Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
FQR
No R
Published by BM N3foundation
Dhaka,Bangladesh.
TABLE O FCONTENTS
Contents
Introduction to textiles
Flow chartoftextile processing
Textile fibres
Yarn and
yarn m anufaeturing
Propertiesoftextile fibres
Prim ary propertiesoftextilefibres
Secondary propertiesoftextilefibres
Classification oftextile fibres
Fibre identification
Burning test
Lightmicroscopytest
Chemicalsolubility test
Typesoffibres
Classification ofyarn
Typesofcottonyarn
Blowroom section
ProcessIayoutoftheyarn m anufacturing system
w ith a modern blowroom Iine
Carding section
Doubling and draw ing
Com bing section
SimplexorRovingfram e
Cotton spinningsystem
Spinning machine
Autoconer
Yarn conditioningand packing
Fanc# Yarns
Fancyyarn
Coloureffects
Structure effects
Lustre effects
Page no.
002
003
004
004
004
006
011
O12
012
014
018
021
O21
021
024
025
028
030
030
032
034
035
36
039
040
041
041
041
044
046
O47
050
051
051
051
051
052
Fabric and
Fabric m anufacturing
W oven fabrics and
W eaving technology
Typesoffabric
Fabricclassifitationataglanee
W oven fabries
Proeessflow to manufaduringwoven fabric
W eavingpreparation
W inding
W indingprocess
Tensiondevice
Typesofpackages
Pirnwinding
W inding machine
Precisionwinding
Problem
W arp preparation
W arping
DirectorHighspeedwarping
IndirectorSectionwarping
W arping machine
SizingorSlashing
Sizing machine
Drawing-in andTying-in
Fundamentalsofweaving
W eaving principle
Basicw eavingm otions
W arp Iet-off
W arpshedding
W eftinsertionorpicking
Yarnaccumulatorsorfeeders
Beat-up
Take-up
Auxiliaryweavingmotions
Fabricwidth
W eavingmachine orLoom
Shuttleweavingmachines
Shuttlelessweaving machines
Projectileweavingmachine
Rapierweaving machine
Airjetweavingmachine
Water-jetweavingmachine
M ultiphaseweaving machine
Fabricsel
vages
GreyfabricinspectionIines
053
053
055
056
057
057
057
058
059
063
069
071
072
072
073
074
074
076
077
079
083
086
089
093
093
095
095
096
096
098
100
102
103
103
105
106
107
108
110
111
113
114
115
117
Fabric structure
and design
lntrodurtiontofabricstruetureanddesign
W oven fabricspecification
Fabricweightcalculation
Yarn consumption calculation
Partsofa complete desi
gn
Drafting
System orclassi
fication ofdrafting
Basicweavesofwovenfabric
Plain weave
M ain featuresofplainweave
Classification ofplain c10th
Derivativesofplainweave
Rib weave
M attweave
Ornam entation ofplain (10th
Twillw eave
Classification oftwillweave
Derivativesoftwillweave
Zig-zagtwillweave
Herringbonetwillweave
Diamond design
Diaperdesign
Brokentwillweave
Re-arranged twillweave
Stepped twillweave
Elongated twillweave
Com binedtwillweave
Shadedtwillweave
Advantagesand disadvantagesoftwill
Satin weave
Classificationofsatin weave
Construdion principle ofsatin weave
Derivativesofsatin weave
Crepeweaves
Corkscrew weaves
Shaded weaves
Fancy design orstructureoffabrits
Huckabackweaves
M ockIeno weaves
Honeycomb weave
Distorted thread e/ect
Cord weave
Spongeweave
118
119
121
121
123
125
129
131
134
135
135
136
137
138
141
144
146
147
153
154
159
162
165
167
168
173
175
179
183
186
187
188
189
194
195
201
202
205
205
209
211
217
220
227
229
231
235
238
241
241
242
242
244
244
247
248
248
251
253
256
256
261
263
265
267
Braid fabrics
268
M anufacturing principle
269
End uses
270
M ulticom ponentfabrics
271
Bonded fabrics
27 1
Lam inated fabrics
272
Quilted fabrics
273
Leno orGauze fabrics
277
W eaving principle and end uses
278
Lappetand Sw ivelfabrics
280
Lappetw eaving principle
280
Featuresofsw ivelw eave
281
Denim fabrics
283
Featuresand raw m ateriaisofdenim fabric
283
W arp preparation
285
W oven pile fabrics
288
W eftpile fabrics
288
W arp pilefabrics
292
The w ire m ethod
292
The doubIe-cloth orface-to-face m ethod 295
The slacktension pile orterryw eave
305
Flocked fabrics
313
Tufling:Tufted carpet
315
Knitted fabricsand
Knitting technology
Introductionandhistoricalbackgroundofknitting
Generalterm srelated to knitting technology
M echanicalprinciplesofknittingtechnology
Basicelem entsofknitting
The need1es
The cam s
The sinkers
M ethodsofyarn feeding
M ethodsofform ingyarn into needle Ioops
Stitch form ation on bearded needles
Loop formation on Iatch needles
Knitting action ofcom pound needles
W eftknitting m achines
M ain featuresofa knitting m achine
Classification ofweftkni
tting m achines
Flatknitting m achine
Circularkni
tting m achine
Fabric m achine
Garment-length m achines
Single-jerseycircularknittingmachine
322
326
337
337
337
341
344
345
346
347
349
351
354
354
354
356
358
361
362
363
369
377
380
383
383
385
389
392
394
Identificationofsingleand doublejersey
395
396
396
398
403
411
413
Ornamentationofsingle-jerseyfabric
Single-jerseyderivatives
Double-jerseyderivativesbasedon rib
413
414
421
Derivativesofinterlockstructure
427
W eftknittedjacquarddesign
Single-jerseyjacquard design
Double-jerseyjacquarddesign
437
437
441
t.,,;
yy
l
))
%)
lt
'
t
)
(
t
y
Sweaterknitting
Featuresofthesweaterknittingmachine
446
447
448
4s3
t
l
@
<41
'
t
7
'
Theset-up
453
Tubularfabric
Singlebed fabric
Ribfabrics
Needle-bed racking
454
455
456
459
Stitchorlooptransferinweftknitting
461
The welt
477
Garmentpanelseparation
480
Shaping during knitting
482
Shapeformation
483
Shaping orfashioningfrequenciescalculation
487
Linking operation
491
Knitted fabricfaults
494
Calculation relatedtoweftknitting
501
Knittingspeed and machinerpm
502
Speedfactororpedormance number
503
Production calculation
504
W eightperunitareaand coverfactor
5O9
Relationbeto yarn count& m achinegauge
511
Relationbetween yarn countand GSM
512
W arp knitting principle
514
lntroduction to warp knitted fabrics
514
The guides
515
The pattern mechanism
517
Chain finks
519
The warp beams
521
Lapping diagramsand chain notations
522
Basicstitchesin warp knitting
523
W arp knitting maehinery
531
Tricotwarp knitting machine
531
Raschelwarp kni
tting machine
538
Two fully threaded guide barstructuresorfabrics
546
Spetialknitfabricproduction
553
Knitted pile fabrics
553
Fleece knitfabric
553
High pile knitfabricsorsliverknitfabrics 555
Plush fabricsorknitted terry fabrics
557
The crochetwarp knittingm achine
559
The straightbarframe
563
@
'i
)
i
r
'
Netting ornetfabrics
Lace fabrics
Raw m aterials
W eb form ation
W eb bonding
Finishing
Characteristics and uses ofnonw oven fabrics
Specialty nonw oven products
Printing principle
Printing processes
Functionalfinishing
M echanicalfinishing treatm ents
Chem icalfinishing treatm ents
568
570
579
579
580
583
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
598
599
600
605
612
613
615
619
621
622
623
624
627
630
631
640
02
. Textile:
A term originally appbied only to w oven fabrics, but the term s textile and the plural
textiles are now also applied to fibres,filaments and yarns, naturaland m anufactured,
and m ostproductsforw hich these are a principalraw m ateriai.
* Textile Fibre:
Any substance, naturalor manufactured, with a high Iength to width ratio and w ith
suitable characteristicsforbeing processed into fabric;the smallestcom ponent, hairIike
in nature,thatcan be separated from a fabric.
@ Yarn:
An assem blage of fibres that is twisted or laid together so as to form a continuous
strand that can be m ade into a textile fabric. So a yarn is a strand of naturalor m an
m adefibresorfilamentsthathave been twisted orgrouped togetherforuse in w eaving,
knitting, or other m ethods of constructing textile fabrics. The type of yarn to be
manufactured willdepend on the fibres selected;the texture, or hand,ofthe fabric to
be m ade;and qualities such asw arm th,resiliency, softness,and durability required in
thefabric'send uses.
q'
@ Fabrk:
Fabricisa ffexible pdanarsubstance construded from solutions,fibres,yarns,orfabrics,
in any combination.Textile fabrics can be produced directqy from webs offibres by
bonding,fusing orinterlocking to make non-woven fabrics and felts,buttheirphysical
properties tend to restricttheir potentialend-usage.The mechanicalmanipulation of
yarn into fabricisthe mostversatile method ofmanufacturingtextile fabricsfora wide
rangeofend-uses.
FIoW chartoftextileprocessing:
lnput/Raw materials
Textile Fibres
Protessingsteps
Output
Yarn Manufacturing
Yarn
(SpinningMiII)
Yarn
FabricManufacturing
Grey Fabrics
(Weaving/KnittingIndustry)
Grey Fabrics
W etProcessing
Fini
shed Fabrics
(Dyeing,Printing&FinishingIndustry)
Finished Fabrics
GarmentManufacturing
(GarmentIndustry)
Garments
04
TEXTILE FIBRES
Any substance,naturalorm anufactured,w ith a high Iength to w idth ratio and with suitable
characteristics forbeing processed into fabric;the sm allest com ponent,hairIike in nature,
thatcan be separated from a fabric.
Spinningquality(Cohesiveness)
Uniform ity
Colour
M oisture regain
;
Fibrous materialsmustpossessadequate staple (fibre Iength)and the Iength must be
'
considerably greater than the diam eter.The length is a vew im portant fibre property.
p to severalcentim eters Iong.
t Naturalfibres,exceptforsilk,are m ostly som e m illimeters u'
(-
(
:')j
:staple fibres,w hich can,in theirturn,be spun.
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06
--wjujjje
Flexibility is the property of bending without breaking that is the third necessaw
characteristicoftextile fibre.In orderto form yarnsorfabricsthatcan be creased,thathave
the quality of drapability and the ability to m ove with the body and that perm it general
freedom of m ovem ent, the fibres m ust be bendable, pliable or flexible. The degreq of
flexibility determ ines the ease with which fibres, yarns and fabrics will bend and is
im portantin fabricdurability and generalperform ance.
Un'
i* :
To m inim ize the irregularity in the finalyarn,it is im portant that the'fibres be som ew hat
W onzaa -
The smooth,glassysudace ofa fibre such asthe nylon fibre,affed sthe lustre ofthe fibre-A
sm ooth sudace will not cling to dirt so readily. The cross-sectional shape of a fibre
Elao -c
and
- :
Afibre,whichissubjededtoaforce,willstretchtoacertaindegree-Thisstretchingcan alsobe
expressed asapercentage ofthe originalfibre lenglh,which isthe elongation-The elongatio:of
97
a fibre m ay be m easured atany specified load oras the elongation reached when the fibre
breaks.
Whenafibreissubjeded toasmallforce(orstretchedtoasmalldegree),itmayexhibit
almost pedect elasticity.Elasticity is the property ofa fibre to recover its originallength
afterstretching caused by a Ioad.
The term breaking elongation refers to the amount of stretch that occurs to the point
where the fibre breaks. Elastic Recovery designates the percentage of return from
elongation or stretch toward the originalIength or m easurement.Ifa fibre returns to its
originallength from a specified am ount of attenuation, it is said to have 100% elastic
recovew atX% elongation.
Resilienty:
lt is the ability of a fibre to return to shape following compression, bending or similar
deform ation.It is im portant in determ ining the crease recovery ofa fibre orfabric,and it
plays a significant role in the rapidity with which flattened carpet pile willregain itsshape
and restore itsappearance.
Resilience is the property of a fibre which enables i
t to recover from a certain Ioad or
stretched position and flexibility is that property to resist repeated bending and folding.A
supple fibre has a low resilience and iseasily com pressible.A stifffibre hasa high resilience
and cannotbe easily com pressed.
Flam m ability and othertherm alread ions:
Burning characteristics of the fibres are im portant in determ ining care and use,and they
serve as helpful guidelines in the fibre identification. Federal Iegislation on textile
inflam m abili
ty is an im portant consum er issue and a variety of types of textile end-use
productsmustmeetaspecified resistancetoflames.
AIIfibresare affected in one-w ay oranotheras they are heated.Som e,Iike wool,begin to
decom pose before melting;others,Iike polyethylene oracetate willsoften and m eltbefore
decom posi
tion sets in.The behaviouroffibres on heating and theirigni
tion propertiesare
of great practicalim portance.Indeed,fabrics should withstand the temperatures used in
substance(continueto)burn.Onaverage,moststlbstanceshaveanLOIofabout20.Effortsare
m ade to reducetheflamm ability oftextile m aterialsin orderto Iim itaccidents.These effortsare
05
The staple Iength ofnaturalfibres isnotan easy property to define because the fibre Iength
can vary overa greatarea.A statisticalinterpretation ofthe data obtained on fibre length in
Second necessaw property for a productto qualify fortextile fibre is adequate strength,
termed as tenacity.Tenacity is defined as the tensile stress expressed as force per unit
Iineardensity ofthe unstrained specim en.
The strength of a fibre is generally dependent on the length of the polymer chain,the
degree of orientation of these polym er chains, the strength and types of the forces of
The tensile strength orbreaking load iscom monly described asthe force required to reach
break.
0'
8
The density,also called volum icm assorm assdensity,isthe mass perunitvolum e and hasp
asitssym bol.It is usually expressed in grams percubiccentim eter.Anotherterm is specific
gravity,w hich isthe ratio ofthe m ass ofafibre m aterialand the m ass ofan equalvolum e of
09
The Iistbelow givesan overview ofthe mostim portantfibresand theirdensities.
Textile Fibres
Fibredensitiesing/cm3
Commercialname
Cotton
Cotton
Flax
Jute
W ool
Silk
Silk
Silk
Polyester
Polyester
Viscose
Cupram m onium
Polyurethane
Polypropylene
Polyethylene
Polyethylene
1.55
1.54
1.50
1.50
1.30
1.33
1.60
1.32
1.22
1.38
1.53
1.53
1.15
0.90
0.92
0.95
Raw
M ercerized
Nyloq 6
Nylon 66
1.13
1.14
Lycra
M eraklon
Courlene
Courlene X3
Perlon
Tri-nylon
Acryl
1.14- 1.17
Orlon(staple/filament)
Polyvinylalcohol
1.30
Kuralon, vinal
No brand
Natural
W eighted
Tussah
Kodel,vestan
Teryleen, Dacron
Lusture:
ltrefers to the gloss,sheen orshine that a fibre has.It isthe resultofthe amountofIight
reflected by afibre,and itdeterm inesthe fibre'snaturalbrightnessordullness.
Colour:
Naturalcolouroffibresvary from pure white to deep gray.tan orblack.M an-made fibres
AIlfibres tend to absorb m oisture when in contact w ith the atmosphere.The am ount
absorbed dependson the relative hum idity ofthe air.
For absorption of m oisture of a fibre, the term regain is used.This is the amount of
m oisture present in a textile m aterialexpressed asthe percentage ofthe oven-dry weight
weight (the weight after being in a normalized atmosphere of 20()C and 65% rejative
humidity),theregainexpressed in percentagewillbe:
).
t
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I
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10
MoistureRegain
i
i
p
:h
A- B
-- x100
B
j'
!
;
)
t
M oisture content
A-B
x l00
A
i
.
; ...
:
'
:.
absorbmoisture,willusuallybeIessstrongwhenwet(exceptforflaxancotton)andwillpresent
increased elongation atbreak.One should also realize thatabsorption ofm oisture can also
m ake the fibre sw ellto a considerable degree,w hich is im portantforfixating dyestuffs
NM URAL FIBER:
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11
Man-madeFibres
NaturalFibres
Animalfibre
Vegetablefibre
(Protein)
(cellulose)
M ineral
Syntheticfibre Regenerated
Other
fibre
(SYntheti
cpol
ymer)
fibre
(carb
on,gl
a
ss,metal
,
cerami
c,etc.)
(Asbestos)
tnaturalpol
ymer)
Silk W ool
Hair
(sheep) (alpaca,camel
,cow,goat,
horse,rabbitetc.)
Animal(casein) Vegetable
1
Acetate Triacetate
Seedfibre
Bastfibre
Leaffibre
(cotton#coir) t
fl
ax-hemepjute,rami
e, (auaectac,.s
isal
tc.)
)
Pol
ymethyl Polyolefin Pol
yvinyl
-eneur
ea
derivatives
Pol
yure Polyamide Pol
yimide Arami
d
-thane ornylon
Polyester Synthetic
polyisoprene
Non-segm ented
Polyethylene
Pol
ypropylene
Acrylic
M odacrylic
pplyurethane
Chlorofibre
segmented polyurethane
(elastane,spandex,Lycra)
Flourofibre
Trivinyl
Polystyrene
j
C
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l
12
Fibre Identification:
escience. Atonetime,
The identificationoftextilefibresisavew importantpartofthestudyoftextil
simpIefibreidentificationwasa relati
vel
y easytask;mostconsumerscouldtellbyappearanceandhand
whetherafabricwascotton,wool,silk,orIinen.Oncethefirstmanmadefibreswere introduced,the
processbecame abitmore difficult.Consumersusuallycould identifythe fibrecompositionoffabrics
madeof100 percentrayonoracetate,butblendsofsomefibreswere difficult to identify.As more
fibres w ere introduced, the task becam e progressively m ore difficult.Today,sophisticated
techniquesare usually required foraccurate fibre identification.
The purpose ofthe Textile Fibre ProductsIdentification Actwasto provide inform ation on fibre
contentoftextilesatthe pointofsale.Consumerswere atonce relieved ofthe responsibilityto
identify fibre content of items they purchased; howeverzprofessionals working with textile
productsstillm ust be able to identify fibres accurately.Such individuals include retailerswho
suspectsome textile productsthey boughtforresale have been Iabeled inaccurately;customs
osicialswho m ustidentify imported fibres;dry cleanersw ho m ustclean an item from which aII
the labels have been rem oved; extension hom e econom ists w ho are asked to help solve a
consum er's problem w ith a textile product; and forensic scientists w ho m ust use a textile
sam pleto help solvea crim e.
Formostindividuals,the only information needed isa qualitative analysisoffibre content:what
fibre orfibresare presentin this product? Forothers,a quantitative analysis ofthe product is
also im portant: in w hat percentages are the fibres present? W ith the num bers of fibres
availabletoday and the varietyofblendsbeing produced,neitheranalysisiseasy.
M ethods for qualitative identification of fibres include such procedures as burning tests,
m icroscopy,densi
ty determ ination,m oisture regain analysis,dye staining,chem icalsolubility,
melting point determination,infrared spectroscopy,and chrom atography.Sim pli
fied versions
ofthe firstsix proceduresare relatively easy to pedorm in m ostIaboratories.They require the
use of a drying oven, an analytical balance sensitive to 0.005 gram, a com pound light
microscope capableof200 x magnification,laboratory glassware,and a suppl
y ofchemicals.
A. Burning Test:
The burning testis a good prelim inary testforcategorizing fibres.Observation ofburning
provides information on behaviorin a flame,sm oke generation,odorduring burning,and
ash or residue.lt never should be used as the only method of identifying a fibre,but it
provides valuable information that may be used with other evidence to m ake a positive
identificationofan unknown fibre.
Blendsoffibres are difficultto testusing this procedure.Tbe reaction ofthe predom inant
fibre may m ask the presence ofa second fibre,which could have entirel
y different burning
characteristics. Finishes, especially flam eretardant finishes, can also give m isleading
inform ation. Althoughthe testiseasyto perform,itdoesinvolve the use ofanopenflame,making it
necessaryto observe certain safety precauti
ons.Use a sm allflam e source in an area w here
there is no dangerofigniting otherm aterials.A candle in a stable base ora smallalcohol
lamp is preferable to a hand-held m atch.A nonflam mable pad should be used underthe
burning m aterialto provide protection from molten drip and sm oldering ash.Do nottouch
ash ortweezerswhile they are stillhot.
13
p- - ure:
The sam ple to be tested should be in fibre form . A single yarn from a woven or knitted
fabric should be untw isted to produce a tuft of fibres for testing. Use the follow ing
instructions,and observe the reactionsofthe burning fibre very carefully.
1. Hold the tuftoffibresw ith a pairoftweezers
2. M ove the tuftclose to the side ofthe flam e;do not place the fibres above orbelow
the flam e.Observe carefully to see ifthe fibresm elt, shrink,ordraw away from the
flam e.
Slow ly move the fibre tuftinto the flame to observe i
ts burning behavior, and then
slow ly and carefully rem ove the tuft from the flame to observe the reaction once
the flam e source is no longer present. Carefulobservation provides an answ erto
.
W hen the fibre is rem oved from the flam e, does itcontinue to burn,ordoes itself
extinguish?
lfthe m aterialisstillburning when itisrem oved from the flam e, blow outthe flam e.
Note the odorand colourofthe sm oke,ornote that no sm oke was produced when
the fibre wasrem oved from the flam e.
Observe the residue rem aining after burning. Does a residue drop from the
tweezers? Does thatresidue continue to burn? How m uch residue is Ieft? Doesthe
residue rem ain red,indicating that it is stillvew hot? W hat colour is the ash that
rem ains? Isthe ash the shape ofthe fibre,lightand fluffy, oris itbead-shaped?
6. After it cools off,touch the residue or ash.Is it soft or brittle? Can it be crushed
easily between the fingers,orisithard to crush?
Results:
Typicalfibre reactions forthe major naturaland manmade fibre typesare given in the
follow ing table.W hen interpreting results, rem em ber:
14
It is difficult to detect the presence of blends with a burning test.One fibre in a
blend m aycom pletely m askthe propertiesofanotherfibre.
2. Dyes and finishes affect test results. Flam e-retardant finishes are especially
m isIeading.
Coloured fibres,especially those produced with pigments,m ay retain the colourin
the ash orresidue.
'
1Fibre
Approaching
jInflame
1
flame
flame
j
l
ax
!f
!wi
thflame
i
gni
tesoncontact
I
1
J
1
1
i
gnti
efs
ncontact
1wi
ht
lao
me
Fuses;melts& shrinks Burnsslowly
awayfrom flame
j
l
hMelts& fusesaway
1
f
f
ame;ignites
rr
eo
am
dil
yl
wte
&lk
!similarto
Self-extinguishes
Burnsrapidly 1
IContinuesto
1A
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e b
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Burnsslowly
Fuses;shrinks& curls
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curl
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Irregularly
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Curlsawayfromflame Burnsslowl
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iSimilarto
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Chemi
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15
Longitudinalm ounts:
Itis possible to mounta single fibre,but itis Iessfrustrating form ostm icroscopists to use
severalfibres.A m inim um often fibresis usefulw hen the m aterialto be studied isa blend.
Too m any fibreson a slide makes itdifficultto focuson a single fibre to observe the details
of its sudace contour.W hen taking a sam ple from a yarn in a fabric, untwist the yarn
com pletely to separate tbe fibres.Tbe basic steps form aking a Iongitudinalm ountare as
follow s.
1. Place a single drop ofwater,glycerine.orm ineraloiIon the centerofthe glass'slide.
M ineraloiIprovidesthe bestdefinition,butthe otherm aterialsare adequate.
2. Carefully place the fibres in the drop ofliquid with the Iength ofthe fibres parallelto
the Iong dim ension ofthe slide.
3. Place the coverglasslightly overthe drop ofIiquid and the specim en.Tap the cover
glassgently to rem ove airbubbles.
4. W ith the objective in its highest position, place the slide on tbe stage of the
m icroscope.Low erthe objective carefully before trying to focusthe slide.It isvery
easy to dam age the objective by scratching itorsm earing itw ith oil.
Focus on low pow erand observe the fibre before focusing on high pow er.Note the
generalshape ofthe fibre,then look at it carefully forsigns ofscales,convolutions,
pockm arks, striations' and other features. Look carefully to see if m ore than one
type offibre ispresent.
6. W ith the microscope focused on high power,move the fine adjustmentvery slowly
to see ifvariations in surface contourare visible.Again,look carefully to see if m ore
than one fibre type is present.
7. Sketch the fibres as seen through the m icroscope,then com pare yoursketch w ith
standard photographsto conclude w hich fibres m ightbe present.
8AN.9:4
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Regularcotton(X-section)
Regularcotton
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M ercerized cotton
(X-section)
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Regularpolyester
Trilobalpolyester
(X-section)
(longitudinalview)
(X-section)
DelusteredNylon6(X-section)
DelusteredNyln6flongitudinalview)
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17
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18
Cross-s<w- ionalm ounts:
Specialplastic and m etalplatesare available form aking fibre cross-sections.Specialfibre m i
crotomes
are used form ore sophisticated work.W here such aidsare notavailable,itis possible to m ake a section
using a piece ofcork,a threaded sewing machine needle,and asharpsingle-edge razorblade,
The instructionsfollow .
The needle m ay then be renhoved;itw asneededjustto push the thread through the
corkto form the Ioop.
4. M ake a smallbundle offibre tifitthrough the thread Ioop.Then,using the free ends
ofthe thread,carefully pullthe looped fibre backthrough the cork.The fibre should
be packed firm ly in the hole ofthe cork,and fibre endswilbe visible on both sides
of the cork.After a Iittle practice,estim ation of the exact am ount offibre to use
becom es easier
5. Placetheflatside ofthe cork dow n on a cutting board and use the razorblad'
e to cut
a thin slice perpendicularto the fibre em bedded in the cork.The slice should be no
m ore than 0.5 m m thick. M ake the cut w ith a single,continuous m otion, not a
saw ing m otion.
6. Place the cork slice on a glass slide.Do notuse a m ounting m edium orcoverglass.
Focusthe m icroscope and observe the crosssectionsofthe fibres.
Resulu :
Look carefully at the shape ofthe fibrezand com pare it w ith photom icrographs of know n
fibres. M ost natural fibres can be identified by sim ple Iight m icroscopy, but positive
identification of m anufactured fibres is often difficult w ith this technique.W hen a fibre
blend is present, i
t is possible to approxim ate the blend Ievel by counting the fibres.
M icroscopy isalso a good way to determ inethe num beroffibrespresentin a blend.
19
AIlchem icaltests should be conducted in a room with proper ventilation and chemical
safety protedion devices. The required Material Safety Data Sheet (M SDS) for each
chem icalshould be posted in areas where the chem icalis used. Although only very sm all
am ounts of chem icals are needed for testing, accidents som etimes happen. Adhere to
chem icalsafety rules in perform ing fibre identification tests. W earprotective eye goggles
w hen using chem icalsolvents.Organic solventsand heated Iiquidsshould be used only in a
fum e hood!Follow Iocallaboratory regulationsfordisposing ofused solventsand fibres.
pr- -=ure:
The following Chem icals used forsolubility testtabte (iststhe chem icalsand testconditions
used in chem icalsolubility testing.W hen there is no priorknowldge ofthe fibresthatm ay
be present,the m aterialshould be tested in the solventsin the otderpresented in the table.
Once a positive identification is m ade, solvent tesling m ay be term inated. W here prior
inform ation indicates that certain fibres m ay be present, test the unknow n fibre only in
those solvents required for i
ts identification. The general procedure for solvent
identification follow s.
W hen solvents are used at room tem perature, the tests m ay be perform ed in a
watch cw stal,a 50-m Ibeaker,ora sm alltesttube.Place a smallam ountofthe fibre
in the containerand add the solvent.Use about1 m lofsolventfor10 mg offibre.
10O
100
5
20
85
100
10O
100
100
59.5
70
100
50
(Y
Room
Room
Room
Room
Room
101
139
156
90
20
38
139
Room
*.
**-.e5
5
20
10
5
5
5
5
10
20
20
5
20
2. Tests pedorm ed at the boiling point of the solvent require the use ofa ventilated
fum e hood.Pourthe solventinto a sm allbeakerand place the beakeron a hotplate
inside the fume hood.Adjustthe tem perature ofthe hotplate to maintain a slow
boil.Add the fibre to the boiling liquid. W atch the reaction carefully to m ake sure
the solventdoes notboildry.Neveradd additionalsolventto the heated beaker!
Fortests conducted at interm ediate tem peratures,heat a beakerofw ater on a hot
20
4. W atch the fibre in the Solvent carefully to observe the speed with which it breaks
down and the am ountofthe m aterialdissolved.Note w hetherthe materialactuaily
dissolves,degrades into small pieces,or form s a plastic m ass.lf allfibres are not
dissolved in a specificsolvent,carefully rem ove the undissolved fibres.Rinse them in
water,and attem ptto dissolvethem in anothersolvent.
Resqlts:
The following Solubility of Fibres table provides fibre solubility test results.Com pare the
resultsto identi
fy a fibre.Some ofthe chem icals in the table are com monly found in the
home.Other household products containing sim ilarsolvents w illalso dam age ordissolve
fibres.Acetone is often a componentofnailpolish,nailpolish rem over,paintthinners,and
paint rem overs.Amylacetate,a sim ifar chem ical,m ay dam age acetate,m odacrylic, and
vinyon fibres.Vinegarisa dilute solution ofacetic acid;itdoesnotdissolve fibres,butitm ay
damagethe sam e fibresthatare dissolved by glacialaceticacid.
SolubilityofFibres(Chartforfindingthesolventofaparticularfibre)
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21
Types ofFibres:
A$lthe textile fibres are classified according to theirstaple Iength into two categories
a
, such
sstaple fibre and filament.
staple sbres:
lt has a lim ited Iength thatvaries according to the type such as cotton,wool
,
,j
ute etc.
o
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of
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ong
stapie
fib
re.Cotton is m ainly short staple fibre and other m axim um naturalfib
res are long
staple exceptsilk.Silk isonly naturalfibre thatisfilament.
There are tw
Filam ent:
lthascontinuousIength thatm eansthe Iength offilam entis equalto the Iength ofyarn
AIlman-m ade fibresare filam ent. M an-m ade fibres are produced asfilam ent
.
th
though
, al
ey used asstaple fibres ifnecessary. So filam ents are used as staple fibre but staple
fibresneverused asfilam ent.
Classification ofYarn:
U aee**--H-- ofyarn O
fibres.Ring spinning
22
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33
1
Combedcotton(ring)yarn
2. Ply yarn:
Single yarns are used in the majority of fabrics for normaltextile and clothing
applications,butin orderto obtain specialyarn features,particularly high strength and
and a cabled yarn isformed by twisting together t-o ormore folded yarns ora
combination ofjolded and single yarns.The twisting togetherofseveralsingle yarns
increasesthe tenacity ofthe yarn by im proving the binding-in ofthe fibreson the outer
Iayers of the com ponent single yarns.PIy yarns are also m ore regular,sm oother and
Three-Folded orFlyyarn
Four-Folded orFlyyarn
so :
* 2
* 3
. '.
Three fold,two-fold
Cabled yarn
23
3. Filamentyarns:
Twisted multi-fil
amentyarn
Mono-filamentyarn
1.
False-twistTexturedyarn
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Stuffer-boxTextured yarn
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According to the shape ofthe fiiam ents in the yarn,filam ent yarns are classified into
two types,flat and bulk.The filam ents in a flat yarn Iie straight and neat,and are
parallelto the yarn axis.Thus,flatfilam entyarns are usually closely packed and have a
Elaq-
Yarns forwoven c10th are prepared forthe intended end use.Yarns to be used in the
warp,the lengthw ise direction ofa c10th,are generally stronger, have a tightertwist,
and are sm ootherand more even than are yarns used forfilling,the crosswise direction
of a c10th.Novelty yarns m ay be used in the warp,butthey are generally found in the
filling.Highly twisted crepe yarnsare usuallyfound used asfilling yarns.
24
KnM ingYarns:
These may be divided into yarns for hand knitting and yarns for m achine knitting.
Knitting yarnsare more slackly twisted than yarnsforweaving.Hand knitting yarnsare
generally ply,whereas those for m achine knitting can be either single or ply. The
following are some ofthe yarnsused forhand knitting:
1. Knitted worsted:Thefour-ply all-around yarn used foraccessories,forthe house,
and for apparel. This is the most com mon weight of hand-knitting yarn,
com prising90 percentofthe handm adeyarn business.
