resistances and reactances have been used for this purpose. To use the former is not good practice on account of the energy
;
INDUCTION REGULATORS.
V-B]
The
feeder.
potential regulator
251
a variable-ratio transformet
is
or auto-transformer used to raise the voltage as a booster, 01

to lower the voltage as a negative booster.
The
regulator
may
be operated either manually, or automatically by means of

small motor which
is
controlled* by potential wires
from any
desired point in the system.
Alternating current potential regulators are of two types, the

step-by-step regulator and the induction regulator.
3.
is
The Step-by-step Regulator.
^The
step-by-step regulator
an auto-transformer (or transformer) with switching arrange-
ments for changing the number of turns.
same
as
In principle
any auto-transformer (Exp. 5-A).
switching arrangement
knife switches, but
may
consist of a
more usually
is
the
In practice, the
number of
either of a
it is
drum
pattern, operated either manually or automatically.
individual
or a dial
In the
drum
or dial pattern, resistance or reactance in the contact leads
is
sometimes used so that the contact arm can temporarily bridge
two contact points without disastrous short circuit.

The step-by-step regulator is not easily made automatic.
contacts deteriorate, even
when
The
arcing tips are used, and hence
this type of regulator is better for occasional than for constant
adjustment.
For continuous automatic adjustment, the induc-
tion regulator
4.
is
generallyf used.
The Induction Regulator.
Ân
induction regulator
is
stationary transformer with a movable primary or secondary
which may be
set in different positions for obtaining potentials
wasted. Reactances are satisfactory for some cases ; to be effective, however, they must be large and expensive.
* (2b). The motor may be either direct or alternating and is usually
controlled through a relay, one form oi Tirrell regulator being made for
this purpose.
t(3a)- In cases where very rapid continuous automatic adjustment

required, the induction type can not be used on account of the heavy
mass to be moved. An automatic regulator of the step-by-step type is
better for this rapid adjustment, because the moving part is only a light
is
contact arm.
PHASE CHANGERS,
252
ETC.
of different values or of different phase.

in
common
use
essentially
is
[Exp.
form* of apparatus
an induction motor with
wound
secondary brought out to terminals, and any induction motor so

constructed can be used as an induction regulator.
Such an apparatus may be used
As
1.
single-phase
used on lighting
regulator;
potential
feeders.
As
As
2.
3.
a phase shifter; used in laboratory testing.

a polyphase potential regulator
used on polyphase
lines,
particularly in supplying current to synchronous converters.
5. (i) Single-phase Potential Regulator.
Supply
primary
the primary (or one phase of the

if
a polyphase induction
motor
is
used) with a constant single-phase voltage not
exceeding the normal voltage of the apparatus.

PosuUMofBata,
Fig.
smg
Use
I.
e-p ase
former
voltage
The Secondary
for
may
be varied by turn-
ing the rotor by hand to any desired position,
rans-
^^^ current may be drawn up to the full-load
secondary
voltagc
as
differ-
ent positions of ro-
-^
"^
rating of the Secondary.
used
in
two ways
The apparatus
is
(a) as a transformer with
primary and secondary not connected together

{b) as an auto-transformer with the two coils connected, as in
Fig. 2.
6.
(a)
Use as Transformer.
Place
a voltmeter across the
open secondary and revolve the rotor step by
step, so that
secondary potential changes between zero and a
maximum.
open
circuit the data for
* (4a).
An
the
(On
methods (a) and (&) can be taken
form of regulator had stationary primary and secand a movable iron core which formed
part of the magnetic circuit and permitted more or less of the primary
This device is sometimes referred to
flux to pass through the secondary.
ondary
earlier
coils located at right angles,
as a " magnetic shunt."
For a description of different forms of regulators, see: "Alternating

Current Feeder Regulators," by W. S. Moody (a paper before the Toronto
" Alternating Current Potential
Section, A. I. E. E., February, 1908)
Regulators," by G. R. Metcalfe, Electric Journal, August, 1908.
;
7-B]
simultaneously.)
Plot a curve, as Fig.
253
showing the secondary-
i,
potential for various angular positions of the rotor.
maximum
ratio of
(b)
7.
cially
Note the
secondary to primary potential.
Use as Auto-transformer.
The second and commer-
preferred method for use as a single-phase regulator
is
to
supply the primary with single-phase constant voltage as before,
and
to connect the secondary in series with the load, as in Fig. 2,
POSITION OF ROTOR
Fig. 2.
Connections.
Fig.
3.
Delivered voltage.
used as auto-transformer.
Single-phase potential regulator
SO that the delivered potential
taken from the machine,
acting as an auto-transformer,
is
equal to the primary potential
now
El, either increased or decreased by the potential E^ of the sec-
This
ondary.
is
either additive or subtractive, the apparatus
being a booster or a negative booster, according to the position
of the rotor.
tween the
E.
In this manner, the potential
limits of
-j-
E^ and
Plot a curve, as in Fig.
E-^
of 1 and E^-
in Figs.
8. /4
lator
is
method
What
E^.
may
be varied be-
Measure E^, E^ and
showing the delivered potential
3,
for various positions of the rotor.
sum
Compare
relation is there
E with the
algebraic
between the curves
and 3?
Comparison.
In method
(a), the output of the regu-
equal to the volt-ampere capacity of the secondary; in

(b), the output of the
same regulator
is
much
greater.
Take, for example, a regulator with primary for 100 volts
100
PHASE CHANGERS,
254
amperes, and secondary for lo volts

(o), the secondary output
or lo kilowatts.
from 90
to
no
is
ETC.
[Exp.
In method (b), the potential

volts,
In method
looo amperes.
limited to lo volts
lOOO amperes,
may
be varied
which with 1000 amperes gives an output
of about 100 kilowatts.
In practice, method (b)
used; in the laboratory, method (a)
is
is
often convenient
therefore
when
the
range of delivered voltage desired does not exceed E^.

9. Again, to take care of a certain load as a transformer,
the regulator
must have a capacity {EJ^) equal
to the load, 1
As an
being load current and E^ being load voltage.
auto-trans-
former, the regulator will have a capacity {EJ^) which

smaller, I^ being load current
of voltage (see Fig. 2)
lowered 10 per
is
much
and E^ the increase or decrease
thus, if the voltage is to be raised or
cent., the capacity
of the regulator needs to be only
10 per cent, of the full load of the feeder.

10.
Further Experiments.
The
may be tested under load,

Exp. S-A; or its performance can
regulator
either inductive or non-inductive, as in
be predetermined, as in Exps. S-B and S-C.

The air gap necessitates a larger magnetizing current than in a transformer with a closed magnetic circuit; and, on account of larger leakage
reactance, gives poorer regulation and a smaller diameter to the circle
diagram.
II. Tertiary Coil.
Âs the secondary coil moves away from the influence
of the primary and comes
more nearly
to the neutral position,
it
includes
primary flux; the secondary leakage flux now causes

the secondary to act more and more as a choke-coil in series with the load,
thus giving a low power factor. This has been overcome by a shortcircuited tertiary coil, wound midway between the primary windings, so
located that it is not cut by the primary flux. As the secondary moves
less
and
less of the
away from
the influence of the primary, the short-circuited winding
comes
on a transformer,
so that the choking effect of the secondary or series coils becomes less and
less, and is practically zero in the neutral position.
(See citations, 4a;
In a polyphase induction regulator no
also Standard Handbook, 6-158.)
tertiary coil is needed {Standard Handbook, 6-161).
into play, acting similarly to a short-circuited secondary
'
12.
(2) Induction Regulator as Phase-shifter.
primary with polyphase current
at
Supply the
normal constant voltage. The
secondary voltage will be found to be constant in value for
all
7-B]
255
positions of the rotor (instead of varying as in the preceding

tests), but to be of
varying phase, having a definite phase posi-
tion for each position of the rotor.
This should be explained and
demonstrated experimentally.
To do
this,
connect one primary circuit and one secondary
cir-
the
measure E^ and E^ separately, and
cuit in series as before,
sum of
the two for each position of the rotor, and construct
triangles
on a common base i,
varying phase* of E^.
as in Fig. 4,
which
illustrates the
Observe
the relation between mechanical
and
electrical
degrees,
for
example,
the
noting,
mechanical
angle through
which the rotor
is
Fig. 4.
Voltage relations as phase
turned to shift the phase of E^
shifter.
by 45 electrical degrees.
Although of little commercial use,
this
method
If the primary supply
useful in the laboratory.
and of constant
voltage, the secondary voltage
will be constant
and
its
is
extremely
is
symmetrical
on open
circuit
phase angle will vary exactly with the
position-angle of the rotor, which can be read with a suitable
scale.
secondary load
will,
however, distort these conditions,
so that the scale reading will not give the phase exactly.
The varying
shows that with
resultant potential E, in Fig. 4,
polyphase supply the apparatus can also be used as a potential

regulator, to be discussed in the next paragraph.
(3) Polyphase Potential Regulator.
13.
The
primary
is
supplied, as in (2), with polyphase current at normal constant
The secondary
voltage.
from each
each phase must be separate
other, one secondary coil being connected in series
with each delivery
motor
coils for
circuit.
For a 3-phase regulator (or 3-phase
used as a regulator) the connections are
The supply
shown
in Fig. 5.
circuit is connected to the terminals i, 2, 3 of the
^which
primary
* This can also be
may
be star-connected, or delta-connected as
shown by a phase-meter.
PHASE CHANGERS,
256
[Exp.
ETC.
The deUvered currents are taken from a, b, c. The

voltage relations are shown in Fig. 6, where a', b', c' gives the
maximum delivered voltage. As the rotor is turned, this becomes
a", b", c", etc., until the minimum a'", b"', c'" is obtained.
shown.
<>>-^
Fig,
Fig.
Connections.
5.
Polyphase potential regulator
supply voltage,
in series with load
With
a voltmeter,
show
i,
Voltage relations.
6.
.i,
secondary
coils, *, y, z,
delivered voltage, ahc.
that the secondary voltages x,
y and s
do not change in value with a change in position of the rotor;

also
show
that the three delivered voltages, ab, be, ca, are sub-
stantially equal for
do not change and

changes,
is
well
any one position of the

ab, be, ea
mum
change simultaneously, as the rotor
voltage, as ab, for different rotor posi-
noting particularly the positions for

values,
and
maximum and
mini-
plot a curve, as in Fig. 3.
Construct a diagram to scale, as in Fig.

I, 2,
x, y, z
shown by incandescent lamps.)
Measure one delivered

tions,
(That
rotor.
6,
making the
triangle
3 equal to the primary voltage; the circles have radii equal
to the
secondary voltages, x, y and
z.
From
this
diagram pick
off values of delivered voltage, a'b', a"b", etc., for different rotor
positions
with the
and
plot these values as a second curve, to be
first
limiting values of delivered voltage are
cos 30.
compared
curve already plotted from measurement.
shown
to be
E^
The
2E^
CHAPTER
VIII.
INDUCTION MOTORS.
Experiment 8-A.
Preliminary
Motor and the Determination of
PART
I.
Use.
motor
rent
I.
its
most general
motor, the speed at
full
account of
its
Performance by Loading.
is
the form of alternating cur-
constant speed
It is practically a
use.
load being a few per cent, less than the
speed at no load, and in this respect
On
an Induction
of
INTRODUCTORY.
The induction motor

in
Study
simplicity
it
resembles the shunt motor.
and nearly constant speed,
adapted for operating machinery, but
is
it
is
well
not so well adapted for
use in traction,* or similar service, where there
frequent accel-
is
(For variable speed motors, see 59.) Induction motors

may be single-phase or polyphase, large motors being generally
eration.
3-phase or 2-phase.
</ 2. Structure.
stationary
rotor,
An induction motor
member, or
corresponding
direct current motor.
in a
way
consists of
to the field
(The terms
two members,
and a revolving member, or
stator,
field
and armature of a
and armature should not
be used, however, in referring to an induction motor, since they

are inexact and confusing.)
* ( la).
For
traction purposes the
induction motor
is
best suited to
runs at uniform speed.

The first such use in
America, at the Cascade Tunnel of the Great Northern Railway Company,
is described in a paper by C. T. Hutchinson read before A. I. E. E., Nov.
service permitting long
12, 1909 (see Transactions, Vol. XXVIII., p. 1281), in virhich the following advantages of the 3-phase induction motor are stated: simplicity,
greater output for given space, uniform torque, constant speed, impossibility
of excessive speed (either on down grade or when the wheels slip),

down grades, impossibility of excessive current, possi.
regeneration on
bility
of using 25 cycles.
(See also discussion following the paper.)

traction is not uncommon.
Europe the 3-phase induction motor for

i8
257
I(
258
INDUCTION MOTORS.
[Exp.
OPERATION AND LOAD TEST.
8-A]
form south
Phase
II.
poles.
field
rent in Phase
now
are
being under B.)

III.
becomes a
formed under CC.
Each pole
and
cycle) the current in
BB
form north poles and
later (after
{A and C
B'B' south poles.
maximum
little
becomes a maximum, so that
also north but weaker, the
Later (after
maximum and
cycle) the cur-
north poles are
accordingly seen to progress
is
under A, B, C, A', B', C,
to be successively
259
etc.
The. primary
or stator winding thus produces a revolving or rotating
which tends
drag the rotor around with
to
usual distributed winding, the field
is
it,
With
50.
field
the
uniform and revolves with
uniform speed.
4. In a 2-pole model (having two poles per phase) the
makes one revolution

one revolution
two
in
one cycle;
in
field
a 4-pole model, as Fig.
in
i,
cycles; in a 6-pole model, one revolution
in three cycles, etc.
is
It is
seen that,
the
number of
makes n^-p
if
is
the frequency in cycles per second and p
pairs of poles
(per phase), the rotating
This
revolutions per second.
chronous speed of the motor; compare
is
i,
known
field
as the syn-
Exp. 3-A.
5. In revolutions per minute.
Synchronous speed
= 60 w
-f-
Pairs of poles per phase := 60 m -h synchronous speed.
Speed and
6.
Slip.
The rotor of an induction motor revolves
at a little less than
synchronous speed;
would revolve
same speed
it
at the
for, at
synchronous speed
as the magnetic field, in
which
case there would be no cutting of lines of force, no secondary
current and hence no torque.
The
actual speed of an induction
synchronous speed by a few per
motor
is,
therefore, less than
cent, called the per cent. slip.
The
slip increases
lines
of force, the current in both secondary and primary and the
with the load, thus increasing the cutting of
torque.
7.
Primary Winding.
An induction motor
is
not
commonly
INDUCTION MOTORS.
26o
constructed with separate poles, as in Fig.

ings
a're
usually distributed in slots
shown
i.
The primary wind-
i.
and are so arranged
in
groups
which correspond to those
that a series of poles are produced

in Fig.
[Exp.
There are a number of
slots for
each pole.
lap or a wave winding (see 3b, Exp. i-A) can be used, according to various winding schemes, as described in text-books.
8. Squirrel
Cage Secondary.
made up
consists of a squirrel cage,

in slots
The secondary winding usually

of parallel copper bars set
with ends connected by two short-circuiting rings.
a construction
is
strong and simple;
makes
it
Such
possible a low
secondary resistance which gives high efHciency and good speed
The
regulation but low starting torque.
squirrel cage secondary
self-contained and has no outside connection.
is
9.
Phase-wound Secondary.
To
obtain a higher secondary
and hence a greater starting torque,* the secondary
resistance
sometimes wound, or phase-wound as
is
it is
Extra
called.
ondary resistance, either internal or external to the motor,
sec-
may
be included in the circuit on starting to increase the starting

torque, this resistance being cut out as the
to give higher efficiency
*(9a).
Maximum
Torque
Torque.
electrical input, 2/2 cos
^2,
motor speeds up so as
and better speed regulation while runproportional
is
Starting torque
see 54.
is
to
secondary
proportional to
secondary input at standstill and is a maximum when R^^X2, for h

then lags 45 behind 2 and has a maximum power component in phase
with 2. (In any constant potential circuit with constant reactance, current has a
maximum power component when
seen in Fig.
2,
Exp. 4-B.)
the lag angle is 45, as can be

Increasing R2 beyond a certain amount will
decrease the starting torque.
When
Tunning with a
the torque
is
slip s,
the secondary reactance becomes SX2 and
maximum when R2 SX2.
The secondary
be given such a value as will give the motor
resistance can
maximum
torque at any
example at standstill when s=: i.oo.
The maximum value which the torque can have, irrespective of speed, is
independent of R2, being dependent solely upon the input E-i-2X, except
for the small effect of primary losses see 12a, 22, Exp. 8-B. Changing
desired
slip,
its
as for
i?2
can not alter this
speed.
maximum, but can cause
it
to occur at
any desired
8-A]
(High
ning.
261
resistance in a squirrel cage armature
some-
is
times obtained by making the short-circuiting rings with high

resistance.)
10.
The secondary
resistance, besides increasing the torque,
acts as a starting resistance
and serves
( 14)
from the Hne,
starting current taken
reduce the
to
same manner
in the
as the
starting resistance of a direct current motor.
The secondary
resistance
of an induction motor
is
the case
also be used to vary the speed

this
the speed of a shunt motor
a resistance in series with the armature.
when
may
when running, but
11. Starting Polyphase Motors.
is
is
inefficient,
as
varied by means
See 60.
Polyphase induction motors
are self-starting and require no special starting devices in order
There
to obtain a starting torque.
starting a
motor by connecting
it
is,
however, objection to
directly to the line
on account
of the excessive current which would thus be taken.
may be
Small
motors
say under
in this
manner, inasmuch as such a motor forms but a small part
horse-power
started without load
of the total load of a system and cannot seriously affect

lation.
the
that
motor.
momentary
All
large
loaded, require
excessive
motors,
some
however,
and small motors when
starting device to limit the starting current.
common method
of starting
is
to connect the
tage for starting and to throw
has reached, say, half speed.
it
on to
The low
motor
The
.to
starting-voltage
provided with suitable intermediate taps, as
a low vol-
is
in Fig. 2,
On
a 3-phase circuit,
obtained
box
is,
and
line
one
on
two auto-transformers are
also used, these being F-connected, as in Fig. 6, Exp. 7-A.

starting
it
Exp. 5-A.
a 2-phase circuit, two auto-transformers are used,
each phase.
most
full line-voltage after
by means of auto-transformers connected across the
same
regu-
current does not overheat the
12. Starting Corn^nsatar^ or__Auto-transformer.
On
its
Furthermore, a small motor comes up to speed so quickly
The
accordingly, suitable for either a 2-phase or
262
INDUCTION MOTORS.
a 3-phase motor.
To
when
cut out
[Exp.
save losses, the auto-transformers are
the motor
is
The motor
running.
starters
are
often arranged so as to throw the motor step-by-step on successively higher voltages, thus avoiding too
and rush of current

13.
the
Any
at
any one
sudden acceleration
step.
auto-transformer serves to step up the current at
same time
that
it
steps
down
current from the line; thus,
the voltage and so requires less
if at
voltage* a motor takes a
90 amperes, the current drawn from the line

only 30 amperes.f The auto-transformer, therefore, not only
starting current of
is
reduces the starting current taken by the motor itself on account
of the reduced voltage but makes a further proportional reduction in the line current.
for
It serves
cases except those in
all
admirably as a motor starter
which a large starting torque
is
necessary.
14.
torque
When
Se condary Star ting Resistame^

is
necessary,
it
is
a large starting
best obtained by using a
phase-wound
secondary with additional resistance for starting; see 9a.

the
motor speeds up,
this resistance is cut out, either all at
As
once
or gradually so as to control the acceleration and current of the
In motors with revolving secondaries, this extra resist-
motor.
ance
may
be contained within the rotor and controlled by a lever
bearing against a sliding collar, or
it
may
with leading-in wires connected through

15.
Some motors
be external to the motor

slip rings.
are provided with a centrifugal device for
cutting out this resistance automatically
when a
certain speed
is
reached.
16. Starting
Single
Phase Motors.jWhen supplied with
single-phase current an induction motor has no starting torque,
although
it
will
run satisfactorily when once started (56).
some cases small motors may be
started
by hand, but
In
in gen-
At full voltage the current would be 270 amperes,

t ( 13b). If a series resistance were used to reduce the voltage to 1/3,
the current drawn from the line would be 90 amperes.
* (i3a).
8-A]
eral
some
special provision for starting a single-phase
Whatever means are used
be made.
torque
small and
is
The
load.
263
load
it
may
is
motor must
for starting, the starting
preferable to start the motor without
be assumed after starting, by means of a
loose pulley or clutch.

17.
Shading
Coils.
One
method for making small
single-
phase motors self-starting depends upon the use of shading
Each magnetic pole of the

two
Around
parts.
short-circuit coil of
the flux
consequence of
maximum
ing field
is
of such a motor
low resistance, called a shading
is
its
coils.
divided into
is
the leading portion of each pole
changing in any pole,
is
the leading part
its
field
wound
is
coil.
When
increase or decrease in
retarded by the short-circuited
this action, the leading part of
In
coil.
each pole attains
magnetization after the other part, so that a revolv-
produced and the rotor
is
drawn around
as in a poly-
phase motor.
18.
Repulsion Motor.
single-phase motor
to start as a repulsion motor and
motor when nearly
wound
full
speed
rotor provided with a
is
is
is
made
often
converted into an induction
attained.
Such a motor has a
commutator and brushes, as the
armature of a direct-current generator or motor.

are connected together by a heavy conductor.
The brushes
In a 2-pole model,
the brushes are opposite each other.
In a 2-pole model, suppose the plane of the brushes (or rather

the plane
of the coils to which they are connected through
the commutator) to be in the center line of the poles.
There
would be a large flow of current through the rotor windings and

the brushes, but
the conductors
the other.
from symmetry there would be
would tend
Jio torque
to turn in one direction
half
and half
in
If the plane of the brushes were turned at right angles,
there would be no current flowing and therefore no torque.
however, the brushes are
set obliquely, a current will flow
If,
and
there will be a resultant torque, for the current in the conductors
INDUCTION MOTORS.
264
under opposite poles
[Exp.
will flow in opposite directions so that the
conductors under both poles will tend to give rotation in the same
direction.
After a certain speed
reached, a centrifugal device
is
is
com-
monly used to lift the brushes, thus saving friction and wear, and
to short-circuit the rotor windings so that the motor runs as an
has the characteristics of an induction
induction motor.
It then
motor and not the
characteristics of a repulsion motor,
which are
similar to those of a series motor.