Fingering(babyorsock)yarn:Thefineyarnthatwasoriginallywool,butisfound
m ostcom monly in acrylicforcomfortand ease ofcare.
Sportyarn:The three-pl
y yarn used forsocks,sweaters,and hats.
Shetland yarn:The two-plyyarn used forsweaters.
Fashion ornovelty yarn:Any novelty strud ure.
Typesoftotton yarn:
There are twotypesofcotton yarn accordingto theirmanufacturing processasfollowsz
i.
Carded yarn
II.
Combed yarn
Flow thart of carded yarn m anufad uring w ith input or feed and output or
delivew produd :
lnptltorFeed produd
M anufacturing process
OutputorDelivery produd
Cotton bale
Blow-Room
Lap
Lap
Carding
Carded sli
ver
Carded sliver
Drawing
Drawn sliver
Drawn sliver
Simplex
Roving
Ring-Spinning
(SpinningFrame)
Spinningbobbin
W inding
(Autoconer)
Roving
'
Yarn(spinningbobbin)
Cone
25
ObjedsofBlow-x m:
The basic purposeofblow-room Iine isto supplyfollowing qualitiesoffibre tuftsto the carding
pr0CeSS.
* Smallfibretufts
Homogeneously mixed orblended tufts
Clean fibretufts
Convertfibretuftsinto afibroussheet,iscalled Iap.
Blending:The method ofmixing differentfibreswithin aspecificratic isknown asblending
1.Hopperbale opener
2.UltracleanerorStep cleaner
3.Verticalortwine openerorcleaner
4.Hopperfeeder-1
5.Porcupine opener
6.Hopperfeeder-2
7.Scutcher.
bp
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TypicalconventionalBlow-room line
4.
j, 4.
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herorPI
-eker
26
Flow chart of combed yarn m anufad uring w ith input or feed and output or
delivery produd :
InputorFeed product
M anufacturing process
OutputorDelivery product
Cotton bale
Blow-Room
Lap
i
Lap
Carding
Carded sliver
i
Carded sli
ver
Drawn sliver
i
Drawn sliver
Lapformer
Lap
i
Lap
Com bing
i
Com bedsliver
Post-combed Drawing
Drawn sliver
$
Drawn sliver
Simplex
Roving
i
Roving
Ring-Spinning
Yarn(spinningbobbin)
(Spinningframe)
i
Spinning bobbin
W inding
(Auto coner)
Cone
27
Product
Process
Produd
Combedsliver
Cotton bale
Q.. ..:.x?z.v
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Finisher
Draw ing
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Carded sliver
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8.Sim plex
Carding
1
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Yarn cops)
Draw n sli
ver
9. Ring
Spinning
4. Breaker
Drawing
Yarn(cone)
Comber1ap
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Metaletector
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Uniclean
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Unim ix
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Uniflex
VisionShield
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Chutefeed
i
Condenser
Carding
(FORCA
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(FORCO #fPYARN)
BreakerDrawing
i
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Simplex orRoving frame orSpeed frame
i
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i
Com ber
i
FinisherDrawing
Lap Former
Ringfram e
Post-comb DrawingorFinisherDrawing
(spinnin)
gframe)
Autoi
coner
Rin: frame
Heatsetting
(Spinningframe)
i
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Heatsetting
i
Packing
Auto coner
Packing
29
A modern blow -room Iine asfollow s:The follow ing blow-room Iine provide bytheTrtzschler.
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Trtzschlerchute feed
30
Carding Section:
ObjedsofCarding:
Carding is one of the m ost im portant operations in the spinning process as it directl
y
determ inesthe finalfeaturesofthe yarn, above aIIasfarasthe contentofnepsand husksare
concerned.Therearemanyobjectivesofthecardingprocessandthesecanbesummarizedas:
* Individualization ofthe cotton fibre at a single fibre staple state i.e.opening the tufts into
individualfibres;
* Elimination ofthe remaining impuri
tiesi.e.elim inating alItheim puritiescontained in thefibre
thatwerenoteliminated inthe previ
ouscleaningoperations;
@ Disentanglingofnepsi,e.removalofneps;
* Selectingthefibresonthe basisofl
ength, rem ovingthe shortestones;
* Fibreblendingand orientation;
@ Farallelisingandstretchingofthefibre;
* Finallyproducea continuousstrandoffibrescalled sliverofuniform weightperuni
tlengthi.e.
transformationofthe lapintoasliver, thereforeintoaregularmassofuntwisted fibre.
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feeder
z.t
-icker-in
cylinder
y,g)rum
4.carding
fl
The carding operation is carried out by the card, a machine that in practice is a system of
rotating organs,mobileand fixed flats, covered with steelspikesthatgo bythe name ofwiring.
obtainedtthrough doubling)equipped wi
th parallelfibres (through drawng)as wellas the
countrequested bythespinning plan.
31
The draw ing operation done with the m achine called the drawframe,permitsa hom ogeneous
blend both with fibresofthe same nature aswellasfibreswith a differentnature;the doubling
stepsare usually betweenfourand eight.
On a par with fibre characteristics such as Iength and fineness,a sliver with parallelfibres
permitsayarnwith betterregularityand resistance.The drawing dependson some factorssuch
as the num ber of doublings carried out and the value of the count of the entry Sliver and
delivery sliver.W ith drawing,curls,crim ps and hooksare also elim inated,m eaning the fibres
folded inon themselves,presentin the carded sli
ver.
Drawing is a process in which the sliveris elongated by passing it through a series of pairof
roflers,each pair moving fasterthan the previous.Thispermits com bination ofseveralslivers
and drawing and efongating them to straighten and create greateruniform ity to form a regular
sliver of smaller diam eter.This action pulls the staple Iengthwise over each other,thereby
producing longerand thinnerslivers,Finallythe sli
veristakentothe slivercan.
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ThemainobjedsoftheDraw-Framearebelow:
* Breakerdrawing and
Finisherdrawing
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32
there are also autolevelerson the finisher
drawframes,whosejobitistocorrectthedraftinfunctionofvariationsinthefibrousmass,to
m aintain the section of sliver as even as possible and therefore reduce the frequency of
breakingthreadsinspinningandinsuccessiveoperations.
.
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2. On-board com puter
a. M easurementunit
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r The Iap form erhas furtherm ore,the taskofform ing the interfacing orIap
,
'
w hich isefnployed
through rollers and stop motion. The slivers enter the drafting section and then calendar
section to produce a com pactlap. Finally the Iap iswound on to bobbin. ln the lap former,the
materialundergoesa lightdraftofaround 1.5 to 2 tim esone a drawing aggregate ofthetype 2
ontop of3cylinders.
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33
Combing:
iscarried out in orderto improve the quaity ofthe slivercom ing out of
The combing process
a controlled proportion of the shortestfibres,it achieves
the card.The process eliminates
and itrem ovesnepsand residue impurities.
betterparallelization offibres,itstraightens curls,
y aimed at obtaining
ocess is essentiall
It is clear from these functions that the combing pr
materialswith above average physicaland
e
xcellentcad
qua
lityur
yar
dbe
tof
ul
filtfhi
sob
ect
iveyra
w nning ofthe spinning process.Depending
mechani
feat
esns
m an
ust
us
ed
rom
tj
he
ver
begi
on what is being produced,waste from combing varies from 12% to 25%,and this can be
em ployedto obtainyarnswith a medium-coarse countusing the open-end process.So com bing
may be defined as Straightening and paralielising offibres and removing ofshortfibres,neps
Themainobjectsofthecombingarebelow:
* To remove short fibres below a pre-selected Iength so that the spinner enable to
producefineryarn/betteryarnthatcannotbepossibleincardingstate.
* To remove nepsand foreign m atterfrom the cotton.
M ore straighten and parallisation ofthefibres.
34
Reducethe nepsintheyarn.
1,,
j
1- staple engtj
8
= 30Necardedyarn
* lmprove/lncreaseefficiencyofthenextprocess
* Reducethe hairinessofyarn
* Improve bettertwistdistribution intheyarn
. w inding
roving
flyer
!i
bobbin
'
l
i
Rovingframe
Flyerand bobbin
ithdouble
k Drawingisgenerallycarriedoutbyadraftsystem with3-cylinderweighingarm w
'
('.
apron capable Ofworking with entering slivercounts of0.12 Neto 0.24 Neand counts ofthe
delivered rovingof0.27 Neto3 Ne.
35
The twist is given by the rotation ofthe flyer Iocated on the spindles,in fact the exi
t roving
com ing from the draftcylinders enters in the higher hole of the flyer,passing through the
hollow arm and then winding onthe bobbin.Thetwistvalue isgiven by the following equation:
NO. twists= Revolutionsofthespindle(flyer)
ExitIength 1stcylinder
The numberofrevolutions ofthe spindle can reach up to a m axim um value of1500 rpm .The
twistrategivenbytherovinghasavalueofbetween10to100T/m (0.25T/inch).Itshouldbe
noted that the twist value to give the roving, this being an intermediate product, has a
fundamentalpracticalimportanceforthe nextprocessing stage.
(spindle),in orderthaton every turn the bobbin makesin addition to the spindle,a coilof
roving iswound on the bobbin.The Iength ofcoilisshorterforthefirstlay ersand Iongerforthe
Iast.
Objectsorfunttionsofspeedframe:
* Attenuation ofdrawframe,sliverto form roving ofrequired hankbydraing.
Insertsmallam ountoftwistto give required strength ofroving.
W inding the twistrovingon tothe bobbin
* Build the roving in bobbin such a form,which willfacilitate handling with drawing and
transfertothe nextprocess.
Operationsinvolved:
@ Creeling
Draing
* Twisting
W inding
. Building
Doffing
Roving
a) Cardedyarn:
Aftqrthefibrematerialhasbeenopened(Ioosened),cleanedand,ifnecessaryalsoblendedin
thefirststage,itisresolved intothestate ofindividualfibreson acard and deposi
ted inthe
form ofasliver(cardedsliver).Inthenextstageseveralcardedsliversarepresentedtoa
36
draing uni
ton a draw fram e.Drafting Ieadsto a reduction ofthe fibre masspersliver.
Subsequently the individualslivers,now w i
th a Iower m ass,are collected togetherto
form adraw frame sliver.Com pared to the carded sliverthe draw n sliverdisplays
b) Combedyarn:
In the cotton spinning system a com bing offibres outofdraw fram e slivers is basically
an additionalprocessing stage.Com bing leadsto the following results:
Thusonecanspinfineryarnsfrom thefibre1ot(sliver)aftercombing
Com bing leadsto a higherdegree ofcleanlinessin thefibre m aterial.
Compared to carded yarns a com bed yarn has a softer handle.This property is also
transferredto fabrics made outofit.
Spinning m achine
Thisisthefinalstage ofyarn m anufacturing.The goalofthism anufad uring processto getyarn
is achieved by this m achine.There are differenttypes ofspinning m achine.Ring fram e is a
conventionalspinning m achine.This machine has very w ide scope,because it can produce
coarse to very fine yarn.Tiflnow this ring spinning m achine is widely used whole over the
world.
There are also som e m odern spinning systemstoo.Rotorspinning system isone ofthem .This
system isalso veryfam ous,butithassome lim itation.ltis mainly used forcoarse yarn.
ln the following section the currently most im portant spinning techniques are described in
Som edetail.
37
G
+
n
s
1)
f)y<1
:,<rq
..,-
apron
spinning cop
travelle
-
roving
- -
rjng
spindle
Principle ofRing Spinning
unitisdrawn underatraveler(asmallmetalpiece),freelymovingonthering,andthen
Ied to the yarn package. This traveler, Iagging because of the yarn drag on it, is
responsible forw inding-on the yarn.A controlled up and dow n m ovem ent ofthe ring
determ inesthe shape ofthe yarn package,called a cop orspinning bobbin.
W ith the ring spinning technique aIIknow n yarn countscan be spun and thusthe entire
'
Com pared to other spinning m ethods the ring spinning technique, how ever, has the
Iowestperformancewithamaximum ofabout20m/min.Onesignificantreasonforthis
is that the entire yarn package m ust insert the fullam ount of tw ist into the yarn; it
therefore cannot becom e too large.Tw istinsertion and yarn wind-on take place in one
continuous process.The m ethod used forthis Ieads to Iarge yarn tensions and tension
fluctuations w ith increasing package diam eters and prevents the productions of Iarge
packages.Thus the running length ofyarn on a cop isrelatjvely short.
38
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Spinning bobbin
O E RotorSpinning m achine:
One com m on aim ofunconventionalspinning techniques is to exceed the pedorm ance
of ring spinning.This is m ainly achieved by separating the process of yarn form ation
from that of yarn winding-on.One result is that the yarn can be wound on at higher
speeds.
As a rule the spinning m achine is supplied w ith fibres from the draw n sliver.Fibres
processed on short staple spinning can also be present in com bed slivers. The
productionofaroving(neededforring spinning)issuperfluous.
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W ith m any ofthese techniques the fibres from the draw fram e sliverare resolved into
individualfibres in a processing stage prior to actualyarn spinning.In such cases the
techniqueisgenerallydenotedasOpen EndSpinning(OESpinning).
Out of this segment OE Rotor spinning (rotor spun yarns) is cuirently of special
significance to circularknitting,besides ring spun yarns.
Rotorspinning has established itselfso farin shortstaple spinning. The accent lies here
inthe coarse countrange (3Neto 30Neor20 texto 200tex) Due to im provem ents in
.
the technique and m achine construd ion, com bined witb the use of com bed slivers
count up to 42 Ne are available in good quality. Even finer counts are not only being,
aim ed at,butare also being presented to som e extent.
In shortstaple spinning O E rotorspinning raisesperform ance atthisstage by about5 to
6
tim esascom pared to ring spinning.
.
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RotorYarn
Autoconer
The quantity ofyarn on spinning bobbins orcopsissmallcom pared to the package needed for
efficientatknitting and weaving. The primary purpose ofthe winding processisto transferyarn
from small spinning packages to Iarge packages, which yield more efficient dow nstream
processing.
Autoconer is a m odern winding system . It is an auto coning system . By thi
s machine we can
produce a cone with required Iength orweightfrom a num berofsm allsize spinning bobbins
those are produced by the ring-spinning m achine withoutany knot. Splicing system is used in
this machine.Itisafully autom aticwinding m achine.
b
Thekni
ttedyarnisalso Iubricated(waxing
y paraffin wax)in thismachine.ln addition,aI1typesoffaul
tseven thick places, colour
40
(600c)normallybysteam.Tbeyarnisconditionedinthisheatedchamberatacertaintime(40
to50 min.)to settheyarntwist.Afterheatsettingthese conesarepacked bythe polythene
paperin a cartoon with a certain num bernormally 24 cones of2.08 kg each forknitted yarn.
Totalweightofthe package is 50kg.Butforwoven yarn totalweightofthe package is100lbs.
Finallythese cartoonsare shifted to producefabricand so on.
Conesthoseare readyforheatsetting
Heatsetting chamber
41
(YarnCount)
Definition:
Countisanumericalvalue,whichexpresstbecoarsenessorfineness(diameter)oftheyarnand
also indicate the relationship between length and weight(the massperunitIength orthe
Iength peruni
tmass)ofthatyarn.Therefore, the conceptofyarn counthas been introduced
which specifiesacertain ratio ofIengthto weight.
TypesofYarn Count:
One distinguishesbetweentwo systems:
1. DirettCountSystem :
The weightofa fixed Iength ofyarn is determ ined. The weightper unitlength is the yarn
count!
The com mon features of aIIdirect count systems are the length ofyarn is fixed and the
weightofyarn variesaccordingto itsfineness.
The followingform ula isused to calculate the yarn count:
N = IC x/
L
NumbeeingSystem
Unitoftength(I)
UnitofW eightlw)
Tex w stem ,n
Denier,D orTd
DetiTey,dtex
M illitex,m tex
Kilotex,ktex
lute count
1000 m etres
9000 m etres
10 000 m etres
1000 m etres
1000 m etres
14, 400yards
No. ofGram s
No. ofGram s
No. ofGram s
No. ofM illigram s
No. of Kilogram s
No.ofPounds(lb)
42
Texsystem
NO.ofgramsper1000 metres.
Denier
Deci
Tex
rklillit(!)(
Kilotex
Jute count
No.ofgramsper9000 metres.
No.ofgram sper10,000 metres.
:No.of milligram sper1000 m etres.
:No.ofkilogramsper1000 metres.
:No.ofIb per14,400yds.
The Texofa yarn indicatesthe weight in gramm esof1000 metres yarn. So that40 Tex
means1000 metresofyarnweigh 40gm .
The Denierofa yarn indicatesthe weightin gram mesof9000 metresyarn. So that150
D means 9000 m etres of '
yarn weigh 150 gm and 100 D m eans 9000 m etres ofyarn
weigh 100 gm .
2. Indired CountSystem :
The length ofa fixed weight ofyarn is measured. The Iength perunit wei
ght isthe yarn
count!
The com mon features ofalIindirectcountsystems are the weightofyarn is fixed and the
length ofyarnvariesaccordingto itsfineness.
The foll
owingform ula isused to calculate theyarncount:
N=
L xw
W xI
NumberingSystem
Englishcottoncount,Ne(NeB)
Metriccount,Nm
Woollencount(YSW )
W oollpntount(Dewsbury)
W orstedcount,NeK
kinencount,NeL
UnitofLength(I)
840yards(yds)
1000metres/1km
256yards
1yard
560yards
300yards
UnitofWei, (w)
1pound(lb)
1kg
1pound(lb)
1ounce(oz)
1pound(Ib)
1pound (Ib)
43
Inbriet definitionoftheabovesystemsisasfollows:
English countsystem
M etriccount
Woollencount(YSW)
Woollencount(Dewsbury)
W orsted count,NeK
Linencount,NeL
:No.of840yd lengthsperpound .
:No.ofkilometersperkilogram.
:No.of256yd Iengthsperpound.
:No.of ydIengthsperoz.
:No.of560yd Iengthsperpound.
:No.of300yd Iengthsperpound.
From abovediscussionitisconcludedthat,highertheyarnnumber(count)finertheyarnandlower
the numbercoarserthe yarn.
1m/kg=0.4961yd/lb
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 m 2= 1.1960 yd2
1 yd2= 0.8361 m 2
lgm/m2=0.0295 oz/ydz
1 oz/yd2=33.91gm/m2
1 pound = 0.4536 kg
1yd/lb=2.0159m/k
44
Ealculationsconcerning count:
In practice,three problemsmayhave to be solved in yarn calculations:
Countto be found,Iength and weightmustbe known.
W eightto befound,countand Iength mustbe known.
Lengthto befound,countand wei
ghtm ustbe known.
Exam ple 1:
On a cone,there are 9800m yarn which weigh 490gm .W hatisthe Ne,Nm ,Tex and Denierof
the yarn?
Solution:
ForNe:
e know that,Ne=
L xw
prx l
Here, L = 9800m
W = 490gm
w = 1Ib = 453.6gm
I= 840yds= 840x0.91m
Ne=(9800x453.6)/(840x0.91x490)
Ne= 11.87
Ne= 12
ForNm :
e know that,Nm =
L xw
I'
F'x l
Here, L= 9800m
W = 490gm
w = 1kg = 1000gm
l= 1000m
Nm=(9800x1000)/(1000x490)
Nm = 20
ForTex :
e know thatTex =
prx /
L
Here, L= 9800m
W = 490gm
I= 1000m
Tex=(490x1000)/9800
Tex = 50
45
ForDenier :
W e know thatDenier=
W xI
L
Here, L= 9800m
W = 490gm
I= 9000m
Denier=(490x9000)/9800
Denier= 450
Exam ple 2:
w hatIength ofyarn iscontained in 1.2 kg ofa yarn ofNe30?
Solution:
W e know that,Ne=
Lxw
W xl
L=
Nex IxW
W
Here, Ne = 30
W = 1.2 kg = 1200gm
w = 1Ib = 453.6gm
I= 840yds= 840x0.91m
L=(30x840x0.91x1200)/453.6
L= 60666.67m
Exam ple 3:
How m any kg do 700 000 m ofayarn ofNe30 weigh?
Solution:
W e know that,Ne=
Lxw
W xI
W = Lxw
Nex I
Here, Ne = 30
L= 700 000 m
w = 1Ib = 453.6 gm
l= 840yds= 840x0.91m
W =(700000x453.6)/(840x0.91x30)
W = 13 846.15 gm
W = 13.85 kg
46
Formulaeforcountconversion
Knownvalue
Neededvalue
Unit
Directsystem
Indirectsystem
Abbr den ktex tex dtex mtex Nm
Ne
NeL NeK
'
u
den -- 0.00011 0.111 1.111 111
S
5315
11882 7972
xden
Tt
xktex
9
0.001
xtex xtex
den
den
ien
0.
590
1,
654 9.226
1.938
ktex
l
tex
ktex
59.5
tex
ktex
1654
tex
ktex
826
tex
ktex
1932
tex
0.1 x -dtex
l
dtex
59(5
dtex
16549
dtex
2269
dtex
19329
dtex
100
xdtex
mtex 0.
009 0.000001 0.001 0.01x ---
'
den
New
17449
den
xmtex xmtex
mtex mtex
Metr.No Nm
9tXC
0.590
1.654
0.
886
1.938
'Nm
Nm
Nm
xNm
xNm
xNm
xNm
ccttcn
N.
5315
0.590
---
2.
80
1.
50
3.28
<
Ne
Ne
xNe
xNe
xNe
---
0.
536
1.172
xNet
xNet
---
2.188
ginen
Nek
worsted Ner
Woollen New
(Yorkshire)
Nm
mtex
Nm
Ne
Ne
1.
693
mtex
xNe
mtex
14822 1.651
0.357
NeL
NeL
NeL
xNet
xNek
7972
0.886
0.667
1.
867
xNex
xNeK
0.305
xNew
0.
853
xNew
Nek
17440
New
NeL
Ner
NeL
Nek
NeK
Nek
xNeK
1.938
New
mtex
mtex
xNeK
0.457
xNew
---
Application:
Mul
tipl
y ordivide the known value by the factor given under needed value to obtain the
desiredvalue.
From the above chartthefollowing countconversion form ulaethose are very importantfor
practicalfiel
d:
5315
D
D=
590.5
T
Tex=
e=
e=
5315
Ne
590.5
Ne
Ne=0.59x Nm
Nm= 1.693x Ne
9000
Nm
1000
Tex=
Nm
Tex= 0.111xD
9000
D
N 100
m=
T
D=9 xTex
m=
D=
47
Exam ple 1:
Known value:32 Ne
Tex=590/Ne=590/32=18.44
Denier=5315/Ne=5315/32=166.09
Exam ple 2:
Known value:150D
Needed value:Ne,Nm,Tex?
Ne=5315/den=5315/150=35.433
Nm =9000/den =9000/150=60
Tex =o.lllxden = 0.111x150 = 16.65
Countcalculationanddenotion(Designation)forpIyordoubled(folded)yarn:
Ply yarns are produced by twisting two or more singles yarns together.This increases the
strength ofthe yarn.The singles yarns m ay be of equalor different count and they m ay be
tw isted togetherin one orseveralstages.Yarnsofdifferentcountaretwisted togetherin fancy
yarns,forinstance.
Designation ofplyyarns:
ofthepIyyarn,i.e.the numberofconsti
tuentyarns,theircount,twistand directionoftwist(S
orZ)andthefoldingtwist.
Thenominal(resultant)tount,whichisthecountofasinglesyarnofthesamefinenessasthe
folded orpIy yarn.Thisisused mainly in calculations.
The effed ive count,which isthe nominalcount,corrected forthe shortening ofthe yarn during
doubling(twistcontraction).Twistcontractionresultsinasomewhatshorterandcoarseryarn.
The following exam ples quoted from Tentative Textile Standard No. 62 will iflustrate the
method.
40/1Z16ring-spunAmericancotton
Thisdescribesa single yarn oflineardensi
ty 40 tex (approx.15scotton count),
having 16 tpi.Z twist, spun on a ring fram e from Am erican cotton.Traditional
m ethodsofdescribing the same yarn include thefollowing:
15sring-spun American cotton,16 Z;
'
.
1/15s,16ZAmericancotton,ring-spun;orsimply15scotton.
48
15/2S18;7/1S27cotton
Thisdescribesa two-fold cotton yarn ofresultantlineardensity 15 tex having 18 tpi.
2/80scotton;27Sx18S:orsimply2/80scotton.
Note that 15 tex is approximately equivalent to 40s cotton count, and that the
resultantcountofa2/80scottonyarn,whichisproducedbytwistingtogethertwo
singleseach approximately80scotton count,is40scotton count.
45/3Z20;15/2S18;7/1S27cotton
This describes a cotton-sewing thread of resultant Iinear densi
ty 45 tex m ade by
twisting together,w i
th 20 tpi.Z-twist,three two-fold yarn sim ilarto thatdescribed
in(11)above.
The first figure in yarn descriptions set out according to Tentative Textile Standard No.62
alwaysreferstothe resul
tanttexnumberofthefinalyarn.Inexample(111),thegroupsoffigures
have the following meanings:
15/2 S 18 indicatesthateach ofthe 3 plies comprising the finalyarn consists ofa two-fold
thread having a resultantIineardensityoflstex,and adoublingtwistof18 tpi.,S.
7/1 S 27 indicatesthateach ofthe single yarns comprising the two-fold plies consists of a
cotton yarn having alineardensityof7 tex,and a spinning tw istof27tpi.,S.
* W ith regard to a plain pIy one mustdifferentiate between two possibilities.Such a pIy
can consistof
yarnswiththe same count
yarns having differentcounts.
PI
y with yarnsofthe same count:
Thisisthe m ostcom monly used plain ply.
I
'Eakulation ofcounton the indired system :
z't.
t2:t4s
I
'
!
i
k
I
j
!
jj
lR :::
.
t
)
L
r
'g
Ir.!l
(-.
y
t
;..
, z'
.
q-
p
t
!
?
,L,,
.
:
r'
..
.-
q
t
.
.,
..
)
j:
,
..y
r
(.
;
Where,NR=Plyorresultantcount(e.g.NmorNe)
N=Singleyarncount(e.g.NmorNe)
n = Num berofyarnsinthe pIy
49
=50/2=25Nm
Exam ple 2: A p1y consistsof2 single yarns,each having acountofNe40.
N
Solution:
PIy count
NR= n
=40/2=20 Ne
Denotion ordesignation based onthe indired system :
N/n
The ply in theexam ple isdenoted asfollows:
Nm50/2;Nm30/2/3;Nm40/2/3/4;Ne40/29Ne40/39Ne60/2/3etc.
Calculation ofcounton thedired system :
NR= N x n
Where,NR=PIyorresultantcount(e.g.texorden)
N=Singl
eyarncount(e.g.texorden)
n = Numberofyarnsinthe pIy
Exam ple 1: A ply consistsof2single yarns,each having a countof20tex.
Solution:
PIycount
NR= N x n
= 20 x 2= 40 tex
50
Lx w
W xI
NexlxW
Ne=
L=
Here, Ne=50/2=25
W = 95gm
w = 1lb = 453.6gm
I= 840yds= 840x0.91m
L=(25x840x0.91x95)/453.6
L= 4002.31m
' From the above calrulation,the form ula can be developed to caltulate the Iength ofsewing
thread from a tone asfollow s:
,
-
ForNesystem:L=(NRxW)x(840x0.9144)/453.6
t=(NRxW )x1.6933
'
..
W here,
L=Lengthoftheyarninmetre(m)
NR= Resul
tantorpIy countofyarn in Nesystem
i
)
:
y
'
W =WeigitOftheYarningramme(gm)
1.6933=Constantvalue(0nIyforNesystem)
;J
Nmsystem:
(
(.
j
.2
'
,
.L,
L=(NRxW)x1000/1000
L= Nq XW
w jjrro
L=Lengthoftheyarninmetre(m)
: t,
3*t
1
e '
pl
7:r
t
;
?
:
' .
?7'
W =Weightoftheyarningramme(gm)
)#
#'E.
k.
'
s.
..
)
>8
=A
''y)
.
..
f'
,
.
J.
.yl'
s
q
.
t
'
.
V
.
);.
51
Fancy yarns
In the design of textile products: yarns are first selected on the basis of their m echanical
propertiessuch asstrength,extensibility,elastici
ty,etc.Choicesmay also be made on the basis
ofthe so-called physiologicalproperties such asvapourpermeability and m oisture transport.
M echanicaland physiologicalproperties are governed mainl
y by the type offibre, the fibre
Iength,and the spinning system .
.
However,yarnsm ay also be selected fortheirappearance.Specialtypes ofyarns,both single
and folded,can be created to give particularopticaleffects.
Coloureffects:
1.
M ixture or Ingrain:These yarns are m ade by m ixing fibres of di
fferent
colours during spinning.This results in a heathereffect.Fabric exam ple:
m arengo.
- '.'..o.
' . -.. . .
.. ...
. .
. ..
.
i1
..e...
-ru'-. -.
IV.
..
. . .. .
. .
:.''.:.uL
;;
qkr..
r;
tr :e... 7(. . ....n.:.)w.n(!::trL.'.sT$)r.k..
,.4
..
B.
Structure effed s:
1.
Nub:Theseyarnsaresingle orfoldedyarnshavinglongthickplaces,regularly
or irregularly disposed.The slub effect is made either in spinning or in
folding.Fabri
csmay havethecharacterofIinenorwild silkwhich isfavoured
infurnishings.
'
.-
..
.
..
. .
..
.o
...:.. .j..y..oyaugrs.
Js.
zr.:z .:
k:1..x..
a. n;..
w.
g.
52
Chenille:This is a cut pile yarn,it is soft and volum inous.These yarns are
m ade bycutting specialfabrics into strips.They are used in furnishing fabrics
and knitwear.
v u1
-''' .
Erepe:These yarns are used to m ake fabrics with a wrinkled surface and a
sandy handle.They are m ade from highly twisted yarns.Fabric exam ples:
crepe dechine,georgette,crepon,m arocain.
Bourette or knop: These yarns are folded yarns containing short, often
coloured bunchesoffibresoryarn atregularorirregularintervals.The knops
may be form ed during carding, during spinning, or during folding.Fabrics
havea structured surface.Example:Donegaltweed.
V.
C. Lustre effects:
Mattorlustreeffectsare obtained bymixingmattand brightfibres.Lustreandgli
tter
'
effectscanalsobeobtainedbytheuseofmetalfibresormetallisedpl
asticfilms(e.g.
Lurex),orclearfilms,orman-madefibresw'
lthspecialcross-sections.Fabricexamples:
brocade?Iame'.
..
.
&:er c.....>:
. t/@x )L'L
.tt .Rt2%
Y k-;t:@2<.u''%7:f'z>'4! qtk
L-w
''*. 4+5a ;.
a( j'(.
/..
nz 1
. .e .1ee.'k BT
yl
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t.'
jjo..a.;,k
.z
1w.!'
...
G.
fi'k>.
jthi
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)
'k
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y
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..
vt;f
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.L.p.jj
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lj
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js.
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53
Fabric:
Fabric is a flexible planarsubstance constructed from solutions,fibres,yarns,orfabrics,in any
combination.Textile fabrics can be produced directly from websoffibres by bonding,fusing or
interlocking to make non-woven fabrics and felts,buttheirphysicalproperties tend to restrict
theirpotentialend-usage.The mechanicalmanipulation ofyarn into fabric isthe mostversatile
method ofmanufacturing textile fabricsfora wide range ofend-uses.
Types ofFabric:
There are three principal methods of mechanically manipulating yarn into textile fabrics:
Wovenfabric(Interlacing)
b. Interlx ping:
Itconsisl offormingyarnts)intoIoops,eachofwhichistypicallyonlyreleasedaftera
succeeding Ioop has beenformedand intermeshed with itsothatasecuriground
54
Ioop structure is achieved.The loops are also hed together by the yarn passing
from one to the next.Knitting is the most com m on m ethod of interloping and is
second only to weaving as a m ethod of m anufacturing textile products. lt is
estimated that over seven m idlion tons of knitted goods are produced annually
throughout the world.Although the unique capability of knitting to manufacture
shaped and form-fitting articles has been utilized forcenturies,modern technology
has enabled knitted constructions in shaped and unshaped fabric form to expand
into a wide range ofapparel,dom estic and industrialend-uses.
W eftknitted fabric
Knittedfabric(Interlooping/lntermeshing)
C. Intertwining and tw isting:
k
%y x
Ax
y.yx
),
kk z
'
yGJ' #
yy4
yh
,
b
tsyhs Ax
s%'
xs
&k.z
kh ;
z/o
'
> y ,y
% Xk>
%
t
-s.
,
/'4c.
k.
ktyzo) :;.
.
v
-ks '
ttt,.f,:.
.
4
,
f.
:
b,'
7ks#
'
,p':z
,k.t
.v
xx
Braidfabric(Intertwining)
,
.
There isanothermethod ofmanipulating directly fibre intotextile fabrics isso caled nonw oven
process.Thisrelativelyyoungbranchofthetextileindustryhasexpandedenormouslyafterthe
second world-warbecause ofthe high production ratesand the resulting costsavings.
:
.
55
None ve s are flexible,porous products consisting ofone ormore fibre layers. The separate
fibres may eitherbe preferentially oriented in one direction ormay be deposited in a random
manner.They are bonded by chem ical, thermalormechanicalprocesses into textile products.
Nonwovensare mainly planarstructures.
y
u
. w yj
& ,< a> .
t
,,
y.
yj
x
'N3
..
,
-5
1
'
!
1
1
1
1
:
!
l
1
I
1
1
l
1
.
,
j
-1
.
1
t
'
-,
(
jj
l
.
.
--
Needle-punched web
Nonwovenfabric(mechanical,chemicalorthermalbonding)
Two setsofyarn:
b.Weft/picks----+ horizontalyarn
Knitting machine
lI.Knitted Fabric
Knitling Process
O ne orone setofyarn
(Intermeshing/Interlooping)
111.Nonw oven Fabric ---- -+ Nonwoven Process
Fibre web
(Mechanical/Chemical/Thermalbonding)
Braiding m achine
IV.Braided Fabric
Braiding Process
(I
ntertwining/Diagonal
interlacement)
AtIeastthree group of
yarnfrom a set
56
57
Rvoven FabKcs:
W oven fabrics are com posed ofIongitudinalorwarp threads and transverse orweftthreads,
interlaced with one anotheraccording to the class of structure and form ofdesign thatare
desired.
W eR Yam Preparati
on
i
W arping
i
Sizing
ForconventionalIoom
(shuttleIoom)
Pirn W inding
Formodern Ioom
(shuttlelessIoom)
i
Cone
(Directl
yfromspinning)
Looming
Tying-in
W eaving
W eaving preparation:
Yarn is the basic building block in weaving. Therefore, after yarn manufacturing, the next
successive stepswould be to weave the yarn into a fabric. However,in practice,the condition
ofyarn produced on the spinning machine is not always good enough to be used directly for
fabricform ation.Package size, yarn surface characteristics,and otherfactorsm ake itnecessary
forb0th weftyarn and warp yarn to be furtherprocessed forefficientfabricform ation. These
preparatory processesare called weaving preparation.
58
stresses as the warp yarns and thusare easilyprepared forthe weaving process. Depending on
the spinning m ethod,the weftyarns may not be prepared atall, but rathertaken straight off
the spinning process and transported to the weaving process. Thi
s is the case with open-end
(rotor),airjetandfrictionspinningsystemswhichprovidealargesingle-endpackagesuitable
forinsertion during weaving.However, ring spun yarns need to go through a winding process
forseveralreasons thatare explained below . The process used to prepare yarns for weaving
depend on yarn type as well.
Spun yarn quality characteristics that are most important for good weaving pe/ormance
include shortand Iong-term weightuniformity, imperfections,tensile properties and hairiness.
lt should be noted that variation in a property is almost always more important than the
average value ofthat property.Regardless of the processes employed, a second concept of
quality has to be embraced.Notonly m ust the quality ofthe yarn itself be maintained and
enhanced,butalso the quality ofyarn packagesis extremely importantto furtherprocessing.
The cost of repair a yarn failure is m uch less if it occurs priorto the weaving process. ln
addition,a yarnfailure during weaving also increasesthe chancesforoffqualityfabric. M any if
not m ost of the quality problems encountered during fabric forming are directly related to
mistakes made during yarn manufacturing oryarn preparation forweaving.
Since winding is com m on forboth weftand warp preparation, itwillbe discussed firstforboth
yarn systems.The weaving process isparticularly abusive to Iengthwise yarns in a woven fabric;
therefore,the technology surrounding the preparation ofwarpyarn forweaving isgivenspecial
attention.
W inding:
W inding is basi
cally transferring a yarn from one type of package to another. This sim ple
definition may make the winding sound like a trivialprocess;however, it is an im portantand
necessary processthatperformsthe following functions especiallyforring spun yarns.
W inding produces a yarn package thatis suitable forfurther processing. Ring spinning
producessmallpackagesofyarn(calledspinner'spackagesorbobbins)whichwouldbe
depleted relatively quick during weft inselion orwarping. Therefore,the amountof
yarn on several small packages is combined by splicing or knotting onto a single
package.Knotting has been replaced bysplicing in modern winding machines.
59
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Yarn Faults
* The winding process provides an opportunity to clear yarn defects. Thin and thick
places,slubs,neps orIoose fibres on the yarn are cleared during winding and,thus,the
overallquality ofthe yarn is improved.Staple yarns require this clearing operation m ost
because they may have these kindsoffaults more often.
The increasing use of newerspinning technologies resulted in a situation where the oId
conceptofyarn clearing and package quality now has become a partofthe spinning process
ratherthan part of a separate winding process.Properly formed packages of defect-free
spun yarn are an even m ore criticalfactor.Package considerations include condition ofthe
package core,the properprovision ofyarn transfertails;properIy formed splicesorknots;
elim ination ofinternaldefects such as slubs,sloughs,tangles,wild yarn,scuffs and ribbon
wind; and elimination of external defects such as over-end winding, cobwebs, abrasion
a) Region1:
Unwinding ofyarn from the spinning package - The yarn package is held inthe creel
in an optimum position forunwinding.Yarn withdrawalcan be done in two ways:
Side w khdrawal:In this method the spoolis rotated and therefore the yarn
does notrotate during withdrawal.Asa result,the yarn twistdoes notchange,
which is anadvantage.
60
Since the yarn does not rotate,the spoolm ust rotate forside withdrawal. This
requires additional energy and equipm ent, which is a disadvantage. At high
w inding speeds,due to inertia,the rotation ofthe spoolcan cause yarn tension
variations. Upon start-up, higher tensions m ay be developed because the
w inder m ustovercom e spoo!inertia.
side w ithdraw al:
over-end w ithdraw z :
ynrn
guide
Yarn w ithdrawalsystem
*
1
r
61
a
i
x
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.
Y
=5 o
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x os
yarn
PKW e
stop motion feeler
yau clerery, 4:
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ymn
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b) Region2:
The tensioning and clearing region - In this region, proper tension is given to the
yarn fora desired package density and body.Tbe typicalcom ponents ofthis region
are a tension device,a device to detectthick and thin spotsin the yarn (clearing
device)and astop motion.Thestop motion causesthewinding to stopin caseof
yarn breakage or the depletion of a supply package.The yarn is directed into this
region by a guide.
There are tw o types ofguides:closed and open.Closed guides require a yarn end to
thread, and open guides do not.Open guides,however, give Iess positive guiding.
Engineering issues here are guide smoothness, abrasion betw een yarn and guide
causing yarn damage.Ifthe guide is too rough,dam age ofyarn due to abrasion w ill
occur.On the otherhand,if the guide is too sm ooth, friction m ay develop.Guides
are usually m ade from hard stainlesssteels orfrom ceram ics.
. .w
62
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67 .
fkt
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Various types ofyarn guides:top left- w ire hard chrom ed,top right- plasm a ceram ic
coated,bottom right- alum ina sintered,bottom Ieft- hard porcelain.
W ire guides are easier to m anufacture to any shape.The chrom ium Iayer can be
satin finished or m irror polished depending on the need. Ceram ic-coated m etal
guides are especially good for synthetic fibres. These guides com bine wear
resistance of ceram ic com pounds with ductility of metals w hile allowing com plex
shapes to be made. As a result, there is no need for inserts, clam ps or gluing.
Alum ina sintered yarn guides w ith m at surfaces are recom m ended forsynthetic and
mixedyarns(nylon,polyester,etc.)whilealuminasinteredyarnguideswithpolished
surfacesorground polished sudaces are generally used fornaturalfibres (silk,wool,
cotton,etc.).Porcelainyarnguidesareproducedwith matormirrorjlazes.Theyare
resistantto w earofnaturalorsynthetic fibres and yarns.
Ceram ic Inser't
Trum pet
Busla
Tvpe A :- A Yarn End is Required forThreading
<-
Pig Tail
Slotted Cuides
Post
Tvpe B:-A Yarn End is N ot Required for Threading
'
63
Tension Y vice:
The tension device m aintains a proper tension in the yarn to achieve a uniform
package density.lt also serves as a detectorforexcessively weak spots in the yarn
that break underthe added tension indtnced by the tension device.
There are three majortypes of tension devices;those are shown in the following
figure.
@ rmpstan (ormultiplitative):
The output tension depends on the inputtension,coefficient offriction
betweentheyarnandthe post(g),andthetotalangleofwarp(a):
YOut= YinCVC
Since g,(x and e are constants,Toutis'a constant m ultiple ofthe incom ing
tensionTin(thisisthereasonwhyCapstaniscalled multiplicative).lfTiois
zero,so is the Txt.
Changing g, ,the num ber of guides and/or Tin changes the output
tension.g can be changed by changing the post materialoryarn sudace
characteristics.
a)Capstantensi
oner(topvi
ew)
ozrlx lxxx a
CN:
'r0Ur
TIn
b)Addi
ti
vetensl
oner(si
deview)
N
T$n
..
Tou!
c)Combinedtensioner
N
T.o
Tout
** E
*N -.
.*
64
* Addive tensioner;
Since jt and N are approxim ately constants for a given system , Tout is
obtained by sim ply adding a constant to Tin.If Tjn is zero,there is stillan
output te nsion Tout= ZgN.Toutm ay be changed sim ply by changing the
norm alforce N.
Rollertensioner
Tension rollerunit
m
+
wrkyj
.a
ay
. .
v>
.
Capstantensioner(forfineyarn)
e .'
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Disctensioner
Capstantypetensioner.Tensionischanged by normalforceand/orwrap
angle.
TOut= Tin+ Tine't
'x+ 2gN
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65
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Yarn Cleareo :
The purpose of a yarn detectoris to rem ove thin and thick places.Yarn detectors are
usualiytwotypes:mechanicalandelectronic.
A m echanicalclearerm ay be as sim ple as two parallelblades.The distance betw een
The clearers of today's technology are m ore sophisticated and contain electronics
w hich continuously m onitor the yarn to detect thin and thick places. Electronic
detectors are m ainly two types:capacitive and photo-electric.In a capacitive type
detector,the variation in the m ass of the yarn passing througb the plates changes
the capacitance of the unit.It should be em phasized that the system m easures the
m ass of the yarn.The signalis not based on the physicaldimensions of the yarn.
W hen the generated signalreachesa certain value,the yarn is cut.
66
codenser
oscillator
N
.
bl
adjustable
ade
b)photo-elrcl
ricdetector
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Stop M G ion:
The purpose of a stop motion is to stop w inding when the yarn breaks orruns out.
Stop m otions vary from machine to machine.In general,a mechanicalstop motion
consist of a counter weighted orspring loaded sensing device which is held in an
inactive position ifthe yarn is present.Breakage orrunning outcauses the absence
ofthis restraining yarn and allow s the sensing device to activate.Electronic stop
motions simply sensethe existence ofthe yarn w ithout mechanicalcontact.
p
k
-
)
kq
c) Region3:
The winding region - In this region,the yarn package w hich is suitable forfurther
processing is w ound.M a ny types of package configurations can be obtained
67
including cone, tube or cheese, dye tube or spooldepending on the next stage of
processing.
The basic requirem ent ofw inding is uniform tension on the yarn.Uniform tension is
necessary forconsistentw inding and yarn uniform ity w ith respectto properties that
are functions of tension. If the tension on yarn passi the tension device is
constant, the tension in the package should be constant provided that the yarn
speed is constant, i.e., the tension on the package is only a function of the yarn
speed.
The yarn is w ound on the package by only rotating the package.Considera disc of
ThereforeV = f( and R)
The rotation of the package m ay be accom plished in tw o w ays:Spindle drive and
Friction drive.
force
Package
packagc
V
R
A
spindle
drivingroller
ya.
l'
n
Rotating package
Spindle
YZCR
In this system ,the spindle,w hich holds the package,is driven directly.There
are tw o variations ofthis system :constantspeed w inders and variable speed
w inders.
Constantspeed w inders:
i.e.,fo=constant.Since.
o= 2an,thenn (rpm)isconstant.
68
Vy=Vd =ftdRd=constant((%,Rdareconstants)
Thus, a constant sudace speed on the package and therefore an alm ost
constant yarn w inding speed are obtained.This system is w idely used for
staple yarns.
69
TypesofPackages:
Based on the w inding pattern, yarn packages can be grouped under three
categories:parallel,near-paralleland cross-wound packages.
* Parallelw ound packages:
These packages are sim ilarto warp beam s;there are many yarns,which
are parallelto each other.Forthese packages,flanges orshoulders are
necessaw to prevent yarn instabilities.The application of this type of
package is lim ited.
* Near-parallelpackages:
In this type of package,there is usually one yarn end thatis wound on the
package.A nearparallelwound package is notself-supported.Therefore,
forstability,the ends ofthe package need tapering,flangesorshoulders.
70
(a)Parall
elwoundpackage
(b)Nearparallelwoundpackage
(c)Crosswoundpackage
Types ofpackages
Cross-w ound packages:
A single yarn end is wound on the package ata considerable heli
x angle,
w hich is generally Iess than 800. This type of winding provides package
stability and, therefore, there is no need to taper or flange the edges.
Thus,a cone ortube could be used in the w inding process.
The ratio of winding speed (Vw)and traversing speed (Vt) determines the
package type for near-paralleland cross-w ound packages.If Vtis very Iarge,
relatively fastsuccessive Iayers ofyarn w illbe Iaid at distinct angles to each
k
other,producing a cross-wound package.If Vt is slow ,successive Iayers w ill
E
r
be very close to pa rallelto each other, producing a near parallel-wound
k
t
package.Sloughing-off is a condition w here m any coils of yarn unwind from
the package at a tim e.lt depends on w hat is called a criticalw inding angle.
:
zk1
r
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:tx>. The package forms can be conical or cylindrical, as required by the
J..)(.
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' subsequentprocesses.
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71
Pirn Vvinding:
A pirn orquillis a weft bobbin thatis placed inside a shuttle in shuttle weaving.
As the shuttle travels back and forth across the width of the shuttle loom,the
weftyarnisunwoundfrom thepirnthroughtheeye(forordinaryshuttle)orslot
(forautomaticshuttle)oftheshuttleandIaidintheshed.Theyarnonthe pirnis
o pered at one end such that the yarn w ithdrawal takes place continuously
w ithoutentanglement.
yarn
package
&yarn
guide
+1
.
D
c
tension
oh
deviceA
Yy
.
c
G
2
stop motion
yarn
guide
12
8
LE
o
.E
(1tlill
The machines that are used to w ind pirn are called ''quillers'' or pirn w inding
m achines.These m achines are automatic,w hich m eans that w hen the pirn is
filled,itis doffed and an em pty pirn is placed on the spindle autom atically.W it'h
the elimination ofshuttle Ioom s,the pirn w inding process i
s also disappearing.
72
W inding M achine:
Cross winding m achines are used forcross winding oftubes,cones and bobbins with
one ortwo flanges.Yarn laying and package drive are achieved by a grooved drum.In
cross-winding,the stability ofthe package isprovided by the acute crossing angle.The
package endscan be tapered aswell.A nearparallelwinding machine with fourwinding
positionsand autom atic doffing also available.The yarn traverse is controlled by a cam
drivengear.Today'swinding machinesallow use ofdifferentsize bobbins with different
flange diameters,overallIengths and winding widthsonthe sam e m achine.Forwinding
of industrialyarns such as aram id,carbon orglass yarns and monofilaments,specially
designed yarn guide elementsare used.A spindlespeed of5000 rpm ispossible.
Today yarn singeing machine with gas burnersofstainless steel,traveling blower and
gas/airmixingstationwithvariablemixingratio isalsoavailable.
Precision W inding:
In precision winding,the position ofthe yarn as it is Iaid on the package is controlled
very precisely to increase the density of the package.The following figure shows a
precision winding machine.ln this particularm achine,the yarn positioning system isalIelectronic. W ith the electronic system , freely program m able package building is
possible,which isshown in the followingfigure.
(t
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3 4.
Sections
Examplesofpackagesmadewith precisionwinding
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73
Problem :
How Iong w illit take for a w inder to w ind 3.00 Ibs of 16 Ne yarn ifthe w inder
operatesat745yd/min.with theefficiency95%?
W e know that,
Time,t= Iength/speed
L
P'
= -
Speed,V = 745yd/min.
W eightofthe yarn in the package,W = 3.00 Ibs
Yarn count,Ne= 16
W
L xw
1#'x /
Th
Ne x p-x/
erefore,L=
W
=
16 x 3.00 x 840
1
= 40,320 yds
*
t=
40320
745
=54.12minutes(assumingnobreaksorstops)
To considerthe effectofefficiency,
Therefore,t= 54.12
0.95
= 56.97 m inutes.
74
W ARP PREPARATIO N
The preparation of warp yarn is more dem anding and complicated than that of the weft or
filling-yarn.Each spotin a warp yarn mustundergo severalthousand cycles ofvariousstresses
W arping:
W arping section forw arp yarn preparation:
In generalterms, warping is transferring many yarns from a creel of single-end packages
forming a parallelsheet of yarns wound onto a beam or a section beam . Today's warping
macbinescan processaIIkindsofm aterials including coarse and fine filam entand staple yarns,
monofilaments,textured and sm00th yarns,silkand othersyntheticyarnssuch asglass. Usually
a staticeliminatordevice isrecom m ended foryarnsthatcan generate staticelectricity.
The warp beam that is installed on a weaving machine iscalled a weaver's beam . A weaver's
beam can contain severalthousand ends and fordifferent reasons itis rarely produced in one
operation,There are severaltypesofwarping processesdepending on the purpose. ltshould be
noted thatthe warping terminology is qui
te different in different regions and sometim es the
same term may be used to identifydifferentprocessesin differentregionsorindustries.
75
W arping is aimed at preparing the weaver's beam to be set up on the weaving m achine.
W arpingcarriesoutfollowing operations:
Sectionalwarping(Indirectorconicaldrum ordresserwarping)
Beam warpingordirectwarping(preparatorybeam warping).
76
* 1. Direct warping can be used to directly produce the weaver's beam in a single
operation.This is especially suitable forstrong yarnsthat do notrequire sizing such as
continuous filaments or monofilaments and w hen the number of warp ends on the
warp beam isrelativelysm all.Thisisalso called directbeaming.
77
IndirectorSection W arping:
In indirect w arping,a section beam is produced first as show n in figure.Other nam es
used for section warping are pattern w arping, band warping or drum w arping. The
section beam is tapered at one end.W arp yarn is wound on the beam in sections,
starting w ith the tapered end of the beam . Each section has m ultiple ends that are
traversed together slow ly during w inding along the Iength of the section to form the
angle.Due to the geom etry ofthe yarn sections,the Iastsection on the beam w illhave a
tapered end thatw illm ake the whole yarn on the beam stable.Itisim portantthateach
layeron the beam contain the sam e num berofyarns.The sam e Iength ofyarn isw ound
on each section which is m easured by a m easuring roller.The warping speed can be
AfteraIIthe sections on the beam are w ound com pletely,then the yarn on the beam is
wound onto a regularbeam w ith flanges,before sizing.This process is called beam ing.
Som etim es a section beam isalso used in the sizing stage.
78
IndirectorSectionalw arping
W ith today's com puterized sectionalwarping system s, once the basic style inform ation
isentered,the com puterautom atically calculatesthe follow ing:
79
W arping M achines:
A typicalwarpingmachinehasthreemajorcomponents:creel,headstockand controldevices.
1-Creel:
There are varioustypesofcreels.The mostcomm on creeltypesare:
* parallelstandardcreelwithfixedpackageframe(singleendcreel)
* parallelcreelwith package trucks
* parallel creel with swiveling package frame sections (for cotton, viscose,
polyester/cotton,woolcolored)
* parallelcreelwithreservepackages(magazinecreel,forsyntheticfilaments)
* parallelcreelwith unrollingdraw-offforpolypropylene,m onofilam ents
* V - creelwith reversiblefram es
* V - creel with reversible frames and automatic knotter (for cotton, viscose,
polyester/cotton)
* V - creelwith traveling packages.
Parallelcreels are used forsectionalwarping and direct warping;V - creels are used for
directwarping.
ln single end creel,there is only one package for each warp end.Since creeling takes a
considerable time,the package size should be such that a num berofbeam scan be made
from one creel.Also,usually m ore than one creelisused such thatonce a creelisdepleted;
the next one would be readily available to continue warping.Depending on the space
requirem ents,this is done eitberby m oving tbe beadstock orby m oving the creels.jfthe
headstock ism ovable,then usuallytwo creelsare used which are called duplicated creels.lf
the headstock isfixed,again two creels willbe enough buta third creelplace isneeded in
which to m ove theem pty creel.Thisisknown asa truckcreelortrolley creel.
*kLY L
Q..a.
#
'%.,.'< sK.;.
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SwivelFrame Creel
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Trolleycreel
.'?,
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80
Trolley creels are suitable for both sectionaland direct warping. The creelgenerally has a
rectangular tube construction. The trolley creels have w heels for easy m aneuvering;
how ever,they are stabilized to preventtipping over.
II.Headstock:
The yarn speed should be keptasconstantas possible during w arping. l
n indirect(sectional)
warping,a constantspeed drive isgenerally sufficient in providing approxim ately uniform
yarn speed on the surface ofthe beam .Thisisbecause the thicknessofthe yarn builton the
beam is relatively smallcom pared to the beam diam etersuch thatthe surface speed does
notchange m uch .ln directw arping,the change due to yarn buildup on the beam is
81 significant.Therefore,in direct warping,m echanism s that are sim ilarto the ones used in
w inding are utilized to attain uniform yarn speed;surface friction drive and variable speed
drive are comm only used.Forsome filament yarns,variable speed drive is chosen since
Today's headstocks are equipped with advanced design features such as precision direct
drive, advanced electronics, smooth doffing and program mable breaking. Autom atic
hydraulic doffing is accom plished with tbe operation of one button. Program m able
pneum atic braking provides a constantstopping distance regardlessofthe operating speed
or beam diam eter.The length of the yarn wound on the beam is controlled with a
m easuring rollerand counterdevice.The density ofthe yarn can be controlled by tension,
pressure orboth.Frictionaldrive usually resultsin higheryarn density.In spindle drive,yarn
tension and a hydraulically activated pressure roller are used to controldensity.Som e
headstocksare designedto run m ore than one beam w idth.
111.ControlDevices
82
electrically Iinks each warp end to the warperbraking system ;when a warp end breaks,the
warperstops.Powerfulbrakesare used forthis purpose.A lightindicatesthe Iocation ofthe
broken end.The warping process is generally irreversible,unwinding of the beam w ould
cause yarn entanglement.The stop m otion device,which can be mechanicalor electronic
forquick response,isusually Iocated nearthe creel.
To avoid static buildup,especially with m anm ade fibres,different m ethods can be used
including chem icals,ionization ofairorhum idification ofair.Fans are used to prevent Iint
accum ulation when warping staple yarns.
83
SIZING O R SLASHING
coatingofapolymericfilm formingagent(size)isappliedtothewarpyarnspriortoweaving;
this process is called sizing orslashing.Sizing is not a value added process in woven fabric
m anufacturing.This is because,afterthe fabric is woven,the size m aterials willbe removed
from thefabricduringthefinishing operation,which iscalled desizing.
The main purposesofsizing are asfollows:
to increase thestrength oftheyarns
* to reduce theyarn hairinessthatwould cause problemsinweaving process
* to increase the abrasion resistanceoftheyarnsagainstotheryarnsand variousweaving
m achineelements
* to reduce fluffand fIyduringthe weaving processforhighspeed weavingm achines.
To increase the weaveability ofthe warp yarn,thisisthe m aingoalofsizing.
The ultimate goalofsizing isto eliminate orreduce warp breaks during weaving.W arp breaks
are caused ei
therby high tension orby Iow strength in the yarn.High tensionsin the warp are
caused by Iarge shed openings,lack ofpropertension compensation,high beat-up force and
iudequatelet-cq.Knots,afnentactementandhithfrictionalsocausetensionbuildup.
Sizing is a complem entary operation which iscarried outon warpsformed by spun yarnswith
insufficienttenacity orby continuousfilamentyarnswith zero twist.ln general,when sizing is
necessary,the yarn isbeam warped,therefore aIIbeams corresponding to the beam sare fed,
as soon as warping is completed,to the sizing machine w here they are assem bled.Sizing
consistsofim pregnating the yarn with particularstlbstanceswhich form on the yarn surface a
Thereisnotjustone sizing'recipe'whichisvalidforaIIprocesses,onthecontrarythesizing
methodschange depending on the type ofweaving m achine used,on theyarn type and count,
on the technician'sexperience and skill,butabove alIon the kind ofm aterialin progress.The
84
only comm on denom inator of the various sizing m aterials is that they have to be easily
removable afterweaving in orderto allow carrying outwithoutproblem sthe sejected finishing
cycle.The substancesused as sizing m aterialare potato flour,starches,glues,fatsbutalso talc
and kaolin,when a particularly thicksize isrequested.
-r-
85
A practical understanding of the im portance of size penetration, size encapsulation, yarn
hairiness, residuaqyarn elongation and yarn abrasion resistance is essentialto good sizing
practice. lt is im portant that the size film must coat the yarn sudace without excessive
penetration into the body ofthe yarn,because ifthe size m aterialis penetrated deep in the
yarn,com plete desizing would not be possible.Therefore,only enough penetration should
occurto achieve bonding ofthesize film to preventremovalduring weaving.
SizeTake-up(sizeadd-on):themassofpastetakenupinthesizeboxperunitweightof
oven dry unsized yarn
Size Percentage:the massofoven drysize perunitweightofoven dry unsizedyarn.
There is an optim um levelof size add-on that gives the m inimum warp end breakage.
Excessive size kakesthe yarn stifferand less extensible;yarnswith too Iittle size willnotbe
strong and smooth enough forweaving.Therefore,too Iittle ortoo m uch sizing causes an
increase in w arp end break.Optim um size add-on givesthe bestresultsforweaving.
Although sizing is done mainly to increase the strength ofthe yarn,som e strong yarnssuch
ascontinuous filam ents stillneed sizing.This is because sizing keeps the slack and broken
filam ents togetherin Iow tw ist yarns which otherw ise would protrude from the body and
rub againstthe m achine elem ents,Ieading to entanglement,developm entoffuzz balls and
end breaks.
Otherpointsto tonsiderin sizing:
Slasher creel tension control is critical especially with MJS and open-end yarns.
* W ater-solublesizescancauseproblemsinwaterjetweaving.
86
Process studies to determ ine causes for inefficiency should be conducted with strict
cause analysis techniques by an experienced practitioner and not as partofa typical
stopfrequencystudyforjobassignments.
* Guide rollersshould be keptfree from nicks,burrs and sharp edges,especially for MJS
yarns.Theyshould besanded/polishedfrequently.
Pre-wettingyarns priorto sizing can reduce the am ountofrequired size add-on forthe
same performance,especiall
y forcotton yarns.
Sizing m achine:
A sizing machine is used to apply the size materialto the warp yarns.The first sizing m achine
was buil
t in 1803 in England.The majorpartsofthe sizing machine are the creel,size box,
drying units,separation unit,beam ingand variouscontroldevices.
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The size box is probably the m ost im portant section ofthe sizing machine.During the sizing
process,thesheetofyarnsispassedthroughthe size box which containsthe hotwatersolution
ormixturesofsizing agents.The yarnspick up the required quantity ofsize solution in the size
box,any excesssize issqueezed offasthe yarns pass through squeeze rolls.Depending on the
size m aterial,warp quality and density,single and double imm ersion rolls and singl
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and double squeeze configurations are used. M ultiple size boxes can also be employed.In
87
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Beam creelarrangements
Tem perature ofthe size box is importantfor propersize pick up.For 100% polyvinylalcohol
(PVA)sizing,atemperatureof160to 1700F(700c)isrecommended.Constantsizetemperature
can beobtained in two ways:
1. Directheatinginwhichsteam isinjectedintothesize.
2. Indirectheating inw hich steam flowsin pipesaround the double walled size box.
A cooker is used to prepare the size and the shearing action in the cookeris im portantfor
uniform m ixing.Powdered size from silos,big-bags orsacks is metered into weighing stations
and then transferred to the cooker.
Afterthe size box,the yarnsgo through the dryersection.The wetyarnsare dried by using bot
air,infrared radiation orcylinderdrying.Cylinderdrying is done using steam heated hot rolls
which are called drying cylinders.Some-times,a com bination ofdrying methodsis used on the
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Due to the nature ofsizing,the yarns in the sheetm ay be stuck togetheratthe exitofthe
dryersection.Therefore,they are separated into individualendsby using bustrods.First,the
88
individualsheets of yarns from each section beam are separated followed by pins in the
expansion comb to separate the yarns witbin each sheet.Then the yarns are wound onto a
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Typicalleasingsystem
Some sizing machinescan have up to 24 beam positions.The beam scan be controlled in groups
orindividually.The Iet-offcan be individuallet-off,single group let-offorw rap-round Iet-off.
89
Draw ing-in:
After sizing,the sized warp beam is prepared to be placed on the weaving machine. High
fashion fabrics generally have high density which increasesthe dem and on the quality ofshed
opening.Asa result,warp Ieasing isbecom ing m ore popular.Different Iease com binationscan
be selected w i
ththe automated Ieasing m achines.
Drawing-in isthe entering ofyarnsfrom a new warp into the weaving elem ents ofa w eaving
machine,nam el
y drop wires,heddlesand reed, whenstarting up a new fabric style.Tying-in the
new warp endstothe depleted warp isdone when a new pattern isnotrequired.
A drop wire is a narrow m etalsheetthat is hung in the airby the tensioned warp yarn. Ifthe
warpyarnisbrokenorslacken(Ioose),thenthedropwiredropsandtouchesametalbarthat
extends along the width ofthe machine.This contact between the drop wire and m etalbar
closes an electricalcircuit and shutsdown the machine im mediately. There is a drop wire for
each warp yarn.
to200wiresperminute),thesemachinesareeconomicalformorethan3000 warpends.
Afterdropwire,thewarpyarngoesthroughtheheddleeye(thereisonlyonewarpyarnper
heddle eye).Thisisdoneaccordingto aplancalleddrawing-in-draft.Thentheyarnisthreaded
throughthe reed spaces.A reedspace istheopening betweentwo dents(metal)inareed In
.
general,one,tw o orthree warp yarns are passed through one reed space. The reed plan
90
specifiesthe num berofyarns perreed space.The num berofyarnsdependson the diameterof
the yarnsand the dent opening;each yarn should be able to move freely up and down in the
reed space independentofthe otheryarns.
Schem aticofDrawing-in
In the manualm ode of drawing-in,one person sorts the warp yarn and the other draws it
through fronthe otherside.The sortingstep can be automated by a reaching machine.
Today,the drawing-in and tying-in processes are fully automated. Drawing-in is done using
robot-like m achines.A specialtype of heddle is needed forautomated drawing-in.The warp
ends,takeh from the warp sheet,are fed individually to the drawing-in elem ent;heddles are
separated from the stackand broughtto the drawing-in position;a plastic knife opensa gap in
the reed and a hookdraws-in the warp end through the heddle and reed in one step.
91
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tomanualdrawing-in.A drawingrateof50,000warpendsper8hours(200endsperminute)is
possible.
Tying-in:
Afterthe depletion of a warp beam on the weaving m achine,if there willbe no change in
design,then the drawing-in process needs not be repeated.The ends ofthe old warp beam
92
W ith continuousfilaments and bulky yarns,a non-slip double knotisrecom mended which can
be handled by knotting m achines.Som e automatic tying machines can knot extrem ely short
The warpwelding machine is used to weld the warp end layerwith aplasticfoilafterdrawing-in
w hich providessim pl
e insertion through the weaving m achine.Thisresultsin tim esaving atthe
machine startup.After drawing-in with a brush beam the ends protruding from the reed are
aligned paralleland stretcbed evenly.An approximately Scm wide plasticfoilisplaced ontop of
the Iowerwelding barand a Iongerpiece ofplastic foilis placed on the warp yarnsabove the
lowerpiece ofplasticfoil.By moving the upperwelding bardow n,the plasticfoilsare welded
togetherwiththe warp yarns in between.