19.
Phase
start as a
Splitters.
single-phase motor
may
be
made
to
2-phase or 3-phase motor by means of polyphase cur-
rents temporarily derived
from a single-phase
Polyphase
circuit.
currents sufficient for this purpose can be obtained from a single-
phase
line
by various arrangements of resistances and reactances
such devices, termed phase-splitters, are in
common
use and will
Polyphase currents so derived can
be discussed later (26-32).
never be balanced ( 1-3, Exp. 7-A) and are only used for
starting.
PART
II.
PRELIMINARY STUDY.
^ 20. Structure and Rating.
Study the general structure and
windings* of the motor note the rated full-load speed and output
;
and the frequency, voltage and kind of
circuit
(single-phase,
2-phase 3-wire, 2-phase 4-wire, 3-phase, etc.) for which. the motor
is
designed.
21. Compute the watts input and the current per line at
load,
assuming a certain
efficiency (say
power factor (say 80 per
cent.).
80 per
cent.)
full
and a certain
For a polyphase motor, com-
*(2oa). A detailed study of the windings may be made when the

necessary data are obtainable.
The study may include a diagram of
winding, and the following data : number of poles or groups of coils per
phase; number of coils per group and turns per coil; size wire; current
density for full-load current; total resistance; letigth of wire (per coil
and total) computed from dimensions and from resistance measurement;
type of secondary
number and
size of
conductors ; number of
slots, etc.
&-A]
From
pare 20, 21, Exp. 6-A.
the speed and frequency, com-
pute the number of poles per phase,
Note the manner
in
5.
which the motor
is
to be connected to the
supply circuit and any special provision there

22.
Polyphase Motor.
265
Connect
in
one
may be
for starting.
line circuit
an amme-
ter with a range, say, 50 or 100 per cent, in excess of the full-load
Start the motor in the regular manner, without load,
current.
and note the

running at
starting current
Note the change
full speed.
gains speed and as the motor

to the
and the current when the motor
some load
motor
changed over from the starting
is
Repeat the
normal running conditions.
belted to
in current as the
is
test
with the motor
and note
(belted, for example, to a generator)
the current taken to start the motor and note that
more time
is
required to attain full speed.
3-phase motor can be run on any 3-phase
circuit,
of proper
frequency and voltage, irrespective of whether the circuit

delta,
or
2-phase motor with two independent circuits can likewise be
operated on any 2-phase
has
its
Fig.
I,
circuit.
If,
however, a 2-phase motor
circuits brought out to only three terminals, as (b) in
Exp. 6-A,
it
can only be operated on a 3-wire circuit and
cannot be operated on a quarter-phase system (as

versely, if the
on a 3-wire
23.
motor
is
connected as
or
d, it
or
rf).
Con-
cannot be operated
Polyphase Motor Started with Secondary Resistance.
this resistance in circuit
step, as the
is
circuit, as b.
If a secondary starting resistance
rent
is star,
connected.
motor
and cut
is
it
provided, start the motor with

out, either gradually or in
attains full speed.
one
Note that the primary cur-
increased by cutting out the starting resistance.
Unless
specially designed for continuous operation, this resistance will
overheat
if
kept long in circuit.
If a half-voltage supply
is
available, start the motor, with
no
load, without the starting resistance, noting that the starting cur-
266
INDUCTION MOTORS.
much
rent
is
may
be done at
[Exp.
(This
greater than with the resistance in circuit.

full voltage, if the
motor
is
With-
not too large.)
out the starting resistance, the starting torque is<less; this can be
shown* by means of
the rotor, which
is
scales
now
and a lever arm fastened securely to
stationary.
24. Polyphase Motor Started with a
compensator
starting
is
Compensator.
provided, start the motor
ing voltage and throw over to full running voltage after the
speeds up.
The
initial
If
at the low start-
motor
current would be too great to allow start-
ing at full voltage, except in case of small motors without load.
When
started with
a-
load, the current
is
greater and the accelera-
when started without load.

Polyphase Motor Running on Single Phase.
tion less than

25.
motor
is
After the
in operation as a polyphase motor, disconnect all
lines except the lines
primary
of one phasef and note that the motor will
continue to run as a single-phase motor.
While thus running,
measure the various terminal voltages and note that the machine
is
also acting as a polyphase generator.
In a 2-phase machine the
voltage of the idle circuit will be found to be in quadrature with

the voltage of the
motor
showing that the machine
circuit
is
which
is
connected to the
line,
capable of delivering true 2-phase
currents.
In a 3-phase machine, the three measured voltages will form a

triangle.
Ifehis manner polyphase currents can be obtained from
a single-ph^ system (
3,
Exp. 7-A)
(A polyphase motor may
be started, as well as run, on a single-phase circuit by the methods
shown
in Figs. 2
26. Single
*
be
When
and
3,
discussed later.)
Phase Motor with Phase
To
Splitter,
an accurate measurement of starting torque
made with a Prony brake
so adjusted that the
is
start
desired,
it
with
should
motor just turns
at a
low speed, thus avoiding the error due to friction at standstill.

t(2Sa). If an ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter are connected In
one circuit, it is instructive to take readings with the motor running single
phase and polyphase and to compare the vakies of power factor, power
component of current and, quadrature component of current.
8-A]
a phase-splitter, an induction motor must be
267
wound
as a 2-phase
or 3-phase motor.
Two Phase
27. Starting^ as a
with two
circuits, a
main
cuit Bj in series with
The
circuit
which
is
Motor.
The
stator
and an auxiHary
wound
is
starting cir-
a resistance or phase-splitter, R.
B has
B is in
has high reactance and low resistance, while
low reactance and high

A, as
parallel with
when
circuit
resistance.
and
in Fig. 2,
The
is
starting circuit
opened
the motor reaches about half speed.
28. With the motor at
rest,
measure
(at
half voltage) the currents in A, in B, and in

the line circuit.
show
to
Plot the readings as a triangle
the phase difference between branch
Note the effect of reversing the
currents.
In what
terminals.
way may
line
the direction of
rotation be reversed?
Connect the motor

ing circuit open.
in circuit with the start-
Note that the motor remains
of
Fig. 2.
starting
Method
single-
phase motor as a 2phase motor.
at rest, but will start slowly in either direction
when
started
by hand.
29. Starting as a Three Phase Motor.

as a 3-phase motor.
The
The motor
is
wound
starting device,* or phase splitter, con-
Use of Condenser as Starting Reactance. The reactance X,

be an inductance or a condenser. To reduce the size of the
condenser, it may be connected through a transformer, the low voltage
side of which is connected in the circuit; the high
G
voltage side is connected to the condenser. The connections for an auto-transformer are shown in Fig.
* (29a).
Fig.
3,
may
jifiMfiom
The voltage is increased and the current is decreased as the ratio of transformation the necessary
-h /) is thus decreased as the
reactance (X
ratio of
square of the ratio of transformation.
transformation of i :3, as in Fig. 3, reduces the size
4.
Fig.
3.
Use of
condenser with autotransformer.
of condenser to 1/9.
See i6a, Exp. s-B. Aside from
the present application, this
device for obtaining large capacity
is
a useful laboratory
from small condensers.
the voltage that the condenser will stand.
The
limit is
268
sists
INDUCTION MOTORS.
[Exp.
connected in series
of a resistance
across the
line,
and a reactance
These are thrown out of
as in Fig. 4.
circuit
by
opening the switch S, when the motor reaches about half speed.
With R and X
30.
Una
and the motor
disconnected, measure the drop around R, the
drop around
u-^
n r
in circuit
X and the total line voltage.
these readings as a triangle to
Plot
show how nearly
a symmetrical 3-phase voltage
is
obtained.
31. When starting the motor, take readings of the current in the third or starting circuit, c; also
motor
circuits.
With
Fig. 4.
of starting
Method
single-
phase motor as
3-phase motor.
of the currents in the main and
the
motor running single phase, take
readings of the voltage between each two of

the three terminals of the motor and plot as
a triangle.
32.
Note that the motor may be started with the
circuit
open, by means of a single starting resistance between either line
and
c.
Note
also that
any two terminals of the motor
may
be
taken as the main terminal.
Note the manner
in
which the direction of rotation can be
reversed.
PART
33.
The purpose
III.
LOAD TESTS.
of these tests
is
to determine the perform-
ance of the motor in actual operation under load.
Methods for
predetermining the performance without load will be taken up

in
Exp. 8-B.
34.
Any
available
and for determining
means may be used for loading the motor
its
mechanical output.
Prony brake may
be placed on the motor pulley and the power computed from the
torque measured by platform scales or spring balance.
tion to the
Prony brake
is
An
objec-
the difficulty in holding the load con-
8-A]
269
stant while readings are taken; furthermore, except in the case
of small motors, there
is
In
difficulty in disposing of the heat.
Prony brake any form of transmission or absorption

dynamometer can be used (see la, Exp. 2-B).
place of a
convenient method for conducting the test
is
to use a direct
current generator for a load, and this method will be described

in detail.
35.
To
Load Run with Direct Current Generator as a Load.
load the motor, belt
it
The
constant separate excitation.
load of the motor
varying the load of the generator and this
The motor
external load resistances.

ally.
The motor output
is
to a shunt generator, preferably with
input
is
varied by
is
done by means of
is
measured
electric-
equal to the electrical output (EI) of
the generator plus the generator and belt losses, which are separately determined as described later.
36.
Measurements on Motor.
For each
load, read line volt-
age, line current,* watts input, frequency (unless this
is
constant
and known) and speed the slip should be measured directly when
means are available. The line voltage should, if possible, be kept
;
constant.
For a single-phase motor, the electrical instruments to be

read consist of one voltmeter, one ammeter and one wattmeter.
38. For a polyphase motor, an ammeter and voltmeter may
^y.
be used on each phase
or,
one ammeter and one voltmeter
may
be shifted from phase to phase by means of suitable switches.

factorf can be determined by any of the watt-
Power and power
meter methods described in Exp. 6-B.
shown
in Fig.
i,
Exp. 6-B,
is
The 2-wattmeter method
the best one to use in testing a
3-phase motor, or a 3-wire 2-phase motor.

39.
The
results,
terms of (i)
line
on a polyphase motor, rnay be worked up

current and line voltage, as measured;
in
(2)
* If the secondary is phase-wound, read also secondary current.

tFor a 2-phase motor, determine power factor by both the cosine and
the tangent methods, 11, 12, Exp. 6-B.
INDUCTION MOTORS.
2/0
[Exp.
equivalent single-phase current and line voltage; or, (3) current
See 28-30, Exp. 6-A.
per phase and voltage per phase.
40. Measurements on Generator.
armature current and speed.

is
Measure terminal voltage,
Also measure
to be kept constant* during the run
stat.
strong
field is
When
is
will
which
rheo-
change the core loss
The generator may be
and so introduce error.
4oa.
field
desirable so as to minimize the effect of
armature reaction on heavy load, which
separate excitation
field current,
by adjusting the
from a constant source
the generator
is self
is
excited, the
self excited
when
not available; see
armature current
equal to the external current plus field current.
41. Readings.
Readings should be taken as follows:
Take readings with
(i)
no-load losses of the motor
Wa
belt off.
;
The watts input
(iron loss, friction and windage)
(Should
losses.
it
gives the
these losses include the rotation losses
plus the no-load copper
be desired to determine PFq alone, the no-load
copper losses are computed (44) and deducted.)
Take readings with
(2)
The
excitation.
Take readings with
excitation
the generator excited to the constant
(or constant terminal voltage)
(The
test.
without
motor gives
and windage of the generator.
the belt loss plus friction
(3)
belt on, the generator being
increasef in the watts input of the
difference between (3)
losses of the generator, a value,
used throughout the
and (2) would give the iron
however, which
is
not used by
itself in this test.)
42.
The
tion losses
* (4oa).
difference between (3)
Wa
and (i) gives the
The
test
may
also be conducted
by varying the
for each load so that the terminal voltage of the generator

42a.
total rota-
of the generator (iron loss, friction and windage),
In some ways this
is
field
is
current
constant,
simpler, particularly with a self-excited gen-
erator, but is not quite as accurate.
t(4ia). This assumes that the motor losses remain constant, which
be practically true for such a small increase in the motor load.
Should the increase in the copper losses of the motor seem to be appreciable, an allowance for it may be made.
will
1;
8-A]
27
These
including belt loss, for the particular speed and excitation.

losses
may be
taken as practically proportional to speed, for small
when
variations in speed
Fig. 2,
the excitation
is
(Compare
constant.*
Exp. 2-B.)
(4) Increase the load and take readings for a

ferent loads
comes to a
up
number of
dif-
motor
to say 25 per cent, overload, or until the
standstill.
43. Resistance Measurements on Motor.

the motor primary
Exp. i-A.
method,
17,
made and
the motor
The
found by the direct current
is
is
resistance of
fall
of potential
This should be taken after the run
heated up.
is
For commercial tests, standard
specified conditions in regard to temperature should be followed
see A.
For
I.
E. E. Standardization Rules.
is
made
this
same
motor the resistance measurement
a single-phase
any single-phase circuit.

For a 2-phase motor each phase
as in
measured
is
in
manner.
For a 3-phase motor the
two
terminals.
resistance
(For accuracy
of terminals and averaged.)
it is
is
measured between any
measured between each pair
One-half the resistance thus meas-
ured gives the equivalent single-phase resistance, see 29, Exp.

6-A, irrespective of whether the connection is star or delta. For
a star connection, this
line terminal
and the
is
the resistance of one phase between one
neutral.
For a
delta connection,
it
has no
physical existence.
*(42a).
When
the test
the terminal voltage
is
is
made by varying
constant, these losses
the field excitation so that
may
be taken as practically
constant for different speeds through the small range of speed used in the
test; the decrease in losses due to decrease in speed is roughly compensated for by the increase in losses due to the increase in excitation.
makes the
test simpler
This
but less accurate.
t(42b). As motors are usually designed, the excessive current proit may be done at a
hibits loading to standstill at full voltage, although
lower voltage
say
half voltage.
INDUCTION MOTORS.
2^2
44.
The primary copper
[Exp.
computed* from the measure-
loss is
ments of current and resistance.

45. Resistance Measurements on Generator.
Immediately
measure the resistance of the generator armature,
after the run,
including brushes and leads
up
to the voltmeter terminals.
46. Calculation of Motor Output.
The output of the motor
is
equal to the generator output EI, plus the generator and belt losses.
The
losses are
found as follows
The armature copper
losses
RP
of the generator are calculated
for the particular armature current, the resistance being deter-
mined as
The
in 45.
field
the generator
is
(When
separately excited.
excited, the loss in the field circuit
determined by the product of
The
mined
when
copper loss does not enter into the computations
belt loss
in the field rheostat
is
losses of the generator are deter-
by a separate
made as in Exp. 2-B (see

The method of 41 is, how-
test
Exp. 2-B).
particularly 21, 24,
is self-
current and terminal voltage.)
field
and the rotation
as in 41, or
and
the generator
* (443). In a 3-phase mot9r, for example, in which the measured line

current is 10 amperes and the measured resistance
between terminals
ohm, the copper loss is computed from the equivalent single-phase

current and resistance as follows:
is
Equivalent single-phase resistance
i?'
.S
Total copper loss
The computations may
ohm.
/'=io V"3
17.3
i?'/"'
^. S X 300= 150 watts.
Equivalent single-phase current
also be
made by assuming
amperes.
the motor to be either
star or delta connected, as follows.
Assuming a
star connection, the resistance per
current per phase
is
10 amperes.
SO watts; the total loss
Assuming
is
The
RP
phase is .5 ohm and the

phase is accordingly,
loss per
150 watts as before.
a delta connection, the current per phase
V'3
5.77
phase is
SO watts and the total loss is ISO watts as above. This numerical example
shows that the same result is obtained by the three methods of computation; it is unnecessary to know whether the primary is delta or star
amperes; the resistance per phase
connected.
is
1.5
ohms.
The
is
RP
10
-i-
loss per
8-A]
more
ever,
on account of
satisfactory
its
273
convenience and the
fact that belt loss is properly included in the results.
47. Curves.
plot curves
^With
power output of the motor
showing power
as abscissae,
input, voltage (if variable),
primary
current,* speed in per cent, of synchronous speed, efficiency, pri-
mary power
in
factor
and torquef
synchronous watts.
(Compare
in
pounds
one foot radius or
at
Plot also the primary copper losses, 44.
Exp. 8-B.)
Fig. 3,
48. Apparent power input of the motor
power input divided by power
is
equal to the real
Apparent
factor.
power output divided by apparent power input; or

the real efficiency multiplied by
may
when
be computed
49. Circle
Diagram.
power
factor.
efficiency
it is
is
equal to
These quantities
desired.
It is instructive likewise to
compute the
in-phase or power component of the pri-
mary current and

less
the quadrature or watt-
component of the
The power
current.
component divided by the
total current is
ull
equal to the power factor.
These
Fig. 5, in
may
results
best be
shown
Load
as in
which values of quadrature cur-
rent are plotted as abscissae and values
of power component are plotted as ordinates.
The curve
forms the arc of a
gram
way
obtained in this
circle.
The circle
for an induction motor, usually pre-
determined as
in
Exp. 8-B,
is
4
6
8 10
Wattless Current
dia-
thus found
Fig. SChange in pricurrent from no load

to full load
the curve is
the arc of a circle.
mary
by actual load
The
test.
increase of wattless current with the load
reactance, for
it
is
due to leakage
can be shown that the diameter of the
* Plot also the secondary current,
if
circle locus
measured, and secondary copper
loss.
t Torque is calculated from power output and speed, as in 3b, Exp.

2-A. In a brake test, torque is read directly.
19
[Exp.
INDUCTION MOTORS.
274
isE-^X,
as in a transformer, where
ance of both primary and secondary
as
the total leakage react-
is
diameter becomes larger, the curve shown
becomes smaller, the
in Fig. 5
becoming more
nearly a straight line.
APPENDIX
I.
50. Operation of a
Polyphase Motor.
If a cylinder of glass, wood
or other material in which there are no electric or magnetic losses

rotated in a stationary magnetic field, no torque
or mechanical load being neglected.

structed of a material as copper, in
If,
is
required
however, the cylinder
is
which there are losses due
currents induced by the cutting of magnetic flux,
it
is
friction
con-
to the
will require a
torque to turn the cylinder depending upon the losses.
magnetic
51. Similarly, in a rotating
there are no losses will remain at rest

to turn
and no torque
will
field,
the cylinder in which
there will be no tendency for
be required to hold
it
stationary.
On
it
the
other hand, the cylinder of copper in which there are losses will tend
to rotate with the field; to hold
depending upon the

52.
In a like manner,
it
may
have no torque and would not
Torque
dependent upon rotor
in
an induction motor, as
in that field, 3,
would require a torque
be seen that an induction motor would
start if there
force exerted by the magnetic field
were no
losses in the rotor.
losses.
in
any motor,
is
due to the
upon conductors carrying current
Exp. 2-A.
After an induction motor
when
stationary
is
Starting torque
y 53.
it
losses.
starts, it
continues to acquire speed until,
no load, nearly synchronous speed is reached. If the

rotor did revolve at synchronous speed the same speed as that of
the rotating magnetic field there would be no cutting of flux
and
hence no induced current in the secondary and no torque. The motor
there
is
would then slow down and the cutting of flux would increase until
the
secondary current is sufficient to produce enough torque to
maintain
rotation.
54.
motor
Torque,
is
loaded,
Slip
it
and Secondary Losses. When an induction
slows
down according
to the load, in
order to have
8-A]
the necessary increased torque
275
it has a greater slip, greater secondary

current and greater secondary loss. The secondary input
is /, cos 6,.
certain part of this, i?//, supplies the secondary
loss; the remainder
;
available for useful torque or mechanical output.
is
It
can be
shown*
that slip depends directly
copper loss; per cent,
slip
is
upon the secondary
equal to secondary copper loss RJ',
divided by secondary input EJ^cosO^.

the actual speed of an induction motor
Expressed
is
in another
way:
the same percentage less than
the synchronous speed as the useful mechanical output
is less than the

difference between the synchronous and the
The
secondary input.
actual speeds
is the slip; the difference between the secondary input

and the mechanical output is the secondary loss.
Hence, since in general torque is equal to mechanical output divided
by actual speed (3b, Exp. 2-A),

induction motor
speed.
it follows that the torque of an

equal to secondary input divided by synchronous
is
Since synchronous speed
is
constant, torque
is
directly propor-
tional to secondary input.

55.
is
comparison between a shunt motor and an induction motor

In the rotor or armature of each there
of interest.
is
electromotive force E^, whether at standstill or rotating.

this is all available for causing current to flow
of the windings and supplying

electromotive force
is
RP
losses.
standstill
When
running, a counter-
generated in proportion to the useful work or
overcoming the impedance and supplying
losses
tween the impressed and counter-electromotive

is
At
through the impedance
mechanical output; the electromotive force sE^ which
load, the rotor input
an impressed
is
is
available for
the difference be-
forces.
For any given
proportional to E^ and the rotor losses are pro-
portional to sE, or
losses
that
This
is,
is
slip is
-^ input
= sE^ -Ê^^s^
slip
equal to rotor losses divided by input, as already shown.
equally true for a shunt motor or for an induction motor.
*(54a). This
is
shown
as follows.
For
a slip
s,
is
j^j
Hence, Rj2'
= sE2h
cos
e,;
^."2
cos ^2
or,
= Rj2'-ÊJ,
cos
e,.
the secondary current
[Exp.
INDUCTION MOTORS.
2;6
Operation of a Single-Phase Motor.At standstill a singlephase induction motor has no torque. Currents are induced in the
secondary conductors, but from symmetry one half the conductors
s6.
tend to give rotation in one direction and the other half, in the oppoIn a single-phase motor there is no rotating field at
site direction.
When
standstill.
combination of the main or

model,
call
we
will call vertical)
horizontal).
dragged around
is a rotating field due to the

(which, referring to a 2-pole
running, however, there
On
in the
field flux
and the cross or rotor flux (which we
account of this rotating
same manner as
57.
The main or
by the
directly
field is
clear, therefore,
on the rotor under the
When
when
the
understood.
vertical flux in a single-phase
field.
The
in a polyphase motor.
running of a single-phase motor becomes

production of the rotating
will
rotor is
the
field
the motor
is
motor
field poles cut this field flux so that
motive force
is
generated in the rotor and this
the field flux
is
a maximum.
The
is set
up
running, the conductors
is
an electro-
maximum when
rotor current which
is
caused to
flow by this electromotive force sets up a flux in a horizontal direction.
Since this rotor flux must cause a counter-electromotive force proportional to
its
time rate of change to balance the impressed or
generated electromotive force,
it
must come
to its
maximum
a quarter
of a period after the electromotive force generated in the rotor and
The
therefore a quarter of a period after the field or vertical flux.

vertical flux
though
is
zero.
58.
set
and horizontal
flux are out of phase with each other, as
up by a 2-phase current one

;
They therefore combine to

At synchronous speed the
set
is
maximum when
up a rotating
vertical
and horizontal fluxes are
equal,* thus producing a uniform or circular magnetic

slip increases,
flux
become
becomes
59.
the other
field.
field.
As
the
the generated electromotive force and the horizontal
less
and the
field is elliptical; at
zero speed the ellipse
a straight line.
Variable Speed and Multispeed Motors.It has been pointed

motor is nearly a constant speed motor and that
out that the induction
the falling off of speed with load or slip is due to the secondary resist* ( s8a) The generated electromotive force is proportional to speed
times main flux; the counter electromotive force that balances this is. proportional to frequency times rotor flux. When speed equals frequency, the
.
two
fluxes are equal, various constants being equal.
8-A]
ance
loss.
constant.
277
Reducing the value of R^ makes the speed more nearly

There is no generally satisfactory way for varying the
may be used.
may be
speed; the following methods,* however,
60. Rheostatic Control.
variable speed
varying the secondary resistance.

inefficient, the
As
obtained by
already stated, this method
is
operation being the same as that of a shunt motor with
When
a resistance in series with the armature.
there
is
much
reduc-
tion in speed, the speed will vary greatly with load.
Changing Number of Poles. A multispeed motor with a

number of definite speeds can be obtained by changing the
number of poles and this can be accomplished by re-grouping the coils
of the primary winding or by using a separate winding for each speed.
This involves the use of two
62. Tandem or Cascade Operation.
motors, the rotors of which are mounted on the same shaft or other 61.
limited
wise mechanically connected, and arranged so that the secondary of
motor supplies current to the primary of the second motor.

The two motors may have the same number of poles, but usually the
number of poles is different. The effect produced by the second motor
the
first
that of adding
is
its
poles to or subtractingthem from the
first
motor
so that four synchronous speeds are produced, two for the motors
independently and two for the combinations.