93
W eaving Printiple:
The following figuresshow a schematicofweaving.The warp yarnsare stored on a beam called
Heald w ire
Reed
W oven (210th
Warpyarn
Heald shafts
w arp beam
Filling yarn
filling carrier
X
(210th roll
94
sheets of warp yarns.This opening, known as the shed,produces a path through w hich the
filling is inserted.The loom m otion is called shedding,and the order in which harnesses are
raised and Iowered produces a pattern in the fabric. In looms containing m ore than two
harnesses,the sequence fordrawing endsthrough heddles and mounting heddles in harnesses
becomesmore intricate.In m any cases,groupsofharnessesare raised and Iowered together.A
very good fabric designer is needed to plan the drawing-in ofa warp and the sequencing of
harnessmovementsin a3z-harnessloom .
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acrosstheshedwithashuttle.Intoday'sweaving machines,anotherdevice,suchasajetofair
orwater,a rapier,orasmallprojectile,isused to placethe pick.Then eachfillingyarnmustbe
packed againstthe previously placed pick.Thisisaccom plished by using a reed,which is parallel
to the harness,to pressthe pick into position.This isthe beat-up m otion,the fourth and final
prim ary loom motion.The three motions such as shedding, picking and beat-up is called
weaving cycle orIoom cycle.
The c10th beam,orc10th roll,Iocated atthe frontofthe Ioom,hofds the com pfeted fabric;as
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Most fabrics are produced on weaving m achines with eight or fewer harnesses; elaborate
fabrics, however,require many harnesses and the specialattachments required to control
groups of harnesses,orthey have mechanism s sim ilar to com putercontrols that move each
individualwarp yarn to produce complex patterns.These m ore elaborate shedding mechanism s
suchasdobbyandjacquardsheddingmechanism.
95
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96
and controlled release of w arp yarn from fullto em pty beam w hich results in a
consistent warp tension.It isgood for preventing fabric defects such as pick density
variation and stop m arks.W eaving tensions should be m aintained atm inim um Ievels
forbestweaving perform ance.
The electronic fet-off system can be equipped w ith a pulley m echanism .or a
reduction gearm echanism .The Iinearand positive letting offofthe w arp beam can
be provided by a m agnetic reading ofthe w hip rollposition.Electronic warp let-off
system s have program m able m ovem ents w ith a tenth of pick accuracy to elim inate
stop m arks.They have the capability to release the yarn tension atthe stop ofthe
weaving m achine and recoverit atthe starting ofthe m achine by a num berofpicks
ranging1/10ofapickto 50 picks.Thisway,theoverstretchingoftheyarn,which is
the majorcause ofdefectsduring the standstilltim e,is prevented.The system can
follow anym ovementofthe machine,such astheforward slow motion (jogging)and
pickfinding m otioriW i
th the electronic Iet-offm echanism ,since brake and coupling
Iiningsare no Iongerneeded,spare partscostisreduced.
2. W arp Shedding:
Shedding is the m ovem ent of som e w arp yarns up and som e down to m ake an
angled opening for the weft yarn to be inserted through.This opening is called
''shed''. Before the insertion of the next w eft yarn, the w arp sheet has to be
rearranged according to the fabric design pattern so that the required fabric
structure isproduced.
3. W eftInsertion orPicking:
Aftereach shed change,the weftyarn is inserted through the shed as show n in the
follow ing figure. lt is possible to select and insert different w eft yarns one after
another.These w eft yarns can be of different colour,w eight,etc.,and a selection
m echanism is used for this purpose. Depending on the m achine type, several
different weft yarns can be used in the sam e fabric. The selection m echanism
presentsthe properw eftyarn to the yarn carrierforinsertion ofeach yarn.
W eaving m achines are usually classified according to the w eft insertion m echanism .
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97
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A shuttle Ioom uses a shuttle to store and carry the yarn back and forth across the
Ioom .Shuttle Ioom s have becom e obsolete in m anufacturing of traditionalw oven
fabrics due to several reasons, including Iow production rate, high noise, safety
concerns, Iim ited capabilities, etc.Nevertheless,the shuttle loom is stillused as a
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Yarn feedersoraccum ulatorsare used to w ind a predeterm ined yarn Iength to m ake
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t ready for insertion.Their m ain purpose is to supply weft yarn to the weaving
machine sm oothly and at a constant and propertension.There are varioustypes of
feeders used.The selection ofa feederdependson severalfactors:
99
yarn count
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metallamella,flexbrakeandcoaxialoutputtensioner.Thefigure(flexbrake)shows
the m em brane and the endless beryllium coppertensioning strip.The flex isused to
replace the brush ring and output tensioner in conventional brake system s.The
100
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During weaving offine woolens and Iinen yarns,usually a Iubricant is used w hich is
supplied by a Iiquid dispenser. The purpose of the Iubricant is to reduce w eft
breakages and increase weaving m achine speed and weaving eficiency.A Iiquid
dispenser is placed between w eft yarn package and feeder, w hich allow s an even
distribution of Iiquids,w ax,oil,m oisturizers and anti-static Iubricants on weftyarns
during weaving.The w eftyarn is coated w hen it passesovera m otordriven rotating
cylinderthatisim m ersed in a Iiquid reservoir.
To im prove the fabric appearance,i.e.,to com pensate yarn count fluctuations and
colour irregularities, a one-one-w eft insertion from tw o bobbins instead of weft
insertion from onl
y one bobbin is recom m ended.
4. Beat-up:
W hen the w ef'tyarn is inserted through the shed,it Iies relatively farfrom itsfinal
101
w eft yarn needs to be brought to its finalposition by pushing through the warp
sheet.Beat-up is the process of pushing the Iast inserted weftyarn to the c10th fell
by using a device called reed asshow n in the above figure.ForaIIpracticalpurposes,
the fabric is notform ed untilbeat-up occurs.
therefore,thereedisalsousedtocontrolwarpyarndensity(closeness)inthefabric.
Warpdensityisexpressedaseitherendsperinch(epi)orendspercentimeter(epc),
which affects the w eight of the fabric.The spaces betw een the m etalstrips are
called ''dents''.The reed holds one or m ore warp yarns in each dent and pushes
them to the c10th fell.After beating up the weftyarn,the reed is withdrawn to its
original rest position before the insertion of the next pick. The follow ing figure
RegularReed(bottom)andProfiledReedttop)
The shape and thickness of the m etalw ires used in the reed are im portant.Reed
selection depends on several considerations including fabric appearance, fabric
theconstruction(density)ofendsperinchinthefabriconthe Ioom.Itshould be
noted thatinterlacing causes a naturalcontraction ofyarns in the fabric such that
102
density ofw arp endsoffthe Ioom w illbe higherthan in the reed;generally about5%
higherdepending on the weave,tensionsand yarn sizesinvolved.
5. Take-up:
Asthe fabric isw oven,itshould be rem oved from the w eaving area.This is achieved
by the take-up m otion.The fabrictake-up rem ovesc10th at a rate thatcontrolsw eft
density ( picks per inch i.e. ppior picks per centim eter i.e. ppc).Two factors
determ ine w eft density: weaving m achine speed and rate of fabric take-up.
Generally, the pick insertion rate of a w eaving m achine is fixed at the tim e of
purchase based on the range of fabrics it is intended to produce, the type of
insertion m echanism and the w eaving m achine w idth.There is two types oftake-up
m echanism ,such as positive take-up m echanism and negative take-up m echanism .
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1Spreadingroller
2 C10th take-up roller
3Pressroller
-.e''
Weftdensity(ppiorppc)=
Machine speedlpicks/min)
Take-up speedlinch/min orcm !min)
Warpdensity(epiorepc)=Reednumberx ends/dent
Fabric Construction = W arp density x W eftdensity
103
Fabricw idth:
Atthe m om entitiswoven,the fabricw idth is equalto the reed width asshow n in the
follow ingfigure.However,asthe w eavingcontinuesand fabricgetsaway from the reed,
thefabricstartsnarrowingduetoseveralfactors(itshouldbenotedthatthereare
certainfabricswhichdonotgetnarrower,e.g.glassfabrics).Theseareweavingdesign,
fabric construction and w eaving tensions.The interlacing pattern ofthe w eave design
affectsthe crim p Ievelin the fabric and crim p on the w eftyarn causesthe fabricto
contractin width direction.Fabricconstruction,i.e.,the num berofweftand w arp yarns
perunitIength,also affectsfabric crim p and therefore fabricw idth.High weaving
104
tensions,especially in the warp yarns,cause fabric to shrink.W arp yarnsclosestto the
selvedgesofthe fabric undergo m ore stressdue to w idthwise contraction ofthe fabric
tow ard the center,causing Iinearangulardisplacementofthese outermostyarns.
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Weavingcontractim '
fell
lefttemple
pull
righttemple
pull
fabric widz
The narrowing offabric width should be prevented,by using a tem ple on each side of
the machine.Controlof fabric contraction by the tem ples of the m achine is another
criticalaspect ofgood weaving perform ance.A tem ple is a m etallic device that keeps
the fabric stretched by applying a force along the weft direction.There are various
tem ple typesasshown in the following figure.Itisalso possible to have a tem ple across
the fullwidth ofthe fabric.Fullwidth tem ples ensure uniform fabric quality overthe
entire weaving width with delicate fabrics and easieroperation.The fulltem ple hasthe
followingadvantages:
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106
the structure ofthe fabric.The above figure (basic structure ofa weaving machine)
illustrates how a sim ple tw o-harness Ioom is used to raise one harness w hile the other
harness rem ains in its originalposition.W ith this arrangem ent,the yarns from a shed
through which the'
w eftis inserted.
The carrier used fortransporting the w eft yarn m ay differ from one kind of Ioom to
another. The different devices used form the basis'for classifying different types of
Ioom s.The nam e ofthe Ioom often refers to the carrier used to insertthe w eftyarn.
Originally, these carriers w ere fairly Iarge, som ew hat oval w ooden shuttles with a
bobbin of yarn in the center. W ithin the industry m any people refer to new er
equipm entasw eaving m achines ratherthan Ioom s.W eaving m achinesvary from older,
shuttle Ioom sto m odern shuttleless m achinesw ith sophisticated electroniccontrols.
A. Shuttle W eaving M achines:
Forcenturies,the basic loom operated with a shuttle to lay the w eft yarn.By the
m iddle of the tw entieth century,shuttle Ioom s had developed to a high levelof
efficiency, allow ing them to m ake fabric rapidly w ith reduced num bers of flaws.
These shuttle w eaving m achines depend on a shuttle,a boat-shaped,m etal-tipped
carrier,to supply a continuous Iength of w eft yarn forthe weaving operation.The
yarn isactually w ound on a sm allspindle orbobbin know n as a pirn orquill,w hich is
placed in an opening in the shuttle.The shuttle enters the shed and m oves across
the w idth ofthe fabric to Iay the pick;it stopsatthe opposite side ofthe fabric;and,
after that pick is beaten into place,a new shed is form ed and the shuttle returns
across the Ioom , releasing yarn from the pirn to produce another pick. As this
operation is repeated,the weft yarn is alternately w oven over and underthe warp
yarnsatthe sidesofthe fabricto form the selvedge.
The width ofthe fabric is controlled by the num berand spacing ofthe w arp yarns
acrossthe Ioom .The yarn supply on each pirn isfairly sm all;itis enough to produce
severalinches of fabric Iength.Pirn in the shuttle m ust be replaced w hen the yarn
supply is exhausted.The frequency with w hich a pirn hasto be replaced dependson
the fineness of the w eft yarn. Coarse yarns require m ore frequent replacem ent;
fineryarnsneed to be replaced Iess often.
In the m echanicalchanger,fullpirns are kept ready in a revolving case.The m acgine
ram s them into the shuttle w hen the shuttle com es to rest briefly aftercrossing the
yarn.The pressure ofthe fullpirn crow ds the em pty quillout ofthe shuttle.It falls
through a slot into a containerunderthe Ioom .The new pirn is pushed m echanically
into place in the shuttle,w hich has a self-threading device that autom atically picks
up the yarn when the new pirn is inserted.This allow s the w eaving to continue
w ithout a stop.
107
A specialized process has been developed thatallows w inding of pirns to take place
at the Ioom . In the Unifilsystem ,em pty pirns are carried on a conveyer bel
t to a
point w here yarn from a Iarge package is w ound onto an em pty pirn that is then
returned to a position where it can be placed in the shuttle.This system requires
thatfew erw ound pirns be supplied,butit has severallim itations.It is usefulonly for
single-colourpicks,and because the costofthe system is high,itis m ost econom ical
for coarse yarns that w ould require especially frequent pirn replacem ent. Picking
w hen tw o or m ore different colours or types ofweftyarn are used requires tw o or
m ore shuttles and a m ore com plex and costly type of Ioom arrangem ent. A
conventionalshuttle Ioom has one shuttle box on each side ofthe m achine.
To insert yarns of diserent colours or types, a num ber of shuttle boxes m ust be
m oved up and dow n to bring shuttlesinto position to create the pattern.Such Ioom s
are often called pick-and-pick Ioom s. Am ong the advantages of m ost shuttleless
Ioom s is that they draw yarn for each pick directly from yarn packages, m aking it
easierand Iesscostly to inserta num berofdifferentcolours ortypesofyarn.
The Iength of fabric produced by a single w eaving m achine is determ ined by the
Iength ofthe individualwarp yarns w ound on the w arp beam s.Ifa soo-yards Iength
of fabric is needed, each end on the w arp beam willbe Ionger than 500 yards to
provide enough yarn for the fabric Iength, plus an additionalam ount for certain
allow ances.The am ountoffabric produced in a given tim e period isgoverned by the
speed atw hich the picks are inserted.
The speed w ith w hich w eaving m achines operate hastraditionally been expressed in
picks perm inute,orppm .Itoperatesatspeeds ranging from about110 to 225 picks
Shuttleless w eaving m achines w ere invented to increase the speed ofw eaving,
reduce the Iiterally deafening noise and overcom e the otherdisadvantages ofthe
shuttle loom .The m odern Ioom w ith a shuttle,although m uch fasterin operation
than the earliestautom atic loom s,is notsusceptible to furtherincreasesin speed
because ofthe variety of operations thatthe m achine m ust perform .Tim e is
required forstopping the shuttle and accelerating it in the otherdirection and the
108
w eight ofyarn on the pirn that m ustbe carried acrossthe shed Iim itsthe speed.For
this reason,future Ioom developm ents are Iikely to be in the area of shuttleless
w eaving.
Shuttlelessw eaving m achinesw ove 17 percent m ore fabric in 1987 than they did in
1982, and Textile W orld predicts that shuttle Ioom s w ill be outnum bered by
shuttlelessw eaving m achines in the early 1990s.
Shuttleless m achines m ay be classified as to the m ethod used in inserting the w eft
yarns.Fourbasictypeshave been developed:
* Machineswithgrippersorprojectiles(throw across)
@ Machineswith mechanicallyoperated gripperarmsoriapiers(reach
across)
* Machinesemploying airorwaterjetsto carrytheweft(spitorblow
across)
@ M achinesthatform m ultiple sheds(m ultiphase)
In hand w eaving and autom atic shuttle weaving, the weft yarn is continuous and
runs back and forth across the fabric,but in m ostshuttleless weaving,the w eftyarn
extends only from selvedge to selvedge,as it is cut off before it passes across the
shed. In aII shuttleless w eaving, the yarn for the pick is unwound from Iarge,
stationary packages ofyarn that are som etim es set on one side and at othertim es
set on both sides ofthe Ioom .Since w eaving speed dependson fabricw idth,there is
evew incentive to build widerm achinesform ore efficientw eftinsertion.
the first proven shuttleless weaving machine.In the gripperor projectile type of
w eaving m achine,a sm allbullet-shaped or hooklike device gripsthe end ofthe weft
109
systems,the gripperfrom the firstprojectile picks up yarn from the supply source
and m oves across the shed to lay that Iength ofyarn;then, as beat-up occurs,the
scjssors
selvedge
grippers
projectile
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eeder t
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Operationprinciplesforaprojectileweavingmachine
Steelgripperprojectilesas
smallas4 inches
In the other type of gripper m achine, a single gripper inserts one w eft yarn
alternately from the right- and Ieft- hand sides of the Ioom . It is called single-
pfmfctile system.Thissystem picks up yarn on the supply side and carries itthe
entire w idth of the shed.After beat-up has occurred, the projectil
e picks up yarn
from a second supply source on the otherside and returns acrossthe shed to place
the next pick.The gripper serves the sam e function as a conventionalshuttle, but
instead of holding a pirn, it carries the yarn behind it. Packages of yarn m ust,
therefore,be placed on both sidesofthe m achine.
Each pick is individually cut,so there is not a continuously w oven selvage Iike that
produced by a shuttle m achine.Instead, the edges are fringed. To finish them , a
tucking devce is used on both sides to interlace the fringe with the Iast few w arp
yarns along each edge.
Such m achines m ay be w ide or narrow ;they are available in weaving w idths up to
110
The projectile machine notonly weavesfabric more quickly than doesthe shuttle
Ioom , but it runs w ith Iess noise, m aking it possible for m anufacturers to com ply
m ore easily w ith governm entregulationsthat restrictnoise Ievels.
There is also a saving in pow ercosts forw ide-w idth fabrics.Narrow fabrics are not
econom ically w oven on this loom since too m uch tim e is spent in periods of
acceleration of the gripper.W ide fabric w idths are quite productive,as the power
consum ed is Iess than thatfora conventionalshuttle joom ofthe sam e size.Sheets
are woven side by side on som e of these m achines to take advantage of these
savings.According to data from producers of these m achines,the Ioom s can reach
speedsslightly over1,200 m etersofw eftyarn perm inute.
The projectile Ioom hasgood versatility and isused fora wide varietyofbasicfabrics
ranging from cotton-type goods such as percale and printcloth to worsted-type
m aterial. It does require a sm ooth, uniform yarn that is properly sized to reduce
As in tbe projectile loom,a stationary package of yarn is used to supply the weft
yarns in the rapierm achine.O ne end ofa rapier,a rod orsteeltape,carriesthe w eft
yarn.The other end of the rapier is connected to the controlsystem .The rapier
m oves acrossthe w idth ofthe fabric,carrying the w eftyarn across through the shed
to the opposite side.The rapieristhen retracted,Ieaving the new filling in place.
In som e versions of the m achine,tw o rapiers are used, each half the w idth of the
fabric in size.One rapier carries the yarn to the center of the shed, w here the
opposing rapierpicks up the yarn and carries it the rem ainderofthe w ay acrossthe
shed.A disadvantage of both these techniques isthe space required forthe m achine
if a rigid rapier is used.The housing forthe rapiers m ust take up as m uch space as
the w idth of the m achine.To overcom e this problem , Ioom s w ith flexible rapiers
have been devised. The flexible rapier can be coiled as it is w ithdraw n and w ill
therefore require Iess space.How ever,ifthe rapier is too stiff,it w illnot coil;if it is
too flexible,itw illbuckje.The double rapier is used m ore frequently than the single
rapier.Rigid and flexible rapier m achinesoperate at speeds of up to 1,300 m etersof
weft per m inute.These rapier loom s are efficient.They operate at speeds ranging
from about 200 to 260 ppm ataboutthe noise Ievelofprojectile Iooms.They can
produce a w ide variety of fabrics ranging from m uslin to drapery and upholstery
m aterials.
111
rapier
;;J22t2::t:.
Single r/g/ rapier The rapier(a Iong thin rodlenters the warp
from tbe Ieftand carries one pick across the entire wam widlh.
::5:'.':'')'''
:1. .. ''''
Double rigid rapiers. The two rapiers entertbe warp sim ultanm
ously and meetin me oenter.3%e Ieft-hand rapieroarries m e
pi
ck torapi
theercenteroftNe warp and then hands itoverto tbe rigntband
.
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JJ....
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11
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gripper heads
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o. . .
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Newer rapier m achines are built w ith two distinct w eaving areas fortwo separate
fabrics.On such m achines,one rapier picks up the yarn from the center, betw een
the two fabrics,and carries it across one weaving area;as itfinishes Iaying that pick,
the opposite end ofthe rapierpicks up anotheryarn from the center, and the rapier
m oves in the otherdirection to lay a pick forthe second w eaving area, on the other
halfofthe m achine.The above figure shows the action on a single w idth offabricfor
a single rigid rapiersystem,a double rigid rapiersystem , and a double flexible rapier
system .
Rapier m achines weave m ore rapidly than m ost shuttle m achines but m ore slow ly
The above figure depictsthe basic steps in air-jetweaving.The yarn ispulled from
the supply package at a constant speed, w hich is regulated by the rollers, located
with the m easuring disk just in front of the yarn package. The meajuring disk
rem oves a length of yarn appropriate to the w idth of the fabric being woven. A
clam p holdsthe yarn in an insertion storage area, w here an auxiliary airnozzle form s
itinto the shape ofa hairpin.
112
supply package
measuringdish
auxiliary nozzle
rollers Q
.....- ....
hairpin
clam p
m ain nozzle
Shed *
'
x
.
NN
.
NN
NN
relay nozzles
guiding channeloftbereed
Operation principleoftheAir-jetloom
The m ain nozzle begins blow ing airso thatthe yarn is set in m otion as soon as the
clam p opens.The hairpin shape isstretched outasthe yarn is blow n into the guiding
channelofthe reed w ith the shed open.The yarn is carried through the shed by the
air currents em itted by the relay nozzles along the channel.The initialpropulsive
force is provided by a m ain nozzle. Electronically controlled relay nozzles provide
multicoloured yarnsto m ake plaidsand are available with both dobby and jacquard
patterning m echanism s.
113
noise Ievelthan the shuttle, projectile,or rapier Ioom s.Air-jet weaving is m ore
popular because the m achines cost less to purchase,install,operate,and m aintain
W ater-jetweaving m achine:
These w eaving m achines w ere first developed in Czechoslovakia in the 1950s and
each weft yarn is Iess than 2.0 cubic centimeters.W ater-jet m achines can reach
speeds of 2,000 m eters of picks per m inute.The water-jet looms can produce
superiorhigh quality fabricsthat have good appearance and feel.
picksperminute (ppm)ortheyardsIaidperminute(ypm)inweftinsertion.In1990,
the top speed fora projectile weaving machine w as420 ppm with between 1000
and 1203 ypm w eft insertion. Flexible rapier m achines operated at 524 ppm and
114
Ifa fabric 60 inches w ide isw oven on each m achine ata density of50 pice per inch,
approxim ately 84 yards ofw eftyarn w ould be needed to produce an inch offabric.
In theory, the projectile would produce approximately 8.4 inches of fabric per
m inute; the flexible rapier, 10.5 inches;the rigid rapier, 9.
5 inches;the airjet,24
The process transform s w eaving into a continuous process rather than a cycle of
shedding, picking,and beating up. M ultiphase Ioom continually inserts w eft yrns
from yarn carriers. Rotary beat-up devices press inserted yarn firm ly against
previously form ed c10th. If the pattern cbanges,sm allgroups ofyarns are changed
into a new shedding position aftereach new yarn carrierhas passed.
The operation of m ultished w eaving m achines is based on a series of w avelike
m otions acrossthe w eaving surface.In general,fabricsw oven on these Ioom s do not
have a true 9O- degree angle betw een w arp and w eft;the w eft yarns are slightly
slanted,or skewed. M ultished w eaving is lim ited to specialtypes of fabrics, but it
can be expected to gain acceptance in the yearsahead.
M m any as 16 to 20 w eft carriers insert the precut w eft in a continuous process
instead ofthe interm ittent process ofsingle-shed w eaving. Beating up and shedding
arrangem ents are different.ln this continuousw eaving process,the num berof picks
per m inute is doubled. How ever, m ultiphase Ioom s have never been extensively
used in the industry.
.
)
i
115
Fabricselvagesorselvedges:
In yard goods, the outer edges are constructed so they willnot raved.These finished
In shuttle Ioom s,there is no need forspecialselvedge;since the yarn is not cut after
each weft insertion,the edges of the fabric are sm ooth and strong.On conventional
shuttle Ioom s,it is form ed w hen the weftyarns turns to go back acrossthe fabric.The
conventionalIoom m akes the sam e kind of selvedge on both sides ofthe fabric.At the
present tim e this is the only advantage of shuttle Ioom over shuttleless Ioom . In
shuttleless weaving, since the w eft yarn is cut after every insertion,there is fringe
selvedge on both sides of the fabric. In this case, special selvedges are needed to '
prevent slipping of outside warp yarns out of the fabric.There are severaltypes of
selvedge designs that are used for this purpose with shuttleless loom s.The kind of
selvedge used dependsupon econom y ofproduction and the expected use ofthe fabric.
* Plain selvages:
These selvages re constructed of the sim ple plain w eave w ith tbe sam e size
yarn as the restofthe fabric,butw ith the threads packed m ore closely together.
Such sejvages are fairly durable and firm . Plain selvages are sim ilar to the
structure ofthe rest of the fabric.They do not shrink and can be used for seam
edges.
* Tape Selvages:
The tape selvages are som etim es constructed w ith the plain w eave but oflen are
m ade ofthe basket ortwillweaves,which makes a flatteredge.Tape selvages
are m ade of heavieryarns orply yarns,w hich provide greaterstrength.They are
firm erand w iderthan plain selvages.Fortow els,bed sheets,drapery and curtain
fabrics,tape selvages give added strength to the edges.Selvages vary in w idth
from one-quarterto three-eights ofan inch.
116
Splitselvages:
Split selvages are m ade by weaving a narrow w idth fabric tw ice its ordinary
w idth with two selvages in the center. The fabric is then cut betw een the
selvages, and the cut edges are finished w ith a chain stitch or hem m ing. Split
selvedges are used when item s such as tow els are w oven side by side and cut
apartafterw eaving.
Fused selvages:
These selvages are m ade on fabrics of therm oplastic fibres, such as
polypropylene,nylon,etc.,by pressing a hotm echanicalelem enton the edgesof
the fabric.The fibres m elt and fuse together, sealing the edges. Electronically
controlled therm alcutters are used to cut and fuse selvedgesofsynthetic fabrics
on weaving m achines. The tem perature of the cutters is reduced w hen the
m achine is stopped.This technique is som etim es used to spli
t w ide fabrics into
narrowerwidths.
Leno selvages:
The Ieno selvages are obtained by binding the wefts w ith strong additional
threads working in Ieno or gauze weave and by elim inating through cutting the
protruding w eft ends. Half cross Ieno w eave fabrics have excellent shear
resistance.They are m ade w ith specialIeno w eaving harnesses.The Ieno selvage
is used on som e shuttleless Ioom s. The construction utilizes a narrow Ieno
weave,w hich Iocks the cut ends along the fabric edge.A Ioose w eave generally
requires a tight Ieno selvage, whereas a Iight weave m ay have a leno selvage
w ith Iess tension.The Ieno gauze system is optim ally suited for heavy fabrics,
blankets,w allcoverings.
frilwex lvage
lefm Alvage
tucked* vv
(rm twistl
Tutked-in selvages:
The tucked selvedge isa technique used on som e shuttleless Ioom s. A device is
used to tuck and hold the cutends into the fabric edge.In tucked-in selvage, the
fringed edgesofthe w eftyarns are w oven back into the body ofthe fabric using
117
selvage area,Tucked-in selvedge was being only used for projectile weaving
m achines in the past, however, it is now also applid to other shuttleless
w eaving m achines. This system is generally used for Iight to m iddlew eight
fabrics,w hen w eave and fabric density perm its.There are also available tuckedin selvage m otions, which are entirely controlled by pneum atic or m ixed
pneum atic and m echanicaldevices.
The construction of the selvage is dependent upon the particularw eave and a
num berofotherfactors.A form ula forw eaving the tucked-in selvage considers
e
:
/
.4
S
gy
118
119
W oven fabrics are composed of longitudinalor warp threads and transverse or weft threads,
interlaced with oneanotheraccordingtotheclassofstructureand form ofdesignthataredesired.
The termschain ortwistare applied to the warp and the warp threadsare known individually as
ends,whilethetermspicksandfillingareapplied to theweftthreads.
Inthefollowing theterm threadsisused in referring to warp and weftcollectively,butin orderto
distinguishclearlyoneseriesfrom the otherthewarp threadsare mostlydescribed as'end'andthe
weftthreadsas'picks'.
According to weave structures woven fabrics may be conveniently divided into two principal
categories,asfollows:
Simple Strudure:
Inwhichtheendsandthe picksintersectone anotheratri
ghtanglesand in thec10th
are respectivel
y parall
elwith each other.In these constructions there isonl
y one
series of ends and one series of picks and aIIthe consti
tuent threads are equally
responsibleforb0ththe aspectofutility orperformanceinafabri
cand tbe aspectof
aestheticappeal.
Simple Structure
lI.
CompoundStructure
Compound Strudures:
ln which there may be morethan one seriesofendsorpickssomeofwhich maybe
responsible forthe body ofthe fabric,such asground yarns,whilst some may be
employed entirelyforornamentalpurposessuchas'figuring',or'
face'yarns.ln these
clothssomethreads may be found notto be in parallelformation one to anotherih
eitherplane,and indeed,there are many pile surface constructions in whicb some
threadsmayprojectoutatrightanglestothegeneralplaneofthefabric.
120
Warp(End)andWeR (Pick/Filling)Yarn:
W arp and weftyarns have differentdemands placed on them and may differin theirstructure or
fibre type.Thus,afabricmay nothavethesame performance characteristicsforwarpand weft.The
warp m ustwithstand the high tensionsofthe loom and the abrasion efweavipg,sn the warpyarns
are strongerand more uniform with highertwist.Fillipg yarns at'e more pften fancy orspecialfundionyarnssuch ashigh-twistcrepe yarns,Iow-twistnappingyarns,orboucle yarns.
1. Theselvedgeal
waysrunsinthelengthwise(warp)directionofaI1fabrics.
2. Mostfabricshave Iowerelongation inthewarpdirection.
3. The warp yarnsIie straighterand are more parallelinthefabricbecause ofIoom tension.
4. Fancyorspecial-fund ionyarnsareusually inthefillingdirection.
5. Fabric characteristics may di
fferentiate between the warp and weft directions. For
example,poplinhasa weftrib and satin haswarpfloats.
6. W arp yarnstend to be sm aller,are more uniform in structure and appearance,and have
highertwist.
7. Fabric crimp is usually greaterforweftyarns since they must bend orflex overorunder
warp yarnsdue to the way the loom operates.
Grain:
Grain refersto the geometry orposition ofwarp yarnsrelative to filling yarnsin the fabric.A fabric
that is on-grain has warp yarns parallelto each otherand perpendicularto the filling yarns tbat
move straightacrossthe fabric.Lengthwise grain is parallelto the warp yarns.Crosswise grain is
parallelto the weftyarns.Fabrics are almostalways woven on-graill.Handling,finishing,orstress
due toyarn twist,weave,orotherfabricaspectsmay cause fabricsto distortand Iosetheiron-grain
characteristic.These fabricsare off-grain.Fabricquality hasincreased significantly and it israre tn
findfabricsasbadlyoff-grain.
121
Structure:
In the manufadure ofafabric,byweavingon aloom,thetechnique- how thetwo seriesofthread
are interlaced at rightanglesto each otheris called strudure.Orthe interlacem ents ofwarp anl
weftthreadsare known asstrudure.
Texture:
A term referring to the appearance orhand ofa fabric and especially such features asstrudure
coarseness,openness.Thissignifiesthe generalquality ofa fabric,devel
oped by the interlacemen
ofyarn used weight,bulk,how itfeels when handled etc.are also express by the term texture
Materials,countofthe yarnsrelative densityofthreadsare itsmain fadors.
Sett:
A term usedtoindicatethespacingofendsand/orpicksinawovenc10ththisisusuallyexpresseda
threadsperinch,centimeterorotherconvenientunit.The state ofthe c10th ofthe time should bl
described,eg.Grey,finished wovenfabricsettsare commonly given in a pare
warpxweft,asforexamplehandkerchief- 36 x36
Warp(ends)densityisexpressedinEndsperinch(EPl)OrEndspercm (EPC)
Weft(picks)densityisexpressedinPicksperinch(PPI)OrPickspercm (PPC)
W oven fabric Specification:
W oven fabricconstrudion orspecification asfollows:
EPI x PPl
xFabric width
W arp countxW eftcount
OR
Forexample:
110 X 52 X 56,
20 X 16
,
30 X 30 X 57 - ,
130 X 70
58
Fabricweightcalculation:
Thjrearetwowayoffabricweightcalculation.0neisweightperuni
tareasuchas,GsMtgramsper
2
squaremeter)oroz/yd andanotherwayisweightinrunningIength.