The synchronous speed of an induc 63. By Varying Frequency.
motor may be varied by changing the supply frequency by means

of apparatus external to the motor or constructed as a part of the
motor itself. Such variation may also be obtained by supplying currents of constant frequency to the primary and of variable frequency
tion
to the secondary.
*For
full
Maxwell, A.
A.
I.
discussion, see Multispeed Induction Motors, by Reist and

I.
E. E., Vol.
E. E., Vol.
492, 577, 611, 731-
XXVII.,
XXVIIL,
p. 1177,
also articles by H.
p. 601
and Electric Journal, Vol.
;
C. Specht,
6,
pp. 421,
INDUCTION MOTORS.
2/8
[Exp.
Experiment 8-B. Predetermination of the Performance of

an Induction Motor by Means of the Circle Diagram.
Data.
I.
To determine the complete performance of an
in-
duction motor without loading, two readings with voltmeter,

ammeter and wattmeter are required first, when the motor is run:
ning at normal voltage without load; second,

locked,
and
when
the motor
not more than, say, i}i the normal full-load current.
is
is
supplied with reduced voltage so that the current
is
two
tests correspond, respectively, to the open-circuit
test
and the short-circuit or copper
loss test
These
or core loss
of a transformer.
In addition to these two sets of readings, the primary resistance
measured, as nearly as possible under normal working
to be
is
temperature conditions.
made of a 5 horse-power, 8-pole, 60cycle, 3-phase motor having a wound secondary (rotor).
The
synchronous speed is 900 R.P.M. The primary is Y-connected*
2."
Example.
test is
for a rated line voltage of 190 volts, or
The
neutral.
test is
no
volts
from
made, however, at a measured'
line to
line voltage
of 185 volts, corresponding to 107 volts from line to neutral.
The average hot primary

line,
i?i
is
0.51
ohm;
resistance, as
measured from
line to
hence, the primary resistance per phase
is
= 0.255 ohm.
3.
The readingsf are
No-load Readings.
* (2a).
it is not necessary to know how

connected; as a matter of fact, it is usually
results are not affected by assuming it either Y- or
In testing a 3-phase motor,
the primary or secondary
impossible to
tell.
may
advantage
t(3a).
The
The results
are here worked up as y-connected.

All
be expressed in terms of equivalent single-phase quantities to
see 28, Exp. 6-A.
delta-connected.
results
is
When
there
is
a variation
in
the readings of current and
voltage for the different phases, average readings are taken.

The watts
are the total watts of all phases, irrespective of whether the phases are
alike or not, and are determined preferably by two wattmeter readings.
(In using the 2-wattmeter method for testing a 3-phase motor, it is to be

remembered that one reading may be negative; see 25, 31, Exp. 6-B.)
For an investigation of motors on badly unbalanced voltage, see paper
Line Voltage,
INDUCTION MOTORS.
28o
[Exp.
Rotor racked
__i
I-,
HORSe.POWER
-.
Rnaia for_power,(,vertioal drceotlon only)
1P
the
Fig. I. Circle diagram locus of primary current for predetermining
performance of an induction motor.
Current.
at
no load
Added current due
to load
Primary current
Primary current
at
= = OA
= = A.P
^ h = OP
= /s = OP"
= OB = MN
-ô
/(a)
any load
Short-circuit or locked current
Power component of no-load current

Power component of primary current
Power.
Power
Power
Added
(For scale see
^=OC^MP
lo.)
= MP
= MN
= NK
= MK
= KP
= NS
= SK
= 57*
input
loss
at
loss at
no load
any load
any load
Total loss at
Power output
Primary copper loss (approx.)
Secondary copper loss (approx.)
Secondary input
Torque.
Torque
is
proportional to secondary input, SP.
In syn. horse-power := SP in horse-power

:= SP in watts
In syn. watts
7'04 X SP in watts
In pound feet
synchronous R.P.M.
synchronous R.P.M.
-=- synchronous R.P.M.
-=-J-
CIRCLE DIAGRAM.
8-B]
Diagram.
5. Construction of Circle
Fig.
or
Lay
lay off line voltage
3,
right angles to
it,
an
Âs lines of reference, in
in a vertical direction and, at
indefinite line.O/, neither line being to scale.
off to scale the no-load current, Io
be laid off in
this is to
28 1
= OA^^.g amperes;
proper phase position, so that cos BOA
its
= no-load power factor = 0.185.
6. In a similar manner, lay off to scale the locked or short-
h = OP" = 56.6
circuit current at full voltage,
proper phase position so that cos
Two
7.
The
ted.
parallel to
points,
and P", of the
center of the circle
OJ, and
is
Fig. 5,
is
readily
drawn
circle
which the
As
diagram are thus loca-
on the diameter AP"' drawn
the center located, the circle
seen to be the same as the diagram
diagram for a transformer, Fig.
lettering
is
Compare,
similar.
11,
its
load;
7(2) is
no-load value,
!,
by the added current
circle, as
I^ÔP.
The
point
the load increases, until
The
total
full-load position of
factor at P^,
increased
due to the
maximum
is
primary current
P moves
it
shown
output at P^,
is,
around the semi-
reaches P", which corre-
sponds to such an over-load that the rotor
maximum
Exp. 4-B.
is
1(2)
in
equal to the secondary current expressed in terms
of the primary (2oa, Exp. S-C).

accordingly,
Exp. 5-C,
also. Fig. 2,
the load increases, the primary current
from
The
its
0.375.
C by dropping a perpendicular
With
it is
amperes, in
= power factor =
Exp. 8-A, found by loading the motor and to correspond
to the circle
8.
lies
located at
from the middle of AP".

diagram
BOP"
is
held at standstill.
maximum power
maximum torque at P^,
at P',
input at P^, as will be seen later from the method of
calculating these quantities.
The
9. Results.
diagram enables us to readily determine
the various operating characteristics of the motor, as
shown
in
Fig. 2.
Current values are scaled directly from the diagram.
may
Power
be calculated from the current values or measured by a
special scale.
INDUCTION MOTORS.
282
lo. Scale
power
is
for Power.
In
[Exp.
any alternating current
circuit,
always proportional to the power component of current;
thus, in a single-phase circuit,

in a 3-phase
circuit,
W = Ey, power component of /;
PFÊVsX power
In the induction motor diagram,
all
component of /;
etc.
components of current in
a vertical direction are power components and are, therefore,

directly proportional to the corresponding
For example,
100
90
80
50
90
in Fig. i, the
power
in watts.
power component of the no-load
CIRCLE DIAGRAM.
8-B]
283
scaled value of amperes, or can determine a separate scale for
In the present example, every ampere (vertical) repre-
watts.
To
watts.
321
sents
power =746
ratios
12. Input.
as
and
For
which
to the circle
Output.
is
and
factor, efficiency
any load, the
slip
de-
is
The
line
MP
is
power com-
the
therefore, proportional to the total
is,
The maximum*
input in watts.
13.
power
are, accordingly, independent of scale.
ponent of current and
a tangent
horse-
watts.
Certain quantities,
pend upon
we have
horse-power,
get
input
is
seen to be at P, wherti
parallel to the diameter
output
useful
equal to the input
MP
cussed in the next paragraph.
is
AP'".
to
KP,
MK,
dis-
proportional
less the total losses,
The maximum output is seen

circle is parallel to AP".
to
be at Fg, where a tangent to the

14. Losses.
losses
MN,
The
MK,
total losses
increased by
the "
added
per losses due to the added current

construction of Fig.
and P",
The
i,
point
is
are equal to the no-load
" losses
7(2)
NK,
which are cop-
and vary as
/f,,.
In the
located on a straight line connecting
K moves toward P" as
and, from the construction, f
NK
az
the load increases,
I^^y
The added losses NK consist of the secondary^ copper

SK, and the primary copper loss NS, which is practically||
15.
loss
*(i2a).
Neglecting the no-load losses, the
maximum
input
is
the
be taken as -h 2X; see 34. The

input, and hence the output, of a motor on a given voltage is accordingly
limited solely by the leakage reactance, which in design is made as, small
radius of the circle O'Pi, which
may
as possible.
t(i4a). In Fig. i, the triangle ANP is similar to the triangle (not

shown) APP'". Accordingly, AN -.AP -.-.AP -.AP'" and AN k (^P)", since
AP'" is constant. Knowing that AP=^hi> and that NK is proportional to
NK
/'<=>. Q. E. D.
have
X It will be remembered that R2 and /> are the values of secondary
resistance and current, respectively, in terms of the primary.
AN, we
II
( 153)-
The primary copper
loss at
no load
is
R\h^.
For a primary
current U, at any load, the primary copper loss is RJ'^RiI^-\- R1I1.21''

2RJJ2COSPAO. Strictly speaking, therefore, the last two terms are the
"added" primary copper
loss
due to
/<).
We may
consider, either (i)
INDUCTION MOTORS.
284
(For a 3-phase motor,
equal to RJli-^ and can be calculated.

this loss
16.
zRJl2y)
is
Separation of Primary and Secondary Losses.
primary copper
ASG
only, the line

selected
is
and
and
loss is calculated
equal to the secondary
tion,
[Exp.
laid off as
If the
SK
NS, we have
This needs to be done for one point
loss.
being then drawn as a straight
The
line.
point
usually the point G, corresponding to the locked posi-
this
can be located in several ways.
The various meth-
ods for doing this are only approximate* and give slightly varying results,
however, for practical
sufficiently accurate,
17. First Method.
One procedure
is
primary loss for the locked position and lay
The
locating the point G.
= 0.255
The
ohms.
X 0.255 X 503''= 1,950

structing Fig.
18.
is
this off as
circuit is
thus
/4P"^5o.5 amperes;
HG =
G is located so that
^
This procedure was used in con-
point
watts.
With
the motor at standstill,
JH
has
(see 32).
Without
and perhaps more accu-
significance; neither has /
involving either of these,

rately, located
is
from the short
readily,
circuit current Is,
= RJs^, multiplying by 3 for a 3-phase motor.

7G = 3 X 0.255 X
= 2,451 watts.
by laying
off
In the present
56.6'
example,
19.
HG,
For example,
then drawn.
I.
Second Method.
no particular
JG
AG
on short
in the present test, I^2)

i?i
line
results.
to calculate the added
The same
location for
found
as
in the
preceding para-
graph can be obtained by dividing JP" in the ratio R^ R^, where

:
Then JG GP"=Rj^ i?2=o.255 0.453.

any special scale for JG and GP", and it is
i?2 is calculated as in 33.
This does not involve

that the last
term
(heing zero
when
is
neglected as small in the working range of the motor

and 7(2) are at right angles to one another), or (2)
MN
that the loss represented by the last term is included in

and compensates for the decrease in friction and windage as the motor slows down
with load.
* There is no method for determining secondary loss which is exact for
all loads' and all types of motors
compare 32. The use of three straight
;
lines
AH,
AG
and
AP"
radiating
convenient but not exact.
from
for defining the various losses is
CIRCLE DIAGRAM.
8-B]
285
not necessary to calculate their values in watts, which
may prove
a convenience.
Torque.
20.
Torque
by the synchronous speed

input, in Fig.
equal to the secondary input divided
is
see 54,
The secondary
Exp. 8-A.
seen to be SP, being the primary input
i, is
MP,
less the no-load losses MN and primary copper loss NS.
synchronous watts, torque
21. In
is
equal to SP, in watts,
divided by the synchronous speed of the motor in revolutions
per minute.
If this
is
multiplied by 7.04,
one foot radius.
To
we have
the torque in pounds at
(Compare 3b, Exp. 2-A.)
SP
get torque in synchrofaous horse-power,
measured
is
horse-power and divided by the synchronous speed
in
in revolutions
per minute.
The maximum or
22.
Fg where a tangent
mum
is
The
slip, s,
that
R^
= sX^
seen to occur at
AG.
to the circle is parallel to
occurs at such a
23. Ratios.
" pull-out " torque
9a,
following results, being ratios usually ex-
pressed as percentages, are independent of scale.
found by
CO
is
division, or graphically as in
Power
24.
to
Factor.
divided by
OP
tangent to the
25. Efficiency.
by the
26.
The
it is
The
The
power
They may be
I.
factor at an^^ load
maximum
at F^,
where a
is
equal
line
from
efficiency is equal to the output divided
KP
slip
divided by
is
SK divided by SP.
MP.
equal to the secondary copper loss,
divided by the secondary input
namely,
Appendix
circle.
input, namely,
Slip.
The maxiExp. 8-A'.
(see 54, 54a, Exp.
8-A)
INDUCTION MOTORS.
286
APPENDIX
[Exp.
I.
GRAPHICAL CONSTRUCTION FOR OBTAINING POWER FACTOR,
AND EFFICIENCY.
SLIP
27. Certain
results power factor,
slip
and
efficiency
Some
dividing one quantity by another, as in 23-26.

obtain these ratios by using a slide rule
construction of Fig. 3 which
convenient
in
is
prefer to
others, by using the graphical
common
when one has many motors
depend upon
and are determined by
ratios; these are usually expressed in per cent,
and
use,
The
to test.
is
particularly
reader, however,
is only a convenience for

computing and not an essential for the proper understanding of the
should bear in mind that this construction
circle
diagram.
28.
Power Factor.
scale of 100 parts of
In
the direction of
any convenient length.
OE,
lay off an arbitrary
From
the lootli division,
draw the quadrant of a circle with the center at O.

To obtain the power factor for any primary current OP, extend
OP to R; from R draw a horizontal line to the point p, which gives
the power factor. The construction is obvious it may be used in any
;
alternating current problem.
From
draw AA' parallel to OE. The

drawn parallel to AG at any convenient
The point a on AA' is marked zero the point a' on AP" is
29. Slip.
the point A,
scale aa', of 100 equal parts,
distance.
marked
is
100.
To determine
the slip corresponding to any primary current
locate the point 5

slip* is sa.
where the
(If the
ciable, the scale
line
cuts the slip scale.
measured value of the
slip at
The per
no load
is
OP,
cent,
appre-
should be given this value, and not zero, at the point
Ordinarily this refinement
a.
AP
is
unnecessary.)
*(29a). Proof of Slip. For any point P, the

KAS and Aa'a are similar; hence
slip is
KS -^ PS.
The
triangles
KS:AS Aa:a'a.
The
triangles
APS
(i)
and sAa are similar; hence
PS .AS = Aa
Dividing (i) by (2),
we have
the
slip
KS/PS = sa/a'a.
-.sa.
(2)
30. Efficiency. Extend the line

parallel to
AP'"
at
the point
OE.
The
I'
on
AP"
is
AP"
and draw LU
drawn parallel to
on LU is marked 100;
back
to
scale W, of 100 equal parts,
any convenient distance.
To determine
J
287
CIRCLE DIAGRAM.
8-B]
marked
The
point
is
zero.
the efficiency corresponding to any primary current
INDUCTION MOTORS.
288
APPENDIX
[Exp.
II,
Diagram.
31. Basis of the Circle
In any circuit or apparatus with
constant reactance and variable power consumption the current will
have a
this
circle locus if the supply voltage is constant.
That the induction motor nearly
Bedell and Crehore in 1892.

these conditions and that
circle,
was
32.
first
current locus
its
shown by Heyland*
Accuracy.
No
Exp. 4-B shows

first shown by
This was
experimentally for a particular case.
circle
is
fulfills
practically the arc of a
in 1894.
diagram for an induction motor
is
exactly correct, either in theory or in practice, for there are various

factors that cannot be accurately taken into account; for example,-)-
the effect of changes in the reluctance of parts of the iron under
changing conditions, the

as to load losses, etc.
effect of
The
circle
wave
distortion, the
diagram, therefore,
is
uncertainty
theoretically
correct only in case certain assumptions are made.
In practice, however, the circle diagram
is
found to give results
that are approximately correct and within the usual range of engineer-
some of the errors

by
different writers for constructing and using the circle diagram have
arisen from a difference in the selection of the errors to be eliminated
ing accuracy.
This
is
partly due to the fact that
tend to cancel each other.
The
variations in the methods given
or minimized, the remaining errors being neglected.

current
If the no-load
were zero and there were no primary resistance
loss,
most
of the errors would disappear and some of these different constructions
would become
identical.
Generally speaking the effect of errors in using the circle diagram
becomes
less as the size of
motor increases, so that the method
reasonably accurate on motors larger than, say, 5 or 10 H.P.
motors under 5 H.P. the
results,
is
For
although not so accurate, are fairly
* Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift, Oct. 11, 1894; published later in book

form and translated into English by Rowe and Hellmund.
t (323). Behrend shows, for example, that there is a departure from a
true circle locus

characteristic
when
the slots are bridged or closed; the short-circuit
between volts and amperes, under these conditions,
is
a curve
and becomes a straight line only if the leakage path contains no

See pp. 20, 21, The Induction Motor, by B. A. Behrend.
iron.
8-B]
CIRCLE DIAGRAM.
289
satisfactory, while for motors under i H.P. the results are of little
value, unless refinements* are introduced in the construction of the
diagram.
however, in testing large motors that a method of
It is,
testing without load, as by the circle diagram,
is particularly desirable;
small motors can be readily tested by brake or other load methods.
33. Calculation of
Wsj are
Secondary Resistance.
The short-circuit watts
due to copper losses in the primary and secondary.
chiefly
In reality various load-losses are included,! which cannot be separately determined.
where RJs'
copper
is
These copper
Here R^
loss.
primary (
losses are (i^,-fi^,)7s^ per phase,
the primary copper loss and RJs'
16, i6a,
is
the secondary
the secondary resistance in terms of the
is
Exp. s-B
20a,
Exp. S-C) and
is
the quantity
to be determined.
Per phase, we have

Copper loss= (i?,-f
i?,)7s';
hence,
i?i
Since R^
is
known, R.
i?j
is
= copper
loss -f- Is'.
thus determined.
For a 3-phase motor,
Ws = 3(iR, + R,)Is'';
and,
R^
In the present
+ R^=i/2(Ws-^h').
test
i?i-fi?j^ 1/3 (6,810 -7- 56^')
= 0.708
ohms;
hence,
= 0.708 0.255 = 0453 ohms.

Leakage Bieactance. The leakage reactance
R.
34.
tion motor, both
X, of an induc-
primary and secondary in terms of the primary, can
* (32b). See a comprehensive article by H. C. Specht, Elec. World,
Feb. 25, igos, in which it is said the modifications introduced give a

diagram applicable to induction motors of all sizes, single-phase or polyphase.
To correct for error due to primary resistance, Specht tips his
diagram slightly, by dropping A and raising O' a small amount. Such a
correction was pointed out by Heyland, p. 23 of the English translation.
t ( 33a). This gives to R2 a value somewhat greater than the value that
would be determined by direct current resistance measurement.
p. 388,
20
290
INDUCTION MOTORS.
[Exp.
be calculated* from the diameter of the circle locus AP'", which
Thus
is
AP'"
^^.^ amperes; the
leakage reactance per phase is -7-/4P"'^ 107-^-55.4^ 1.93 ohms.
The leakage coefficient, or leakage factor,
35. Leakage Coefficient.
equal to Eh-.X' amperes.
in Fig. i,
is
BA -=- AP'". To have this quantity small necesgap. In Fig. i, 5^ -=-^F"'== 5.8 -^55.4 = 0.105.
defined by the ratio
sitates
a small
* (34a).
S-B;
The
air
leakage reactance can also be calculated as in 25, Exp.
thus,
2 = -^/s=io7-T-56.6=
1.89
ohms;
X = yZ' K^ = V (1.89)'' (.708)' = 1.75

The two methods of
calculation agree only
when
ohms.
is zero.
CHAPTER
IX.
INDUCTION MACHINES: FREQUENCY CHANGERS AND INDUCTION

GENERATORS.
Experiment 9-A. Operation and Test

Changer (Secondary Generator).
I.
Principles of Operation.
The
of
Frequency
frequency of the current
secondary of an induction motor depends upon the speed
in the
of rotation of the rotor; within limits any desired secondary fre-
quency can be obtained by giving the rotor the proper speed.

The usual form of frequency changer or frequency converter
consists merely of an induction
motor for driving the rotor
The primary
is
motor and a separate driving
at the
proper speed.
furnished with polyphase current and produces
a rotating magnetic field as in any induction motor.
ary
phase-wound and
is
the receiving circuit.
The second-
delivers, usually, polyphase current to
The driving motor may be of any
type,
but in commercial practice a direct-connected synchronous motor

is
commonly
used, so that the delivered current has a definite
(Since the induction machine takes a lagging
fixed frequency.
current of low
power
factor, the
synchronous motor by taking
leading current will raise the power factor of the set.)
The secondary frequency
2.
ing as the rotor
is
is
increased or decreased accord-
turned in the opposite direction or in the same
direction as the rotating field
the secondary voltage
is
increased
or decreased in proportion to the secondary frequency.
from
losses, the
secondary current (with a
ratio)
is
Aside
equal to
the primary current, either for an increased or decreased fre-
quency.
Frequency changers are generally used

to a higher
power
frequency,
for
example,
to
circuit to a 60-cycle lighting circuit.

291
change from a lower
from a low-frequency
INDUCTION MACHINES.
292
[Exp.
The secondary frequency n^ varies with the sHp s that is,

At synchronous speed, ,s=o and M2=o; at standJMi.
s=i and n^^n^. When, the rotor is driven against the
;
3.
M2
still,
rotating
field,
and M2 = 2Mi;
with a speed equal to synchronous speed, s
the driving motor

in
In this case the frequency
etc.
is
supplying power proportional to the increase
Thus, when the frequency
frequency and voltage.
50 per
two
cent.,
=2
increased and
is
thirds of the
power
of the induction machine and one third
is
increased
supplied by the primary
is
is
supplied by the driving
motor; losses are here neglected.
When
same
the frequency
decreased, the rotor revolves in the
is
direction as the field at less* than synchronous speed; the
secondary voltage and power are decreased so that the electrical
power supplied to the primary
more than
is
the
power given out
more than enough to

supply the losses, the induction machine runs as a motor and
Frequency changers are not comfurnishes mechanical power.
by the secondary.
monly used
If the surplus
power
is
to decrease the frequency.
4. Referring to the circle diagram, Fig.

short-circuit point has the position
still
(j==i)
P" when
i,
Exp. 8-B, the
the rotor
is
at stand-
the machine then acts as a stationary transformer,
the range of working as the secondary external resistance changes
being from
beyond
The
circuit.
on open
full load,
When
P"
against the field
The
much
turning with the
is
field
(j
<
i), the short-
some point as 8 and when turning

to some point as 9, the full range of
shifts to
(j>
working being from

* (3a).
and P" on short
as in any transformer.
the rotor
circuit point
circuit to P' at full load
excessive current, however, prohibits going
i)
on open
circuit to the short-circuit point
rotor could be driven above instead of below synchronous
speed, with a negative instead of a positive
slip.
Electrical
power would
then be given out by the primary as well as the secondary, the machine
being simultaneously a primary and secondary generator (see Exp. 9-B),
but
it
is
operation.
doubtful whether
there
is
any useful application
for
such
FREQUENCY CHANGER.
9-A]
P" wherever
located.
anywhere on the
s=x),
The
When
Apparatus.
available,
priate
it
from
slip.
infinite, or, if
well as external, were zero.

5.
short-circuit point
semi-circle,
according to the
speed were
293
P" may be
located
(when s
o) to P'" (when
P'" would be reached only if the
the secondary resistance, internal as
See also Fig.
i,
a commercial
should be run under
its
Exp. 9-B.
frequency changer
is
rated conditions and appro-
measurements made of input and output.
In the laboratory, any phase-wound induction motor can be

conveniently used as a frequency changer.
It
nected to a direct-current shunt machine which

different
be belt-conbe driven at
speeds and will serve as a driving motor or as a
generator.
6.
may
may
Preliminary Test.
^With primary voltage constant, make
a run at different speeds from synchronous speed in the same

direction as the rotating field to the
in the opposite
(In changing the relative direction of rotation,
direction.
may
same speed
be simpler to reverse the direction of the rotating
field
it
by
changing primary connections than to reverse the direction of

the driving motor.)
For
different speeds, note the frequency
(which may be computed) and the voltage of the delivered currents.
Plot voltage for different speeds, frequencies or
7. Load
Run
at Constant Speed.
tailed or
expanded as desired.)
the
so as to convert
field,
(These
With
from a low
tests
slip.
may
be cur-
the rotor driven against
to a high frequency, vary
the load of the receiver circuit consisting of non-inductive resistances.
Measure the primary input and secondary output of the
induction machine, and the input of the driving motor.
mechanical power supplied by the driving motor

input less losses determined as in Exp. 2-B.
power added
to the
power supplied
Compute
is
The
motor
the
This mechanical
measured primary power gives the
total
to the induction machine.
the efficiency of the induction machine alone
and of
INDUCTION MACHINES.
294
Note the voltage regulation with
the complete set.
how
the relative
Repeat the
test,
Note
into the line.
in frequency.
converting from a high to a low frequency.
The driving motor, when running

power
load.
amounts of power supplied by the driving motor
and by the primary are related to the change

8.
[Exp.
as a generator,
may pump
INDUCTION GENERATOR.
9-B]
EXPERIUENT 9-B. Operation and
295
Test of an Induction Gen-
erator (Primary Generator).
PART
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
Principle of Operation.
I.
Âs
the speed of an induction
motor approaches synchronism, the shp decreases so

less cutting
is
that there
is
There
of magnetic flux by the secondary conductors.
accordingly less electromotive force induced in the secondary,
secondary current and
less
When
torque.
slip
the rotor
is
At synchronous speed
less torque.
the slip becomes zero, and there
is
no secondary current and no
driven above synchronous speed, the
becomes negative; the secondary current and the torque are
now
reversed* and mechanical power
rotor.
required to drive the
is
The machine has become a generator and supplies elec(This condition occurs when an electric
to the line.
equipped with induction motors, runs down hill.) As the
power
trical
train,
induction generator does not operate at synchronism,
is
it
fre-
quently described as non-synchronous or asynchronous.

2.
When
the
" added " current

la), but
point
is
it still
secondary current
7(2)
is
reversed,
due to the secondary
is
primary
the
also reversed (see
follows the circle locusf as shown in Fig.
follows the upper semi-circle (as
Pm) when
the
The
I.
machine
operating as an induction motor, the lower semi-circle (as
when
it is
In Fig.
sented as
3.
As
I,
E;
the impressed or line electromotive force
repre-
is /j
^= OPu, consisting of
= OA, and the added current Ii2-,=AFu-
motor are not all shown in Fig. i see also

The primary current is always lagging with
lines for a
Exp. 8-B.)
is
the generated or counter electromotive force, as E'.
a motor, the primary current
the exciting current, Io
(The
Pg )
operating as an induction generator.
* (ia). Strictly speaking only the
Fig.
i,
respect
power component of current
is
re-
versed, as will be seen later.
fit
will be
understood that for an induction generator, as for an inducis approximate and not exact.
tion motor, the circle locus
INDUCTION MACHINES.
296
to
E;
for a definite load
ponent
CFm
and
OC
phase with
slip it
and a
has a definite power comdefinite wattless
The power
lagging 90 behind E.
slip, is
As
in
and
[Exp.
component
factor, for a given load
likewise definite.
a generator, the primary current
is
I^
= OPq, consisting of
Fig. I. Circle diagram showing the operation of an induction machine as a

motor and as a generator, (In the range Aa the machine gives out no power.)
the
same exciting current as before,
rent I(^-)=APq.
respect to E'
component
= OA, and the added cur-
for a definite load
and
is
slip
it
always leading with

has a definite power
OC in phase with ' and a definite wattless
C'Pq, which
load and
The primary current
is
90 ahead
of '.
The power
component
factor for a given
slip is definite.
4. It is
seen that in an induction generator, as well as in an
induction motor,
all
the current can not be
power
current.
There
9-B]
must be a flow of
flux
297
wattless magnetizing current* to set
up the
otherwise the generator can produce no voltage.
This means that an induction generator
when
will give voltage only
connected to a circuit that allows the proper wattless
it is
current to flow
can not operate when connected to a resistance
it
load (or other load taking power current only) unless there
is
connected in parallel some device, as a condenser or synchronous
machine, that takes leading current.
The
5.
size
and
cost of condensersf being prohibitive, the
indiiction generator in practice is used
(a)
in parallel with a
synchronous generator, or (b) in parallel with an over-excited
synchronous motor or converter.
When
6.
an induction generator
is
used in parallel with a
condenser, synchronous motor or converter, the wattless current

is
a leading current supplied by the generator to the condenser or
Commonly but
synchronous machine.
less
logically,
however,
this wattless current is described as a lagging current supplied to
the generator by the condenser or synchronous machine.
synchronous machine
is
The
said to "supply the excitation" for the
generator.
When
the synchronous machine
is
a generator, there are two
generators in parallel and the current which circulates between
them
is
due to the combination of their two electromotive forces,
the current being lagging with respect to one
and leading with
respect to the other.
7. Uses.
The
due no doubt to
* ( 4a)
no load
is
induction generator has been but
its
little
inability to supply lagging current
used,
and the
Aside from saturation, the voltage of an induction generator

proportional to the wattless magnetizing current.
As
at
the load
is increased from BA to C'P^ on account

of leakage reactance, as in a transformer or induction motor. The diamdiminishes and would be
eter of the circle, E -X, becomes greater as
increases, the wattless current
infinite
when
X = o.
For operation with condensers,
Motors."
see McAllister's " Alternating Current
INDUCTION MACHINES.
298
[Exp.
necessity of using a synchronous machine in conjunction with
has the advantage* of rugged construction, with no
It
tator,
brushes or
moving
coils of
gives a smooth
slip rings.
wire and
squirrel-cage rotor requires
no
wave of electromotive
out, rather than to produce,

circuit the
The
practically
it.
communo
The machine
and tends to damp
insulation.
force
harmonics and surges.
machine gives no voltage, which
is
On
short
an advantage in
operation.
8.
When
is
operated in parallel with
a synchronous generator, the frequency and voltage are determined
by the
upon
latter.
its
slip,
The load taken by
that
its
is,
the induction generator depends
speed with reference to the speed of
the synchronous machine.
This characteristic
cumstances.
It
may prove
desirable or not according to cir-
would, for example, be obviously undesirable
if
the induction and synchronous generators were driven at constant
speed; for, as the load increased, the induction generator would
not take
On
share.
its
the other
hand
it
would prove desirable
a station with induction generators driven by water
if
were connected
in
parallel
power
with a station composed of syn-
chronous machines driven by steam power.
It
could be so ar-
ranged that the induction generators would tend to speed up
and take
all
the load
up
to the limit of the
water power, the
steam-driven synchronous machines carrying only the excess of

load.
9.
When
is
operated in parallel with
a synchronous motor or converter, the frequency will depend upon

the speed of the generator (see Fig. 5) but will vary also with the
slip,
that
is,
with the load.
At constant speed
the frequency
diminish with the load; or, for constant frequency,

necessary for the speed to increase with the load.
*
W.
For
a discussion of the induction generator
L. Waters, A.
pp. 217-254.
I.
E. E., Vol.
XXVIL,
and
would
would be
The
voltage
see a paper by
and the discussion
its use,
pp. 157-180
it
9-B]
299
depends upon the speed of the generator, Fig.
5,
and the
field
excitation of the synchronous machine, Fig.

4.
One synchronous
machine, either in the station or in a substa-
tion, is sufficient for the operation
of several induction generators.
In the case of a long transmission

locate the synchronous
machine
leading current supplied to
line,
it
has been proposed to
at the receiving
it v/ill
end so that the
improve the regulation of the
line.
PART
10.
Supply Line.
or
power.
II.
TESTS.
(a) Operation in Parallel with a Synchronous Generator
As
The induction generator
is
driven by mechanical
a driving motor, a shunt motor will be found con-
;-t.-T^
Synchronous Generator,
Motor or Converter
FiQ.
i!.
Connections for operating an induction generator.

may connect to a supply line.
venient since
are
shown
II.
its
speed can be easily varied.
The switch ^2
The connections*
in Fig. 2.
Loading Back
Test.
No load
is
used, the switch S^ being
*(ioa). The connections shown are for single phase; three ammeters
and three wattmeters may be used, or one ammeter and one wattmeter can
be switched from circuit to circuit. When polyphase apparatus is used, as
a laboratory test
it
may
be operated single phase for simplicity.
When
operated polyphase, the usual disposition of instruments should be made;

care should be take that the polyphase connections are so made that the
induction machine would run as a motor in the same direction
as a generator.
it is
driven
INDUCTION MACHINES.
300
[Exp.
open.
The
and
then connected (by the switch S^) in parallel with a syn-
is
induction machine
chronous generator or supply
driven at about normal speed
is
Note that the switch
line.
be closed when the induction generator
below synchronous speed.

tion
is
may
^"2
running either above or
After the switch
closed, the induc-
is
machine continues to run as a motor below synchronous
speed or as a generator somewhat above synchronous speed.

12.
Vary
the speed of the induction machine, by varying the
speed of the driving motor, and note the wattmeter W^.
Below synchronous speed, the
in-
duction machine takes power from the

line as
At synchronous speed,
a motor.
corresponding to the point

3, the wattmeter
or
in Fig. i
shows only the no-
load losses which are
all
supplied elec-
trically.
A little
A
above synchronism (between
and a) the wattmeter reading de-
some of the
creases,
plied mechanically
the point a
all
losses being sup-
by the
At
pulley.
the losses are supplied
mechanically and the wattmeter readFuii load
generator
'"S becomes zero.
power given
tric
Fig. 3. Current taken in by an
induction machine as a motor
and given out as a generator.
Note
chronous alternator or supply

13.
Take readings of
that the frequency
volts,
different
and
by the
in-
full
to plot slip
amounts of power.)
and voltage
determined by the syn-
watts and amperes through the

load with the machine oper-
ating as a motor and as a generator.

slip
to the line
elec-
circuit.
range between no load and
measure speed or
this speed,
shows
duction machine &s a generator.
in all cases are
full
Above
the wattmeter reverscs and
(It is instructive also to

^positive
and negative
for
9-B]
For each reading,
14.
Power
301
calculate
Ip=I cos 0=^W-Ê;

= 7 sin ^= V^^-7p^
current,
Wattless current, 7q
Plot results as in Fig. 3 by laying off wattless current as
and power current as
abscissae
Compare
ordinates.
Fig.
5,
Exp. 8-A.
Load
15.
Test.
Connect
the switch S^, Fig. 2.
With
to a non-inductive* load
by closing
load constant, vary the speed of the
induction generator and note instruments. The load receives

power from both generators or from only one W^
W^ W^.
When Wj^ and W^ are positive, both machines are supplying power
When
as generators.
chine
is
IV-^
or
W^
is
zero, the corresponding
neither supplying nor taking power.
negative, one
machine
is
When W^
taking power as a motor,
all
or
the
ma-
W2
is
power
being supplied by the other machine.
For
several sets of readings,
compare the values of I cos 6 and
7 sin 5 as calculated for each of the three
circuits.
In commercial use, the machines would be so operated that both
machines are supplying power, the division of the load depending
upon
their relative speeds.
16. Tests
can be made with variable load under any desired
arrangement of conditions.
17.
(b) Operation in Parallel with a Synchronous Motor or
In
Converter.
this test the
ferred to as the converter,
The
synchronous machine, hereafter re-
may
be either a motor or converter.
connections are as shown in Fig.
readily brought
up to speed with
2.
The
converter can be
direct current, as a direct cur-
rent motor.
After the induction generator and the converterf have been

* Loads that are not non-inductive can be
made
the'
subject of special
investigation.
When a synchronous motor is used, a good procedure is to

and bring the machines to speed before exciting the motor field.
The motor field current is then gradually increased until the induction
t (i7a).
close ^2
generator gives the desired voltage.
[Exp.
INDUCTION MACHINES.
302
brought up approximately to speed (the exact speed
is
not neces-
sary) the two machines are connected together by closing the
switch
5*2,
the
speed being cut
1 8.
power supply used
in
bringing the converter to
off.
No-load Excitation Curve.
The load switch S^
watts, amperes
Vary the field current of the converter and measure

and
volts.
The
induction generator
is
open.
is
driven so as to give rated
frequency
at
voltage;
rated
hold speed, or frequency, constant during the test.
The
converter
may
be sepa-
rately or self excited.
the field current
is
When
reduced be-
low a certain value, the converter
goes
out of
and
step
stops; the induction generator
then gives no voltage.

19.
For various
field
cur-
rents, plot voltage as in Fig.
slso 7 sln
2-6
810
Z.2
1.8
1.4
6
Field current of Synchronous Converter
ânge
Fig. 4.
less current of
with the
machine.
i voltage
and
9,
nCUt of line CUrrCUt.
w^^^^^^
of synchronous
thc wEttlcss compo-
Itisthc
increase in 7 sin ^ that increases
excitation
the excitation of the induction
generator and so increases the

generated voltage.
This relation will be seen by plotting voltage
for different values of 7 sin

20.
$.
No-load Speed Characteristics.
of the converter and keep the
field
Separately excite the
current constant.
field
Vary
the
speed of the induction generator and measure line voltage and frequency.
Begin with a speed of say 10 per
decrease speed until the converter stops.
cent,
above normal and
Converter speed
may
be measured instead of frequency.

21. Results are plotted as in Fig.
5.
The lower curve shows
9-B]
303
that, in order to give a frequency of 60 cycles, the machine to

which the curve refers must be driven at 1823 R.P.M., correspond-
ing to a negative slip of 1.3 per
cent,
synchronous
the
speed
being 1800.
22. Repeat
with the con-
verter self excited.
Load
23.
Test.
Connect a
non-inductive load by closing

^g.
Compare
/ cos 9
values
of
and I sin 6 for the three
circuits.
hence
the
all
derived
All the power, and

the
power
from
the
current,
is
CHAPTER
X.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES.
ExPKSniENT lO-A. Study and Operation
of a
Synchronous
Motor.
PART
Structure and Use.
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
I.
synchronous motor has the same
structure as a synchronous generator (Exp.

erator, the field
ture
is
from the
supplied
is
3-A).
As
in a
separately excited by direct current; the
gen-
arma-
with alternating current, either
line
single-phase or polyphase.
The speed
of the supply
the motor runs at synchronous speed
or not at
first
all.
bring
it
fixed by the frequency
is
In starting a synchronous motor
many
in the operation of
it is
necessary to
by external means,* and
to speed, usually
fixed speed in
example
is,
no doubt prevented
tation has
The
circuit, that
its
more general
cases
is
this limi-
use.
a positive advantage, as for
frequency converters (Exp. 9-A).
synchronous motor has the important advantage that
power
factor
is
adjustable and
it
can be
made
lagging current by varying the field excitation
its
to take leading or
its
leading current
can be used to offset the lagging current taken by induction motors
and other apparatus,t thus improving the power factor of the

system.
Synchronous motors are sometimes
installed solely for
this object.
synchronous converter has the same general characteristics
as a synchronous
motor and most of the following statements
will
apply to a converter as well as to a motor.

*(ia).
An
for starting
auxiliary starting
may be
motor
is
often provided.
The means
within the motor; thus, some single-phase synchronous
motors are provided with an extra winding and commutator so as to start

as a series motor. For self-starting polyphase motors, see 11.
fFor operating an induction generatpr (Exp. 9-B) it is necessary to
have a synchronous machine connected with the system.
304
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR.
lo-A]
In
2. Principle of Operation.
a direct-current
rent in a particular armature conductor
mutator and flows
in
305
is
motor the cur-
reversed by the com-
one direction under a north pole and
opposite direction under a south pole, so that the torque

in the
same
In a synchronous motor
direction'.
in the
always
is
this reversal is
caused not by a commutator but by the alternations of the supply
and for the motor

pole passed,
i.
e.,
to run there
other speed the torque
mean torque
is
must be one alternation for each
the motor must run at synchronous speed

alternately positive
is
at
any
and negative and the
zero.
3. In a shunt (direct-current) motor,* the counter-electro-
motive force ' varies with the speed and, as the load changes, the
counter-electromotive force and speed so adjust themselves as to
allow an armature current to flow which produces just the right
torque for the particular load.
The
resultant of the impressed
electromotive force
their algebraic sum,
and the armature current that flows
and the counter-electromotive force '

is
to this resultant divided by the resistance of the armature
is
equal
or
/=( ')-:- ^
4. In a synchronous motor the speed is constant and the
counter-electromotive force ' is constant in value for a partidular
excitation.
field
The phase of
',
however, depends upon the
running position (or mechanical phase position) of the armature
and
shifts
with the load
as the load changes, the armature drops
back or advances a few degrees and
shifts the
phase of ' so that
an armature current flows with a power component that produces

just the right torque
(8) for the particular
In other
load.
words, the action of a synchronous motor depends upon the shifting of the phase of the counter-electromotive force rather than
upon
its
The
change
in value as in a shunt motor.
resultant of the impressed electromotive force
counter-electromotive force '

*
Compare
21
i-S, Exp. 2-A.
is
their geometric
and the
sum, z, and the
3o6
[Exp.
current which flows in the armature of a synchronous motor
is
equal to this resuhant divided by the synchronous impedance
of the armature;
or,
= Ez^Z.
This current lags behind z by an angle Bz whose tangent

to the
is
equal
synchronous reactance of the armature divided by the arma-
ture resistance.
5.
Synchronous Impedance.
the armature
is
The synchronous impedance' of
made up of two components
and synchronous reactance,
in quadrature.
true ohmic resistance
As
in a generator,
synchronous reactance includes local reactance due to inductance

(as in any circuit) and the effect of armature reaction in strength-
ening or weakening the
field,
the
for most practical purposes they
two
effects being so similar that
may be
considered as one.
The
electromotive force method of treating the synchronous motor,
based upon the conception of synchronous reactance and syn-
chronous impedance,
is
more
fully discussed in
Exp. lo-B, which
can be read to advantage in connection with the present experi-
ment.
6.
Armature Reaction.
The physical
effect
of armature reac-
tion in a generator has already been discussed ( 1-15, 44-49,
Exp. 3-B)
a lagging cvirrent weakens the field and a leading
current strengthens
it.
When
a generator furnishes current to
a synchronous motor, a current which
is
the electromotive force of the generator
lagging with respect to

is
leading with respect
to the counter-electromotive force of the motor,
and vice versa.
In the motor, therefore, a lagging current strengthens the
and a leading current weakens
it,
^the
field
former being leading and
the latter lagging with respect to the counter-electromotive force
of the motor.
An
under-excited motor takes a lagging current
ens the
field
this strength-
and increases the motor electromotive force
just balances the line electromotive force.
On
until
it
the other hand.
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR.
lo-A]
an over-excited motor takes a leading current
307
;
and decreases the motor electromotive force
field
rrtotor is
until
equal
it is
The operation of a
to the electromotive force of the line.
chronous
weakens the
this
syn-
thus explained by the magnetomotive force, or
ampere-turn, method.
When
7.
the current in an armature conductor
with the electromotive force, the current comes to

value
when midway
in
is
its
phase
maximum
under, a pole piece, as does the electromotive
force (see Fig. 9, Exp.
3-B) and the current does not strengthen
When, however,
or weaken the pole.
with the electromotive force,
comes
it
the current
to its
and
after reaching the middle of the pole
weakens
it
wattless
component (/sin
(see Fig. 10, Exp. 3-B).
component (7oes6)
6)
and
that has
It
is
out of phase
maximum
before or
either strengthens or
is
the quadrature or
not the in-phase or power
the magnetizing and demagnetiz-
ing effect.
The
excitation of a synchronous machine depends not only
upon the
field
current but also upon the wattless component of
the armature current.
Any
sponding change in the

always being just
change
latter,
sufficient
former makes a corre-
in the
the combined effect of the two
to cause the counter-electromotive
force of the motor to equal the electromotive force of the
8. Torque
and Power.
Torque
is
divided by speed (3b, Exp. 2-A).

since speed
is
constant, torque
is
proportional
In a synchronous motor,
from a consideration of
torque or from a consideration of power.

is
line.
power
proportional to power, and cer-
tain conclusions can be reached either
the torque (neglecting losses)
to
At constant
voltage,
proportional to the power com-
ponent of current.
When
the current and the electromotive force are in phase,
that
their product
tive
is,
the instantaneous power
is
always posi-
also, since in this case the .current in an armature conductor
remains in one direction while passing a pole, the instantaneous
'
308
product of current and flux

is
that
when
Again,
is
is
and electromotive force
between two
product
that
is,
negative for a part of each cycle
rent in this case reverses while a conductor
instantaneous product of current and flux
taneous torque
pulsating
the instantaneous
also, since the cur-
is
under a pole, the
that
is,
the instan-
Power
negative for a part of each cycle.
is
and torque are both seen
The
poles.
the current and the electromotive fo5-ce are not
in phase, their instantaneous
power
the instantaneous torque
is,
Botli the current
always positive.
change sign when the conductor
[Exp.
to
be pulsating.
power and torque
in a single-phase
motor
is
taken care of by the fly-wheel effect of the moving parts; in a
polyphase motor, the phases so overlap as to give uniform power
and uniform torque (2, Exp. 6-A, and

Hunting.
9.
When
i,
Exp. 7-A).
the armature of a synchronous motor
drops back or advances to assume a running position (4) in
which
it
will develop the
of the armature causes
and then
to
approach
it
load, the inertia
to go past the proper running position
by a
series of oscillations of
damped only by
period which become
Any
power demanded by the
it
losses
a definite
which they occasion.
variation in the supply current or in the load will produce
when
such oscillations and
the cause
is
periodic, with a period
approximately equal to the natural period of the motor, the

effect
becomes cumulative and the
Such a condition of
bad
it
may make
oscillation of the
it
oscillations
oscillations
is
called hunting;
great.
when very
The
impossible to keep the motor in step.
armature
is
accompanied by surging of the
current and pulsation of the power.
makes
become very
testing unsatisfactory
In the laboratory this
on account of the fluctuation of the
instruments.
'
remedy for hunting may sometimes be found
ment of the prime-mover or

period of the cause.
its
in
an adjust-
governor, thus changing the
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR.
lo-A]
10.
ing,
Damping.
Hunting may be
309
effectively reduced
commonly obtained by heavy copper
by damp-
grids imbedded in or
surrounding the pole faces of the motor or by a complete squirrel
Any
cage structure.
oscillations of the
armature and armature
and these cur-
flux induce currents in these copper structures

rents,
RP
on account of
losses,
damp
tend to check or
the oscil-
lations.
II.
Starting a Poyphase Motor witli Alternating Current.
If a polyphase synchronous
nected to the
set
line,
up a revolving
pole faces and
motor with
its field
unexcited
is
con-
the polyphase currents in the armature will

field
damping
which, on account of the losses in the
coils, will
bring the motor nearly to speed
as
an induction motor.
(That the starting of an induction motor
is
produced by losses
shown
is
in 50,
Exp. 8-A.
The damping
secondary and when they have the
coils act as a short-circuited
complete squirrel cage structure they are particularly effective in
When
starting.)
induction motor,
it
the machine
will usually
nearly in synchronism as an
is
come
into complete synchronism
on account of the magnetic attraction between the separate poles

of the field and the magnetic poles of the armature which finally
stay together so that there
is
no
This attraction
slip.
due to
is
the tendency of the lines of force in the air gap to shorten.
When
the field
the motor
may
is
in
synchronism or nearly
in
synchronism,
be excited and the motor will lock in step ; the arma-
ture current then decreases.
The disadvantages of alternating

large current drawn from the line;
The starting
in the field winding.
current starting are: (i) the

(2) the high induced voltage
current can be cut
starting at a lower voltage than normal by
formers ( 12, Exp. 8-A).
The danger
on account of the induced voltage

field spools
from each other on
when synchronism
is
is
of
damage
to insulation
reduced by separating the
starting
by a " break-up switch "
reached or nearly reached, the
excited by closing this switch.
down by
means of auto-trans-
field
is
3IO
PART
12.
The motor
[Exp.
SYNCHRONIZING.*
II.
(or other incoming synchronous machine)
is
brought up to speed by an auxiUary motor or by whatever means
The
are provided.
with direct current which
field is excited
is
adjusted by a rheostat until the electromotive force E', generated
by the motor,
is
approximately the same as the
force E, a close adjustment being unnecessary.

is
line electromotive
When
connecting
it
with the supply line
is
closedf at a
the electromotive force E' of the motor
motive force
of the
The
line.
is
moment when
opposed to the electro-
circuit should be protected
circuit-breaker or other device, for a large current

if
the motor
running approximately at synchronous speed, the main switch
the switch should be closed
are not opposed, or
if
which case the
in
the
line
when
the
motor should
by a
would flow
two electromotive forces

fall
out of step and stop,
would be short-circuited through the
armature.
13.
Synchronizing with Lamps.
There are
various devices
for synchronizing, the simplest consisting of lampsj which bridge

the blades of the
main switch with which the motor

Fig.
nected to the circuit.

single-phase motor, or
When
the motor
is
for
is
to be con-
shows such an arrangement for a

one phase of a polyphase motor.
running at the proper speed and
is
in the
proper phase for closing the switch, the lamps will be dark and
may remain
so for a considerable interval.
When
the motor
is
*The same methods are used in synchronizing synchronous motors,

synchronous converters and synchronous generators operated in parallel.
Synchronizing by various methods should be practiced.
t The more inductance there is in the armature circuit, the less accurately
is it necessary to synchronize a machine before closing the switch.
Extra
inductance, which may be cut out later, is sometimes introduced in the
armature circuit so that the motor may be thrown into circuit without
synchronizing, the inductance preventing excessive current while the motor
is
pulling into step.