'
GSM taltulation:
Calculate.
theGSM ofthe following fabric
120x 70
,,
x58
40 x30
Forwarp weightcalculation
Here,EPI= 120
'
. .Tot
aInum berofends= 120x39.37
(warpcrimpo
,z
t=31$)
= 1.03m
'
. .Tot
alIength ofwarp yarn = 120 x 39.37 x 1.03 m
W e getfrom theyarnnumberingsystem,
L xw
Ne =
W xI
Lxw
'
W =
N exl
120x39.37x1.03x453.6
=
40
gm
x840x0.9l44
ForW eftweightcalculation
Here,PPI= 70
'
. .Tot
aInum berofpicks= 70x39.37
Lengthofeachpick=lm + lm x0.05
(weftcrimpL'=594)
= 1.05m
( 40
+ 30 )x23.25
GS
EPI xl.03 PPI x1.05 x
M=
+
23.25
Newa
Newe
123
Similarlyoz/yd2canbecalculatedbythefollowingformula:
oz/ydz =
W eightcalculationinrunningIenlh(Yarnconsumptioncalculation):
Calculatetheweightofwarp and weftyarn in kgto produce2000 m ofthefollowingfabric
150x 100 ,,
x58
50x50
Forwarp weighttakulation
Here,EPI= 150
'
aInumberofends=150x58
. .Tot
Length ofeach end = 2000m + 2000m x 0.03
= 2060m
' Tot
allengthofwarp yarn = 150 x 58 x 2060 m
..
W e getfrom the yarn numberingsystem,
N Lxw
(warpcrimp% =3%)
e=
W xl
L xw
'*.h/s/zz
N ex1
150x58x2060x0.4536 kg1 20% WastageOftjetotalweightofwarp.
=
50x840x0.9144
From the above system asim ple formula is developed to calculate the weightofwarp yarn in kgto
produce aparticularIengtbofafabricasfollows:
W eightofwarp yarn in kg.=
EPlxFabri
cwidthini
nchx(Fabri
cl
engthinmi
-Fabricl
engthinmxcri
mp%lxccts sx sslz
o
Newam
+Wastage% oftotalweightofthewarp(about20%)
ForW eftweighttalculation
Here,PPI=100
'
aInumberofpicks= 100x39.37x2000
. .Tot
124
Lengthofeachpick=(58//+58/'x0.05)/39.37
(weftcrimp% =5%)
= 1.547m
'
. .Tot
aIIength ofweftyarn = 100 x 39.37x 2000 x 1.547 m
W egetfrom theyarn num beringsystem,
N Lx w
e=
W xI
Lxw
'
W=
Nexl
100x39.37x2000x 1.547x0.4536 kg +15% wastageofthe totalweightofweft.
=
50x840x0.9144
From the above system a sim ple formula isdeveloped to calculatealso the weightofweftyarn in kg
to producea particularIength ofafabricasfollows:
Weijhtofweftyarninkg.=
PPIxFabricl
engthi
nmx(Fabricwi
dthi
ninch+Fabri
cwi
dthini
nchxcri
mp%lxccx sx sslz
.
Neweft
EPIxFabri
cwi
dthi
ni
nchx(FabricI
engthi
nyds+FabricI
engthinydsxcri
mp%)+wastage
Newarpx840
% oftotalweightofthewarp(about20%).
W eightofweftyarn in Ib.=
PPIxFabri
cI
engthinydsx(Fabri
cwi
dthi
ninch+Fabri
cwi
dthini
nchxcri
mp%)+wastage
Neweftx840
% oftotalweightoftbeweft(about15%1.
Problem :
Calculatetheweightofwarp and weftyarnin Ibto produce 2500 yds.ofthefollowing fabric
120x90 ,,
x58
16x14
The weight of warp and weft yarn in Ib. can be calculated directly from the fabric
specificationby usingthe aboveform ula.I
twillbeveryeasy and itsafeIotoftimes.
125
Solution:
W eightofwarp yarn in Ib.x
E?IxFabricwi
dthini
nchx(Fabri
cl
engthinyd5+Fabri
cI
engthinydsxcrimpqbl+wastage
NewarpX840
% oftotalweightofthewarp.
=l20x58x(2500+2500x0.03)+20%
16x840
= 1333.48'F1333.48 x0.2
= 1333.48'F266.696
=1600.176Ibs,Or725.84kg(1600.176x0.4536)
W eightofweftyarn in Ib.=
P?IxFabricI
engthi
nydsx(Fabri
cwi
dthi
ni
nch+Fabricwidthininchxcri
mpt
lk
llj.w aytage%
.
Ne,vefttk840
oftotalweightoftheweft.
=90x2500x(58+58x0.05)+15%
14x840
= 1165.18 '
F1165.18 x 0.15
=1339.961bs.Or607.804kg(1339.96x0.4536)
Foundation ofw oven c10th strud ure:
Variationofwoven c10thstructure dependsonfollcwingfoundati
onalfactors:
Thenature ofyarnsused
Thecotzntorrelativethicknessoftheyarnsused aswarp and weft
The relative setting,orthe numberofends orpicks,which are placed side by side in a
given width and Iength ofthe c10th
The orderofinterlacing theendsand picks
* M odificationsproducedbyfinishing
126
* ThedraftingorIoomingplan:
A draftindicatesthe numberofheald,used to produce a given design and the orderin
whichthe warp threadsorendsarethreaded through the maileyesofthe healds.In the
drafting plan, Space between two vertical lines indicates as warp yarn and space
betweentwo horizontalIinesindicatesasheald Shaft.
Drafting plan
W eave plan
Lifting plan
Pnintpaperdiagram in textiledesign:
in thefollowingfigure(a)isthedesignfora plainweavefabric.Togetabetterimpressionofhow a
numberofrepeatswould look,fourrepeatsofadesign(twoverticall
yandtwo horizontally)are
sometimesShown.W hen fourrepeatsare shown the firstrepeatisdrawn in the standard way but
127
forthe remainingthree repeatscrossing diagonalIinesmay be placed into the squares, which inthe
firstrepeat,arefilledin.Thismethodisshownforaplainweaveinfollowingfigure(b)
.
X
X
X
X
X
y2
One repeat
(a)
(b)
Pointpaperdiagram (a)1-repeat(b)4-repeat
M ethodsoffabri:representation:
lnterlacingtype 'a':
In thistype thewarpyarn isupoverthe weftyarn. Inthe graph ordesign paper,itisrepresented by
putting any type ofsign such as cross,circle,orcolourshade in the square space ofthe design
paper.
R ----->warpup
R -----'
>Weftup
lnterlatingtype 'b':
ln this type the wek yarn is up overthe warp yarn.In the graph ordesign paper, itis normally
represented asempty squarespace ofthe design paper.
R ----->weftup
R ----+warpup
One repeatofw eave:
A num berof interlacings combined together in both diredions produce a uni
t of design, or one
repeatoftheweave.Intheabovefigure(a)representsonerepeatofthedesign.
128
Some importantfactorsorterm s:
The weave showsthe interlacing pattern ofwarp and weft.Each weave consists ofthe following
partsorfields
3
Contactfields:
These arethe contactpointsbetween warp and weftcrossingatrightangle.The number
of contactfields always equals the productofthe num ber of warp and weftthreads.
Contactfield = RNwax RNwe = 3x 3= 9
Interlacing field:
These are the points w here a yarn of one system of threads changes its position in
relation to the othersystem.A distinction ismade between single and double interlacing
fields.
Single interlacingfield:
The yarn bendsfrom thetop ofthe fabricto the bottom and coverstwo ormoreyarns.
interlacingfield
contactfields
freefield
Doubleinterlacingfield:
The yarn bends,covera following yarn,bends again and reappears atthe same fabric
side.
interlacingfield
129
@ Openfield:
These are zoneswhere neitherwarp norweftthreadsoccurs.The numberofopen field
isimportant,forexampl
e forairandwaterpermeabili
ty.
Openfield =RNwaxRNwe= 3x3 =9 ,same ascontactfield
W here,RN = Repeatnum ber
W a=warpand W e=weft
Form ulanumber:
It isa kind ofshort-hand system representing the waving ofwarp orweftyarn.I
tgi
ves
the successive floats.The numberoffloats alwaysequalsthe numberoffigures in the
form ula number.The warp floatscom ing up are putabove the fraction Iine,the warp
floatsgoingdown are putunderthefraction Iine.
FNwa= .. 1 -2 .1
1
Repeatnumber:
Itindicatesthe num berofwarp and weftyarnsin the repeat.The repeatnumberforthe
warp equalsthesum ofthefiguresintheformulanumberforthe wef'
tandviceversa.
* Interlacing ratio:
The interlacing rati
o of a fabric is the ratio between the actualnumberofinterlacing
fields and the maxim um numberof interlacing fields. The degree ofinterlacing is the
interlacing ratio expressed inpercentage.
Draoing:
Variousmethodsofindicatingdraftsmaybe em ployed asforinstance -
% %Ntulih:lihet
ln which thehorizontalinesrepresentthehealdsandtheMerticahnesthe warpthreads,
while the m arks placed where the lines intersect indicate the healds upon which the
respectivethreadsaredrawn.
130
b) Bynumbering:
Asshownbythenumbersbelow thedesigns,whichrefertothenumberofthehealds(the
fronthealdisnumberone).lnthiscasethethreadsaresuccessivelydrawnonthehealdsin
the orderindicated bythe num bers.
hI
1 2 34 3 2 1 4 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 34 5 67 8
0
1 0'
t
131
Systemsofdrafting/classifiationofdrafting:
1. StraightdraA (or
g):
The warp endsare threaded through the heddlesaccordingto theirnum ericalorder.
A distinction is m ade between S-?nd Z-entering.Straightdraftisthe mostcommon
and can be used with 4ny numberofshaftsfEaih stkcessive thread is drawn on
successiveshafts,tiefirs!yhi4,donthefirstshft,the.kecondthreadonthesecond
.
'
4r
t=
3 I'
2 2
'
1..
12 3 4
3
2
1 .
l2 3 4
S3
2
Z-entering
S-entering
2. Pointdeah :
Point entering is obtained by straight entering of a number of'yarns followed by
weaves,whiharesymmetrlalabouttbecenter,andiseyarefryjiitp?lyemployed
toproducewavdordiamorideffects.Themain.advantae'qtj
tisjy
'
liihisthatit
alfowstheproduciionofquitefargeeffectseconomically,wIl'
ihifa'
ttem/edonthe
straightdraftswould reqtlire alm osttwicethe num berofhealds.The method used to
constructthese drafts and itwillbe seen thatto achieve a welldefined pointin the
design the ends are draw n in straight order starting w ith heald 1 and finishing w ith
the last heald in the num berem ployed,where upon the orderofdrawing-in ofthe
consecutive ends is reversed.The firstand the Iast healds carry only one end each,
w hilst aIIthe healds in the m iddle carry two ends each perrepeatofthe draft.As a
result,using thissystem ofdrafting the num berofends perrepeatofthe design is:2
x num berofhealds- 2.
'
j'
'
5
4
3
2
l
'!
5
4
3
2
1
'
k
;
E
'
j.
1
1 234 5 67 8
.
1 2.'3 4 3 2
5
4
g
2
1
I
!'
iJ
i
'
i
1:
)-:
' ...
f
1 2 3 4 56 7 8 91011121314.
...
y;
:1
,
123 432 14
'
132
3. Skip drafts:
'
...
'
...s
ifthe c10th iscoarse;oron fpr
7'
l:
-Jf;-.
k 1
'L
'
i
'.:
'hea (
ds
,ifithq
t
.1
0th,ijofmedium fineness;oron six
x
x, 1
7
'
)
)
'
'
.
y
g
'
y
healds, ifthe c10th isvery fine.
i'
?.
k)
jyj .
,
,
.;..(..$ '..; L;. !
.
'' .
.-
..
k. ,,
'
y q.
,.;
'
.
.
.
n
*. s
'
& .ym
t
l
.
o
.
.
j)(
.; .7.
li -:
vk +
:
:
:
.
j. j + ; .
i
.' ,;
!. I
y
r
:
;I
;.. I
!j
777'
--7=*
s
y+-*
,
f7 m
.y
o
.
=
,.
y
j1 ,
, y, , ji
'
j.
'
li
:r
'
4. Broken draft:
Itcan be considered as a m odified pointed draft.Again it is a com bination ofstraight
drafts w ith different directions of constructing.But the direction is reversed not on
the Iast orthe first shaft.W hen the direction is reversed the first thread ofthe next
group is started higher or Iow er than the last thread of the preceding group.This
sm allm odification changesconsiderably the design by breaking the axisofsym m etry.
The orderofinterlacing ofthe Iastthread ofthe firstgroup is opposite to that ofthe
U
'
F-+!'
.l
'
.
(
'
(
'xt @1
=
1 '
..
,
f 7
-t-r-
kp
i
: -Z
..1.
I
r-
r-
r-
t
k
r
;j
1
.
:
l
.1
..
.1
1
.
1
.
,
Dlvided draft:
Thisdraftisemployed forderived weaves,doublewarpweaves,two pIyweaves,pileweaves,and
t Someothers.Theshaftsaredivided into twoormoregroups.A suitable type ofdraftischosenfor
.
)
t;: eachgroup.Thedivideddraftisemployedfordouble-warpfabric.Therearetwosystemsofwarp
'
'/
)
(
,
lt'
threads:thefaceandbackones.
:k,i:-'.
ql
t,
tt
..
.
io
133
#1a2b3c4d1e2f3a4b1c2d3e4f
6. Grouped drahs:
These drafts are em ployed for production of check and stripe designs,in w hich the
stripes have different w eaves or their com binations. A typical draft is used for
producing the fabric with two different stripes containing 15 and 12 threads,
respectively.The w arp repeat ofthe firststripe equals 3 and the second 4.The weave
of the first stripe requires 3 shafts,and that of the second stripe 4 shafts.AIIthe
threads of the first stripe are draw n on 3 first shafts w ith straight draft,and the
threads ofthe second stripe are draw n on shafts4,5,6,7 ofthe second group.The
repeatofthe draftis27.
7. Cuw ed dra :
These drafts are applied for fancy w eaves having a Iarge w arp repeat w ith the
purpose of reducing the num berof shafts.Note,thatthe m inim alnum berof shafts
equalsthe num berofthreads in warp repeat w ith different orderof interlacing.The
draw ing-in is done applying the rule:aIlw arp threadsw hich worksalike are drawn on
the sam e shaft.Curved draftsare irregularand cannotbe classified.
134
8. Com bined draft:
Various m ethods ofdraw ing-in can be com bined in one draftforproducing a certain
type offabric.Two orm ore draftsdescribed above can be applied sim ul
taneously,for
exam ple,straightand skip orsateen,grouped and curved,and so on.Com bined draft
is the m ost com plicated and can be chosen only ifthere are som e technologicalor
econom icalreasons.
135
PLA IN W EAVE
even-numbered warp'endsatone pick and raising aIIthe odd numbered onesatthe otherpick.lt
meansthreadsinterlacinjinalternateorder.
Plain weave
&W
' ;
7
.
Close-up photographofpl
ainweave
M ainfeaturesofplain weave:
@
Threadsinterlacing in alternateorder.
The repeatcontainstwo endsandtwo picks.
Bothsidesofthe weave are identical.
Eachthreadgivesmaximum amountofsupporttotheadjacentthreads.
Texture isstrongerand firmerthan any otherordinaryc10th.
Twohealdshaftsaresufficienttoproduceplainweave,whenthenumberofends/inchi6
Iarge(morethan50),fourorsixhealdshaftsareusedwithskipdraft.
136
a.
Approximatelysquare tloths:
The clothsin which thewarp and weftcounts,the endsand picksperinch,and therefore
the warp and weftoverfactors are approximately equal,so that warp and weft are
equally prom inent,ornearly so,on both sidesofthe c10th.The crimps are also usually
approximatelyequal.
150 X 150
40 X 40
b.
X 560
'
1so x 30
so x 8
t.
'
x s6'
'
W eR fated doths:
The clothsin which the weftcoverfactorsubstantially exceedsthatofthe warp,and in
whichtheweftpredominateson b0th sidesofthec10th.A weftfaced effectisobtained if
theweftyarn isfinerthan the warpyarn.
i
l
g
..
'
!#
:
32 x 148
7 x 6o X 571
,
j
;
F;
'
t
a
'
L
Lk
'
rn
(
'
.
..
)j)
137
a Balanted cloths:
140 X 140
X 59'
'
45 X 45
b. Unbalanced tloths:
TheclothsincludeaIIthose whichdo notconform tothe requirementsofbalancedcloths.
Theyaregrouped underthree headings:
'
1. )L The endsand pi
cks perinch are similar(square sett),butthe warp and weft
cpntsaredifferent,sothewarpandweftcoverfactorsarealsodifferent.
'
'
.
(
,
(2
.
,
)'
t.x
11.,
l
.
,.
.
50 X 42
x s8'
'
The warp
and weft counts are sim ilar, but the ends and picks per inch are
''
different,so againthewarp and weftcoverfactorsare different.
.
111.
The endsand picksperinch are different,and so are the warp and weftcounts.
The warp and weftcoverfactorswillusually be different,but in a specialcase
they may be similar.
120X 90
X 58''
20 X 16
DerivativesofPlain weave:
W eavesdeveloped on the basis ofplain weave principle iscalled derivativesofplain weave.AIIthe
weavesthose are based on plainweave principle are classified asfollows:
Plain weave derivatives
Rib weave
MattorHopsackweave
W arp rib
W eftrib
Regularwarp rib
Regularweftrib
lrregularwarp rib
Irregularweftrib
Regularmatt
Irregularmatt
Stitch matt
Fancy matt
138
RibW eave:
#
.
7
r -
*)
!
@I
N- -
139
IrregularW arp rib weave:
In thiscase the num berofweftyarnsin the bundle are different,i.e.in the form ula num ber,
the num berabove the fraction Iine and below the fraction Iine are notsame.The thickness
ofaIIribs are notsame.So the differentsize ofribs i.e.thick and thin ribs are produced on
the sudace ofthe fabric.The irregularwarp rib weavesare shown in the following figure.
I1
,
1
,
1
,
1
,
1
:1:I
t
I
;
I
.
:
i
(
11'1
'
!
#
t
,
#
x - (wa
rp rlbl
M (..,p1:)
j
j,
.
j;
:
j:
;
jt
k
,
j:
;
W eftRib w eave:
These are opposite to w arp rib weaves, and result from extending the plain weave
horizontally.This weave may be described asplain weave in which two ormore endsweave
togetherasone.In the weft rib which is frequently called cord,the picksfloatoverseveral
warp ends w hich are bunched together to form a rib in the warp direction.W ith these
fabrics,the pick spacing is usually so close thatthe weftcom pletely coversthe warp.Here,
one uses a fine, high-quality yarn as weft and a cheaper,coarser yarn as warp.The first
140
!
.
'
?
:.
o
:
.
j...
..t
.
.
j'
i
<
.
'
?.
1.
r
.
'-'7
kp
p
'.
zc
..
s:
. .
jJ
y
-.
..
'
1
j
.
j
4
l
w
1
j
4
.
+
.
.
.
.
V'
.
!2
1 '
Ju
c: .
.
..
N-.
....
.
.. - ..
.
J . 'j k...u
.w
ww
%+
1
jA
y.
w
1L:
W
''
.
a
w
.w
.-..
.>
.
,
cO
.r
a
>
.'*
'
y.-)
.(
-.
l.( -
.
-
= )
et
#
1 2 weftrib fabric
1
'
.
t
'
) . )t .-yys..t
( .t )))
.
y-.. ...
-.. y
.
j'
jjjjjji
.
)
j
ig
j
ij
)
.
l
jjjjjjjjjjjjjjj ..
>
.
#.
----k
t,,---.'
-
a
lr-
'
,.
,.
. -
W j&jj
141
Hopsatk BasketorMattWeave:
The hopsackweave,avariation ofthe plainweave,usestwo ormore warp and /ortwo ormore
weftyarnsside byside asone yarn.The resultantc10th isfairly loose in weave.The hopsackweave
isobtained by doubling orotherwise multiplying the interlacing pointsofthe plain weave in b0th
U z
Ij. .
11-x
V.
,5
i
thweave,draftingandIiftinkpl
Close-upview 0f 1j4 mattfabricwi
an
142
IrregularM attweave:
W arp and weftfloats are different in one repeat of irregularm att weave.So the irregular
m att weave is produced by the com bination of irregular warp and weft rib weave.The
indicates the w arp floatsand 'B'indicates the w eft floats.The following figures show closeup view and interlacing diagram ofsom e irregularm attweavesw ith drafting and Iifting plan.
u
yj*
l
nterlacingdiagram of 1(311)mattfabricwithweave,draftingandIiftingplan
)'
V
,
s.
3 (3+ 2)
2
eave,draftingandliftingplanof 2(4+2)withclose-upview
143
!
?
'
'
y
.
-.
..
- ..
'L.
'
..
?- 7(titchMatt)
5 s(stitchMatt)
Fancy matt is one kind ofstitch m att.In case ofstitch matt,the stitch orstitching thread is
does not affectthe prom inence ofactualregularm atteffect.The stitching thread is hidden
by the neighbouring threads,so it does not visible on the fabric surface.But in the fancy
m attthe stitching threadsare nothidden,they are visible.The stitching system affects the
design of tbe regular m att weave. They produce decorative appearance on the fabric
sudace.Itcan be com pared w ith ''katha''and ''nokshi-katha''.
.
'
'
U
. .
!l !i
----.
j.j.!r
;.
..:
...> .
g.-)t:;'t
.
.
.
7--.7FancyMatt
''
9 9 Fancy Matt
9
'.
.
l;e
144
'
I.
...l
+
:
I
.
t.7j.
- .
-
- '
.
I
'
:
I'
.
55
:t
.
:
.
.'
E.
II
'.
'
'
'
I:
77
Fancy M att
Fancy M att
1
1
$
% $
Seer-suckerstripe
Z 1$ S
Crepon effect
145
End uses:
I
tisused forstructures,which rangefrom very heavyand coarse canvasand blanketsmade ofthick
yarnstothe Iightestandfinestcambriesand muslinsm ade in extremelyfineyarns.
W earswell
Offersappropriate background forprinting,specialfinishes,andapplied surfacedesigns.
Issnag-resistant
Hasgood dimensionalstability i
fofhighfabriccount,i.e.high threaddensi
ty.
Isreversibl
e ifnotprinted orfinished with specialesects.
Disadvantages:
Ravels
Appearsuninteresting
Showswrinkling
HasIowertearStrengththan someotherweaves
Showssoilreadily.
146
TW ILL W EAVE
147
The designation ofthe design ofa twillfabric describesthe placementofthe warp yarnsover
and underthe weftyarns.In afabricdescribed asa 22 twiql,fourwarp and fourweftyarnsare
used to form thedesign repeat.
a) Accordingtothewayofconstrudion
3
W arp-waytwillweave:
W eft-way twillwave:
1
2
3
warp-way twill,etc.
weft-way twill,etc.
b) AccordingtothedirectionoftwillIinesontheface
ofthefabric
2
S - TwillorLeft-hand twillweave:
1 S,etc.
Z - TwillorRight-hand twillweave:
2 Z,etc.
c) Accordingtothefaceyarn(warpor
weft)
4
W arp facetwillweave:
z S,etc.
W eftface twillweave:
3Z,etc.
d) Accordingtothenatureoftheproduc
edt
willIine
1
3
Sim ple twillweave:
Expandedtwillweave:
*- - *
- '
-
3 S, z Z,etc.
2 3
M ultipletwillweave;
*1
:Z,etc.
2 S,
3 1 S, l z a Z,etc.
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Inwarp waytwillweavewarp floatrun in the warp direction.
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W eftw ay tw ill
148
Form ula num berofevery yarn is sam e i.e.aIIwarp ends interlace in the sam e w ay but
displacing the interlacing points ofeach end by one pick redative to that ofthe previous
end.In this case any sign or colour in the square of graph or design paper represent
warp up and em pty square representweftup.
e-- +-
..
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e
In w eft way tw illweave weftfloatrun in the weft direction. Form ula num berofevery
yarn is sam e i.e.allweftyarn interlace in the sam e way but displacing the interlacing
pointsofeach pick by one end relative to thatofthe previous pick. ln thiscase any sign
.
the c10th is held in the position in w hich itwaswoven, the diagonalIineswillbe seen to
run eitberfrom the lowerleftcornerto the upperrightcornerorfrom the lowerrightto
the upperIeftcorner.
$ . yp Aj. j-euX ..1:g% gji
W hen the twillrunsfrom the lowerrightto the upperIeftcorner, the twillis know n asa
Ieft-hand twill.Itis produced by downward displacementofthe interlacing points, ifthe
starting pointis bottom Ieftcornerorupward displacem entofthe interlacing points, if
the starting point is bottom right corner. For exam ple it is expressed by the form ula
3
,,
num ber 1/ 2 S , w here S - indicate the direction of twjjjjjne.rhe follow ing figures
show the weave plan of di
fferent left hand twillfabric. The alignm ent of twillIine is
parallelto the m iddle portion of'S', so itiscalled S- twill.
;Ir---1Ik::qIIlCl,r111-
71i11iIIi:
Forexampleitis
149
;! ,,
Z , w here,Z- indicate the direction oftw illline.
2
The following figures show the weave plan,with drafting and Iifting plan of different
right-hand tw illfabric.The alignm entoftwillIine is parallelto the m iddle portion of'Z',
so itiscalled Z - twill.
'
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z- z
#y,
c) Ae- iY o thefu -
lwarporwe l:
, z,
thefractionIinereferstothenumberofwefty&rnscrossed overbythewarpandthE
bottom digit to the num ber of weftyarns the w arp passes under before returning tc
crossthe filling again.W hen the crossing is overand underthe same num berofyarns
the fabric is called a double-face oreven oreven-sided twill.W hen warps pass over
Iarger or sm aller num ber of weftyarns than they pass under,the fabric is called ar
uneven twill.Uneven twillfabrics have a right and a w rong side and therefore are no'
warp-faced tw ill;the w arp yarns are dyed blue and the weftyarns are undyed,so th(
fabric appears blue on the face and w hite on the back.There are two types of unever
tw ill,such asw arp-facetw illand w eft-face twill.
:
W arp-faced tw ills have a predom inance ofw arp yarns on the face ofthe fabric,witl
2
3
3
4
z ,and so onThe top digitofthe fraction Iine is higherthar
patternsof
, j, ; , ,
k
the bottom one,so it is called w arp-face tw ill.Since w arp yarns are m ade w ith highe
tw ist, these fabrics are stronger and more resistant to abrasion and pilling. Tht
followingfiguresshow the weave plan and interlacing diagram ofwarp-face twill.
150
7I k
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w eh-face Tw ill:
W eft-faced tw ills have a predom inance ofw eftyarns on the surface of the fabric, w ith
2
3
1
2
patterns of 3, a , z, u,and so on.The top digitofthe fraction Iine is sm aller
than the bottom one,so itis called w eft-face tw ill. W eftyarns are generally weakerthan
are warp yarns,so that relatively few w eft-faced tw ills are m ade.The follow ing figures
show the w eave plan ofweft-face tw ill.
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Even-sidedtwillsexposeanequalamountofwarpandweftyarnoneachsideofa
'fabric.They are also know n as reversible tw illsbecause they Iook alike on both sides,
although the direction ofthe tw illIine differs. Betterquality w eftyarnsare used in these
fabricsascom pared w ith w arp-faced tw ills because both setsofyarn are exposed to
wear.They are m ost often 2 ; tw illsand have the bestbalance ofaIlthe tw illw eaves.
151
;
)
, 4 4,etc.are also the double-face twill.In thiscase the top and bottom both dig.
3
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ofthe fraction Iine are sam e,so itiscalled double-face twill.The follow ing figuressho
the weave plan ofsom e double-face twill.
.
jj
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There are two types of sim ple twill,such as sim ple w arp tw illand sim ple wefttwillf
Each1warn
end is
raise
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orIower
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ckinthe repeat,with pattern
-1
1
2
3
4
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, a,
4, 1, 1,
tw illand
, 3 1,
y,etc.are the sim ple w arp tw ill.The following figures show th.
weave pfan w ith drafttlng and Iifting plan of some sim ple warp and sim ple weft twi
fabrics.
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Expanded Tw ill:
Each warp end is raised over or Iowered under more than one adjacent pick in the
repeat.lfthe w arp and wefttw illIines are ofequalw idth,the fabric isdouble-faced.Itis
a
a
4
2
represented by the form ula num berof 3, z, 4 , 4,and so on.The follow ing
figuresshow the weave plan ofsom e expanded tw illw eaves.
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Ineachrepeat,thereareatIeasUtFowarptwillIinesortwowefttwillIinesofdifferent
w idth.Ifthe prom inency ofw arp yrn is m ore than i
t iscalled w arp-face m ultiple tw ill
and the prominency ofweftyarn ismorethan itiscalled weff-face multiple twill.Ifthe
prom inency ofboth w arp and w-eftyarnsare sam e than it iscalled double-face m ultiple
tw illaltisrepresented by the form ula num berof 4 1 ,.
' 3 1 2 , 1 3 1 and
1
lsa
s on.The following figures show the weave plan with close-up view ofsome multiple
twillwkaves..
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DerivativesofTwillw eave:
W eavesare developed onthe basisofprinciple oftwillweave orfrom a regulartwill,these are
called derivativesoftwillweave.Thecom mon twillderivativesare listed below:
Zig-zag orwaved orpointed Twillweave
HerringboneTwillweave
Diam ond design
154
4. Diaperdesign
5. Broken Twillweave
6. Re-arranged Tw illweave orTransposedTw illweave
7. Stepped Twillweave
8. Elongated Twillweave
9. Com bined Twillweave orcom bination oftwillw eave
10.Shaded Twillweave orshaded design
11.Curved Twillweave
155
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z Tw illweave
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12 34 3 2
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Horipontalzig-zag twillbas
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.
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z
z TFillweave
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Horizontalzi
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ZTwiflwave
a
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H orizontalzig-zag tw illbased on
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Tw illweave
156
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HorizontalZig-zagTwIIID3Se(IOn
Z Twillweave
16 x8
HorilentalzigqagTwilkasedonY-?- zTwillweave
1 2
The follow ing figuresshow the close-up view ofsom e horizontalzig-zag fbric.
Zig-zag tw illbased on 2 ,
Zig-zag tw illbased on z ,
3 1
1 3
157
Ved icalzig-zag w eave:
Ifthe direction oftwillline ischange depends on the weftyarn than verticalzig- zag twill
weave is produced.The repeat size of verticalzi
g-zag is calculated from the regular or
base tw illw eave.ln one system , the numberofweftyarn in zig-zag weave isdouble of
the num berofw eftyarn ofbase tw illand the num berofw arp yarn issam e asbase tw ill
weave.Forexam ple,ifthe repeatsize ofbasic regulartw illis 5 x 5, than the repeat size
ofverticalzig-zag is 5 x 10. In othersystem,the num berofw eftyarn in zig-zag weave is
tw o less from double ofthe num ber ofw eft yarn of base tw illand the num berofwarp
yarn is sam e as base tw illw eave.Forexam ple, ifthe repeatsize ofbasic regulartw illis5
x 5,than the repeat size of horizontalzig-zag is 5 x 8. In general,the direction oftw ill
line is changed afterthe com pletion of repeat of regular tw illweave and the point is
created at the changing tim e.Both w eft-w ay and w arp-w ay tw ills are used as regular
basic tw ill. Straight draft is used to produce vertical zig-zag w eave. It is possible to
produce this w eave from any type of regular basic tw illweave. The follow ing figures
show the weave plan with drafting and lifting plan ofsom e verticalzig zag weaves.
-
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These weaves are generated by introducing a step into the design after a certain
num ber ofends or picks.At the step, every thread changes from up to down orvice
versa.lf the originalw eave is not double-faced, this m eans that,at every step,a w arp
twillchangesinto a wefttw illorvice versa. It isalso produced by the com bination ofS twilland Z - tw illlike zig-zag weave but itis notcreate a point. Itis also divided into two
groupsdepending on the change ofthe direction oftw illIine, such as:
Horizontalherringbonetwillweave, and
Verticalherringbone twillweave.
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lfthe direction oftwillline ischange according to the herringbone princi4le dependson the
warp yarn than horizontalherringbone twillweave is produced. The repeatsize ofhorizontal
herringbone iscalculated from the regularorbase twillweave Iike ashorizontalzig-zag w eave.
In thiscase the num berofwarp yarn in herringbone w eave isdouble ofthe num berofwarp
yarn ofbase twilland the num berofweftyarn issame asbasetwillweave. Forexample,ifthe
repeatsize ofbasicregulartwillis4 x 4,thanthe repeatsize ofhorizontalherringbone is8 x 4.
Ingeneral,the direction oftwillIine ischanged aflerthe completion ofrepeatofregulartw ill
weave.Norm ally warp-way twillis used asregularbasictwill. Broken draftisused to produce
horizontalherringbonew eave, ifdouble-face tw illweave isused asbase twill. W hen uneven
160
tw illsuch aswarp-face or w eft-face tw ill is used as base tw ill then straight draft is
used to produce horizontalherringbone w eave.
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It is possible to produce this weave from any type of regular basic tw illw eave.The
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change of direction of tw illIine in this way that the opposite tw illIine of every tw ill
should be paralleland they produce an angle atthe changing point.Both sides ofsom e
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diam ond design.In this case the num berofboth warp and weftyarns in diaperweave
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size is divided into'four quadrants. Now the basic tw ill is put in every quadrant by
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Corkscrew w eaves are a variety of rearranged tw ill.These are characterized by a som e
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diagonalribs.The peculiar feature of corkscrew weaves is the com bination oftwo or
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usually m ade of fine w orsted,should be set close in the w arp,otherw ise the tw idlw ill
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7. Stepped Tw illweave:
These weaves are generated by introducing a step into the design after a certain
num ber of ends or picks.At the step, every thread changes from up to dow n or vice
versa.Ifthe originalweave is notdouble-faced,this m eans that,atevery step,a warp
tw illchanges into a w efttwillorvice versa.There are three typesofstep tw illweave,
such asW arp-way step twill
W eft-way step tw ill,and
Both warp and weft-waystep twillweave.
There are two types ofwarp-way step twill.One is created in the sam e twilldirection
and anotherone iscreated by reversalofthe twilldirection.
Sam e tw illdirection:
In the sam e tw illdirection step may be occurafterthe repeatorany desired num berof
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every fourendsand same tw illdirection.
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Sam e as horizontalherringbone tw illweave. Italready discuss in the previoussection.
W eft-w ay step tw illw eave:
There are also two typesofw eft-way step twilllike as warp-w ay step tw illw eave. One is
created in the sam e tw illdirection and anotherone is created by reversalof the tw ill
direction.
Sam e tw illdirection:
ln the sam e twilldirection step m ay be occurafterthe repeatorany desired num berof
thread like as w arp-w ay step tw illw eaveThe follow ing figure represents 4 end
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175
Reversalofthetwilldired ion:
Sam e asverticalherringbone tw illweave.Italready discussin the previoussection.
Bothwarpand weft-ways'e/twillweave:
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the tw ill Iine is determ ined by the step num ber (the rate of advance from one
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size ofthe elongated tw illis halfofthe regulartw illand the num berofweftyarn issam e
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W eft way elongated tw ill is developed from the w eft-w ay regular tw illw eave.If the
repeatsize ofregulartwillis even num ber,then the num berofweftyarn in the repeat
size of the elongated tw illis half of the regular tw illand the num ber of warp yarn is
sam e as regular tw illweave, when the step num ber is tw o.W hen the repeat size of
regular tw illis odd num berthen the repeat size of elongated tw illis sam e as regular
twill.Straight drafting system is used to produce this w eave.The follow ing figures show
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Theobjectofcombinedtwillistoproduceusefulandnew weavesofgreatervarietyand
interest. Com bined tw ills are those produced by arranging the tbreads of two
continuous regular twill weaves alternately with each other.The repeat size of two
regular twillweaves m ay be equalor different.This com bination may occur in warp
direction or weft direction. According to this com bination, there are two types of
com bined twill,such aswarp-way com bined tw illand weft-way com bined twill.
Forthe construction ofcom bined twill,the repeat sizes oftwo regularbase twills play
an im portantrole.The repeatsize ofthe com bined twilldependson the repeatsize of
the regularbasetwill.Ifthe repeatsizesoftwo base twillsare sam e,then the num berof
twillsarenotsame,thenitisimportanttocalculatetheir(repeatsizesofthebasetwills)
Iowesttommonmultiple(LCM).Inthiscasetheselectionofrepeatsizedependsonthis
LCM value.Forwarp-way com bined twill,the num berofwarp yarn in the repeatsize is
twice of LCM value and the num ber of weft yarn is sam e as LCM value.Sim ilarly for
weft-way com bined twill,the num ber ofweft yarn in the repeatsize is tw ice of LCM
value and the num berofwarp yarn issam e asLCM value.
* **
-*@. ..
W hen the repeat sizes of the base twills are sam e then the construction principl as
follows:
2
4
Atfirstselectbase twills,such as aZ and 1Z .
M ark the repeat oftwice the num berofends ofthe base twillsand same as
the num berof picksofthe base tw ills.In this case the calculated repeatsize
willbe10x5.
Transfer alI ends of the base twill
transferaIIendsofbasetw ill
4
1
The following figure show the w eave plan ofthe above mentioned warp-way com bined
tw illw ith drafting and lifting plan.Divided drafting system is norm ally used to produce
warp-waycom bined tw illfabric.
180
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W hen the repeatsizes ofthe base tw ills are differentthen the construction principle as
follows:
Atfirstselectbase twills, such as 2 Z and 3a Z .
z
CalculatetheLCM valueoftherepeatsizes(4x4and6x6)ofbasetwills In
thiscasethe LCM valueofthementionedbasetwillsis12(LCM of4 and6)
.
M ark the repeat oftw ice the num berof ends ofthe LCM value and sam e as
the num berof picks ofthe LCM value. In thiscase the calculated repeatsize
willbe 24 x 12.
Transfer aIIends of the base tw ill 22 Z to the odd num bered ends and
transferaIlendsofbase tw ill 33 Z to the even num bered ends.
The follow ing figure show the w eave plan ofthe above m entioned w arp w ay com bined
twillwith drafting and lifting plan. Divided drafting system is also used to produce this
-
W eave.
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181
M ark the repeat oftwice the num berofpicks ofthe base tw illsand sam e as
the num berofends ofthe base tw ills.In this case the calculated repeat size
w illbe 5 x 10.
Tfansfer aII picks of the base tw ill 3 Z to the odd num bered picks and
2
transferaIIpicksofbase twill 23 Z to the even num bered picks.
Thxfollpwing figure show the weave plan ofthe above mentioned weft-way com bined
182
W hen the repeatsizes ofthe base tw ills are different then the construction principle as
follows:
Atfirstselectbase tw ills, such as 3 Z and
. 2 1 Z weft-way tw ill
l
M ark the repeatoftw ice the num berof picks ofthe LCM value and sam e as
The follow ing figure show sthe w eave plan ofthe w eft-way com bined twillw ith drafting
and Iifting plan.Straightdrafting system isalso used to produce this weave.
183
* .-
> III-
r*
* A
Shade effect can be produce in different way on the sudace ofthe fabric.This shade
effect an be introduced in any type ofcross-overorstripe orfigure design.There are
mainly two types ofshading effects,such as single shading and double shading effect.
W hen these shading effects are produce by the use of twillweave,then it is called
shaded twillweave.The base tw illm ay be eitherwarp-way orweft-way twill.So there
are two typesofshaded twill,such assingle shaded tw illand double shaded twillweave.
184
- +-
Te -
In thiscase the shade effect isgradually decreasing from deep to Iight by decreasing the
num ber of warp or weft floats and vice versa.These effects are produced from the
regularm ultiple tw ill.In these m ultiple twills,the w arp and weftfloatsare arranged in a
regularorder.Such as 6 1 5 2 4 3 3 4 2 51 6 , 51 42 33 24 15 , 4 :j3 g 2 a 1 4, 3 j 2z 1a
etc.
The follow ing figure show s the w eave plan ofthe single shaded tw illfabric.
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V thiscasetheshadeeffectisgradually increasingfrom Iightto deep byincreasingthe
t!''.
(Xpmberofwarp orweftfloats and again gradually decreasing from deep to light by
.
decreasing the num ber of w arp or w eft floats.These effects are produced from the
iregularm ultiple tw ill.In these m ultiple tw ills,the w arp and w eftfloatsare arranged in a
7
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, az :
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185
The follow ing figure showsthe weave plan ofthe double shaded tw illfabric.
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1 2 3 4 4 3 2
Doubleshadedtwillweavebased on
z
4
'Fosifconstructionofshadedtwill,thereisnospecialsystem;itissameasregulartwill
c'ns'tiiuction.only specialty isthat,the arrangementofwarp and weftfloats in the
ttkri'ianumber.
'
186
''
187
O n N W EAW
lntroduction:
Satin is the third basic weave ofthe woven fabrics. ln basic construction,the satin weave is
sim ilar to the twillweave but generally uses from five to as many as twelve harnesses,
producing a five to tw elve-shaft construction. lt differs in appearance from the twillweave
because the diagonalofthe satin weave is not visible;it is purposely interrupted in orderto
contribute to the flat,smooth,Iustroussurface desired.There isno visible design onthe face of
the fabric because the yarnsthatare to be thrown to the sudace are greater in numberand
finerin countthan theyarnstbatform the reverse ofthe fabric.
Satin weaves produce a sm ooth,even and glossy fabric surface. This is due to the interlacing
pointsbeing covered up bythe floatsofthe neighbouringthreads. The smoothnessofthe fabric
surface can be im proved by:
Each end and each pick m akes one, and only one intersection and the intersections are
distributed in an orderly manner.Uniform ly separated from each other, and nowhereadjacent.
Satin is more Ioose structure fabric,when compare with plain and twillfabrics. Satin is widely
usedforthefoundationofjacquarddesign.
188
representedeitherby
(2)orby
(3)wherethefigureinthebracketshowsthesizeofthe
Step.
the step value of satin weave.lt is im portant to note that when the face side of a fabric
composed by the warp satin weave then the reverse side ofthisfabricshould be composed by
theweftsatin weave.
Both warp and weftsatinsare divided into two groups,such as
Regularwarp satin and irregularwarp satin
Regularweftsatin and irregularweftsatin.
There isa step value orm ove numberforregularwarp orweftsatin weave butthere isno step
value forthe irregularwarp orweftsatin weave.In general4 - end and 6 - end satin weaves
are irregular,because they have no step value.Other5 - end to 16 - end satins are regular,
because they have step values.
therightmovesupward.Oneobtainsthevalueofthestepbydividingtherepeatnumber(i.e.
thenumberofendsorpicksintheweaverepeat)into pairsofnumbers.Ofthetwo numbersof
a pair,ei
therboth ornone can be used as a step value.Usable steps m ustm etthe following
conditions:
189
For exam ple, in case of8 - end satin, 1 and (8 - 1)or7 doesnotaccepted asstep val
ue.
Considerany two num bersbutthe sum ofthistwo numbersshould'b
di
e equalto 8 and 8 is not
vided by thisselected num beri.e.there isno comm on factorsof8.
So 3 or5 can be choosing
asa step value.
Usable step valuesforsatin weaves:
Repeatsizeofthe weave
4 - end
4 x4
5 - end
5x 5
6 - end
7 - end
8- end
9 - end
10 - end
11- end
12- end
13 - end
14 - end
15- end
16- end
6x6
7x 7
8x8
9x9
10 x 10
11 x 11
12 x 12
13 x 13
14 x 14
15x 15
16 A 16
etc.
3,5,7,9,11,and 13
weftsl n(sateenweave):
In thsconstruction tbeweftyarn lieson the surfaceofthe fabricasitpassesregularl
underthe warp yar,ns.Forinstancq
yoverand
p yarnsand underone
, a weftyarn may pasjoverfourwar
The floats are consequently made up ofthe weftyarns and tNe Iusterappears in the weft.
,
direction.There aretwo typesofweftsatin, such asregularand irregularsateen weaves
.
Re larWG saNn(sateenweave):
Desi
gning,a weftsatin construction = An eight-sha construction i.
h
e.8 - end sateen illustrates
erethe rulesthatm ustbe followed to selecta suitable interval.
190
Arrange in pairs the num bersthat w illadd up to the desired repeat num ber.Foran
eight-end weft satin,the shaftorrepeat num beris 8.The pairs are 1 and 7,2 and 6,
3 and 5,4 and 4.
@ Elim inate the pair that contains the um ber 1 and the num ber below the repeat
x.- y *x
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pickwillbe7squares(warpyarns).
* To find the warp yarn that w illinterlace on the second pick,count 3 to the right,
beginning with the square above the interlacing that is already started at the
191
@ To find the warp yarn that willinterlace on the third pick,startwith the square
above interlacing pointofpreviouspick.Count3 to the right,and interlacing pointis
plotted.Adjacentinterlacingswillbe 7squaresapart.
This same procedure determ ines the interlacing points on successive
picks,
additionalinterlacingsalwaysbeing 7squaresapart.
* On the ninth pick,the design starts to repeat, which proves the accuracy of the
construction ofan 8- end w eave.
W here itisnotpossibleto plotsubsequentinterlacing bycontinuingtocounttothe
right,because ofthe smallarea ofthe design, interlacingson successive pickscan be
determ ined by counting 5 to the Ieftinstead of 3 to the right. Ifthe interval5 had
been used to countto the ri
ght, 3 would have been used to countto the Ieft.
*
The following figures show the weave plan, draing plan,Iifting plan interlacing diagram and
,
close-up view ofdifferentregularsateen fabrics.
*
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move num ber7
192
e t-*- ,*1j
j:
There is no step value or move number to construct the irregular sateen.So the above
mentioned rule is notapplicable forthe construction ofirregularsateen.Only 4 - end and 6 end sateens are irregular.The following figures show the weave plan with draing and Iiing
plan of these two irregular sateen fabrics.Straight draing system is used to produce this
W eave.
7.W
=#...+w
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arsateen
q Irregul
6- end irregularsateen
):
W arp satin iswoven so thatthe warp may be seen on the surface ofthe fabric.Forexam ple,in
a five-end construction,the warp m ay passoverfourweftyarnsand underonepin a 12 - end
construction,the warp may pass over11 weftyarns and under 1.Since the warp Iies on the
Surface and interlacesonly 1weftyarn atatim e,the Iengthsofwarp between theweftyarn are
called floats.These floats Iie compactly on the surface with very little interruption from the
yarnsgoing atrightanglesto them.Reflection ofIightonthe floatsgivessatin fabricitsprimary
characteristicofIuster,which appearsinthe direction ofthewarp.
Designing a satin construction - W hen makinga design fora satin construction,the interlacings
on successive Iines m ust be separated by a proper intervalto avoid form ing the contiguous
diagonal.W hen the properintervalforany shaftorrepeat construction isselected,the design
willnotrepeatitselfuntilthe num berofsuccessive picks that make up the desired shafthave
The following figuresshow the weave plan,draing plan,Iifting plan,interlacing diagram and
close-upview ofdifferentregularsatinfabrics.
193
= =
q.
#
8x8
!.(m--ys)
---
7(m * 5)
4 1
! -
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
#-->m 3
5X5
- -4
.(m-+a)
1
F4 (m-- 2)
.
5- end satin m ove num ber3 with Close- up view
4
#-->m5
7x7
l6 (m- -ys)
9x9
18 (m- .+4)
' (
194
IrregularWarpsatin(satinweave):
There is no step value ormove num berto constructthe irregularsatin like as sateen.So the
above mentioned rule isnotapplicable forthe construction ofirregularsatin.Only 4 - end and
6- end satinsare irregular.The follow ingfiguresshow the weave plan with drafting and Ii
fting
plan ofthesetwo irregularsatin fabrics.Straightdrafting system isused to produce thisweave.
'
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6x6
rregularsatin
1
4- end irregularsatin
5 lrregularsati
n
6- end irregularsatin
veryeasily.Injeneral,itshedsdirtwell,butabri
ghtrayoninaIong-floatsatinweavewilloften
have a metallic sheenthatmay appeargreasy aftercontinuouswear.
Satin weave usuall
y requires more shafts in the weaving than do the plain or twillweaves,
thereby increasing the costofproduction.
Materialsthataremadeinthesatinweaveincludeantiquesatin(millionsofyardsperyear),
bridalsatin, charmeuse,cotton satin, dress satin, satin bengaline, satin crepe,satin faille,
slippersatin,and Venetian satin.
DerivativesofSatin W eave:
195
1. Crepe W eaves:
The characteristic feature ofcrepe fabrics is one oftexture.Theirsurface exhibitsan allover,random ,small-scale pattern in low relief.There are two w aysofobtaining thiskind
oftexture:
a. On a sateen base
b. By reversing
c. By superim posing
d. On a plain weave base
The m ethodsoftonstruu ion are:
a. Sateen base:
Constructa sateen weave
Constructa twillw eave on the sam e repeatsize
Using the sateen base asthe starting pointofeach Iiftofthe twill,rearrange
the tw illweave on the sateen .base.This new weave is called sateen base
crepe w eave.
'
The following figures show the w eave plan with drafting and Ii
fting plan of di
fferent
sateen base crepe fabric. Norm ally straight drafting system is used to produce this
W eave.
196
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b. Reveuing:
Makea smallmotif,asat'a?;
Reverse 'a'byturningitover,so thatthe warp Ii
f'
tsofthe4thend becomethe
th
th
weftIiftsofthe 5 end and those ofthe 4 end become thewarp liftsofthe
5thend;similarl
y the 6tb, 7th,and 8thendsarethe converseofthe 3rd,2ndand
1St, respectiveIy,and the design isnow on8 endsx 4 picks;
Reverse this by turning it over in the weftdirection and using the same
technique as described.The finaldesign is thus produced,which is called
crepe weave.
The method ofconstructing this weave may Iead to a tendency to create grouping of
threads,which isgenerally undesirable in crepe weaves.The following figuresshow the
weave plan with drafting and Iifting plan of different crepe fabric.Normally straight
draftingsystem isused to produce thisweave.
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d. Plaln base:
Design a sateen on halfthe num ber of ends and picks required in the final
design - a 6-end sateen w illbe used fora design to be produced on 12 ends x
12 picks;
200
Expand this w eave so that the sateen base appears on alternate ends and
picks only,and use this base asthe starting pointofeach Iiftofa tw ill,in this
case 13 113 111,asshow n in the follow ing figure;
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2. Corksceew W eaves:
There are tw o types ofcorkscrew w eave, such as odd num ber corkscrew w eave and
even num bercorkscrew w eave. 80th are discussed in previouschapter.
ln thiscase onlj
odd num bercorkscrew weave w illbe discussed, because this isa sateen derivatives
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202
3. Shaded W eaves:
W ith a weftsatin, one can gradually add interlacing points untilit turns into a w arp
satin.The gradualchange-over produces a shaded effect in the fabric, particularly if
warp and wefthave differentcolours.There are tw o types ofshaded design like shaded
twillw eave,such as- Single shaded design,and Double shaded design.
Single Shaded design ofw eaves:
In thiscase num bersofweftsatinsare developed side by side atfirst.Then these sateen
units are divided into the num ber of groups. W ith each group of sateen one can
gradually add warp floatswith the interlacing points untilitturnsinto a warp satin.After
thisthe resultant weave willbe a single shaded design.The follow ing figures show the
differentsingle shaded design.
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Then these sateen units are divided into the num ber of groups as per requirem ents.
W ith eacb group of sateen one can gradually add w arp floats w ith the interlacing points
untilit turns into a w arp satin.From this w arp satin w ith each group of sateen one can
gradually m inus w arp floats w ith the interlacing points untilit turns into the previous
w eft satin orsateen.Afterthisthe resultant w eave w illbe a double shaded design.The
follow ing figures show the different double shaded design.
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ofa new group,an interlacing pointis added in the warp direction, i.e.on the picks following
the warp Iifts.In orderto achieve adequate fabric strength,itis advisable to add plain weaving
ends(aftereachgroup).Theseareadditionaltothesatinendsinthedentingofthefrontreed.
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The interlacing ofthe threads in a form which varies from that of the basic weaves already
described,isaccom plished with aview to producing a fabric which isdecorative in appearance
and may also utilize the characteristic features of the weave for some usefulpurpose.The
importantfeatures and construction principle ofsome decorative fabricswillbe discussed in
thischapter.
HuckabackW eaves:
M ain featutes:
Theseweavesare generally applied in them anufacture ofnon-piletowels.The main featuresof
thisweave are asfollows:
This weave is characterized by a rough surface,which is produced by floating
threadsin groupsarranged on a plain weave basis.
A more balanced huckaback is produced ifthe weave-repeat size istwice an odd
206
*
*
Groupsofplain weave are exchanged with groupsof0ne end plain weave and one
end floating.To achieve a more prominent raised effect in the area w here the
threadsarefloating correctdenting playsan im portantpart.W heneverpossible the
long floating endsshould be drawn into thesam e dent.
10 x 10 isthe widely used repeatsize.
Thisweave can be divided diagonally into equaltw o parts.
Construction principle:
The following figure showsthe stagesin constructingthe huckabackweave:
M ark out the repeat size,divide into quarters and fill in plain weave in two
opposite onesasshow n atfirst;
Fillin a motif in the othertwo quarters,which is preferably produced by taking
plain weave and adding orremoving som e lifts,as atsecond one;care should be
takento ensurethatthe m otifand the plain weave bind togethereffectively;
The finalweave isproduced bycom biningfirstand second one.
10 x 10 Huckaback design
10Xl0
207
Drafting system :
Di
fferentdraing systems are used to produce thisfabric.The draft which isgenerally used is
so arranged that the odd numberthreads are carried by the two front heald-shafts and the
even numberthreadsbythe backtwo heald-shafts.
Uses:
Linen and cotton yarns are com m only used, and in coarser qualities they are particularly
suitable forhand towels,glasscloths,rollertowels and quiltings.Shirtings,dresswearand table
Iinen are produced inthe finerqualities.
The follow ing figures show the weave plan with drafting and Iifting plan ofdiferenttypes of
huckabackfabrics:
K K
10X6
Devon huckaback
10 x 6 Huckabackdesign(Devon huckaback)
208
K K
K *
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14 x 14 Huckaback design
14 x 10 Huckaback design
209
Eonstruction printlple:
The stagesinproducingthe weaveare illustrated bythefollowingfigure:
@
M ark outthe repeat size,divide into quarters and filla smallm otif in opposite
quarters,asinfirststep;
@ Completely reverse this moti
fin the two remaining quarters,by substituting warp
IiftsforweftIiftsand viceversa,asinsecond step;
@ Combinefirstand second stepsto givethefinalweave.
210
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12 x 12 m ockIeno weave
End uses:
Because ofthe decorative all-overeffects,the end uses range from curtainsto table Iinen and
apparelfabrics.Fabricsproduced w i
ththisweave are used forembroidew cloths,canvascloths
and Iight-weight window curtains, but i
t is also popular in combination with other weaves,
particularly plain,in tablelinen,brocades,blousesand dress-wear.
HoneyEom b w eave:
Theterm isapplied to weaveswhich resem ble honeycomb cells.The cellularformationsappear
square in the c10th.They are form ed bysome endsand picksinterlacing tighterthan othersand
therefore developing a highertension.Usually single clothsm ade by progressi
vely Iengthening
and shortening both warp and weftfloats to form ridgesand hollows on a square pattern,to
give acellularappearance.Sometim escalled waffle orwaffle piqu.
There are two types of honeycom b weave, such as - ordinary honeycom b and brighton
honeycom b.
Ordinary Honeycom b:
M ain features:
212
In the repeat size the number of ends and picks m ay be equalor unequaland
m ultiple oftwo.
In the Iargerrepeat size,a double row ofbinding has been constructed by using a
1 1
twillweave atfirststage,so thatafirm erstructure willbe produced.
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The stagesofconstructing anordinary honeycom b weave are asfollows:
1
* Construct a -J.Z twillstarting in the bottom le-hand corner,then a sim ilar one
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running in the opposite direction and starting one square in or one square down
from the top Ieft-hand corner,so thatthere willbe a clean intersection ofthe twill
Iines,asatfirststage;
* ln one ofthetwo diamondsproduced,Ieave a row ofstitching pointsand then Ii
ft
theremainderofthe diam ond solid. Thisisthefinalweave.
213
The following figuresshow the weave plan with drafting and lifting pdan ofdifferentequaland
unequalrepeatsizesofordinaryhoneycom b weaves.
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Brighton Honeycom b:
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Brighton Honeycomb isa com plex structure.The main featuresofbrighton honeycomb are as
follows:
* M ore honeycom b cellsofvarying size are produce in thisweave.
* The fabricsurface isalso rough likeasordinary honeycom b.
* W hen making the weave,the num ber of threads per repeat should always be a
multipleoffour(i.e.12endsx 12picks),whilsttheIongestfloatshouldalwaysbe
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oneIessthanhalfthenumberofthreadsintherepeat(i.e.2
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BothsidesofthefabricIookthesameIikeasordinaryhoneycomb.
Straightdraing system is used to producethis brighton honeycomb weave.
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1 a
the square in the top Ieft-hand corner,and indicate the pointson the double row of
216
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* Each ofthese warp floats now form the centre float of a diamond w hich can be
com pleted.Thisisthe finalweave.
The draftofthe brighton honeycom b isstraight,thus producing a Iifting plan which is identical
with the design;therefore,there isno saving ofheald-shaftsas isthe case with the pointed or
V- draftoftheordinary honeycom b.
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End uses:
Although the weave is notas popularasthe ordinary honeycom b, itisused in sim ilarqualities
form ore decorative end usessuch asquiltsand brocadesand,in some cases,hand towelsand
glasscloths.Itisalso suitable forcrockerytowels.
Leno weave can also be used to create a figured appearance by causing a coarse
endstocrossanumberofstandingends.
In thisweave,the crossing end is made to Iie at an angle to the normaldirection of
the warp and weftthreads.
Im itationsofthis effectcan be produced by otherweaves designed to cause certain
selected threadsto be distorted.
218
After indicating the threads in the warp and weft direction which are
essentialforforming the distortion,fillin plain weave on aIlthe remaining
endsand picks,asatfirststage;
@ Fora warp distortion,Iiftthe preselected warp threads offirststage except
where they cross the preselected weftthreads,and then Iift aIIremaining
ground endsoverthe preselected weftthreadsin one group on the firstpick
and in the othergroup onthe second pick,asatsecond stage;
@ The com pleted design,third stage,is then form ed by combining first and
second stage.
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W hen the fabric is relaxed after weaving, the floating ends are distorted and assume
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b. Distorted W efteffect:
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W hen the fabric is relaxed after weaving, the floating picks are distorted and assume
approxim ately the zigzag conformation.
220
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Cord w eave:
The m ain characteristic ofthisweave are cords running in warp orweftdirection.They have
some sim ilarity in appearance to the preceding weft or warp rib weaves but they are not
reversible.The end use ismainlyforapparelfabrics.
a)BedfordCordweave:
Me e a The Bedford cord classofweavesproducesIongi
tudinalwarp Iines in the c10th with
finesunken Iinesbetweenthe cords.
* W arp face c10th.
In one repeattwo ormore cordsare produced.
* W adding orpaddingareusedto give greaterprom inence ofthe cord effect.
Endsand picksare alwayseven number.In specialcasesendsmay beodd number.
Picksnumberalways4.ie.12X4,16X4,20X4etc.(forplain-faceBedfordcord).
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Cordsrunning down the piece in the warp direction form the main characteristicofthisweave.
The face of the c10th is usually plain weave and the corded effect is produced by allowing
alternate pairs of weft threads to float on the back of the fabric behind each cord. These
threads interweave in plain orderwith the outside ends ofeach cord and are known as the
cuttingends(sunkenline).
TypesofBedford cord:
Therearefive typesofBedford cord design, such as1.
Plainface Bedford cord
2. W added Bedford cord
3.
Crepon Bedford cord
4.
Bedford cords,arranged with alternate picks
5. Twillface Bedford cord.
Construction principlesofplain-face Bedford cord w eave:
show the outside ends of each cord, known as cutting ends, weaving plain
throughout,asatfirstand second stage;
* The firstpairofpicksfloat underthe warp ends in the firstcord and weave plain in
the second cord.The second pair of picks weave plain in the first cord but float
under the w arp ends,and thus on the back ofthe c10th on the second cord. This
fourth stage isthefinaldesign.
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In orderto increase the prom inence ofthe cord effect,wadding ends may be introduced, as
illustrated in the following figure.In the following figure,one wadding end in each eight-end
cord;i
tcan be seen thatitliesbetween the plain weave face and the floating wefton the back
ofthe fabric.The weave fora Bedford cord with 12 ends in each cord and 3 extrawadding ends
isalsoshowninthenextfigure(30x4repeatsize).
The draing and Iifting plan ofthese designs are shown in the figure also;itcan be seen that
the cutting ends are always controlled by the frontshafts and the wadding ends by the back
shafts.W hen arrangingthe orderofdenting,the cuttingendsshould be placed on eitherside of
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H
Fabrics produced with thisweave may be m ade in medium-weightcotton orspun rayon fabrics
forIadies'blousesand dresswear,sportswearand ornam entaltrim mings.In heavierqualities,it
issuitableforsoftfurnishingw hen produced with cottonyarnsorfortrouseringswhen made of
worsted yarns.
b) Pique W eave:
* '*W * '* '
A typicalpique structure consists ofa plain face fabric composed ofone series of
warp and one seriesofweftthreads,and aseriesofbackorsti
tchingwarp threads.
Continuoussunken linesorcutsi.e.cordsare run horizontallyinthe c10th.
* One cord producesperrepeat.
* Normally skipdrafting system isused to producethisweave.
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1. Ordinarypiqueorweltstructure/Loosebackwithoutwaddingpicks.
2. W eftwadded welts/Loosebackwaddedweltstructure.
3. Fastbackweltorpique structure.
4. W aved pique structure.
@ The num berofface picks in the width ofa cord isvaried according to requirem ents,
butusually the num berofconsecutive picks that are unstitched should not exceed
twelve.
* The orderofthe warp thread arrangement,which isalwaysone face orground,one
stitching orback end and one ground orface end,in each splitofthe reed,orin the
proportionoftwo face to pne stitching end.
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The following figure shows a cross-section of the weave through the weftand indicates the
stagesinthe construction:
224
* Indicate the order of the warp thread arrangem ent, w hich is alw ays one
ground,one stitching end and one ground end, then fillin plain weave on the
ground endsasatfirststage;
@ The stitching w arp is lifted overthe required num berofpicks, as determ ined
by the requirem ents of the finalfabric appearance; at second stage a tw o
pick weave is illustrated;
* The finalweave isproduced by com bining firstand second stage.
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225
W added welts:
In orderto increase the prom inence of the unstitched portions of the c10th, i.e.
horizontalcords and to m ake the c10th more substantial,it is custom ary to insert
wadding picksbetween thetightbackstitchingendsand the slackface fabric.
Usually the wadding weftisthickerthan the ground weft,and is inserted two picks
at a place,the Ioom s being provided with changing shuttle boxes atone side only.
Sometim es, however, th same kind of weft is used for both the face and the
w adding,Ioom sw i
th a single box ateach side being em ployed;and,in such a case,
one wadding pick ata place m ay be inserted.
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* Again, in som e cloths thick wadding picks w hich are inserted in pairs, are
supplemented by single wadding picksofthe face weft.AIIthe face ends are raised
when the wadding picks are inserted,as indicated by the different colour in the
designs,while the stitching endsare Ieftdow n.
* The stitching ends are placed on a separate beam w hich isvery heavily weighted,
whereasthe face endsare keptatmoderatetension.
* At intervalsthe tightstitching endsare interwoven into the plain face texture,with
the resul
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Fast- backwelts:
In each of the foregoing designs, the stitching ends are only Iifted to form the
indentations,theterm ''loose-back''being applied to thistype ofstructure.
@ The term 'fast-back''isapplied to cloths in which the stitching endsare interwoven
in plain orderwith all,orsom e wadding picks.The reduction ofthe float length of
the stitching endson the back ofthe fabric which resul
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to producea m ore serviceable c10th Iessliable to accidentaldam age.
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W aved piques:
A waved pique is a sim ple modification of the welt structure in which the
indentations are not in a horizontalIine but are arranged in alternate groups, as
shown at first in the following figure,the marks in which indicate the Iifts of the
stitchingendson the face picks.
The group ofmarksdoes notoverlap horizontajly,asone com menceson a face pick
im mediately followingthaton w hich the otherhasfinished.