X
For each lamp mentioned
may
be used in series
when the
in the
following paragraphs, several lamps
voltage requires
it.
3"
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR.
lo-A]
running a
little
too fast or too slow, the line and motor electro-
motive forces are

" beats "
shown
opposed and then added, giving
first
rise to
by the periodic flickering of the lamps which are
dark and bright alternately.

The lamps do not show whether the motor
is
running too fast
or too slow; but, when a change of speed (increase or decrease)

makes the flicker less rapid, the change is in the proper direction
for bringing the
usually would
motor
into synchronism.
It is
not, be possible, to bring the
chronous speed.
When
synchronous speed
Supply Line
not necessary, and
motor
to e.ract syn-
practically reached.
is
Supply Line
Ql
Motor
Lamp
or
Voltmeter
Motor
Fig. I. Arrangement of synchronizing

lamps (one phase).
Fig. 2.
Synchronizing with a voltmeter,
or one lamp or other
indicator.
shown by the slow changes of the lamps between dark and

when the lamps are dark.
bright,
the switch should be closed

14.
Synchronizing with
the lamps
Lamps
Bright.
bright instead of dark,
To synchronize with
interchange the two lamp
terminals on the line or motor side (as the two upper lamps in
Fig. 4) 15.
Synchronizing with a Single
Lamp
or Voltmeter.
By
closing one switch-blade, one lamp (or series of lamps) of twice
the voltage
may
be used instead of two, as in Fig. 2
or other indicator,
show more
16.
may
a voltmeter,
be used in place of the lamp and will
accurately the exact
moment
of synchronism.
Use of Transformers with Synchronizing Devices.
Syn-
chronous motors and converters are usually made for potentials
312
[Exp.
so high that single lamps cannot be used directly across the switch
In this case step-down transformers are often used, these
blades.
being connected as in Fig. 3 for synchronizing* with the lamp
dark or with one transformer

with the lamp bright.
coil
reversed for synchronizing
A voltmeter or other
indicator can be used
in place of the lamp,
^7- Synchronizing a
suppiyune
If
Polyphase Motor.
lamps are used, a lamp
may be
placed
across eachf switch blade as in the case of
a single-phase motor, the proper time for
closing the switch being indicated by the
lamps being dark.
If all the
lamps do not
become dark simultaneously, the motor is

running counter to the direction it would
^Y'^Vl
O
have
Motor
but the leads
if
driven by the
It is
line.
usually
not convenient or desirable to reverse the
Fig, 3.
Transformers for synchronizing.
direction of rotation of generator or motor,
may be
interchanged in such a manner as to
the cyclic changes of the electromotive forces of line
make
and motor
In the case of a 2-phase motor, this can be brought
similar.
about by reversing the leads to one phase of the motor; in the

case of a 3-phase motor,
it
is
sufficient to interchange
any two
leads to the motor.

18.
instead
In order to have the lamps bright
the proper
moment
of dark
at
for closing the switch, in the case of a 4-wire
2-phase motor two terminals of the lamps on each phase can be

interchanged, as will be seen by considering the 2-phase motor
as consisting of
two single-phase motors.
3-phase motor can-
* In synchronizing with the lamp dark (or bright) the connections should
be
made
so that the lamp will be dark (or bright)
the motor are lifted and the switch
Lamps
Cas in
across only
permanent
tion are correct.
is
two switch blades
when
the brushes
on
closed.
will be sufficient
installations) that the connections
when
it is
known
and direction of rota-
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR.
lo-A]
3^3
not be synchronized with the lamps bright without the use of

transformers.
19. Synchroscopes.
There are
scopes* which not only indicate
chronously and
motor
is
when
it is
is
in the proper
various commercial synchro-
when
the motor
is
running too fast or too slow

not in synchronism.
edge in regard to the
and annoyance
Knowl-
time
latter saves
in bringing the
running syn-
phase but also show whether the

,
'""^cSf'
motor
O'
'
to the proper speed.

20.
Motor
Lamps
is
When
Fast or Slow. ^When a poly-
motor
phase
for Indicating
is
near
is
running too fast or too slow.

is
much
synchronism,
lamps can be used to show whether
the speed
it
I^'^s. 4 and j.t Lamps for

indicating "fast" or "slow."
(When
too high or too low, however, the flicker of the
lamps will be too rapid to follow.)

Figs.
4 and 5 show two methods of connecting lamps for a

When the motor is in the proper phase for clos*
3-phase motor.
ing the switch, a particular lamp (the lower one) will be dark
and the other two
will
be of equal brightness.
If the speed
is
not synchronous, one lamp after the other will be dark, the
sequence depending on whether the motor
With
is
too fast or too slow.
the lamps arranged in a circle, or triangle, this gives the
appearance of rotation
in
one direction or the other.
arrangements of lamps can be made to give similar
Other
effects
with
polyphase motors of any number of phases.

*(i9a). Automatic synchronizers are
also used.
For
description of
syncliroscopes and synchronizers, see hand and text books; also Electric
Journal, Vol. V., p. 538, where other references are given.
fFig. S shows the speed-indicating lamps only; although not shown, a

is required across each switch blade making five lamps in all.
lamp
314
PART
circuit
EXCITATION CHARACTERISTICS.
III.
No Load Run.
21.
[Exp.
Connect a
circuit breaker in the
and an ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter*
current, voltage,
power and power factor;
connect an ammeter and
field rheostat.
armature
measure
to
in the field circuit
be con-
(It will often
venient to determine / sin 6 directly by the method of 13, 43,
Exp. 6-B.)
After synchro-
nizing, run the
motor
load and vary the
field
at
through as wide a range as

possible with the
readings
of
ments and, with

Under-excited
Over-excitd
FIELD
Fig.
motor keep-
all
instru-
field
current
as abscissae, plot as ordinates
CURRENT
Change of armature current with

excitation for different loads.
6.
is
Take simultane-
ing in step.
ous
no
current
armature current, pOWer fac/
4.
/i\
i.
//in
tor (cos^), phase angle {6),
power component of current (/cos
6)
and wattless component
(/sine).
22.
Similar runs may be made various

Fig. 6 shows the variation of the armature
Load Runs.
23. V-curves.
at
loads.
current with field excitation for no load, full load and one inter-
mediate load.
(These curves are often plotted with values of
motor electromotive force E' as

the
abscissae instead of field current,
values of E' corresponding to particular values
of field
current being taken from the no-load saturation curve, 6, Exp.

lo-B.)
Individual readings are likely to fall off the curves on
account of hunting.
In an ideal case the curve for the wattless current / sin

fall to
minimum
6,
would
value of zero, as shown by the dotted curve,
* (2ia). For a polyphase machine, determine power and power factor

6-B ; or, make measurements on only one phase. In the laboratory, where the experiment is only illustrative, the motor may be operated
as a single-phase machine.
as in Exp.
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR.
lo-A]
31S
and the curve for power factor would reach a corresponding
maximum
of 100 per cent. *but in practical operation these ideal
limits
cannot be reached
power
factor never reaches 100 per cent.
The
I sin 6 never
falls quite to
zero and
wattless current /sin 6 acts as an exciting current which
strengthens the
current
is
field
when
the motor
lagging and weakens the
excited and the current
24. 0-curves.
For
is
is
field
under-excited and the
when
the
motor
is
over-
leading.
each load plot a polar curve for
I,
by
laying off each reading of current to scale and with the proper
phase angle.
like the
This gives a series of 0-curves (each curve being
bottom part of the
letter
0) corresponding
to the series
For constant power output and constant
of F-curves.
losses,
with armature resistance zero, these curves would be parallel

straight lines perpendicular to
E;
for an armature resistance
the curves are arcs of circles about a

direction of
at a distance
common
E-~2R
center located in the
from the
origin.
*(23a). This would mean that the electromotive force and current
are simple sine waves and that there is no hunting; otherwise currents of
other than fundamental frequency would flow and the relations of plane
vectors, upon which the derivation of the expression / sin S depends,
would not hold. (See 47, Exp. 6-A). Dissimilarity in the line and motor
electromotive force waves will cause wattless currents of higher frequency
to flow.
3l6
Experiment io-B.
Special
Study
Electromotive Force Method.
I.
of a
The
[Exp.
Synchronous Motor.
complete action of a
synchronous motor can be simply explained* by considering that

the line electromotive force
and counter-electromotive force E'
combine to make a resultant electromotive force z.

ture current /
is
equal to
whose tangent
6z
ance,
X~-R, where Z
lags behind
The armaEz by an angle
the synchronous inped-
is
the resistance of the
thrown
into circuit at a time
the synchronous reactance and
armature
circuit.
In Fig.
when E'
is
z -r- .^ and
is
suppose the motor
I,
exactly opposite to
is
in phase.
being the arithmetical difference between

/ that flows
is
Ez
is
then a minimum,
and E'
the current
zero or small and generally will not produce' enough
powerf for the motor
to maintain rotation.
The armature tends to
stop or slow down, but as the armature drops back in
running
its
position E' drops back in phase, thus increasing Ez, I and the
A balance
power.
developed
2.
and
I,
The
is
is
reached at some point as
just sufficient to
electrical
which
is
E'.
is
when
the
power
power input
is
the vector product of
is
The
times Oe, the projection of / upon E.
mechanical power developed
which
d,
meet the demand.
the vector product of E' and
/,
E' times Of, the projection of / upon the continuation of
Furthermore, the mechanical power developed
is
equal to the
* ( la). Following a paper by Bedell and Ryan, Journal

of the Franklin
March, 1895, the first complete discussion of the synchronous
motor with graphical diagrams and experimental verification, based upon
Institute,
preliminary papers in A. I. E. E. and Sibley Journal, May, 1894.

discussion of the circular current locus will be found in McAllister's Alternating Current Motors.
For an elaborate discussion of the magnetomotive force or ampere turn method, see a series of articles by
C. A.
Adams, Harvard Engineering Journal, Jan., 1908, April,

1908, Jan., 1909.
(A translation of Blondel's treatise on the synchronous motor is in preparation.)
t When E' is opposite to E. there will be no power at

unless E' is less than E, as the subsequent discussion will
all
as a
show
motor
see 4a.
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR.
lo-B]
armature
electrical input less
power
is
RP
used in friction and core
317
loss; part of this mechanical
loss,
the remainder being avail-
able for useful work.
s=ioo
E=v
'=66.6
(0) under-excited.
Fig.
(6) under-excited.
(c)
over-excited.
Electromotive force diagrams for a synchronous motor; three

typical cases.
The
projection
power supplied by
tinuation of E'
the motor.
is
Oe
of
the line.
upon
The
positive
projection
If Of, the projection of

its
as a generator
and not as a motor.
Of
I,
in Fig.
lags behind,
falls
and
is
electrical
of / upon the con-
power developed by
should
continuation, the machine
The diagrams shown

which /
is
negative, being mechanical
and not upon
in
fall
upon E'
itself
would be operating
are for the three typical cases
between and precedes
and .'
prolonged.
3. In
normal operation, with any change of load or other
3i8
working conditions, ' drops back or advances

ical
power developed, namely E'
The motor does
demanded.
otherwise
it
X Of,
just
until the
mechan-
equals the
this automatically, if
it
power
possibly can;
stops.
The operation
is
stable so long as
any dropping back of the
armature gives increased mechanical power.
maximum
[Exp.
power, point 5
in
Beyond
a certain
Fig. 2, a further dropping back
CUnsâble)
CUnst^ble)
Fig.
Synchronous motor diagram
the solid part of each circle

;
operating range.
of the armature means a decrease in power.
maximum,
the
motor
will stop.
Even
if
is
the
Loaded beyond
its
not overloaded, unstable
operation could not be maintained, for, assuming the power de-
veloped to be just equal to the demand, any momentary retarda-
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR.
JO-B]
319
tion of the armature- due to hunting or variation in operating
conditions would cause the motor to develop less power, insuffi-
demand, so that the motor would continue to drop
cient for the
back and would eventually stop.

4.
cles
Fig. 2
shows the
loci
of E' and Ez, which are arcs of
The numbers
each with a radius '.
o, i,
corresponding points on the different curves.
cir-
2 ... 10 indicate
For
this particular
o and 10 are points of zero mechanical power beyond which

the machine acts as a generator and not as a motor 5 is the point
case,
of
maximum
power.
Stable operation
from o
is
to 5
unstable
operation for 5 to 10.

Practically '
and
the
must
lie
in the third quadrant,* for
power developed by any motor
cient even to supply the iron
Maximum power
180
^z.
For
an angle that
than 180.
is
The
stable operation,
occursf
and
is
between o
not likely to be
when E'
lags behind
by an angle
stable operation, therefore, E' lags behind
than i8o4-^z and
less
suffi-
friction loss.
larger the value of 0z the wider
is
by
more
(practically)
is
the range of
which means that the reactance of the arma-
ture circuit should be large compared with
resistance.
its
Since the locus of z the arc of a

proportional
the locus of / which
zmust likewise be the
5.
Current Locus.
to
is
arc of a circle.
with E;
For
circles
The
the length
center
OC
is
on a
is
-f- Z,
OC
line
the radius
making an angle
9z
CH is E' -^ Z.
different excitations the current loci consist of concentric
with different
=Ê':E.
radii,
When E'Ê,
For under-excitation (as
determined by the relation
on
OC
CH:OC
the current locus passes through O.

in Fig. 2) the radius is less than
for over-excitation the radius

falling
circle,
is
prolonged to the
is
greater than
OC,
OC;
the point
left.
For zero power, the lag of E' behind E is 180 when E'Ê;
180 when E' is more (or less) than E.
it is more (or less) than
t(4b). This may be proved analytically, as in Alternating Current
Machines by Sheldon, Mason and Hausman, or graphically, as in Elements
* (4a).
of Electrical Engineering by Franklin and Esty.
320
6.
[Exp.
With the synchronous motor driven as a generator,
Data.
determine the synchronous impedance ( 10-15, Exp. 3-B) and

the no-load saturation curve (5, Exp. 3-A).
7.
when '
and for under-excitation ('

8.
Predetermine the
= , for over-excitation (' > E)
Predetermination of Circular Loci.
of Fig. 2 for the case
Current Loci
by
Test.
< E)
loci
With constant excitation and vary-
ing load determine the current loci for several excitations and
compare with the predetermined
loci.
The
9. Further Investigations.
investigation
may be
ex-
tended to include a predetermination of 0-curves and F-curves

(as by McAllister),
(as
measurement of angular armature position
by Bedell and Ryan), study of the frequency of hunting,
limits of stability, etc.
See la
also 24,
Exp. lO-A.
SYNCHRONOUS CONVERTER.
lo-C]
Experiment io-C. Study

I.
Methods
Direct current
tained by
of a Synchronous Converter.
from substations and
usually distributed
the transmission
may be
is
from a
ob-
For economy
distance.
usually 3-phase (54, Exp. 6-A).
The
con-
single-phase or polyphase, in practice being usually
either 3-phase or 6-phase (27, 27a,
The growth
Exp. 6-A).
of electric traction has been coincident with,
if
not indeed depen-
While
dent upon, the general use of the synchronous converter.
more generally used on
low frequency (25 cycles),
circuits of
use at 60 cycles (3, Exp. 3-A)

2.
is
means of synchronous converters which are operated by
alternating current transmitted
verters
from Alternating Current.
for Obtaining Direct

is
321
is
its
common.
The synchronous converter
is
it
a synchronous
essentially
motor and direct-current generator combined

has one
one machine;*
in
which
field,
is
self-
excited by direct current, and
one armature winding which
is
provided with collector rings

for receiving alternating current and with a commutator for
delivering direct current.
The
armature connections for a 3FiG. I. Armature connections for a

3-phase converter, 2-pole model.
phase converter are sHown in

_.
Fig.
for a 2-pole model.
Each
I,
IS
,.
the diagram
collector ring is tapped into the
ture winding at one point in a 2-pole model,

in
which
two equidistant points
a 4-pole model, three equidistant points in a 6-pole model,
*(%
2a).
Dynamotors and Motor-Generators.
arma-
Provided
etc.
with indepen-
dent armature windings, but with a common field, the machine would be a
dynamotor; with independent fields as well as armatures the machine would
be a -motor-generator with motor and generator separate, a more flexible
arrangement in regard to control and regulation but more costly in con-
struction Hud less efficient in operation.
322
[Exp.
In a synchronous converter, the armature revolves while the

field
and brushes are stationary; for mechanical reasons the
verse arrangement
with revolving*
undesirable.
stationary armature
shown
and brushes and with
field
Connections for operating
is
a synchronous converter are
re-
in Fig. 2.
3. Other devices for deriving direct from alternating currents are: synchronous
commutators^ (which have proved short-
lived both as individuals
upon a valve
fier, etc.,
effect, as the
class)
aluminum
and rectifiers that depend
synchronous converter
verted converter
or,
recti-
enough
warrant extensive use.

is
normally used to receive
nating and to deliver direct current, but
rent
mercury-arc
rectifier,
the latter being the only one of these with high
efficiency to
4.
and as a
to receive direct
and
may be used
to deliver alternating cur-
as a double current generator driven by
delivering both direct
alter-
as an in-
power and
and alternating currents.
Terminal voltages
5. Voltage Ratios.
in
any machine
differ
somewhat from the induced or generated voltages on account of

drop in the windings which varies with the load. The ratio of
generated voltages in a converter
may
be computed as follows:
Consider a converter driven as a generator, delivering direct

current and single-phase alternating current.
are properly
set,
When
the brushes
the D.C. voltage will be equal to the
value of the A.C. voltage.
The
upon wave form, being for a
effective
sine
A.C. voltage
maximum
will
depend
wave 1/V2 times the maximum,
or direct current, value.
The rotating field may be produced electrically,

which case both field and armature windings are stationary, the brushes
being driven at synchronous speed by a light driving mechanism. A modification of this arrangement is the permutator, the introduction of which has
no doubt been prevented by the difficulties introduced by the revolving
brushes.
See: Elektrotech. Zeit. (Vienna), Aug. 28, 1898; L'Industrie
Electrique, Feb. 10, 1902, Nov. 25, 1905 Land. Electrician, Dec. 9, 1905,
Dec. 10, 1906 Elect. Age, Nov., 1908 Sibley Journal of Eng., June, 1909.
t For a test of such a commutator, see paper by J. B. Whitehead and L.
O. Grondahl, Elec. World, pp. 896 and 914, April 15, 1909.
* (2b). Permutators.
in

^0-C]
Hence, for a single-phase

voltage
(or 2-phase)
323
machine, the A.C.
is
a.c.= (I/V2)D.c.=.707ED.c.
The
line
measured between one alternating current
star voltage s,
and the
neutral,
Es
which
is
is
= y2{ 1/ V2)
d.c.
= o.3S4d.c.,
true for a polyphase, as well as for a single-phase,
chine.
From
readily
computed; thus,
ma-
the star voltage, the line voltage in any case
In a single-phase or 2-phase machine, the line voltage
is
is
twice
the star voltage.
In a 3-phase machine ( 19, Exp. 6-A), the line voltage 3
= Vj-Es =-^
Ejy.c.
is
.612ED.C..
2V2
In a 6-phase machine, the line voltage E^
is
= = o.3S4D.c..
Current Ratios.Âssuming a certain
a
6.
-Es
eificiency
and power
factor, the alternating current in each supply line corresponding
to
any particular value of
Thus,
if power
direct current output can be computed.
factor and efficiency are
i. 00,
each ampere of direct
current requires an alternating current of \/2 amp. (^1.414)
% V2 amp. (=0.707) 2-phase, %V2

%V2 amp. (^=.472) 6-phase.
single-phase,
3-phase,
7. Rating.
In a converter, each armature conductor
an alternating current and a

irregular
amp. (=0.943)
carries
rectified direct current, giving
wave form, with a chopped up appearance,
an
diiifering in
the various conductors according to the time that has elapsed since
each conductor has passed under a brush.
The
rating* of a con-
*For
a good discussion, see paper by O. J. Ferguson, Elect. World, p.

214, Jan. 21, 1909, where ratings are derived for various power factors,
based upon hottest and coolest coils as well as upon average heating. See
also paper by
W.
L. Durand, Elect. World, p. 23s, Jan. 26, 1911.
324
[Exp.
upon armature heating and may be based upon

Based upon average armature heating and
verter depends
several assumptions.
power
the assumption of unity
factor, the relative capacities of a
converter are
single-phase, 0.85
3-phase, 1.33;
6-phase, 1.93
the capacity as a direct current generator being unity.
The advantage of
6-A), but there
the 6-phase converter
is little
advantage
is
obvious (27a, Exp.
more than
in
six phases, the
capacity for infinite phases being only 2.3 as compared with 1.93
for six phases.
8. Voltage Control.*
The
D.C. voltage of a converter
is
usually controlled by altering the A.C. voltage supplied to the
commonly done ( i ) by means of an

induction regulator (or some other form of potential regulator,
Exp. 7-B) (2) by means of reactance placed in series with the
converter on the A.C. side, as discussed later; or, (3) less comcollector rings,
and
this is
monly by a synchronous, booster.'\

split-polej converter, controls the
Another method, used
in the
D.C. voltage without altering
the A.C. voltage.

* (8a).
For
a discussion of converter construction and operation, with
particular reference to voltage control, see the following papers
discussions: A.
I.
E. E., Vol.
XXVIL,
W.
and
their
181; J. E. Woodalso Elect. Journal, Vol. V., F. D.