Between succeeding groups two wadding picks are inserted, as indicated by the
arrowsatthe side offirstfigure.
The complete design to correspond with first figure is given at second figure,in
which the endsare arranged in the same orderasin a wel
t,while there areten face
picks to two wadding picks.The Iiftsofthe tight stitching ends force the wadding
picks first in one direction and then in the other,so thatwaved Iines are formed
acrossthe c10th.The following figuresshow the weave plan with drafting and Iiing
planofatypicalwaved pique orwel
tdesign.
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End uses:
Sponge V/eave:
Any one of a variety ofweave arrangements thatgroups endsand picks together in orderto
form a cellularstructure and to create a softspongy effectinthe fabric.Examplesinclude spot
weaves,diamond effects,honeycombsand sateen-based structuresw i
th Iiftsadded.
Sponge weave considered as the result of honeycom b effect and also form the cell Iike
honeycom b weave.The ch4racteristicsfeaturesofthisweave are asfollows:
* The numberofendsand picksare alwaysequal;
10 x 10 isthe sm allestrepeatsize ofthisweave;
Straightdraftingsystem isused to produce thisweave;
Low twisted and coarseryarns are used to produce this fabric.So the fabric
produced bythisweave isvery softand absorbent;
For the construction of this weave it is im portant to calculate the Iongest
floatofdiam ond.Thisfloatis depends on the repeat size ofthe design.The
following form ula isused to calculate thisIongestfloat:
Longestfloatofdiamond = Num berofendsorpicks in the repeat-l
* ltisareversible c10th Iike honeycom b;
228
Honeycom b w eave produce one cellon both sides butin thiscase num berof
produced cellon both sides ofthe w eave dependson the num berofrepeat
size;
* Thisweave produce on the sateen base.
10 x 10 Sponge w eave
26X26
Spongeweave
26 x 26 Sponge w eave
E:d Qses:
Usesinclude fancy woolen shawls,bed-sheet,towel,counterpanes,drapes,bathing wrapsand
dressfabrics.Itisalsousedasgroundofjacquarddesign.
229
Simpie weavessuch as Y
1p , 2
2
colour warp and weft patterns to produce small geom etricaldesigns in two colours.The
particulardesign which resultsdependsboth on the weave and on the arrangementofthe two
coloursin thewarp and weft.These patternsare called colour-and-weave effects.They arevery
frequentl
yusedinwoolenandworstedfabricsforcostumes,sportsjacketsandladies'coats.
There are two typesofcolourand weave effects,such as* Sim ple colourand weave effects,and
* Compound colourand weave effects.
Ordercfcolouring/Arrangementofthreads:
Thereare two typesoforderofcolouring,such as@ Sim ple orderofcolouring,and
* Compound orderofcolouring.
Both simple and com pound orderof colouring again di
vided into two types,such as-regular
orderofcolouring and irregularorderofcolouring.
Sim ple orderofcolouring:
In thisorderofcolouring,only one ratio ofcolourisused eitherforwarp orweft,suchas* Regularorderofcolouring4 dark,4 Iight;3 dark,3 m edium,3 Iightetc.sameforboth warpand weft.
@ lrregularorderofcolouring2dark,1light;3 dark,2m edium,1 Iightetc.same forb0th warp and weft.
By arrangingthe weftin a differentorderfrom the warp,forexample- 2 and
2 warpingcrossed with 1 and lwefting
Com pound orderofcolouring:
In thiscase morethan one ratio ofcolourisused eitherforwarp orweft,such as2 dark - 2 lightand 4 dark- 4 Iight;6 dark- 6 Iightand 3 dark- 3 lightetc.
same forboth warp and weft.
230
* In thecombination ofcom pound orderofcolouring,italso m ay be regularor
irregularorderIike assim pleorderofcolouring.
Orderoftolouring
Simple warpingand
SimpleweAin
Com pound wam ing and
Sim Ie weAin
Sim ple warping and
Com pound weAing
Com pound wam ingand
Eompound weAin
Sim ple
W eave
Simple
Pattern
Stripe
P/ttern
Cross-over
Pattern
Check
Pattern
Stripe
W eave
Stripe
Pattern
Stripe
Pattern
Check
Pattern
Check
Pattern
Ehetk
W eave
Check
Pattern
Check
Pattern
Check
Fattern
Check
Pattern
231
1
In what follows it is assum ed that dark and light yarns are used,although any sufficiently '
contrasting colours are possible.The following designs are the example ofsim ple colourand
weave effects:
End and end toloufing Pattern:
M X
M#
XX
XX
jX
xx X
XX
X
XX
X
XX
X
XX
X
X
XX
X
X
XX
X
X
XX
X
X
XX
X
X
XX
X
XX
X
X
XX
X
X
XX
X
X X X
Orderofcolouring:1:1forbothwarpingand wefting
W eave: 2 twill
2
Orderofcolouring:2:2 forboth warping and wefting.
Continuoesline efed :
The effectofarranging the warp and wefta2:2 orderofcolouring inthe
2
tw ill-weave c10th is
2
shown in the above right figure;similarly the shades indicate the dark yarns.The weave and
colourarrangement produce the pattern,w hich consists ofcoarse horizontalIines alternately
darkand Iightbutitisnotsharp Iine Iike previousend and end colouring pattern.
HairlinesorPin stripe:
The effectofarranging the warp and wefta 2:2 orderofcolouring inthe
2 m att-weavec10th
is shown in the following figure;similarly the shades indicate the dark yarns.The weave and
colour arrangem ent produce the pattern,which consists ofthick or coarse horizontalIines
alternately darkand IightIike aspreviousend and end colouring pattern.
In the following right side figure the weave issame as in the Ieftone,butthe warp and weft
colourarrangement has been changed:the resultin verticalIines.Similarly the pattern can be
changed bychangingthe startingoftheweavew ith same colourarrangementofboth warpand
weftyarn.
232
XK
XX
XX
XX
XX
KX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XK
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
X X'
E
XX
y
XX
XX
XX
X.
X
X
X
X
X:
XX
j XX 1
M#
X
'
XE
.
X7
#XX X X X
1
W
HAIR LINESORPIN STRIPE
W eave: 2 2 matt
2
Orderofcolouring:2:2forb0thwarping andwefting.
Crow sfootpattern:
The effectofarranging the warp and weft2:2 orderofcolouring in the 1 plain-weave c10th is
1
shown in the following Ieftfigure;sim ilarlythe shadesindicate the darkyarns.The weave and
colourarrangem entproduce the pattern,which isthewell
-know ncrowsfootdesign.
A similarbutIargercrowsfootpattern resultsfrom using a4:4 colouring with a 2 2 m att-weave
z
represent in the following m iddle figure.The close-up view of a fabric using this weave and
colouring isshown inthefollow ing rightsidefigure.
Other Iessuseful
,patternsresultifthe footing i.e.the starting pointofthe 22 2 m att-weave is
,
altered,the order of colouring remaining the same.The reader m ight work these out for
himself.
X
xx
X
xx
XX t
X
j
XX
xx X
X
)(x
X )(
xx xx
x x xx
1.xxxx
xx xx
4
CrowsfootDesign
xx
x
x x xx
xx xx
xx xx
x x
x x
)()( X j
j.
X j
xx
xx j
t
xx
x
x
x
x
x
x ')
,
1
CrowsfootDesign 1
l
rightside figure.
2a3
!
Al
tering the footing ofthe weave changesthecharacterofthe effectproduced,butnone ofthe !
alternatives are as effective or as usefulas the one show n. Here again the reader m ay
experim entwith alternative arrangements.
'
Xx
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
X
XX
X
Xx
XX
)(X
XX
XX
xx
X
XX
X
XX
XX
XX
X
X
X )(
XX
XX
X
X
XX
XX
X
X )( X
X )(
XX
XX
X
X
XX
XM
)(X
X
X
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xX
xx
x
X
XX
XX
XX
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X
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)
X(X x
XX
XX
XX
X
X
XX
XX
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xx
xX
x
X
XX
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XX
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)(
XX
XX
xx
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k
.
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Dog'st00thorHoupd'st00th
'
shepherd'sCheck Pattern:
A 6:6 orderofcolouring with a
2
twillweave givesan effectsim ilarto,butbolderthan,dog#s
2
t00th.A woolen coating woven in this way from black and white yarns,known as shepherd's
check,isshown in thefollowing figure.
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
X
XX
xx
XX
xx
xx
X
xx
x )(
XX
XX
XX
X
XX
XX
xx
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XX
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x
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XX
XX
XX
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X
XX
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X
XX
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XX
xx
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XX
xx
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XX
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XX
xx
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Shepherd SCheck
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Close-upview ofshepherdcheck
Allovereffect:
A 6:6 orderofcolouring with a 44 twillweave givesan effect,known as alloverefect,isshow n
in the follow ingfigure.
2B4
gx
x'x
. p xxx
; g .x.
XX X
XXX
XX X X
XX X X
XX
X
X XX X
xx x
x x
XX
x xx
xx xx
xx x x
XX
XX X X
X Xx
X XX
x x xx
x xx x
M MX M
X X X
XM
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x;x >
x x
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x x
Xx X
X MM F
xx xx
M MM M
x Mx
AM
X x >( x
XXX X
X XXX
XXX
X
XX
XX X
Allovereffct
Birdseye effect:
A usefultype of colour-and-weave effect is known as birdseye,defined as '/a fabric having a
pattern ofverysmalland uniform spots,the resultofa com bination ofweave and colour/'.The
developmentofthe pattern and ofanotherpattern ofthe same type,buthaving Iargerspots,is
given in the following figures.Boththese patternsuse sim plefancy weaves.Otherfancyweaves
used with sui
table ordersofcolouring provide a considerable range ofpatterns,some ofwhich
are distincti
veenough to be useful.
X
X
X
x
XXX
X
X
X
j Xx
X XXXX
XX x
X XXX
jX
XXXX x
x
X
XX
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X X
R
XX X
X
8 XX
X XXX
x
x
xx x x x x
X
X
X
X
X xX X X X
Rx
X
XX X
x
XX
xxXX xXX
1
X
X
X
Birdseyeeffectorpattern
X
8
X
8
x
)(
X
X
x
X
X
X
XX
XX
X
X
X )(
XX
X
X
X
%
X
X
X
X
)
X
(
X
X
X
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x
X
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)(
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Birdseye effectorpattern
Stepped tw illPattern:
A 1:1orderofcolouringwitha 2: twillweave(forfinereffect)or1:2orderofcolouringwitha
twillweave(forfinereffectlor2:1orderofcolouringwitha twill3aweave(forcoarsereffect)
givesa usefuleffect know n asstepped tw ill.Itsdevelopm ent is show n in the follow ing
figures.Thefollow ing rightside figure showsaworsted suitingfabricm ade with thisweave and
colouring.
Fabricssuch asthisin whichthe warp and weftare end-and-end and pick-and-pickin contrasting
coloursrequireuniform yarns,accuratelyspaced.Yarnirregulariiies,orvariationsinyarnspacing,
235
show up very markedly.Even the highest-quality fabrics of this type tend to exhibitsome
irregularities.
XXX
M XXXX
YX
x
yx XXX
X
X
@
1
@
1
Xx
.
X
j
x .
1 X X
1
Stepped twill
Stepped twillorpattern
forweftcolouring sim ple 1:1 colourarrangem entare used here.The repeatsize ofthis pattern
is32 x 16.
X
X
X
X
g
: X
X
X
(
# X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
(
# X
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g: x
X
X
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X
X
X
X
XX
Xx
XX
XX
Xx
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
Xx
XX
x
X
236
Glen check:
Distinctive patterns are often m ade in woolen and worsted fabrics in 2 twillweave, with
2
alternating blocks ofends and picks arranged 4:4 and 2:2.ln those partsofthe fabric where
both warp and weft are coloured 4:4,we obtain a dog's t00th effect.W here both warp and
weftare coloured 2:2,eitherverticalorhorizontalIines result.W here the warp iscoloured 4:4
and the weft2:2,and vice versa,we obtain two new effects.A woolen fabric embodying these
effects isillustrated actualsize in the following figure.This type ofdesign iscalled glen check.
The warp and weftpatternsare both -4white :4black;4white :4red;4white :4black;4w hite :
4black;zwhi
te :zblack x 8;4white :4green;4w hi
te :4black;4white :4black;4white :4green;
zwhite :zblackx 8.The colourand weave effectrepeatson 64 ends x 64 picks,but because of
the double overcheck in red and green,the design repeatson 128 endsx 128 picks.Itrequires
only fourheald shaftsto produce thisfabric.The follow ing figures show the close-up view of
glen checkfabricwith weave plan.
237
238
M ain Features:
A distinguishing feature offabricsin which extra materialsare em ployed isthatthe withdrawal
ofthe extra threadsfrom the c10th Ieaves a com plete ground structure underthe figure.The
formation of a figure by means of extra threads thus does not detract from the strength or
wearing quality ofa c10th,exceptso farasthe extra threads are Iiable to fray out,whereasin
ordinary fabrics,in which the figure isform ed by floating the weftorwarp threads Ioosely,the
strenmhofthec10thisreducedsomewhatinproportiontotheratiooffigureandground.
One ofthe advantagesoffiguring with extra materials isthat bright colours in sharp contrast
with the ground may be broughtto the surface ofthe c10th in any desired proportion.Pleasing
colourcom binations may thus be conveniently obtained,since the extentofsurface allotted to
the figuring colour may be readily proportioned in accordance with the degree of itscontrast
with the ground shade,withoutthe Iatterbeing affected.
rame no
'nnofoO warpwithextraweA Y ring:
In extra warp figuring there are two or more series of warp threads to one series ofweft
threads,and the method hasthe following advantages and disadvantages,as compared w ith
theextraweftprinciple.
239
iI.
I;
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9
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AA ante :
* The productivity ofa Ioom isgreaterbecause only one seriesofpicksisinserted,
and a fasterrunning loom can be used.
* No specialpicking,box,and uptake m otions are required.
@ There istheoretically no lim itto the num berofcoloursthatcan be introduced.
. In anintermittentarrangementofthe extra endseitherspotted orstripepatternscan be
form ed,w hereas a sim ilararrangem ent in the w eftcan only be used to form
240
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Extra weftdesign
Disadvantages:
Two ormore warp beamsm ay be required instead ofone.
241
Some cloths are produced on the double c10th principle of construction but due to the
deliberate absence of stitching between the Iayers become single cloths upon their removal
from the Ioom.Two such constructions,the double width and the tubularc10th are described
respecti
vel
y inthe following stages.
TubularC10th
BasicPrinciple:
face and back fabrics are joined,forming the bottom ofthe bag.The sides ofthe bag are
formed by m aking ashortIength ofthe double fabricand then again awhole width ofthe bag.
UsesofTubularfabrics:
Tubularfabricsare used form aking fire hoses,seamless bagsand sacks,technicaldrying cloths,
decorative and othercloths.
Typicalweaves:
242
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TubularC10th
OU Ie 1 th cloth'
.
Ifa tubularfabric is woven with a sequence 2 top picks - 2 bottom picks,a folded or double
widthfabricisproduced where the two fabrii Iayersare onlyjoined togetherby the wefton
one side.The otherside rem ainsopen.W hich isthe open side dependson the pick sequence.
herefore,the pointpaperpresentation ofaIIfolded fabrics m ustspeci
fy the sequence ofweft
insertion.Atthe edge where the weftpassesfrom one fabricIayerto the other, the continuity
ofthe weave m ustbe preserved.
M ulti-ply Fabrics
* . .2 .
The multi-plyfabric consistsofthree ormore fabricswoven one above the otherand stitched
ogether.From three to eight Iayers are used.A narrow eight-ply fabric is applied for making
he Industrialbelts.
r -.--....-8-.-
* 4*
l'
he sequence ofwarp threads atthe diagram correspondsto thatin the reed.The numbersof
the picks correspond to the sequence of their insertion in the fabric. Thus there are three
system s of warps,i.e.the face,the centre and the back,and the same num ber of the weft
ystems.The multi-pl
y fabricconsistsofthree fabrics,the weave ofw hich isplain.
e
243
11
'
#
1
12
11
10
09
08
07
06
05
04
03
02
01
# 1 2 34 k 6
%
Figure -A
i
Figure -B
For producing this fabric six heald shafts are necessary with straight draft of warp threads.
M ore often 6 threadsare drawn in one dentofthe reed.
244
STITCHED DOUBLECLOTHS
Introductipn:
Double clothsarefabricsin which there areatIeasttwo seriesofwarp andweftthreadseach of
which is engaged primarily in producing its own Iayerofc10th, thus forming a separate face
c10th and a separate back c10th. The two layers may be only loosely connected together in
which case each may be readily identified as a different entity orthey may be so intricately
stitched ortiedtogetherthattheyappeartoform a complexsingle structure.
The purpose ofthe constructi
on may be entirely utilitarian, such as the improvementofthe
thermalinsulation value ofa fabric in which a fine, smartface appearance is necessary;orit
may be aesthetic in intention forwhich purpose the existence oftwo seriesofthreadsin each
direction improvesthe capacityforproducing intricate effectsdependentupon e
'ithercolour, or
structuralchanges.
1. Self-stittheddoebletloths:
Thesefabricscontain onlythe two seriesofthreadsin both directionsand the stitchin
g
ofthe face c10th Iayerto the back Iayerisaccomplished byoccasionally dropping aface
end undera back pick,or, by lifting a back end overa face pick, or,by utilizing both of
the above systemsin differentportionsofthec10th. Thistype ofstructure andthethree
differentmethodsofstitchingare illustrated atthe followingfigures,
2. Centre-stlttheddoobletloths:
ln these fabricsa third seriesofthreads isintroduced eitherin the warp orin the weft
direction whose entire function isto stitch the two otherwise separate Iayers ofc10th
together.The centre threads Iie between the face and the back c10th and for the
purpose ofstitching oscillate at regular intervals between the face and the back thus
achieving the required interlayercohesion asshown atthefollowing figure.
245
3. M ubledolsseeehe W th--oInoah:nm :
Tbese structuresare sim ilarto the firstcategory in as m uch asthey do not contain an
additionalseries of stitching threads.However, they are distinguished from the self
stitched fabrics by the factthatthe stitching ofthe face and the back c10th isachieved
by frequent and continuous interchange ofsome tbread elements btween the two
c10th Iayers.Thus,in som e portions ofthe c10th the face ends m ay be m ade to interweave with the back picks and the back ends w ith the face picks as illustrated
schem aticaly at the following figure.The point at w hich the threads interchange
representsthe sti
tch point.
W
In this class ofconstructions the principle ofthe interchange istaken one stage further
than in the third category and com plete c10th layers are made to change places as
shown atthe follow ing figure.As stitching between the two fabrics occurs only atthe
pointofc10th interchange the degree of cohesion in thstype ofc10th dependson the
frequency ofthe interchange.
-x.% .-
-....* - * k .--- --
M*
'
These are decided m ainly bythe weightto be added to the facetexture,butthe order
ofarrangem entofthe weftthreadsisdeterm ined partly by the weftinsertion ofthe
Ioom .The m ostcom mon varietiesofdouble clothsare arranged in w arp and weft1
246
face,1 back and 2 face,1 back.For looms with boxes at one side only,and when the
back weft is different from the face weft, sim ilar effects may be obtained in m any
weavesbychangingthe wefting to 2 face,2 backand 4 face,2 back,respectively.Cloths
which require a very fine face are sometimesarranged 3 face,1 back in warp and weft.
The threads m ay also be arranged in a m ixed order,i.e.1 face,1 back in warp and 2
face,1 back in weftand vice versa.Or2 face,1 back in warp and 2 face,2 back in weft.
Thestitchingofthebackandfacefabricsofthedoublec10thcanbeeffectediniive
ways.In thefirstthree m ethodsthe threadsofIayersare used forstitching.Intwo other
247
248
iscoveredbytwoadjacentweftfloatsonthe undersideofthebackfabric.
Clearly,in some circumstances itwillnotbe possible to achieve the simultaneouscoi'
cjdence
ofaIIthe fourconditions.
',
Similarky,when theface endsalelowered forstiyching underthe bgikpicks:
1.'The face end atthatpointmstbf'
absentfrom the sudce''
ofxthe face c10th.
n
I
t
rmpj
' tbe Iowered ata p6fntatwh
ich two Iong bak0
1wi.
rp-flpatscoyjrit on the
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(2)and(4).
Construction Principle:
% q%* u-.:r*-% :
There isno need to separate stitching thread.The threadsofthe face and back c10th are used
forstitching.There are threetypesofselfstitch double c10th,such as-
--.,*.*-= -*
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D % o-% je
249
.
the back w eave respectively.At C an area equalto one repeat of the double weave is
m arked out with the orderofarrangem entofthe face endsand picks and the backends
and picks indicated clearly atthe m argins.C show sthe first stage ofactualdouble c10th
construction w hich m ay be defined as:Insertthe face w eave on the face ends and face
picks only, according to the originaldesign.The second stage is sim ilar except that it
refers to the back w eave: lnsert the back w eave on the back ends and picks only,
according to the originaldesign.
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D
D also represents a stage in w hich two separate fabrics are produced one above the
other.As there is no particular reason for producing tw o disconnected cloths in this
m anner, it willbe realized thatthis stage is the interm ediate point in the construction
reached priorto the insertion of stitches orties to bind the tw o clothstogether.Before
the stitch m arksare inserted it m ustbe decided which m ethod ofstitching isto be used
and how frequently the clothsare to be stitched.
Assum ingthatitis required to stitch by Iifting the back endson the face picksand thateach
back end is to stitch once in the repeat,the correct positions ofthe ties are show n
250
by the crosses atfigure D.The following figure D representthe finalweave plan and
figure E representthe drafting plan and figure F representthe Iifting plan.
M * de pre e
W f- tobackse
ingsystem ;
The construction principle is sam e Iike as previous one. In this case face and back
weaves both are sam e 4 tw illw eave.The second stitching m ethod is used here,i.e.
4
stitching by dropping the face ends on back picks.As in the previous system ,one stitch
perrepeat is m ade,only in this case the face ends and not the back ends are used for
the purpose.The following figure showsthe weave plan (D)ofa double c10th based on
4
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Facetobackstitchingmethod
4
4
tw illw eaves w ith com bined stitching m ethod.The figure E and F represents
251
Self stitching system is used to produced the above three structures of double c10th.
Only 1:1 thread arrangem ent is used forboth face and backw eav described above.Itis
noted thatthe differentarrangem entofthreadsare also used such as- face warp :back
w arp = 2:1,face w arp :back w arp = 2:2,face w arp :back warp = 1:2 etc.Sim ilarly the
w eftyarnsare also arranged in differentorder.The thread arrangem entm ay be sam e or
different forwarp and weftyarn.The repeat size ofthe finaldesign is depends on this
thread arrangem ent.
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A wadded double c10th consistsofa face and a backfabric,tied togetherby floating back ends
on face picks,orface endsunderback picksas in ordinary self-stitched double cloths, w ith the
addition ofa specialseriesofweft orwarp threads introduced independently ofthe face and
backyarns.The warp-wadded clothsthusconsistofthree seriesofwarp and two seriesofweft
threads,while in the weft-wadded clothsthere are three series ofweftand two seriesofweft
threads.The wadding threads Iie between the two fabrics,and are visible neitheron the face
nor back; hence a thicker and cheaper yarn than that used for the face and back may be
em ployed forwadding withoutthe appearance ofthe c10th being affected.
The type ofconstruction istherefore usefulin caseswhere increased weightand substanceare
252
com mon proportions are 1 wadding to 1 face and 1 back,2 face and 2 back,or2 face and 1
back.The firstarrangement issuitable when the wadding yarn is notso much thickerthan the
faceyarn,and thesecond and third when verythickwadding isused.
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253
The wadded design istherefore exactly the same asthe ordinary double design exceptforthe
inclusion ofthe wadding threads;and in orderthat comparisons may be m ade,the double
weave with the wadding isgiven atC.In the complete design,given at D the crosses indicate
theties(backwarpuponthefacepicks).ItwillbenotedthatinweftwaddedstructuresaIIface
endsare up.And alIbackendsare down,onwadding picks.
In the following exam ple the picks are arranged in the orderof1 face,1 back,1 wadding;and
the ends 1 face,1 back.The 7-end satinette weave,warp surface on both sidesofthe c10th,is
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254
two fabrics are Iess firm ly united than with the self-stitching,and the c10th has a softerand
fullerhandle.Thestitching threadsmay be used aswarp yarn orweftyarn.
Eentrewarp eilch double clol :
The plansin the following figure are illustrative ofthe construction ofdouble clothsarranged 1
face,1 back,inw hich thetwo fabricsarestitched togetherby meansofcentre warp.The design
3
indicatedatC(Ieftside).
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.
entrewarpstitchdoublec10th
isgiveninthedesignC(rightside),intheabovefigure,inwhichtheendsareintheproportion
of3 face and 3 backto 1 stitching;2 face and 2 backto 1stitching.The faceweave and the back
weavearethesameasinthedesignC tleftside).Inthiscasetherearetwostitchingendsinone
repeatofthe double weave,w hich not only causes the fabricsto be more firm ly united,but
enables an alternate distribution of the ties to be made.The figure D and E represents the
draftingplan and Iifting plan respectivelyofthisweave plan.
r . %
* r2.%
Thistype ofsti
tching is notvery often used asitreducesthe rate ofc10th production.This is
dueto t-he factthatw hen the centreweftpicks are introduced the take-up m ustbe rendered
inoperative and thusthe picksdo notcontribute to the Iength ofc10th being produced.ln
constructionsinw hichthe use ofcentre stitching threadsisessentialitis,therefore prefereble
to usethe centre warp sti
tches.However,there are som e situationswhich make itnecessary
255
to use the centre wek and one reason forthe use ofthis m ethod occurswhen aIIthe existing
jacks in a dobby are required to operate the face and the back healdsand none are Ieftto
controlthe centre warp ends.Occasionally the centre weft is also used ifthe mounting ofan
extra beam required bythe centre warp threadspresentsa particulardifficulty in respectofthe
controloraccessto the warp yarns.
The plansA to D in the follow ing figure illustrate the principle ofstitching by meansofcentre
weft.The double 6 x 6 m attweave isem ployed,the face weave 33 3 being gi
ven atA, and the
backwe
4
design isgiven atD. The following figure E and F represents the drafting planaand Ii
fting plan
respectivelyofthisweave plan.
- B
F
s
A- 6X: .
F
FACEWEAW
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B
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centreweftstitchdouble610th
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End uses:
Double cloths are used as differenttypes ofdecoratike c10th such as- sofa cover, furnishing
c10th,curtain fabric,bed cover,pillow cover,and otherhom e textile,etc.Itisalso used forthe
production ofwintergarm ents,quilts,belts,differenttypesofindustrialfabricsetc.
256
(SorZ)forwarpandweftyarnsalternates.Forexample,even-numberedwarpandweft
yarns may be S-twistand odd-numbered yarns may beZ-twist. Itcan be a solid colouror
printed.Itisvery lightweight,drape well,and isused in apparel. ltwasoriginally made
ofsilkbutnow often ism adefrom m anufactured filamentyarns.
1. EhiWon: lt is m ade from fine, highly twisted filam ent yarns. Because of the tightly
twisted crepe yarns,chiffon has excellent drape, very Iightweight,and although it is
delicate in appearance,itis relati
vel
y durable. Itcan be a solid colourorprinted.Itwas
originall
y m ade ofsilk butnow often ism ade from m anufactured filam entyarns. Sheer
evening dresses,blouses,Iingerie,and other dressy apparelare constructed from the
fabric.
3. Voile:Voile is a sheerfabric m ade with high twist or voile twist spun yarns that are
com bed or worsted.It is a soft fabric with some what Iowerfabric count and has a
distinctive two pIy warp and good drapability. ltcan be solid colourorprinted.Voile was
originallya cotton orwoolfabric,butitisnow available w i
th many fibre contents.
4. Organdy: lt is the sheerest cotton fabric that is given a tem porarily or permanently
stiffened finish.Com bed yarns contribute to i
ts sheer appearance. Its sheerness and
crispnessare the resultofan acid finish on Iaw ngray goods. Because ofitsstiffnessand
fibre content,itisvew prone to wrinkling. Itisused forcurtainsand forsum merweight
apparel.It is available in solid colours or prints. Fabric construction:sim ilar to Iawn
fabric.
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Chiffon
Voile
Organdy
257
5.
6. 1-
: lt is a fine, opaque, light weight, plain weave fabric usually m ade of com bed
cottonorcotton-blend(cotton/polyester).Thefabricmaybebleached,dyedorprinted.
Lawn is sim ilarto organdy fabric,but itdoes not receive the acid finish like asorgandy
and,thus,rem ain opaque.Fabric construction:
70'sX 100's
80 X 80
7- *------- It is an opaque, Iight weight, s'pun yarn, plain weave fabric w ith a smooth
surface.It is the softest ofthe Iight weight opaque fabrics.W hen m ade ofcotton or
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258
10.Taffeta:It is a generalterm that refersto any plain weave filam ent yarn fabric with a
fine,smooth,crisp hand.Unbalanced taffeta hasa fine rib m ade by heavierfilling yarns
and m ore warp yarns.Faille taffeta has a crosswise rib m ade by using m any m ore warp
yarnsthan weft yarns.M oir'e taffetas have an em bossed waterm ark design.Balanced
taffetas have warp and weftyarnsofthe sam e size.Iridescenttaffeta haswarp and weft
yarnsofdifferentcolours.
Taffeta
M adras
Cheese c10th
.
.
(.
ti
Buckram
15.Gauge:It isa sheer,Iight weight,low count,plain orIeno weave balanced fabric m ade
ofspun yarns.Itisoften cotton,rayon,ora blend ofthese fibres.Gauge,w ith a higher
countthan cheese c10th,is used in theatricalcostum esand m edicaldressings,aswellas
for blouses and dresses.Indian gauge has a crinkled Iook and isavailable in a variety of
fabricweights.
16.Ninon:ltisa sheer,slightly crisp,Iightw eight,plain w eave fabric m ade offilam ent
yarns.The warp yarns are grouped in pairs,butit is nota basketweave fabric.It is
widely used in sheercurtainsand draperies.Itis usually 100 percentpolyesterbecause
ofthatfibre'sresistance to sunlight,excellentresiliency,and easy washability.Although
ninon isa plain w eave,warp yarn spacing is notuniform acrossthe fabric.Pairsofw arp
259
greaterthan the space between the two yarns in the pair.Ninon hasm edium body and
hangswell.
17 Calico:It is a closely woven and printc10th ofcotton orcotton blend w ith a sm allbusy
pattern.
18.Cam bric:It is a fine,firm ,starched plain weave balanced fabric w ith a slight Iusteron
one side.ltisdifficultto distinguish from percale.
19.N rcale:Percale isa sm 00th,slightly crisp,printed orplain coloured fabric,ltisa closely
woven,plain weave ofcotton orblended fibres,is m ade from yarns ofmoderate twist,
Percale yard goodsare generally carded,butpercale sheetsare finerand m ore luxurious
in feeland are m ade ofcom bed yarns.In percale bedsheets,counts of 160,180,200,
polyester or rayon.They are used for shirts, dresses, blouses, pajamas, matching
curtainsand bedspreads,upholstery,slipcovers,draperies,and wallcoverings.
20.M uslin:ltis afirm ,m edium to heavy weight,plain weave cotton fabric m ade in a variety
of qualities.It generally woven from cotton or cotton blends,is m ade in b0th heavily
sized, bleached qualities and in better grades for sheets and pillow cases.Any plain
woven, balanced fabric of carded yarns ranging in weight frow Iawn to heavy bed
sheeting m ay be called m uslin.Itis usually available in countsof112,128 or140.M uslin
isalso a name fora m edium weightfabricthatisunbleached orw hite,
21.Flannel:ltisa lightto heaky weight,plain ortw illweave fabric.Flannelisa suiting fabric
260
plies are used in the pIy yarn.Duck is used for Slipcovers,boat covers,Shoe fabrics,
house and store awnings,tarpaulinsand coversform ilitary and induqtrialuses.