C.
Stone,
p.
C. A. Adams, p. 959
Newbury, pp. 615, 616.
t(8b). Synchronous Booster. A small auxiliary alternator, mounted
on the same shaft as the converter is connected in series with it as a
booster on the A.C. side.
The A.C. voltage supplied to the converter
depends, therefore, upon the excitation of the booster, which may be
Some of the field windings of the
controlled by a suitable regulator.
booster may be put in series with the D.C. load, thus giving an increasing
bridge, p. rgi
excitation with load.
X (8c). Split-pole Converter. In this converter each pole is divided

which can be given different excitations so as to vary the
flux distribution.
This shifts the flux, which is practically the same as
into sections
shifting the brushes, and so changes the D.C. voltage; or,
form of electromotive force and so changes the

A.C. voltage;
or,
it
it
alters the
wave
ratio of the D.C. to the
both shifts the flux and alters the wave form.

lo-C]
325
9. Reactance Control.
Â lagging current through a reactance
always causes a drop in voltage; but a leading current, when
sufficiently in advance of the electromotive force, will cause
a rise
in voltage.
With
reactance in a circuit, therefore, the voltage
upon how much the current
delivered will depend
and
leading,
trolled
this
by the
10. Fig. 2
shows a reactance
is
lagging or
is
con-
X located in one line; in practice,
located in each line (20) either as separate
or as leakage reactance* in transformers.
line voltage
is
a synchronous motor or converter
excitation.
an equal reactance
coils
in
and t be the terminal voltage
Let
be the
at the collector rings
of the converter.
When
the current /
in
is
phase with Et, the reactance causes a
voltage drop in quadrature with I so that t
Eo, as shown in Fig.
Exp. 3-B.
3,
is
somewhat
less
than
This corresponds to a particu-
lar excitation of the converter.
When
is
more
the current /
effective
is
lagging, the drop through the reactance
and Et
is
much
than 0, as in Fig.
less
4,
Exp. 3-B.
When
the current /
converter excitation
is
Et
corresponding
leading
is
It is seen, therefore, that the
is
an increased
Exp. 3-B.
A.C. voltage supplied to the con-
verter (and so the D.C. voltage delivered) can,
ance
to
increased, as in Fig. 5,
when
series react-
used, be increased or decreased by increasing or decreas-
ing the motor excitation.

II. In the laboratory,
in excitation
stat.
and sometimes
in practice, this
can be made by a hand adjustment of the
In practice, however,
it is
usually
pounding the converter, by means of

D.C. load current.
As
change
field
rheo-
made automatic by comseries turns carrying the
the load increases or decreases, this in-
creases or decreases the excitation and the voltage.
By
properly
proportioning the reactance and the series winding (or a shunt

*.( loa).
The unavoidable
and converter may be
reactance of the generator, line, transformers
sufficient.
326
around
in the
it)
the converter
same manner
12.
may
be over-, under-, or flat-compounded
as a D.C. generator (
Derived Neutral.
Ân interesting
or double-current generator
[Exp.
is
i,
23,
Exp. i-B).
feature of a converter
that the potentials of the neutral
of the A.C. system and of the D.C. system are alike.
The
neutral
considered as a (usually fictitious) middle
may be
Taking
point of the armature.

positive D.C. brush
negative D.C. brush
at a constant positive potential
is
is
this neutral potential as zero, the
and the
mean
at a constant negative potential, the
Referring to a single-
of these being the potential of the neutral.
phase machine, the two A.C. brushes have alternating potentials
mean of which
that are equal but of opposite sign, the
is
the
potential of the neutral.
The A.C.
neutral
is
readily obtained
of a transformer or choking
phase system, or opposite
The D.C.
lines
is
A.C.
in the
lines
middle
of a single-
of a 2-phase or 6-phase system.
neutral, otherwise not easily obtained, can be readily
"derived" from the A.C. neutral,

side
from a tap
coil across the
i.
e.,
the neutral of the A.C.
used as the neutral for the D.C. system.
This
is
one
advantage of a 2-phase or 6-phase converter with diametral connections (27, Exp. 6-A).
13. Direct-current generators are often constructed
collector rings across
which are placed choking
with A.C.
coils for the
pose of deriving a neutral for a 3-wire D.C. system.
Any
pur-
direct
current returned to the generator by the neutral or third wire, due

to an unbalanced load, passes into the middle tap of such a chok-
ing coil and thence differentially through the

coil
two halves of the
with no magnetizing effect upon the core.
Special 3-wire generators are constructed with the choking coils
contained within the armature, the outside connections being
through the commutator and one
slip ring.
made
lo-C]
327
PART II. OPERATION AND TESTS.

14. Synchronizing,
A synchronous converter can be brought
up to speed and synchronized by any of the means used for starting and synchronizing a synchronous motor (Exp. 10-A). It
can also be brought to speed as a direct-current shunt motor
(Exp. 2-A) by means of direct current supphed to the commutator end of the converter, a starting resistance being used in
series
with the armature to limit the starting current; the
field
rheostat regulates the field current and so controls the speed in
synchronizing.
the
In the laboratory, direct current starting is usually
most convenient.
In practice, alternating current starting with low starting voltage
is
most common a " break-up " switch

;
the field spools (see 11, Exp. lo-A).
D.C. side shows when synchronism
and by assuming a steady reading,

the polarity
is
is
used for separating
D.C. voltmeter on the
reached by ceasing to beat
either positive or negative.
If
not the one desired, the machine must be synchron-
ized again or allowed to slip a pole
main switch.
is
Another way to
slip
by opening and closing the
a pole
is
to reverse the field
connections and, after the D.C. voltmeter has
come
to rest near
zero, to again reverse the field; the converter then locks in step
with the proper polarity.

15.
On open
Voltage Ratio.
circuit,
measure the A.C. and
D.C. voltage and compare their ratio with the calculated

16.
Tests (Without Series Reactance).
On
ratios, 5.
the A.C. side,
connect* a circuit-breaker, voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter;
on the D.C.
side,
connect an ammeter and voltmeter and a variable
resistance for a load.
the connections are as
No
reactance
shown
possible, be kept constant.
in Fig. 2.
is
in the line
otherwise
Line voltage should,
The following scheme of
tests
if
may be
followed or modified as seems desirable.

17.
No-load Excitation
Test.
Take
the
* For a polyphase machine, see 21a, Exp. lo-A.
same no-load
exci-
328
tation characteristics as for a synchronous
Exp. lo-A),
18. Full-load Excitation Test.
[Exp.
motor (21,
Repeat the
test,
23, 24,
keeping the
direct current constant at rated full-load value, or other selected
value.
Load Run;
19.
Excitation Constant.
may
tion* (for which separate excitation
^With
D.C. load and take simultaneous readings of
Make
constant excita-
be convenient), vary the

all
instruments.
runs with over-excitation, normal-excitation and under-
excitation.
20. Tests
with each
is
suflScientf)
Read
with Series Reactance.
Place a reactance
line (for a single-phase converter, reactance in
all
and repeat the preceding
instruments, as
shown
in series
one
line
tests.
in Fig. 2; also read voltage
lo-C]
When
22. Inverted Converter.
the case of a D.C. motor.
a converter
upon the
direct current, its speed depends
If the field
cause (by a decrease in
field
driven by
js
field excitation, as in
weakened through any
is
current or by the demagnetizing
armature reaction), the speed increases; likewise,
effect of
strengthened (by an increase in
field is
329
if
the
current or by the
field
magnetizing effect of armature reaction), the speed decreases.
When
alternating current
power
at unity
factor, the magnetizing or demagnetizing effect
of the armature current
At
being delivered by the converter
is
is
insignificant.
other power factors, however, a lagging current weakens
and a leading current strengthens the

and makes a corresponding change
machine designed for operation
field,
as in a generator,
and
in speed
in frequency.
an inverted converter
as
weak arma-
should, therefore, be designed with a magnetically

ture
or,
some device should be provided
for controlling the exci-
and maintaining the speed constant.
tation
This
sometimes
is
done by using an exciter mounted on the same shaft so that any

increase of speed of the converter
exciting current which
23. Test.
it
Operate
is
checked by the increase of
produces.
an inverted converter with an inductive
load* and with a non-inductive load adjusted for the same value.
(Caution: Be careful
field current,
to avoid excessive speed.)
compare the speeds
curves from no load to

24.
Note the change
same speed
in the
two
25. Compounding
load
full
two
in the
may be
With constant
(Complete
cases.
taken
when
in field current necessary to
desired.)
produce the
cases.
with Series Reactance.
series reactance, determine the
number of
With
series turns
given
needed to
give the same D.C. voltage at full load as at no load (11);
proceed as with a D.C. generator (28, Exp. i-B).

*
An
induction motor, locked,
may
be found convenient for
this.
330
[Exp.
26. With a given series winding, flat-compounding can be

obtained by
trial
by adjusting the
a shunt around the
series turns
27. Derived Neutral.

test as
series reactance or adjusting
(23, Exp. i-B).
Obtain
a derived neutral (12) and
a converter or as a generator with unbalanced load.
CHAPTER XL
WAVE
ANALYSIS.
Experiment ii-A. Analysis

Method
I.
force
Introductory.
is
wave
Ân
alternating
rarely an exact sine
or
first
3, 5, 7, etc.,
harmonic
it
wave
current
or
when
usually comprises odd harmonics of
(Even harmonics*
the negative half-wave
the positive half-wave.)

certain ordinates
electromotive
in addition to the fundamental
times the fundamental frequency.
are never present
If
we
are given
a repetition of
is
ordinates
the
of a complex wave, we can "analyze"
components, that
its
Complex Wave by the
of a
Ordinates.
18
of
is,
we can
harmonics of higher frequency of which
it
into
composed, each
is
amplitude and
its
it
fundamental and the
find the
component wave being defined by
or
its
phase
position with respect to the fundamental.

2.
Any complex wave
in
which there are no even harmonics
(the negative half -wave being a repetition of the positive) can
be represented by a Fourier's series consisting of the following

sine
and cosine terms

3;
= ^1
sin
JT -|-
-)-5iCOs;t:
X
M
is
/ig sin
3;ir -|-
5;ir
<ot,
^x
(i)
30)?, etc.,
where
times the fundamental' frequency.
By combiningf
*IW-the
t (2a).
VJ3^
the sine and cosine terms, (i)
may
-|- B"'
be written
waves with even harmonics, see Appendix

prove equation (2), expand as follows:
analysis of
To
sin (*-!-
0)
where
sin
+ 53cos3^ + -B,coss.r.-..
an angle varying with time ; thus
is 27r
^5
= VA' + B'
cos
<P;
= VA" + B'
=A
sin
(cos
4>
x-{-B cos
B = VA' + B'
sin Ar-f-sin
II.
cos x)
x,
sin <P;
BÂ=tan<t>.
C
This will be seen more clearly by constructing a right triangle with

the hypothenuse and A and B as the two sides.
331
as
WAVE
332
= + VA,' + B,';
<3!>i=tan-i-^;
The
first
term
C,= +VA,'' + B,'';etc.
= tan-i-^;
<^3
lute values of
A^,A^,As,
depend upon
<î,
(2b)
et^.
times the
etc.,
7,
5,
^j, ^3,
<^^,
The abso-
etc.
(and the corresponding values of
and B^,B^,B^,
etc.,
but not of C^,C3,C^, etc.),
the origin or point of reference
from which angles
In the following analysis the origin from which
are measured.
the angles
etc.
<î,<^3, <^g,
etc.,
3,
phase positions by
their relative
(2a)
Their ampHtudes are given by C^, C^, C^,
fundamental frequency.
and
(2)
fundamental; the remain-
in (2) represents the
ing terms represent the harmonics of
etc.,
[Exp.
+ ,f,^)+CsSm(:ix + <l>^)+C^sini5x-{-,t>i)---'
C^sm(x
y
where*
C,
ANALYSIS.
^3,
c^g, etc.,
are measured
determined by the selec-
is
where y=3'o when x

o.
measure time or angle from
tion of the initial ordinate (see Fig. 2)

It is convenient,
when
plotting, to
We
the zero of the fundamental wave.
by substituting
^^
therefore rewrite (2)
for x; thus,
y=C^smx + C^smi\x+-j-Â+C^smS\x+ y-<îj
(s)
or,
y=C^smx+
sin
i{x
3=y-<î;
6*3
a^
C^ sin 5(jr
aj
(4)
where
* ( 2b). In computing
with
+B
and
B
with B
with
with
where +tan"'
+B
-3 is
and
<t>,
= -y--<î;
note the signs of
+ A,
we have
=:
A, we have <l>^
^,
we have
-|-
-|-
90).
tan"'
tan""^
0= tan"'
</>
= tan"'
a positive angle (from 0 to
negative angle (from 0 to
and
(4a)
thus
and -{-A, we have

and
etc.
n
_-t-i8o;
180
+90) and
tan"'
;^
is
WAVE
ii-A]
ANALYSIS.
333
Equation (4) is the most convenient for plotting and for

general use. The phase angles a^, a^, etc., are measured from the
3.
zero of the fundamental in the same angular scale as the funda-
mental wave, as in Fig.
wave
lar
that
is,
180 always represent half a
of the fundamental and not half a
harmonic.
(On
the other hand,
1^3,
wave of each
</>5,
etc.,
particu-
are measured
each to the scale of the particular harmonic; the scale for
measures 180" for a half-wave of the third harmonic, the
</>3
scale
for ^5 measures 180 for a half-wave of the fifth harmonic, etc.)
positive phase angle indicates a leading wave, as the third
y=Ci Binas+Casrn 3 (a;H-a:s)+C5 sm SCai+as)

= 100 sin + 30sin3(a;+30) + I5sinS(a; 15)
CJ!
Complex wave composed of a fundamental, a leading third and a

Fig, I.
lagging fifth harmonic. Phase angles a^ and a^ are measured from zero of the
fundamental.
harmonic
in Fig.
wave, as the
fifth
a negative phase angle indicates a lagging
harmonic
in Fig. i, this
being the usual notation
in alternating currents.
Note that
selected
is
to positive.
in
measuring to or from a zero of a wave the zero
always one where the wave changes from negative
WAVE
334
4.
We
etc.,
<j>i,
or, as is
and
<^3, <j>s, etc.,
etc.
more
The
determining the values of
in
first
and B^,B^,B^,
substituted in (i)
etc.,
[Exp.
are given the ordinates of a complex wave.
process of analysis consists
Ai,A^,A^,
ANALYSIS.
These values may then be
useful, the values of Cj, C3, C^,
a^, a^, etc.,
are computed and substituted
in (2), (3) or (4).
5.
curve
When
the
wave
to be analyzed
is
given in the form of a
as an oscillograph record, for examplethe values of the
ordinates
curve.
necessary
for computation
measured from the
In some cases, however, the values of the ordinates are
determined directly by experiment

alternating current
taneous contact
The
are
wave by
and
in the
determination of an
the point-by-point
method of
instan-
in this case plotting the curve is unnecessary.
ordinates used
Fig. i.
as
must be
equi-distant
Showing 18 ordinates taken
for one half of a wave.
ordinates for one half
and must be known
in a half
The following method
wave and
is sufficient
wave.
is
based upon 18
for determining the
amplitude and the phase of the odd harmonics up to and including the seventeenth
even harmonics are assumed to be absent.
WAVE
Ji-A]
For the
ANALYSIS.
origin of the method, see
tion of even as well as
6. Procedure.
Appendix
odd harmonics,
Ascertain
335
see
I.
for the determina-
Appendix
II.
the values of i8 equidistant ordi-
nates distributed over any interval of i8o, as yo>yi>y2'"

Fig. 2, the ordinates being determined for every lo degrees.
reference to the
repetitions of
and
may have any

zero or maximum
ordinate y^
initial
3)19, etc.,
J'o, 3'i, etc.,
position whatsoever, without
of the curve;
are averaged for greater accuracy.
and multiplications are
7.
Scheme.
all
In
3;,,
and
all
yâ, y^
cases care
additions, subtrac-
algebraic.
Ârrange the 18 ordinates

Scheme
are
3'i8,3'i9, etc.,
and are not used, unless
should be taken to note the algebraic sign

tions
yn ^^
The
in a
scheme as shown.
(18 ordinates).
yo
Sums
Write the algebraic sums and differences as indicated, where
Ji=yi + 3'iT;----y9=3'o;
ds=ysyiodo=yo;
Certain of the values thus obtained are further combined, algebraically, in the following
manner
WAVE. ANALYSIS.
336
8. Tabulating.
[Exp.
These values should be placed
after being multiplied by the sine of the angle
column; thus,
of io, or,
81
Si
= ^1X0.1736,
The
line
line (I.
(I.
-f-H-)
II.) is
9.
two
Check.
lines,
is
first
Âs a
A.^,
columns
in the first
found by adding
Ag,
(i, 3, 5, 7,
(17, 15, 13, 11)
found by subtracting.
9 gives the values of

in the last
shown
etc.
and of the second columns
I.,
in the Table,
denotes the algebraic product of s^ and the sine
Write the algebraic sums of the

line
on
9) on
line II.
line II. to line I.; the
Dividing these results by
A^^ and B^, B^,
which may be substituted
B-^^,
as
in equation
shown
( i)
check on the computation, the following rela-
tions should hold, each constant being given its proper sign
A^
A^ + A, A,+A, A,^ + A^, A,,+A^, = y^;
B,
+ B, + B, + B, + B, + 5ii + 5i3 + B,, + B^,=y,.

Table (18
Sine Components.
ordinates).
WAVE
ii-A]
ANALYSIS.
337
Required to analyze a wave of which the

lo. Example.
lowing i8 ordinates at io intervals are known (see Fig. 2)
18.0
311=
g.o
3^=+
72.0
yi>+
99.0
yo
3'"
yu
= + 123.0
+ 73.0
3)ii
3r
yj
=+
3/3=+ 14.0
=+127.5
i.o
= + 119.0
3ii2= + lo8.o
= + 41.0.
ys
JiT
= + ii6.o
= + 57.S
3;is
=+
97.5
jii
=+
=+
to the
jii4
scheme of 7.
Scheme.
Sums
Differences
Sums
Differences
18.0
18.0
9.0
41.0
+
+
1.0
S7.S
+
+
14.0
73.0
46.0
> =+128.0
3;i,
These are arranged according
fol-
+
+
46.0
85.0
85.0
33^
WAVE
ANALYSIS.
Cosine Components.
[Exp.
WAVE
ii-A]
ANALYSIS.
APPENDIX
ORIGIN
339
I.
AND PROOF OF METHOD
Many* methods have been used for analyzing a

II. Origin.
complex wave, either accurately or approximately, but until Rungef
devised a simplification the accurate methods have been exceedingly
Runge
laborious, sometimes involving hundreds of multiplications.
found that by combining terms the number of multiplications can be
much reduced.
The method here
given
is
based$ upon that of Runge, being further
by assuming that the negative half-wave
simplified
is
a repetition of
no constant term and that even harmonics are absent (see Appendix II.). No assumption, however, is
the positive,
made
wave
i.
e.,
that there
is
that the initial ordinate
is
zero
{y^
Q');
when analyzing
for which the ordinates are obtained by the method of instan-
taneous contact such a limitation adds to the labor and reduces the
accuracy, for
involves plotting the curve according to the ordinates
it
found by experiment and then measuring from the curve a second
set
of ordinates, beginning with zero, in order to make the analysis.
Evidently
it is
more
upon the original

12.
Number
accurate, as well as easier, to base the analysis
set of ordinates.
of Ordinates Used.
If m ordinates in one half-wave
are used, the method determines the harmonics to and including the
* ( iia).
For a
description of
some of
these, see Sir
William Thomson,
A. Fleming, Lond. Elect., Jan.

S. Ber22-9, 1892 J.
S, 1892, and June 28, 1895
son, Eel. Electrique, 15, 1898; Houston and Kennelly, Elec. World, XXXI.,
1898; Michelson and Stratton, Am. Jour. Sc, S, 1898; A. S. Langsdorf,
Physical Rev., XII., 1901, p. 184; Fischer-Hinnen, Elektrotech. Zeitschrift,
May 9, 1901 S. M. Kintner, Elec. World, XLIIL, 1904, p. 1023 J. HarriProc. Roy. Soc, XXVII., 1878,
371
Perry, Lond. Elect., Feb.
p.
J.
son, Engineering, Feb., 1906, p. 201
P.
M.
Lincoln, Elec. Journal,
World, July
p. 386; C. S. Slichter, Elec.
World, Apr. 13 and Oct. 21, 1911.
t Zeitschrift fur Mathematic
discussion of Runge's method
und Physic,
15,
1909;
1903, Vol.
C.
V,
1908,
A. Pierce, Elec.
XLVIIL,
p. 443.
given by S. P. Thompson, Proc. London

Phy. Soc, Vol. XIX., p. 443, and by E. B. Tuttle, Iowa Engineer, Sept.,
o.
1906. Thompson introduces the condition that yo
is
% Runge's method is followed in combining and tabulating results but not

and a.
in developing the equations nor in determining phase angles
Added Note. For a convenient method of constructing schedules for
even as well as odd harmonics, see H. O. Taylor, Phys. Rev., 1915.
<t>
WAVE
340
(m
i)
ANALYSIS.
[Exp.
harmonic, assuming that higher harmonics are negligible;
thus, i8 ordinates determine
harmonics to the seventeenth, 6 ordinates
determine harmonics to the
fifth, etc.,
monics are present
to
assuming that no higher har-
an appreciable extent.
Reducing the number of ordinates used, however, not only reduces

the
number of harmonics
that can be determined but reduces the
For example,
accuracy with which these are determined.
if
the
seventh or ninth harmonic has considerable amplitude, the method
with 6 ordinates in general would not accurately determine even the
and fifth harmonics. The more ordinates used, therefore, the

more accurate is the method, but the labor is likewise increased.
Except in work of the greatest precision, the use of more than i8
third
ordinates in a half-wave
is
hardly worth while, for the accuracy of
the data will rarely warrant

to
make an
result, unless
For
using
more
only an approximate analysis
is
it
does not pay
to risk errors in the
desired.
8 ordinates, but
it
method
can be readily modified so as to apply
when
ordinates, or less, than i8 are used.
13.
cluding
the other hand,
few ordinates and
simplicity, the following discussion is limited to the
Development of Method.
in equation
On
it.
analysis with too
all
/4i sin
( i )
must be limited
For practical use the

to a finite
infinite series
number of terms
thus, ex-
harmonics above the seventeenth, we have

;tr
+ A, sin 3^ + A^ sin Sx A sin ijx

B cos lyx.
+ B^ cos x-\-B, cos + B, cos
2,x
Substituting for
18
c,x
'(S)
known consecutive values (0, 10, 20, etc.) and

known values {y y^, y etc.), we have 18
of the first degree which may be solved for the
for y the corresponding 18
simultaneous equations
18
in
unknown coefficients A^ to ^ and B, to B.

The coefficients of the Mth harmonic may be written
which the values of k vary from
as summations,
to 17; thus
*="
2
= ^
B=
jC,sin/6io,
2 *=''
^ % y^cosnk
10 i=n
10.
(6)
WAVE
ANALYSIS.
foregoing
expressions
ii-A]
14. Proof.
To
follows.
The
0,
the second by sin
The sumf of
The sum
zero.
derived*
be
An on
as
of the 18
first
the third by sin 2
10,
10, etc.,
hand of
gA^; the sum of the other terms
hand terms may be written as a summa-
terms that contain
all
the equations (after multiplying)

is
may
determine a coefficient A^, multiply the
equations by sin
and add.
34
of the left
the right
is
Thus,
tion.
=o
we have
Transposing,
y^ sin
nkio=
gA^.
(7)
the value of A, as in (6).
The value of 5
is
similarly found
15.
by multiplying by cosines instead of sines.

Determining Values for Individual Coefficients. Given the
An and B, the next step is to find partiA^, A etc., which may be conveniently used
general expression (6) for

cular expressions for A^,
in a
numerical solution.
tion.
In (6) or (7),
We
It will suffice to
let
determine A^ as an. illustra-
= 3 and assign values for k
from o
to 17.
then have
gA,
=+
+
+ y^ sin 30 y, sin 60 y, sin 90

+ sin 150 + y^ sin 120
sin 240 + % sin 270
y, sin 210 +
sin 330 +
sin 300
sin 360 +
+ sin 30-|-3fsin 6o-|-3isin 90
+ sin 150 + sin 120
0
y, sin
3^5
-\-
4-
3)5
3i
y,,
-|-
-|-
y sin 180
y,,
(^)
3;^
3;
y,^
= 30, 210= 30, 330=.

= sin 60, sin 240^ 60, 300=:
270^
90", we may write (8) as follows:
9^8 =
+ + + yn yn) 30
60
+ (y^ + + +
90
4+
Since sin 150
sin
sin
sin
sin
sin
120
sin
sin
sin 30,
sin 60,
sin
sin
(^1
(ys
sin
y,
y.
y,r
3'ie
^4
yis
3'.)
^8
3-1.
^lo) sin
sin
* ( 14a). General Expression for Coefficients. Determined more genan infinite number of terms, the coefficients of the Mth order are
erally for
/*T
A^= Jo
2
sin
nx
dx;
IT
B^
2 f^
=
y cos nx
irJn
I
dx.
(See Byerly's Fourier's Series and Spherical Harmonics, Qiap. II.

hunter's Int. Calculus, Chap. XIII. Greenhill's Int. Calculus, 183
equations instead of 18, this sum is
terms and
t If there are
the average value of the sine of an angle, squared, being ^.
;
Todetc.)
imAn,
WAVE
342
A^
= 1/9
which
is
+ j/ sin 60 +
is
terms of sin
The
150.
fe
evident that,
even sin
fe
8.
30
when
is
odd, sin k 30
A^
sin ^ 150; hence, A^^

all
terms
Hence
= 1/9 [j/
sin 30
can be written sin
latter
is
fe
cos k 180
developed in
(180
30),
sin k 30.
sin k 150, while
It
when k
is
can be determined from A^
in the third
j/
[Exp.
sin 90 )
sin k 180 cos k 30
by changing the signs of
The
'
developed in terms of sin k 30 while
which expanded gives

is
s,'
the form used in the Table,
A^
16.
sin 30
( j/
ANALYSIS.
sin 60"
column of equation (8).
+ j/ sin 90].
other coefficients are determined in a similar manner.
17. Check.
In
when x=ô.
equation (5),
3'8
Substituting these values,
A^
A, + A, A,----Â^, =
After analyzing a wave, these equations

values of A^, A^,
when x^=<)0; and

we have
etc.,
and
B^,
may
y^y,
y^;
be used to check the
B^, etc.
APPENDIX
II.
ANALYSIS OP WAVE WHICH MAY HAVE EVEN AND ODD HARMONICS AND A CONSTANT TERM.
18.
Method of 12 Ordinates. In the most general case,* when the

wave is not equal to the positive and is not a
negative part of the

repetition of
it,
both even and odd harmonics
a constant term, B.
To
may be
present and also
analyze such a wave, see Fig.
3,
equidistant
ordinates must be taken over an entire period, or 360, and not merely
for a half period, as in the preceding pages
when odd harmonics
only
were considered.
Let ordinates be takenf at intervals of 30,
i.
e.,
there are 12
known
ordinates in a complete wave.

* This general method, which applies whether there is a constant term or
not and whether odd or even harmonics are present or not, is taken directly
from Runge's article, where the method is given in detail for 12 and for 36
ordinates.
fFor
greater accuracy ( 12)
more ordinates must be
used.
WAVE
ii-A]
ANALYSIS.
343
Arrange these in the scheme, as shown then compile the table, after
multiplying by the sine of the angle indicated thus, a^
o, sin 30.
;
Fig.
3.
Wave
with even and odd harmonics and a constant term

ordinates used.
Scheme
Ordinates
(12 ordinates).
12
WAVE
344
Required
Example.
19.
ANALYSIS.
to analyze the
[Exp.
wave shown
known
in Fig. 3, the
following 12 ordinates at 30 intervals being

3'o
y.
y,
= +-i4-o
=+
=
3/1
4-3
3'=
8.2
y,
= + 15.8
=+
=
1-4
y,=
4-6
ys= + 7-7
y,= 6.8
9-3
3'io
9-9
3'u
y,=+i2.o
6.8
Scheme.
Ordinates
+ 14.0 + 15.8 + 12.0 +
7.7
6.8
9.3
Diff.
Sum:
Sum
Diff.
Diff.
+14.0
+ 22.6
+ 8.2
+ 30.8
+ 14.4
+ 30.8
+ 17.0
+ 13.8
+ 21.9
+ 12.S
+ 34-4
+ 9-4
+ 18.6
+ 6.0
+ 12.6
4.3
8.2
+ 1.4
6.8 4.6
+ 22.6 + 21.9 + 17.0 + 12.5 + 8.2

+ g.o + 2.1 1.6 3.9 5.4 4.6
+ 14.0 +
+ 17.0
+ 17.0
Sum
Diff.
Sum:
4-6
9-4
18.6
9.4
Table.
Sine Components,
9.9
9.0
+ 2.1
.5-4
3-9
1.6
+ 3-6 1.8 1.6

+ 14.4 + 6.0
+ 3-6
1.8
1.6
7.6
2.0
CHAPTER
XII.
PROBLEMS.
Many who
are efficient in carrying out standardized experi-
ments are not so
no
efficient in
instructions are given.
and
ability
demand
it
carrying out experiments for which

It is
very important to possess such
can be acquired only by attacking problems which
initiative
and
responsibility.
prepare a schedule of problems of this sort with
It is futile to
any expectation of
its
being adequate or complete; some of the
problems here given, however,
may prove
useful or suggestive.
Various reference books and periodicals should be consulted
most cases before proceeding with experimental work.
in
and the
familiarity with original sources
weight to different authorities
to
I.
go
is
ability to give
with the series
proper
highly desirable.
Given an over-compounded D.C. generator.

in parallel
Determine a shunt
produce a definite regulation
coils to
compounded or, say, 5 per cent, over compounded) for a cerand voltage. Determine how the result would be affected,
and the cause for it, if the generator is operated at the same speed,
(as
flat
tain speed
but at a different voltage (say 100 instead of 125 volts)
same voltage but

tion motor,
how
If the source of
different speed.
will its slip enter into the
power
is
or at the
an induc-
problem ?
Determine the relation between electromotive force and speed

in a separately excited generator and in a self-excited shunt generator.
3. Determine the relation between line voltage and speed in a
2.
shunt motor.
Operate two D.C. generators in parallel, first as shunt and then

compound machines, and ascertain how any desired division of the
load is obtained. In the case of compound generators, an equalizing
4.
as
bus-bar
is
necessary
connecting
the
two brushes
(one
on each
machine) to which the series coils are connected.

the field of a dynamo-electric machine by determining
5. Explore
the distribution of the flux in the air gap.
34S
PROBLEMS.
346
[Chap.
Determine the relation between the
6.
total flux set
up by the
field
windings of a dynamo-electric machine and the useful flux that passes
through the armature.
The
former to the
ratio of the
latter is the
dispersion, or leakage, coefficient.
Given a separately excited D.C. motor the armature of which
7.
is
Investigate and explain
supplied with current from a series generator.
the conditions affecting the direction of rotation of the generator and

the conditions under which the direction will periodically reverse.
motor should have brushes which
when
the direction of rotation
damage
The
commutator
the
reversed.
In a separately excited motor in which the armature resistance
8.
drop
is
will not
is
so large that the counter-electromotive force is practically

(as in certain watthour meters), determine the relation
negligible
between speed and

9. Design,
field
when
excitation
have made, and
test
line voltage is constant.
commutating interpoles for some
machine which commutates badly.

Find the relation of potential drop
10.
brushes of various materials and
slip
to current density
between
rings at usual speeds; also at
very high speeds.

II.
Analyze
12.
Make
all
the losses in a given machine or apparatus.
a study of the temperature rise in a machine or appa-
ratus by thermometer and by resistance measurements.
Given a
13.
load.
differential
D.C. motor which runs too fast at
Determine a shunt to go
in parallel
with the series
give a certain speed at no load and full load.
same shunt
will
full
coil that will
Determine whether the
do for a different speed, and report as to
why
it
will
or will not.
14.
Take some point concerning which you
find
your knowledge
inadequate, on some subject you have already studied, and
plan an experiment to settle the matter to your
own
if
possible
satisfaction.
Take a technical article which proves of interest (as the paper

some A. I. E. E. meeting) and investigate such points as
you can in the laboratory. The Digest of the Electrical World and the
15.
or papers of
Question
Box
of the Electric Journal, can be used to advantage as a
source of timely practical problems.
Given a patent specification and claims. Investigate the invenby experiment and study, and report on one or more of the following: (i) Its usefulness (from the standpoint of a possible user or
16.
tion
PROBLEMS.
XII.]
purchaser)
(2)
347
apparent novelty, including points which
its
differ-
from other methods or apparatus for securing

similar ends; (3) its operativeness without further invention. (To be
valid, a patent must be new, useful and operative.)
17. Determine the insulation resistance of a machine or line by
means of a voltmeter.
entiate this invention
18.
Make
19.
Study the electrolytic or "
for welding.
a study of a Tirrell or other voltage regulator.
The following
pail forge "
solution
may
method of heating rods
be used: 10
gal. water; | lb.

borax; 3^ lb, sal soda; i lb. salt. A D.C. dynamo of 200 to 300 volts
has one terminal connected to a submerged lead plate in the solution.
The
other terminal
is
connected to the rod or to a horizontal piece of
copper upon which the rod rests when contact
becomes heated when submerged,
if
is
desired.
The rod
the current flows in the proper
direction.
20.
Determine the torque of a machine by the
method of
electrical
McAllister, using a shunt motor as load ; see Standard
Handbook and
McAllister's Alternating Current Motors.

21. Investigate
various methods
for
obtaining a neutral on a
3-wire D.C. system.

22.
Operate two alternators in parallel and study the conditions
that determine the division of the load between the two machines.
Determine the characteristics of a high frequency alternator

and note the effect of lagging and leading currents upon the terminal
voltage. With condensers in parallel with the load, no field excitation
23.
may
be necessary.
Care
is
necessary in this test as there
is
danger of
excessive voltage.
24. Select
and use one or more methods for determining induc-
tance and capacity with a fair degree of accuracy.

25.
Connect
and the other
in series
two electromotive
forces, one alternating
direct (or alternating of a different frequency).
ure the combined voltage and determine the relation between
Measit and
the separate voltages.
Superpose in a conductor with resistance R an alternating curand a direct current I^ (or an alternating current of different
frequency). Determine the relative values of the copper loss {RI^
and RI') for each current alone and {RP) for the total current, I.
26.
rent
/,
Determine the relation between the
effective values of
/, I^
and L.
PROBLEMS.
348
[Chap.
Given a transformer with an open magnetic
27.
obsolete "
Hedgehog
" transformer.
circuit, as the
now
Investigate the transformer with
a view to bringing out the characteristic differences between
a transformer with a closed magnetic
it
and
Report on the relative
circuit.
advantages and disadvantages of the two types.
At one time
this
was much debated.
subject
28. Required to find at what frequency, current and voltage a
The
given transformer will give the highest efficiency.
voltage should
not exceed a certain specified value; the temperature rise should not
exceed the limit
by A.
set
I.
E. E. Standardization Rules ; assume that
any frequency, from say 20 to 125
cycles, is available.
Outline com-
method of procedure before making tests.

Make a comparison of loading-back methods for testing trans-
pletely the
29.
formers.
Make
30.
a general study of a series current transformer ;
a particular study of the accuracy of
its ratio at
make
different frequencies
and of phase errors when used with a wattmeter.

31. Determine the effect of different wave forms upon transformer
losses, regulation
and magnetizing current.
Study the
32.
effect of
wave form upon
circle
diagrams and other
vector diagrams.
Given a 2-phase 4-wire supply from two independent trans-
33.
formers.
Insert between the
two neutrals an additional source of
electromotive force of different frequency (or, direct current).
ure
all
voltages and construct a vector model.
of the inserted electromotive force to cause
What must be
all
Meas-
the value
voltages between line
wires to be equal (see 93, Exp. 7-A).

34.
Determine the variation
in the starting torque of
an induction
motor for different values of secondary resistance.

35. An induction motor was purchased for a certain frequency.
The
central station equipment has been
quency.
Can
this
motor be used?
Will any benefit come by changing
If so
its
changed
to a different fre-
what voltage
will be best?
3-phase primary from star to
delta or vice versa?

36. Test
an induction generator with condenser excitation.
method of obtaining polyphase from single-phase

means
of an induction motor ( 3, Exp. 7-A) and a similar
current by
method using a synchronous motor.
37. Test the
PROBLEMS.
XII.]
38.
Make
349
a study of devices for indicating synchronism and
of methods for synchronizing.

39. Construct a shunt for
range
it
an A.C. Wattmeter so as
to extend its
should be designed so as to be correct at different fre-
quencies.
40. Determine the losses of a machine by the retardation method
see Standard Handbook.
41.
Determine the hysteresis loss in different dielectrics.

up and test an electrolytic or a mercury arc rectifier.
Make a study of potentiometer methods for measuring alter-
42. Set
43.
nating currents and voltages.

44.
Make
comparison of the behavior of various types of
instruments at commercial frequencies and at high frequencies.

45.
storage
46.
Determine the current
efficiency
and energy
efficiency of a
cell.
Adapt the Ryan-Braun Tube
to the
measurement of power
particularly of small power.

47.
With an
oscillograph, study the behavior of fuses and circuit
breakers with D.C. and A.C. loads, inductive and non-inductive.

48.
Determine the instantaneous values of
resistance, for example,
of a lamp with alternating current, or with direct current at brief

intervals of time after the circuit
is
closed.
Determine the instantaneous values of flux in a transformer,

either indirectly (from instantaneous values of current and voltage)
49.
or directly by some special device; see Bulletin of the Bureau of

Standards, Vol. IV.,
50.
Make
p. 467.
a study of different methods and apparatus for measur-
ing one of the following quantities, with a view to determining their

relative advantages
and developing modifications of new methods:
(a) slip; (&) frequency; (c) speed; (d) phase; (e) form factor; (/)
wave form; (g) power factor; (h) reactive factor; (i) very small
(or large) alternating current, voltage or power.

51.
Make
a study of an interpole motor, repulsion motor, series
A.C. motor, or other particular machine.

52.
Make
a study of " concatenation," or other method of speed
control for induction motors.

53. Determine the wave form of alternating electromotive forces
and currents by means of the Pierce Analyzer ( iia, Exp. ii-A) and
by other methods.
INDEX.
Acyclic dynamo, 2
Arakawa,
on polyphase power
measurements, 230
on synchronous motors, 316
Admittance, 104, 115
Aging of transformer iron, 174
Alternators, armature reaction of, 94
auxiliary field winding, 69
characteristics of, 6272
components of magnetic flux in,
74
composite winding, 69
constant current, 67, 88
constant potential, 67, 88
design as affected by the steam
turbine, 62
determining efficiency of, 71
tion of non-harmonic alternating

currents, 182
Armature characteristic, of A. C.
generators, 69
Armature characteristic, of D. C.
generators, 23
Armature insulation, drying by shortcircuit current, 78
Armature reactions, demagnetizing
Adams,
A.,
C.
electromotive
force method for

characteristics
predetermining
of, 7S, 80-90
impedance ratio
Institute
rule
80
of,
regulation
for
of,
93
magnetomotive force method for

predetermining
of,
characteristics
75, 91
predetermining characteristics of,

73-101
regulation of, 66, 69
regulation at lower factors, 99
split-field method of testing, 98
synchronous impedance of, 79
synchronous reactance of, 80
tests at low power factors, 98
types defined, 63
variation of characteristics with
power
Aluminum
factor, 70
rectifier,
322
Ammeter, correction when used with

a wattmeter, 148
current transformers for, 149
connecting
when
methods
of
used with a wattmeter, 148
Ampere-turn method of testing alternators, 75
method for synchronous motors,
B.,
and
on vector representa-
cross-magnetizing
effect
of, 6
on alternator regulation, 73
on brush position, 6
effect on series characteristic, 9
in alternators, 74, 94
in D. C. generators, 19
effect
effect
in motors, 31
in synchronous motors,
local self-induction of
306
armature
conductors, 19
Armatures, closed coil, open coil, lap
or parallel winding, wave or
series winding, 3
function of, in generators, i
peripheral speed of, 6
resistance of, 12, 42, 76
Asynchronous machine, 62, 29s

Automatic synchronizers, 313
Auto-transformers, 134-136
advantages of, 133
as boosters, 135
for starting induction motors, 261
induction regulators as, 253
phase relation of primary and
secondary currents, 13s
step-up and step-down, 135, 136
Auxiliary field winding, 69
Average value of a sine wave, 146
Balance coil, 13s

Balanced load, 197
Bedell,
F.,
on separation
of
iron
on transformer regulation,
167,
losses, 176
193
307
Analysis of complex waves, 331
Apparent power, 113
Bedell and Crehore, on equivalent resistance and inductance, 119

35'
INDEX.
Bedell and Crehore, on effective and
average values of a sine wave,
146
on current locus when resistance
is varied in an inductive circuit,
123,
288
on three-voltmeter method of
measuring power, 118
Bedell and Ryan, on synchronous
motors, 316
Bedell and Tuttle, on the effect of
iron in distorting alternating current, 44, 182
Bedell and Steinmetz, on reactance,
115
Behrend, B. A., on circle diagram for
induction motors,
Behrend, B. A., alternator regulation,
75, 97, 100
split field method of testing, 98
Belt losses, 55
Berg, E. J., harmonics in alternating
currents, 217
Berson, S., on harmonic analysis, 339
Blondel, A., alternator regulation, 100
loading back method, 56
on polyphase power, 240
Brush positions, in generators, 6, 9
in motors, 31
Burt, A., polyphase power factor, 223
Capacity, circuits with, 120, 121
Cascade operation of induction
tors,
mo-
277
Characteristics of alternators, 62-101

armature, 65, 69
electromotive force method for
determining, 73-96
external, 65, 67, 88
full-load saturation curve, 65-67,
77,
89
magnetomotive force method for

determining, 73-96
no-load saturation curve, 65, 66,
77, 89
predetermination of, 73-101
Characteristics of compound generators, 13-26
armature, 17, 23
compound,
20, 21
17, 21, 22
full-load saturation curve, 26
no-load saturation curve, 14
differential,
series,
17,
21,
23
shunt, 17, 18, 21

Characteristics of D.C. motors, 27-40
351
Characteristics of D.C. Motors, com-
pound, 37, 38
differential, 37, 38
series, 39, 40
shunt, 37, 38
Characteristics of frequency changers,
291-294
Characteristics
of induction
genera-
of
induction
motors,
of
series
298-303
tors,
Characteristics
268, 281
Characteristics
generators,
S-12
external series,
7, 8,
magnetization curve,
s,
total series, 8, 9
Characteristics
of
shunt
generators,
14-20
armature, 17, 23
external shunt, 17, 18
full-load saturation curve, 26
no-load saturation curve, 14
total shunt, i!s, 19
Characteristics
of
verters, 327-330
synchronous
con-
'
Characteristics of synchronous motors,
314-31S
Charters and Hillebrand, on capacity
of induction motors, 279
Circle diagram, for circuits with resistance and reactance, 123-7
for constant potential transferers, 179-igs
for frequency changers, 292
for induction generators, 296, 300
for induction motors, 278-290
for synchronous motors, 320
Circular mils, s
Closed coil armature, 3
Close regulation, 66
Coefficient of self induction, 103
Coil voltages, 3
Coils, polarity tests of transformer,
III, 132-134, 142-143
Commutator, 3
Commutation, line or diameter
of,
Commutating poles, 33
Compensated winding, 33
Compensator,
135
starting induction
261, 266
for
motors,
Composite field, 69
Composite transmission, 245
Composite currents, 347, 348
Compound
generators, 13-26, 345

characteristics of, see Characteristics
INDEX.
352
Compound
generators, efficiency of, s8

uses of, 4
Compound motors, 27-61
Condenser excitation of induction generator, 297

Condensers for starting single-phase
motors, 267
Conductance, 115
of parallel circuits,
Constant
120
losses, 47
Converter, synchronous, see Synchronous converter

Copper economy of various systems,
220
Copper
Diametrical 6-phase connection,

Differential generator,
of,
22
Differential motor, equivalent

excitation, 59
and motors, 45-49,

57
in induction motors, 272, 275,
284
in transformers, 129, 151, 161,
16s, 220-221
Core losses, in transformers, 129, 151,
155-158, I73> 174
Cosine method, of measuring power
factor, 225
Cotterill, belt losses, SS
Counter-electromotive
force,
in
a
motor, 28-31, 34, 50
in a synchronous motor, 305
Crehore, A. C, see Bedell and
Cross-magnetizing flux, in alternain generators
tors, 74, 95
in generators, 6
Current, apparatus for obtaining con-
stant, 126
in a D. C. circuit, 103
.in an A. C. circuit, 103, 115, 123
method of adjustment, 10
per phase, 212

Currents, addition of alternating, 201-
202
Current locus, when resistance is
varied in an inductive circuit,
123, 125-126, 187, 190-192
for induction motor, 278
for synchronous motor, 320
Current ratio, for converters, 323
Cycle, 62
of hunting in synchronous
motors, 309
Delta connection, 197, 206-208
Delta voltage, 204
Derived neutral, 326
Diameter of commutation, 6
Damping
shunt
speed and torque of, 36

test of, 59
uses of, 4
Direction of rotation, effect on picking up of shunt machine, 1
Dispersion coefficient, 346
Double current generators, 322
Double delta connection of 6-phase
circuits, 211
Double T Connection of 6-phase
circuits,
losses, in alternators, 72
211
characteristics
211
Double transformation, 244

Drying armature insulation by shortcircuit current, 78
Durand, W. L., on rating of synchronous converters, 323

Dynamo, see Generator
Dynamotors, 321
Eddy
current loss, in generators and

motors, 46, 50-53
in transformers, 173-176
Effective value of a sine wave 105,
146
Efficiency of alternators, 71
of generators and motors, 41-61
of transformers, i66, 178
Electrolytic welding, 347
Electromotive force, how generated,
I, 2, 28
method of alternator testing, 75,
80-90
methed for synchronous motors,

306, 316, 320
non-sinusoidal, 121, 122
of self induction, 107
Electromotive forces, addition of, in
a series circuit, 109, 114
addition of, in polyphase circuits,
199-201, Z13-214
Electrical degree, 105
Equivalent inductance, 119
Equivalent reactance, 150
Equivalent resistance, 119, 150, 159160, 271, 272

Equivalent sine wave, 105
Equivalent
single-phase
quantities,
211-213
Even harmonics, 342
Everest, A. R., on transformer regulation, 193
INDEX.
Excitation
see
Char-
Generators, asynchronous
chronous, 62
see
Char-
brush position, 6
characteristic,
acteristics
External
characteristics,
acteristics
see
characteristics,
Characteristics
181
O. J., on rating of converters 323

Field compounding curve, see Characteristics (armature)
definition of, 23
Field magnets, i, 4
Fischer-Hinnen, on wave analysis, 339
Ferguson,
dynamometers and the measurement of power, 41

Fleming, J. A., on wave analysis,
Flather,
339
Flux, magnetic, 2
to
electromotive
force,
144
factor,
effect
definition
on iron
maximum
146
176
efficiency,
predetermining
homo-
57
alternator
acteristics
definition of, 26
current,
in, 6,
see Efficiency
loading back, 55
number of poles in, 27
study of, i-s
tests on polyphase, 70
torque in, 27, 28
Gilbert, unit defined, 16
Guilbert, on alternator regulation, loa
Harmonic analysis, 339

Harmonics in delta and
star connec-
217-219
Harrison, J., on wave analysis, 339
tions,
Hedgehog transformer, 130

Henderson and Nicholson, on regu-
19
Homopolar dynamo, 2
Hopkinson, on motor testing, 56
Housman, R. H., on separation
of
losses in a motor, 50
relation to speed, 62, 6s

Friction and windage, law of, 47
in series motors, 61
Full-load saturation curve, see Char-
armature reactions
of,
I,
alternators, 100

on regulation of alternators, 100
Frequency, best frequency for different machines, 64
changers, 291-294
effect on exciting current, 153
effect on transformer losses, 156
Gauss, 16
Generators, alternating
Alternators
efficiency
fields of,
Hobart and Punga, on regulation of
characteristic!!, 91
24
Characteristics
Henry, unit of
of,
losses,
Fourier's series, 331

Franklin and Esty, on acyclic
polar dynamos, 3
on
on
see
acteristic,
lation of alternators, 100

self induction, 108
Herdt, L. A., on regulation of alternators, 100
unit of, 16
Flux density, see Saturation
in transformers, 139, 158
Form
compounding by added turns, 2

compounding by armature char
constant current, 127
direct current, 1-26
Faraday's disk dynamo, z

Faraday's principle, i, 107, 133, 144,
relation
syn-
istics
see
Characteristics
shunt
and
characteristics of, see Character-
External revolving field, 63

External series characteristics,
External
353
see
Houston, E. J., on wave analysis, 339

Hutchinson, on motor testing, 56
Hutchinsin, C. T., on the induction
motor for traction, 257
Hysteresis, coefficient of, 174
effect of aging on, 174
separation from eddy current loss
in motors, 50-53
separation
from eddy current
loss in transformers, 175
variation with speed and fliix, 46
Hysteretic angle of advance, 182
Impedance, 103, us
Impedance ratio, 80, 165
Impedance triangle, 109
Impedance voltage, 162
Inductance, 103-121
calculation by impedance method,
116
INDEX.
354
Inductance,
calculation
by
voltmeter method, 117
three-
calculation by wattmeter
method
116
Induction generator, 62
test of,
295-303
diagram for, 296, 300

excitation of, 297, 301
uses of, 297
Induction regulators, 230-236, 324
circle
Induction motors, 257-277

" added " current in, 283
' added " losses in, 283
as frequency changer, 293
and phase
252
auto-transformers
for
starting,
261
best frequency for, 64
cascade operation of, 277
as potential regulator
shifter,
diagram for, 278-290

compensator for starting, 266
condensers for starting, 267
copper losses in, 272
circle
equivalent single-phase resistance

of, 271
graphical construction for efficiency of, 287
graphical construction for power
factor of, 286
graphical construction for slip of,
285, 286
leakage coefficient of, 290
leakage factor of, 290
leakage reactance of, 289
multispeed, 276
output,
phase
measurement
of, 269,
270
Induction motors, speed control by

varying frequency, 277
speed control by varying poles,
277
squirrel cage secondary, 260
starting as repulsion motor, 263
starting compensator for, 261
starting polyphase, 261
starting single-phase, 262
starting torque of, 260
stator of, 257
structure of, 257
phase-wound secondary, 260
tandem operation of, 277
torque of, 274, 285
torque maximum of, 260
variable speed, 276
Inductor generator, i, 62, 63
Insulation tests, of transformers, 177
Internal revolving field alternators, 63
Internal
shunt
characteristic,
see
Characteristics
Interpole motor, 33
Inverted converter" 322, 329
Iron, aging of, in transformers,
Kapp, G., on motor testing, 50, 56

Karapetoff, V., on heat runs of transformers, 178
on motor testing, 56
on alternator regulation, 100
Kelley and Spoehrer, on variation of
transformer core loss, 175
Kennelly, A. E., on temperature coefficient of copper, II
on wave analysis, 339

S. M., on wave
Kintner,
splitters for starting sirigle-
phase, 264, 266

predetermination of
130
analysis,
339
Kirchhoff's law, 200
characteris-
tics of, 278-290

primary winding of, 259
resistance measurements of, 271
rotating field, 258
rotor of, 257
secondary losses in, 274
secondary resistance of, 289
secondary resistance for starting,
262, 265
separation of losses in, 284
shading coils for starting singlephase, 263
single-phase, 266, 276
slip of, 62, 259, 274
speed of, 259

speed control by secondary resistance, 277
Lamps
for synchronizing, 310, 313

Langsdorf, A. S., on wave analysis,
339
Lap winding, 3
Leakage coefficient,
290, 346
Leakage factor, 290
Leakage reactance, 129, 163, 289
Lincoln, P. M, on wave analysis,
339
Line current of 3-phase system, 205
Line drop in polyphase system, 202204
Line of commutation, 6
Line voltage of 3-phase system, 204
Lloyd, M. G., on iron losses, 176
Load
losses, defined, 46, 72

in transformers, 161
INDEX.
Load
losses,
Institute
rule
for esti-
mating, 72
Loading back, a generator, 53
a transformer, 177
Local armature reaction, 74, 306
Long shunt, compound generator, 21
355
Motors, compound wound, 4

copper losses in, 46
damage
of,
differential
by field discharge, 35
wound, 4
effect of breaking field of,
when
running, 34
by the measurement
of losses, 41-61
efficiency of,
Magnetic flux, 2, 16
Magnetic leakage in transformers, 137
Magnetic shunt, potential regulator,
252
Magnetic units, 16
Magnetization curve, see Character-
interpole, 33
iron losses in, 46
operation and speed characteristics
Magneto-generators, 4
Magnetomotive force method of
al-
ternator testing, 75, gi

method for synchronous motors,
307
Maximum
efficiency, in motors, 49, 56

in induction motors, 282
in transformers, 16,7
Maximum torque, in induction mo-
tors, 260, 282

Maxwell, unit defined, 16
McAllister, A. S., on changing from
3-phase to 6-phase converters,

211
on equivalent single-phase quantities, 212
on measuring torque, 40, 347
on power factor of unbalanced
systems, 223
on synchronous motors, 316, 320
on 2- to 6-phase transformation,
248
Mercury arc
rectifier,
322
Mesh-connected
systems, 196, 197,211

Mesh method of representing alternating currents and electromotive
forces,
216
Metcalfe, G. R., on alternating current potential regulators, 252
Michelson, A. A., on wave analysis,

339
Monocyclic transformation, 246
Moody, W. S., on alternating current
feeder regulators, 252
Mordey, W. M., on divided armature
method of alternator testing, 98
on separation of losses in motors,
SO
Motor generators, 54, 321
Motors, armature reactions in, 31
asynchronous, 62
best frequency for induction, 64
best frequency for series, 64
brush position in, 31
of,
27-40
rotation losses in, analyzed, 50

separation of losses in, 51-54
series wound, 4
istics
shunt wound, 4
speed control of, 32
speed equation of, 30
speed of shunt, 31
speed regulation of, 37
stopping of, 34
synchronous, see Synchronous
torque in, 28, 30
Motor generator, efficiency of, 54
Motor starters, automatic release, 34
multiple switch, 34
Multispeed induction motors, 276
Multipliers, for ammeters, 149
for voltmeters, 149
for wattmeters, 149
Neutral position of brushes, 6

Noeggerath, acyclic homopolar dynamos, 3
No-load saturation curve, see Characteristics
Non-inductive circuit, 103

Notation for polyphase circuits, 215
0-curves for synchronous motor, 315

Oersted, unit defined, 16
harmonics, 331
Open coil armature, 3
Open delta in 3-phase system,
Odd
197,
209
Pail forge, 347
Parallel operation of generators, 345
Parallel winding, 3
Peripheral speed, of armatures, 6
Permutators, 322
Perry, J., on wave analysis, 339
Phase splitters, 264, 266
Phase wound induction motors, 260
Pierce, C. A., on harmonic analyzer,
339, 349
INDEX.
356
Polygon method of representing alternating currents, 207, 216

Percentage of saturation,, 16
Phase shifters, induction regulators
as, 254
Polyphase currents, 196-221, 222-240
Polyphase generators,, 70
Polyphase systems, 196-241
.
addition of currents in, 201

addition of electromotive forces
in, 199
copper economy
of,
220
current and voltage per phase fn,
212
equivalent
single-phase
quanti-
ties in, 211
harmonics in, 217

line drop in, 202
mesh
method
Power
Power
current, iij
factor, 103, 104, 114

by sine method, 237by, tangent method,- 237
for equivalent sine waves, 105
for non-sine waves, 226
polyphase, 223, 225, 232, 237
Predetermination, of alternator characteristics, 73-101

Problems, 345
Prony brake, 41, 266, 268
Puffer, testing of motors by opposition method, 56
>
representing
216
methods of connecting, 196
polygon method of representing
A. C. quantities
in,
A. C'.-quantities. in, 216 i

6-phase systems, 210
uniform flow- of power.ip, S41
Polyphase transformatiop, '241.-249
Polyphase wattmeter, 229
Porter, on radial method of representing alternating current quantities, 216
.it
Potential regulators, 250-256
use of induction motors as, 252
induction regulators, 251
magnetic shunt, 252
polyphase, 255
single-phase, 252
step-by-step type, 251
use as transformers, 252
Potier, on motor testing, 56
Power, definition of, 116
in a non-inductive resistance, 113
in an inductive circuit, 113-
by
three-ammeter
method, 118
measurement by three-voltmeter
method, 118
of,
in
Quadrature relation of current and

electromotive force, 106
Quarter-phase 2-phase sysieoj, 196'
207
in,
power factor of, 223

radial method of representing
measurement
of
A. C. quantities
measurement
Power, proof- of wattmeter methods

of measuring power, 240
three-phase, 205, 206
two wattmeter method for any
3-wire system, 228
polyphase
systems, 222-240
n wattmeter method of measuring, 228

n-i wattmeter method of measuring, 226
one wattmeter method of measuring 3-phase power, 233
Radial method of represeivting alternating currents and electromotive

-forces, 216
,-
Reactance, 103, 115

-v..
effect of frequency .on," i^l-jr. 122
by impedance method,
ijfi
..
of a circuit coii^taining inductance

and capacity, 121
of a series -circuit, 109
.^
by three-voltmeter method, -i-*?.
by wattmeter method, ij6
Reactance drop, in polyphase systems, 203
,, ^
in transformers, 129
,
in alternators, 6t, 74, 8o-g6

Reactance method of testing alternators,
see
Electromotive
force
method
Reactive factor, 114
Rectifiers, 322
Regulation, Institute rule on computation of, 93
of alternators, (>(i, 67, 69, 71, 73,
82-84, 87, 99-100
of generators, 19, 22
of motors, 32
of transformers, 167, 193
_
of transmission lines, loi
.
Reist and Maxwell, on multispeed inmotors,.
duction
277
Reluctance, 2
Repulsion motor, 263
Residual magnetism, effect on picking
up of series machine, 8
.
..
,,
INDEX.
Residual magnetism, effect on picking
up of shunt machine, is
Resistance, 109, iis
Resistance' drop, in alternators, 66
73, 76, 79, 80, 81-83, 86
in generators, 8, 19, 24"
potential method, 11
by substitution, 12
Resonance, current, 121
121
14-9
Roessler, on form factor, 146

on influence of form factor- on
iron losses, 176"
Rotary converter, see Synchrolious
converter.
Rotation losses, 47, Jo, 60
Rotor, 257
and 'Hellmend,
motors, 288
on
Rovlre
of
ings, 33
synchronous motors, 316
effect
effect
13,
of,
of,
on compound-
14
on regulation of com-
pound generator, 22
on regulation of shunt
generator, 20
effect of,
effect of,
7
effect
of,
on series characteristic,
on
speed
of
series
motor, 46
Saturation curve, 14
uses of, 4
Series motors, 4, 39-40, 60-61
Series turns, determination of, 24-26
Shading coils, for starting singlephase motors, 263
Sheldon, Mason and Hausman, on
synchronous motor, 319
Short shunt connected generator, 21
Shunt generators, 13-20
armature reactions in, 19
compounding
of,
23-24, 26
direction of .rotation of, 15
uses
41-59
transformation, 243
Secondary losses, in induction motors,
274
Secondary resistance, for starting
of,
4,
13
in, 31-32
brush position of, 31-32
efficiency of, 41-46
operation of, 27-40
speed characteristics of, 37-40
speed control of, 32-84
stopping of, 34
Shunt turns, determination of, 25
Sine method, of measuring power factor, 226, 237
Single-phase currents, 102-122
Single-phase induction motors, 262,
276
starting as repulsion motor, 263
starting with phase splitter, 264
266
starting with shading coils, 263
Six-phase circuits, 210-211
Slip,
Saturatiofi factor, 16
Scott, C. F., on two- to three-phase
duction motors, 262, 265
64
Shunt motors, 27-61

armature reactions
alternators, 91, 100
ing,
generators
Series
characteristic
of compound
generators, see Characteristics
Series generators, 1-12.
armature reactions, 6
brush position, 6
characteristics of, see Character-
induction
on devolving field, alternators, 63

Ryan, H. J., on compensated wind-
Saturation,
in
in transformers, 175-176
Series A. C. circuits, 102-1Z2
Series A. C. motors, best frequency
efficiency of,
Runge, C, on v/zve analysis, '339

Rushmore, D. B., on regulation
on
losses,
^regulation of, ig; 20.
of
and motors, 50-54
istics
Reversing motor, 346

Revolving armature, 2, 63
Revolving field, 2, 63, 258, 276
Ring connected 2-phase system, 196
Robinson, L. T., on electric measurements with current and potential traflsformei-s,
Separation
for,
Resistance drop, in motors, 29, 31

in polyphase systems, 202
in transformers, 129, 162, 165,
168-169, 185
Resistance measurements, by fall-of-
voltage,
357
in-
in
induction motors,
29 S
Smith,
S.
tion,
99
P.,
259,- 274,
on alternator regula-
Space degrees, 106

Sparking at brushes, 6, 22
Specht, H. C, on circle diagram for
induction motors, 289
358
INDEX.
Specht,
C, on speed control of induction motors, 277
Speed control, of D. C. motors, 32
of induction motors, 277
Speed equation of motors, 30
Speed regulation, 37
Speed, relation to frequency, 65
Split-field method of alternator testing, 98
Synchronous commutator, 322

Synchronous generators, see Alternators
Synchronous impedance,
260
Static torque, 29
Stator, of induction motor, 257
Steam turbine, influence on design of
alternators, 62
Steinmetz, C. P., on choice of frequency, 64

on definition of a balanced polyphase system, 197
on form of external alternator
characteristics, 89
on hysteresis exponent, 174
on
monocyclic transformation,
247
on separation of iron losses, 176
on topographic method, 198, 199
on wave form, 217
Steinmetz and Bedell, on reactance,
IIS
Stratton,
S.
W., on wave analysis,
339
Stray power, 47
method of motor testing, 41-61
Susceptance, 115
of parallel circuits, 120
Swenson and Frankenfield, on motoi
testing, 56
Symmetrical polyphase system, 196
Synchronous converters, 321-330

current ratios of, 323
induction generators with, 301
inverted converter, 322, 329
rating of, 323
synchronizing of, 310, 311, 327

voltage control of, 324, 325
voltage ratios of, 322
Synchronizers, automatic, 313
Synchronizing, methods for, 310, 327
Synchronous booster, 324
80,
306,
Synchronous machine, definition, 62

Synchronous motors, 304-320
armature reaction of, 306
auxiliary winding for starting,
Split-pole converter, 324
Squirrel cage winding, 260

Star-connected 2-pliase system, 196
3-phase system, 197, 204
Star current, 205
Star voltage, 20s
Starting boxes, 34
Starting torque, of induction motors,
79,
316
304
320
circle loci of,
counter-electromotive force
305
current locus of, 319
electromotive force method
in,
of
treating, 306, 316, 320
hunting
of, 308
induction generators with, 301
local reactance in, 306
magnetomotive
force,
method of
treating, 307
maximum power
O-curves
power
of,
of,
319
of,
315
307
pulsating power and torque, 308

starting with alternating current,
309
synchronizing
of, 310, 311,
synchronous impedance of, 306,

316
synchronous reactance of, 316
synchroscopes for, 313
torque of, 307
v-curves of, 314
Synchronous reactance, 80, 316
Synchronous speed, 259
Synchronous watt, 29
Synchroscopes, 313
Tandem
tors,
operation
of induction
mo-
277
T-connected transformers, delta equivalent of, 249

for 2- to 3-phase transformation, 243
star equivalent of, 249
voltage and current relations, 248
T-connection of 3-phase circuits, 197.
208
Tangent method of measuring power
factor, 22S, 232, 237
Teaser circuit of monocyclic system, 247
Temperature coefficients of copper, 11
formula
Temperature
corrections,
for, 10
INDEX.
Temperature of transformers, see
Transformers
Temperature rise, computed from
change in resistance, ii
Third harmonic, in delta-connections,
217
in generator coils, 219
in star-connections, 218
Thompson,
S.
on regulation of
P.,
alternators, 100
Thomson, Sir William, on
wave an339
Three-phase systems, 197
delta and star currents and voltages, 204
measurement of power in, 228
230, 233
power in, 205
transformation to 2-phase, 243
Thury system of direct current power
transmission, 221
Time degrees, 106
Tirrell regulator, 13, 70, 251
Topographic method, 199, 203
Torda-Heymann, on regulation of
alternators, 100
Torque, expressions for, 28
electrical measurement of, 40
how created, 28
in a generator, 27
in a motor, 30
in compound motor, 35
in differential motor, 36
in induction motor, 274, 280, 28s
in series motor, 39, 40
in
single-phase and polyphase
machinery, 197
in synchronous motor, 307
static, 29
Total characteristics (see Characteralysis,
istics), 7, 8, 19
E, B., on
the effect of iron

in distorting wave form, 182
Tuttle,
Transformer,
adjustment of voltage
in testing, 172
aging of iron
in,
all-day efficiency,
130
167
auto-transformers, 134-136
circle diagram, 179-195
circulating current test, 144
computation of efficiency, i66
constant current, 127
constant current from constant
potential, 190
359
Transformer, copper
loss, 163
core loss, 155
density
current
in, 140
current ratio of, 143
design data, 139-142
electromotive
force
and flux,
144, 146
efficiency, 139, 178
equivalent circuits of, 186-192
equivalent leakage reactance of,
150
equivalent primary quantities, 187
equivalent resistance of, 150, 159,
160
exciting current, 137, 151, 153,
-154
flux density in, 140
form-factor, effect
general discussion
of,
176
179-189
harmonics due to hysteresis, 182
of,
heat runs, 177

heating of, 130
hysteresis in, see Hysteresis
insulation tests, 177
impedance, 163
impedance ratio, i6s
impedance voltage, 162
instruments for testing, 171
load losses in, 161
loading back method, 177

losses in, 129
magnetic densities in, 141
magnetic leakage in, 137

magnetizing current in, 134, 180
maximum
efficiency of, 167

net and gross cross-section, 140
normal current and voltage in, 173
open circuit test, 151
operation and study of, 128-149
phase of primary and secondary
electromotive forces and currents, 134
polarity of coils, 132, 133
polarity test by alternating current, 142
polarity
test
by direct
.current,
143
polyphase, 131, 210
potential ratio of, 143
ratio of transformation
of, 133
reactance drop in, 129
reactance of, 163
regulation of, 139, 167, 193, 194
resistance drop in, 129
resistance of, 163
secondary quantities in terms of
primary, 187
INDEX.
36o
Transformer, separation of hysteresis

and eddy current losses in, 173
relative accuracy when applied to inductive and capacity
Vectors,
circuits,
131
short-circuit test, 160
series,
122
step-up and step-down, 128

systems of polyphase connections,
significance of 105
Voltage adjustment, 10
Voltage ratio of converters, 322
210
T-connection
Voltage per phase, 212

Voltmeters, damage due to induced
test
by the
of,
243
method
of
electromotive force, 12
losses,
130^178
total voltage drop in, 194
tub type, 131
types of, 130
losses
in,
variation
of
core
156-158, 173-176
voltage and current transformation, 128
volts per turn, 141
weight of copper and iron in, 141
Transmission lines, regulation of, loi
Two-phase system, 196
laboratory supply, 201
power factor, 225
Unipolar dynamo, 2
Variable speed induction motors, 276
V-connection,
of
3-phase circuits,
197, 209
of auto-transformers for starting
motors, 248
V-curves, of synchronous motor, 314
Vectors, addition and subtraction of,
213-216
direction of rotation of, 105
for representing admittances, 118
representing currents and
for
electromotive forces, 105
for representing impedance, resistance and reactance, 109
for
representing
non-harmonic
quantities, 122
methods of connecting when used

with a wattmeter, 148
multipliers for, 149
power consumed
in,
148
Waters, W. L., on induction generators, 298

Wattless current, 115
Wattless power, 107
Wattmeters, correction for power
consumed in instrument, 151

errors in, 146-149
multipliers for, 149
n wattmeter method of measuring
power, 228, 240
n-i wattmeter method of measuring power, 226, 240
negative reading of, in 3-phase
power measurements, 233
one wattmeter methods of measuring 3-phase power, ^33
polyphase, 229
two wattmeter method of measuring power, 228
Wave
Wave
analysis, 331
winding, 3
Welding,
electrolytic,
347
Whitehead and Grondall, on synchronous commutators, 3224

Woodbridge, on converters, 211
Workman, on motor testing, 56, 61
Y-connected, see Star-connected

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BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE

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ftenrg HI. Sage

Cornell University Library

and alternating current manual; wi

3 1924 004 406 199

Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

the United States on the use of the

Analytical and Graphical

By Frederick Bedell and Albert

Translated into German by Alfred H. Bucherer

Theorie der Wechselstrome: in analytischer und

Principles of the Transformer

Laboratory Manual of Physics and Applied

Experiments with Alternating Currents

DIRECT AND ALTERNATING

OF THE THEORY OF ELECTRICAL APPARATUS

PROFESSOR OP APPLIED ELECTRICITY IN CORNELL UNIVERSITY

SECOND EDITION, ENLARGED AND REVISED

VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

LONDON: CONSTABLE &

Copyright, 1909 and 191

First Edition, September, 1909

Second Edition (enlarged), July, 1911 ; (revised), December, igii

first edition was issued under the title

The new era printing cohpany

nating current apparatus, selected with reference to their practical

While the book has been pre-

usefulness and instructive value.

pared primarily for students,

manual; the author, however, has not

conducting tests but has

directed the reader's attention to the principles that underlie the

various experiments and to the significance of the results.

thus combined with

application and that the application

broader bearings are understood.

material has been systematically arranged and

be found useful for reference or as a text,

the text proper are excluded specialized tests and those

that are of limited application or require unusual testing facilities,

such tests being described in the appendices to the several

These appendices thus permit a

of the details of the tests

and various modifications than

could be included to advantage in the text proper.

general are those that can be performed in any college laboratory.

attempt has been

on the contrary every

matter of secondary importance and that which

technical or pedagogical value.

effort the student

problems requiring a continually increas-

ing initiative and originality.

for obtaining certain desired results and, in the

case of a student, for obtaining a knowledge of testing methods,

the ability to conduct such tests with full instructions given

this point the exclusive use of standard-

ized tests should be avoided.

electricity serve best

The student who