30.Canvas:Itisa heavy,firm ,strong fabric made ofcotton oracrylic and used forawnings,
slip covers,shoe fabrics,tarpaulins,and boatccvers.Itisproduced in m any gradesand
qualities.ltm ay have a softorfirm hanti.jtjsm ade in plain orbasketweave.Canvasis
Fabricbased on Tw illweave:
Serge:lt i: ; popuic!rbasictwillfabrlcm ade from any num berofdifferentfibres.vhen
serge is cqade from wool,it isoften woven from worsted yarns.Serge willtake a crease
2
weil,butwoolserge tcii
ad.
gto becom e shiny with wear.Ittailorswell,Serge isa 2twill
with a subdued waie with combed orworsted yarns arid a clearorhard finish (not
napped orbrushed).Serge with fine yarns,a highcount,ar
nn awater-repellentfinishis
used forjackets,snowsuits,and raincoats.Heavierser
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4. Herring bone:This fabrics have the twillline reversed at regular intervals across the
warp to produce a design that resem bles the backbone of a fish, hence the nam e
herring bone.Two different colour yarns m ay be used to accentuate the pattern.
Herring bone patterns can be very'subtle orvery pronotlnced,Herring bone is used in
both appareland furnishings.These are com mon in suiting fabrics,
2
6. Denim :Itisa cottonorcotton/poiyesterblend,durableheavyweighttwill-weave,yarndyed fabric.Usually the warp is coloured and the w eft is white.It is often a Ieft-hand
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clothing and industrialfabrics.
Gabardine
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263
Fabricconstruction71.'9!9?.
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and raised.lt alw ays has m any more warp than weftyarns.ltcan be m ade ofcarded or
com bed single orpIy yarns.The Iong-w earing fabric may be heather,striped,plaid,or
solid colour.The fabric can be wool,a woolblend,orsynthetic fabrics that resem ble
Fabricconstruction>@'%!:J$?.-?,5'1-$9-26'
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10.Dam ask:W oven fabrics m ade from expensive m ercerized cotton forbed clothing and
table cloths.The figured design often ism ade by interchangingsatin and sateen weaves.
twillweavefabricsin w hich lightanclclark coloursalternate in b0th warp and
FiI-)-fil
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264
Pin stripe:W orsted woven fabric w ith fine Iight-coloured Iines in the warp .direction.
Used forsuitsarld costum es.
Ottom an: W arp-faced rib
furnishings.
Panam a:Generalterm fora plain-based w eave w here two orm ore w arp and w eftyarns
interlace as one,gi
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suitsarlclIeisure w ear,orw oolforsuitsand costum es.
Pocketing: Cotton plain w oven fabric m ade sm 00th and dense by calendaring, for
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Construction or
W eight Name of
thefabric Specification
Gabardine 207/22x)4
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abardine 4042 x 40/2 X 56''
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Gabardine
Construction or
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Nameof Constructionor
fabric
Icanvas
Canvas
W eight Nameof
Specification
fabric
10 x10 x57-s8''
26OGSM sheeting
72 x 42
20 x 16
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poplin
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110 X 76
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calico
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Braidsare divided into two types:
Both types of braijing are produced from any of the textile fibres,as wellas from metal
threads,tinsel,straw,wire,orleather.
269
Thefollowing figuresshow the exam plesofsom efancy braids:
a) Patternedroundbraid
b) Patternedsoutachebraid
c) Cordededgebraid
d) Patternedflatbraid
e) Patternedflatbraid
f) Ricracbraid
g) Frillbraid
M anufacturing Principle:
The traditionalcircularbraiding m achine contains a series of bobbins of yarn mounted on a
moving track atthe bottom ofthe machine.The braid is produced asthe bobbins move in and
out around the base of the m achine, much as Maypole jancers do.Interweaving yarns by
braiding producesa flexible fabric;the fabric can be stretched in one direction,butitcontracts
in the other.
Braiding m achine
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SERPENTINETRACIS(D)F0R
GEARTRAIN8ELOW CARRIERS
CARRIERSWITHS@OOLS
F0R PEOPULS1ON
271
A m ulticom ponentfabric is one in w hich at leasttwo Iayers of m aterialor fabric have been
combined to produce a new product with properties significantly differentfrom those of its
A.Bonded Fabrics
A bonded fabric isa Iayered structure in which a face,orshelt,fabric isjoined to a
backing fabric with an adhesive thatdoes notsignificantly add to the thickness ofthe
com bined fabrics. Such structures are used for design interest as well as fabric
stabilization. Som e of the artificial Ieather products could be classified as bonded
fabrics.
The bonding m ay be done with an aqueous acrylic adhesive,a Iatex adhesive such asan
acrylate, a vinyl chloride or vinyl acetate, or a therm osetting resin.The end uSe
performance of the bonded product depends on the strength of the bond formed
between the two fabriclayers.A fabric resem bling woven double c10th can be produced
by joining two face fabrics to provide a reversible fabric.ln some instances,a lining
fabricisbonded to aface fabric to sim plify garm entconstruction.Scrim fabricssuch as
tricot knits and gauze are also bonded to face fabrics to provide stability to the face
fabric.This process has been used on Ioosely woven mohair fabrics and on fabrics
constructedfrom bulky noveltyyarns,to preventyarn slippage and fabricdistortion.
Fabricto fabricbonding:
W hen two Iayersoffabric are joined,the purpose isto provide greaterstability and
bodyto theface fabric orto create a sel
f-lined fabric.The underlayerin bonded fabrics
272
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delam inate during w ashing and dry cleaning. Som e ofthe adhesives used are sensitive
to water,and others are affected by dry-cleaning solvents;som e therm osetting resins
273
are affected by high tem peratures.Read and follow care labelinstructions to prevent
delam ination.
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C.Quilted Fabrics
Quiltedfabricsarelayeredmaterialsconsistingoftwocloth thatencaseafillingandare
stitched togetherto form a puffy unit.
274
The filling m ay be goose down;a down and feathers m ixture;kapok;pol
yesterstaple or
continuous filam ent; resin-bonded polyester; acrylic staple fibre; or pokyester or
polypropylene m icrofiber.Quilted fabric should be com prised of about 90 percent air
and 10 percent fibre.In term s of w eight or m ass in relation to w arm th, dow n is m ore
effective than acrylicand polyesterfibres. W hen hollow m anm ade fibresare used, there
is a slightly greater insulation than offered by the solid fibres of the sam e type. The
m icrofibers,which m ay be as m uch asten tim esfinerthan the staple fibres w ith about
twenty tim es m ore surface area per unit of weight, have a m uch greaterability to trap
air and have been show n to provide stillgreater insulation. Forexam ple,Thinsulate,a
batting of either polyester fibre and polypropylene m icrofiber or of aIIpolypropylene
m icrofiber, is claim ed by its m anufacturer, the BM Com pany,to provide 1.8 tim es as
m uch insulation as a com parable thicknessofdow n.
CharacteristicsofQuilted Fabrics:
All other factors being equal, a fabric with few er quilt lines will provide greater
DifferenttypesofQuilted Fabrics:
TraditionalQuilting:
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t
erm stitching should be broadly defined to include the.
275
M achine-stitched quilting
The traditionalquilts stitched by hand had three layers:a face fabric, a fibre batt or
feather filling for warm th,and a backing fabric.Hand-sew n quilts are stillproduced as
craft item s, and m achine-sew n products are also available. Such products are used
prim arify for bed coverings, but quilted apparel, upholstery fabric,and item s such as
pot-holdersare available aswell.
Trapunto:
Trapunto is a type of quilting in w hich a design orpattern is outlined w ith stitches and
then stuffed with fibres (orfiberfiII)to form a high relief effect.Such designs are
periodically fashionable in appareland upholstery.
OutlineQuilting:
Outline quilting is a technique that stitches an outline around a printed design m otifto
form a quilted fabric. Custom bedspreads and com forters of chintz or other printed
fabrics often are m ade in this m anner.Outline quilting isalso called custom quilting.
ChemicalQuilting:
276
The tw o layers are spot welded to produce a design, then subjected to heat,which
shrinks one Iayer m ore than the other and produces a fabric w ith a rippled or crinkled
surface.
UltrasonicBonded Quilting:
Ultrasonic energy can be used to join thermoplastic materials and produce a product
sim ilarin appearance to m achine-stitched quilting.The trade nam e Pinsonic is used for
one such process. Ultrasonic energy is m echanical vibratory energy produced at
frequencies beyond the Ievelof audible cound, usually 20 to 40 kHz.The vibration
produces enough interm olecular m echallical stress to cause polym er m elting and
provide a tacky surface that can adhere to anothersurface.The two layers are pressed
togetherin a pattern thatcan be m ade to resem ble realstitches.Ultrasonic bonding can
be accom plished at high speedsand'is Iessdam aging to fibresthan therm albonding.
M attress pads and bedspreads are frequently produced by ultrasonic quilting. Other
applications inctude upholstery fabrics, quilted apparelfabrics, and nonwoven fabric
websforsom e industrialm arkets.
277
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the second w arp yarn up ordow n to the right orieftw ith each pick passage.Thiscauses
the pairofw arpsto be tw isted, in effect,around each w eftyarn
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278
W eaving Principle:
Lenoismadewithadoupattachment,(ItisthedeviceusedonIoomstocreatethedeno
weave,in w hich w arp yarns cross over each other to create an open, stable w oven
End Uses:
(Casement(:10thisageneralterm foranyopen-weavefabricusedfordraperyorcurtain
fabrics.ltisusually sheer.)are frequently m ade with leno-weave and novelty yarns.
Therm alblanketsare som etim es m ade ofleno weave. AIIthese fabrics are characterized
by sheerness oropen spaces betw een the yarns.The crossed-yarn arrangem entgives
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279
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Lappet(rightside)
The Iappetweave isused to superim pose a sm alldesign on the surface ofa fabricw hile
it is being woven.In the Ippet weave,the design isstitched into the fabric by needles
thatoperate at rightanglesto the construction.Thus,the Iappetweave isvery sim ilarto
em broidery.This w eave is em ployed on a variety offabrics w here novelty patterns are
desired.
281
Each tim e the fram e orrack m oves sidew ays,it carriesthe yarn in the needle across the
surface ofthe fabric and creates a row ofthe pattern.lflong floats are form ed on the
back ofthe fabric,they m ay be trim m ed;if they are short,they are usually left alone.
This presents both an advantage and a disadvantage.Ifthe floats rem ain,the pattern is
durable,but the floats can easily be snagged,causing dam age to the fabric.Ifthe floats
are cut,the design area is w eakened and m ay be gradually rem oved during use and
care. The lappet w eave is considered strong and durable, but it is com paratively
expensive.Currently,no Iappetfabrics are produced in the United states,butsom e are
stillproduced in Europe.
Swivel(wrongside)
Swivel(wrong side)
Swivel(face side)
282
The sw ivelw eaves is em ployed w ith sheer light-w eights
, such asdot
ted swiss (generally
a voile orlaw n construction w oven w ith eitherclip spots orsw iveldots. The clip spot is
the m ore popular version. The fabric is given a crisp, clear finish, w hich m ay be
perm anentorsem iperm anent.Often yarn dyed dots are w oven on a white ground, or a
dark ground hasw hite dots. M any im itations on the m arkete.g.pi
gmentandflockdots.)
and grenadine (Fine,looselywoven Ieno fabricsim ilarto marquisette. M ay be m ade on
Jacquard loom . Used for curtains, blouses, dresses.) and medi
um -weights, such as
283
DENIM FABRICS
(indigo)warpand whi
te weftforuse in apparelin avarietyofweights.Since itisawarp-faced
twill,the coloured warp yarnspredom inate onthe face and the white weftyarnson the back.It
(60X 36to72x44)
Raw m aterialsbfDenim Fabric:
To produce good quality denim ,the conditions have to be optim alregarding the quality ofall
the raw materialsandyarn used.Forraw cotton and the carded OE (rotor)orring spunyarns
m adefrom it,the quali
tycriteria are asfollows:
* M inim um staple Iength:2.7 cm
QIS
;y.
y
.
284
Inthe early 1990s, mostofthe yarns used in denim production were OEyarns.Reently,there is
a strong trend towardsusing m ore carded ring spun yarnsin both warp and weft.Theygivethe
fabric a softerhandle,fulfilling the requirem ents forf'soft denim s''.The following table shows
Strength(cN/tex)
Elongation(%)
Uniformity(CV%)
Thinplaces(per1000m)
Slubs(per1000m)
Neps(per1000m)
Ring-spun yarn
OE Rotoryarn
17
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TypesofDenim :
Demand forfashion variants ofclassic denim willcontinue to grow.The mostpopularvariants
are:
b.
Ringdenim
C.
Slubdenim
d.
Crosshatch denim
e.
Stretchdenim
weftyarn(elastomer)
Poly denim
polyesterused in weft.
onlywarpslub(onewayslub)andweftslub(crossslub)
.,.
.
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)
285
Vvarp Preparation:
ln denim production,warp preparation,dyeing and sizing are cruciaily important.Dyeing with
indigo requires detailed knowledge of the physicai and chem ical processes involved.The
variousdyeing and sizing m ethods,and the corresponding recipesand concentrations,reaction
and oxidation times notonly influence the weaving process;they are also largely responsible
forthe appearance and qualityofthe denim .
Besidesthe classic indigo rope dyeing process,indigo sheetdyeing isalso used.One variantof
sheetdyeing isIoopdyeing.Dyeing and sizing are eitherdone separately,asin rope and double
sheetdyeing,orthe two processes are com bined in a single operation,asin sheetdyeing and
loop dyeing.
lndigo Rope Dyeing:
In warp preparation for rope dyeing,350 - 400 warp yarns are assem bled on the ball
warperto form a rope 10,000 to 15,000 m eters Iong.Between 12 and 36 ropes are
drawn through the dyeing range side by side.After dyeing they are dried on a drum
drier and deposited in cans.The ends are spread out on a rebeamer or Iong chain
beamer(lcb),andtheyarnsheetiswoundontowarpbeams.Thesebeamsthencometo
the sizing m achine,where they are sized,dried and assem bled in accordance w i
th the
totalnum berofendsrequired to m ake upthe weaving warp beam .Thisprocessensures
optim aldyeing ofthe indigo, but with the disadvantages that broken ends are more
frequentand yarn tensions are not always com pensated.M odern indigo dyeing ranges
norm ally operate with six dye vats.Using state-of-the-art methods,the same dyeing
In indigo sheetdyeing,warp beam sare broughtto the dyeing and sizing range instead
of ropes.Dyeing, drying,sizing and aer repeated drying, assem bly of the warp is
carried outin a single operation.In the case'ofdouble sheetdyeing,dyeing and sizing
are done in two separate steps.Asfaras indigo dyeing isconcerned neitherprocess is
always ideal,but both have the advantage thatthe numberofbroken ends is Iow and
yarn tension can be extrem ely wellcontrolled.
lndigo Ioop dyeing:
In the Ioop dyeing process,the yarn is dyed in a single bath instead of several.The
desired depth ofcolourisattained by passing the yarn through the vat severaltimes.
Subsequently, as part of the sam e process, the yarn is sized.The advantages and
disadvantagesofloop dyeing are the sam e aswith sheetdyeing.
Sizing recipes:
286
The sizing process plays a key role in further processing of the warps. The choice of
sizing agents used to achieve the sizing effect is crucially im portant here. A relatively
softhandle can be achieved using a combination ofmodified starch with a polyacrylate.
W arps sized in thisway have good running properties, helpingto ensure high efficiency
and an excellentfinalappearance. A practicalexample isgiven below :
Style data:
Warp:OEyarn,84tex(7Ne),24ends/cm
W eft:OEyarn,100tex(6 Ne),16picks/cm
Totalnum berofwarp ends:3942
Size recipe for100 IitersofIiquor:
8.0 kg modified starch
4.0 kgacrylatesize
O.2 kg textile wax
Size concentration:8.0 %
Size temperature:85OC
Squeezing pressure:approx.15 IIN
Size pickup:9 - 10 %
W eaving:
Forfinished widths of150cm to 156cm,reed w idths of160cm to 167cm are required. Denim s
thatare stretchable in the weftdo notfollow this rule. W hen weavi
ng with projectile weaving
machines,thesefabricsarehenerallywovenintwo panelswithweavingwidthsof360or390
cm.inthisway a high weftinsertion rate of1400 m/min isachieved ata machine speed of
approximately 400 picks/mjn. For the production of heavy denims, leno selvedges are
advisable.Lighterdenims,weighinglessthan13oz/sq.yd,canbewovenwithtuckedselvedges
.
287
ThecurrentdemandonsoftdenimsintheUnitedStatesistouseIyocellyarns(e.g.Tencel)in
the weft.Forstructured denims,structured yarnsare used forthe weft.Slub and knob effects
are especially popular.
Diversifitation ofDenim :
Thisfabric became popularat first am ong people ofwestern countries and then gradually all
overthe world.But,consumers'need fornew productsis unlim i
ted.So,to meetthisessential
demand,the fabric designers and m anufacturers were obliged to produce differenttypes of
denim at present, hundreds of derivatives of denim are available.Also new types of denim
products are being developed.The diversification ofdenim has gone so farthatsom e denims
are noteven twillbased.They are being produced on plain-based weave design.
Denim is com paratively heavy fabric com posed ofhigherlineardensity yarn both in warp and
weft.Thisfabric is notvery softin handle.Di
fferentfancy yarn- slub yarn,thick-thin yarnsare
Denim's popularity wasalso on the rise.ltwas strongerand more expensive than jean,and
thoughthe two fabricswere very similarin some ways,they did have one majordifferences:
denim wasmadeofonecolouredthreadand onewhitethread;jeanwaswoven oftwothreads
ofthe sam e colour.
End UsesorProspects:
In m odern world,the apparels made from denim have becom e very popularam ong wearing.
Now days,baby wear,menps trouser,shirt's,ladies wearare also m ade from denim fabric,and
day by day,its acceptability isincreasing am ong consumers.Denim goods are now being used
am ong almostaIItype ofpeopie.Denim wearcrossesthe Iine offashion boundary.In the past,
itwas used by workersasa safety wear.Now i
t isused for making decorative cap and ladies
hand bag,schooland college bag,and travelbag.So,range ofdenim apparelsare widening day
Pile fabricshave been defined as ''fabricswith cutoruncutIoopsw hich stand up densely onthe
surface''. Pile fabrics may be created by weaving or through otherconstruction techniques,
such as tufting,knitting,orstitch through.To create the Ioops that appearon the surface of
woven pile fabrics,the weaving process incorporates an extra set ofyarns thatform the pile.
Construction ofwoven pile fabrics,therefore,representsa com plex form ofweaving in which
there are at Ieast three sets of yarns. Exam ple of pile fabrics produced by the pile m ethod
include corduroy,fleece,frieze,fake fur,plush,poodle c10th,terry c10th, velvet,velveteen and
velour.
W oven pile fabrics have an extrasetofwarp orweftyarnsinterlaced w ith the ground warp and
weftin such a m annerthatloops orcutendsextend from the base fabric.The base fabricm ay
be constructed ofeithera plainoratwillweave.
The pile weave is afancy weave thatalso includesa plain ora twillconstruction.In contrastto
thethreebasicweaves(plain,twill,satin)thatproduceaflatsurfaceonafabric,thepileweave
introduces a decorative third dimension, creating an effect of depth. Its construction is
especially desirable when softness,warmth,and absorbency are desired.Pile weave fabricsare
also durable ifthe properyarnsand adequate com pactconstruction are used.
Pile fabrics can be divided into fabrics with Ioop pile and cut pile.W oven carpets,velvet and
terryfabricsare the best-known pile fabrics.
289
three or m ore-frequently five to seven w arp yarns in Iength.The weave used can be a
weft satin ora w arp rib weave.Afterweaving is com pleted,the floating yarnsare cut at
the center ofthe float,and these ends are brushed up on the surface of the fabric to
form the pile surface. W eft pile fabrics usually have a short pile; the pile height is
determ ined by tbe length oftbe floats ofthe pile weftyarns.
In som e w eftpile constructions,the weftyarn thatm akesthe pile isinterlaced w ith the
ground one tim e before itiscut;in others,the filling orweft pile interlacestw ice.Those
fabrics in w hich there are two interlacings are m ore durable than w hen only one
interlacing has taken place.Corduroy,velveteen,and som e plushes are m anufactured
by thism ethod.
3. Velveteen - (known from the trousers)there is pile here over the entire
fabricsurface,butthe pile notform s ribson the fabric surface Iike corduroy.
M anchester- This is a weftpile fabric w ith closely w oven w eftoften used for
work trouserj.
Stretch cord - This is a weft pile fabric w ith a great num ber of elastom er
yarns in the warp.Thism akesthe fabricelastic in length direction.
Corduroy Fabrics:
Incorduroyzcharacterized byapilestripeorwalealternatingwithaplainwale(nopile),
a separate cutting knife is necessary forcutting the floats ofeach wale.These fabricsare
woven to produce Iengthw ise colum nsoffloats.The colum nsare form ed with sufficient
space betw een them so that w hen the floats in the Iong colum ns are cut and brushed,
tbe face ofthe fabric has a ribbed effect.The Iengthw ise ribs ofpile are referred to as
wales.
Constructionofcerduroybythe filling pilemethod.
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The even spacing ofcorduroy floatsproducesa stripe orwale characteristic ofthisfabric
Corduroys are given nam es according to the num bers of wales. Feather w ale orcprd
orduroy has about 20 to 25 Iengthw ise w ales perinch and weight 5: ounces per ydi;
Fine w ale or Pinwale corduroy,about16 to 23 wales perinch and weight 7k ouncesper
yd2;M id, m edium , or regular wale corduroy,about 14 wales per inch and weight 10
ounces per yd2;W ide w aIe corduroy, about 6 to 10 wales per inch and weight 12
ounces peryd2;and Broad w ale corduroy, about3 to 5 ribsperinch.
.
Novelty w ale corduroys are also produced in w hich thick and thin walesare arranged in
varying patterns.Spm e corduroy fabrics are now m ade w ith 100% cotton yarns in the
pile filling and polyesterand cotton blends in the ground yarns.Otherdecorative effects
can be achieved by cutting floats selectively to vary pattern and texture.M ostw eftpile
Velveteen has m ore body and Iess drapeability than velvet. The pile is not higher
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291
Cutting the pile is precision work to be carried out in a separate operation afterl
w eaving. Corduroy and velveteen are prepared for cutting in the sam e m anner.The ?
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floats are treated to give them cutting surface,and the fabric is stiffened so that it will
rem ain sm 00th and firm .At one tim e pile w as cut by hand w ith a thin steelblade;the
practice m ay continue in countries w here Iabor is cheap,but m achine cutting is m ore
prevalent today.ln one process,thin,flexible m etalbands are inserted between the
floats and the base fabric,and then circular m etalknives cut dow n the centers ofthe
floats overthe m etalband.The bladescutthe floatsw ithoutdam age to the base fabric.
The m achine used here is equipped w ith a great num ber of needles w ith knives.For
every rib to be cut,a separate needle w ith knife is used.The needles are pushed as it
were into the tunnels underthe pile w eft.The needles are splitafterthe needle point.
The circular knife turns in this groove thus cutting the pile w eft yarns.After tbe pile
yarns have been cut,the fabric sudace is brushed to bring the cutends ofthe pile yarns
into a position perpendicularto the fabricsurface.
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292
Novelsudace effects can be achieved by having different Iength floats or by shearing
the floats to different Iengths to produce patterns.Cutting som e floats and Ieaving
others uncut is another w ay to create interesting fabric surfaces.W hen w ide-w ale
corduroy iscut,the guides and knives can be setto cutaIIthe floats in one operation.
Fornarrow corduroy and velveteen,the row s are so close togetherthat alternate row s
are cutw ith each passand the fabric m ustbe run through the m achine tw ice.
market(e.g.forshops,offices,hotels,etc.),eitherwithan all-overstructureorwith
two orthree colours.A two-colourcarpet is indicated asa tw o-fram e carpet.One of
both pile coloursform sthe pile;the otherpile yarn isthe dead pile yarn and iseither
floating atthe backofthe carpetorwoven in.
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293
picks;forthe Iatter (three-pick wire carpet)this is after every three picks.At the '
reed beat-up follow ing the w ire insertion, a Ioop is form ed over the w ire.At the
c10th fell,the w iresstay in the carpetoversom e cycles.Afterinsertion ofa w ire,the
w ire furthestaw ay from the shafts is w i
thdraw n from the carpet.Itis necessary that
the w ires rem ain in the carpet during a num ber of insertions in orderto obtain a
strong binding ofthe cutpile in the ground fabric.
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A carpet w ith a cut and Ioop pile can be obtained by com bining both w ire types
durlng weavlng.
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The ground warp yarnsare unw ound from one orm ore w arp beam s.Severalbeam s
are necessary ifthe crim p ofvariousw arp sets in the fabric is greatly different.The
ground w eave can be a plain w eave eitherw ith equalor unequaltensions,ora
com bination ofa 2: weave w ith a 11 weave;this com bination isalso referred to as
English w eave.Otherground w eavescan be used.The ground w arp yarns are
threaded in the back shafts.Shedding ofthe ground warp yarnsisdone by m eansof
cam s.Shedding ofthe pile w arp yarns can be done by m eans ofcam s,dobbies or
294
In the w ire m ethod,one set of w arps interlaces w ith the weftto form the plain or
twill-weave ground ofthe fabric;the otherset ofw arps form s the pile.W hen a row
of pile is m ade,the w arp yarns to form the pile are first raised by the harness to
form the shed.Then a w ire is inserted through the shed,m uch as weftyarn is shot
through.The size ofthe w ire isdeterm ined by the size ofthe pile to be m ade.W hen'
the set of w arps to form the pile is Iowered, it Ioops overthe w ire and is held in
place by the next weft.The wire is then withdraw n.As this is done,a sm all,sharp
knife attached to the end ofthe wire cuts the pile warp Ioops.The ground is then
woven fora certain num berof picks;then the wire is again inserted to form the pile.
Ifthe pile has not been cut evenly by the w ires,the fabric is sheared again w ith a
device like a law n m ow er.
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Som etim esthe pile is Ieftuncut:a w ire w ith no knife is used,ora num berofF eft
threadsare substituted forthe w ire and are then w ithdraw n. Friez,a fabriicQpf
ten
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used forupholstery isan exam ple ofan uncutIooped pile fabricorcom bintlp of
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295
depends on the closeness of the weave.Ifthe fabric is to have a cut pile,the wire
has a knife blade at the end that cuts the yarns as the w ire is w ithdrawn.Velvets
m ay be m ade in this w ay. If the fabric is to have an uncut pile,the w ire has no
cutting edge.Velvet can also be m ade by the over-w ire m ethod.Com plex patterns
using different coloured yarns and Ioops com bined w ith cut pile result in a w ide
variety offabrics.
Advantages ofthe w ire w eaving technique are that:
296
denser,and is less durable.The plain,rib,twill,orsatin w eave m ay be usd asthe
ground.Velvet,velour,plush and fake furm ay be w oven and cutapart.
* * e
@
Vvarp
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Filling
W
arp
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W - interlacing orbinding
,
V - interlacing orbinding
U- interlacingorbinding
The patterns on b0th fabrics are each other's m irror im age.Once cut through,the
carpets do not greatly differ from carpets produced w ith the aid of w ires from a
w eave-technicalpoint ofview .The loom s are less wide than w ire Ioom s,since there
is no system for w ire insertion.The dead pile yarns can be w oven evenly in both
fabrics.The cutting m echanism m ust cut at high speed w hile the knife m vem ent at
both extrem itiesoverthe grindstones m ustbe slower.ltisvery im portant notto cut
during the reed beat-up because the fabric is notundersufficienttension to be cut.
Cuttingwouldthennotnecessarily bedone inthe middle.
Face-to-face w eaving is the w eaving technique w ith the highest productivity for
carpetand w arp velvetweaving.There are tw o techniques offace-to-face weaving:
Single-shuttle printiple:single shed and only one m echanism for the weft
insertion on the loom ,
Double-shuttle principle: two sheds are form ed and there are tw o
m echanism s for the w eft insertion so that two w efts are inserted
sim ultaneouslyione forthe top and one forthe bottom fabric.
2(hopsackweave),
com bined w ith lz , w ith the w arp yarns of the Iatter w eave highly
tensioned,
3 a com bi
ned w ith 21 , w ith the w arp yarns of the Iat.ter weave
highly
..
tensioned.
W ith the single-shuttle w eaving technique,a Ioop isform ed on every pick.W ith the
dopble shuttle technique,a Ioop isform ed forevery tw o orthre picks.Itis also
297
is inserted alternately in the top and boytom fabrics while the other insertion
m echanism inserts no weft yarn. ln this w ay,the double-shuttle technique too can l
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provide a Ioop forevery weftyarn.
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thatallow sthree positions ofthe pile yarns ifthe dead pile yarns are to be w oven in
the ground fabrics.There are two techniquesforthis:
Tw o hooks perharness cord:ifboth hooks are up,the yarn is in top position.
Ifonly one hook is up,the pile yarn w illbe in m iddle posi
tion.The pile yarn is
ofcourse in the bottom position i
f no hook is Iifted.Thissystem isapplied on
face-to-face w eaving m achines by Van De W iele.
One hook per harness tord, but the grid to w hich the pulley yarns are
attached can take tw o positions.Com bining the hook m ovem entand the grid
can give three possible positions forthe pile w arp yarns.These system s can
be applied on faceito-face carpetIoom s by Van De W iele.
Face-to-face velvet can be w oven w ith a m irror w arp w hich results in a plain-
Cut
Piletufts
jacquard designvelvetmachine.
299
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Schem aticofvelvetweaving
One m ethod to form loop pile is to use Iancets.False picks are inserted above the
Iancets to form the pile; then, the false picks are autom atically rem oved during
weaving.
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By controlling the pile and base warp yarns, various weave structures can be
obtained.Forexam ple,sculptured Ioop pile velvetcan be produced w ith flat woven
weft and w arp effects asshow n in the follow ing figure.
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Shadow Ioop pile velvet is obtained by giving a direction to the Ioop pile. Colour
effects can be achieved using a weft selector.Any type of naturaland m anm ade
yarnsare used including cotton,polypropylene,acrylic,polyam ide,etc.
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Velvet and velveteen can be distinguished by fibre length'
vet is usually m ade
with filam ents and velveteen with staple. To identify w arp directions in these
Crushed velvetis m ade by m echanically tw isting the w etc10th.The surface yarns are
random lyflattened in differentdirections.Pann velvet is an elegantfabric with the
pile pressed flatby heavy pressure in one direction to give it high luster.lfthe pile is
disturbed orbrushed in the otherdirection,the sm ooth,Iustrous Iook isdestroyed.
Velourisa warp-pile cotton fabric used prim arily forupholstery and draperies.It has
a deeper pile than velveteen and is heavier.Plush has a deeper pile than velouror
velvetand is usually Iongerthan t?.
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The follow ing figures represent the exam ples of carpet w eave
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305
TypesofTerry Fabric:
There are basically tw o qualitiesofterry, according to the Ioop structure:
a) Terrywithorderedstanding Iooppiles:thisisthetypeofpilefabricswhich is
m ostproduced.M ost ofthe tim e,unsized, bleached ordyed pile warp yarns
are used in w eaving which require no furtheraftertreatm ent. The first wash
afterpurchasing the product m ay cause a considerable change ofthe aspect
(theIooppileappearance).
b) Terry with irregular loop piles:twisting and reversing pf pile Ioops is
prom oted during the production ofthe terry. Sized,ecru ordyed single yarns
are used in the loop w arp.These single yarns stillpossess great liveliness.
Com bined w ith an intensive wash during w hich the fabric is desized, the
fabric isgiven its typicalirregularaspectand soft hand. These terry clothsare
then piece-dyed or printed. The appearance barely changes after the first
dom esticw ash.
The pile yarns open up in a brush-like m anner. These fabrics have an even
softer hand and even better water absorbency than terry w ith Ioop pile.
Velvettow eling are high quali
ty, expensive products.
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307
reed pushes the pick group,on the tightly tensioned ground w arps,tow ardsthe fell
and the Ioose pile w arp ends woven into the pick group are uprighted and form
loops.Depending on the w eave,Ioops are thus form ed on one or b0th sides ofthe
fabric.W ith the basic m ethod, know n as three-pick terry,three picks form a pick
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The Ioom forterry c10th requirestw o w arp beam s.One is atthe rearofthe w eaving
m achine in a plane w ith the w eaving surface,and the second beam is placed atthe
back but above the w eaving sudace. Both shuttle Ioom s and shuttleless w eaving
jacquard machine. For less demanding patterns a dobby is sufficient, and very
sim ple,non-patterned fabricscan be w oven with a cam m otion.The follow ing figure
show sa rapierterw w eaving m achine w ith tw o w arp beam s.
Qualityisdetermined bytheyarntype(cardedorcombed),fibre(pima,Egyptian,or
regularcotton),and the numberofweftyarnsorpicksusqd to createthe weave.
W arp yarns used forthe pile in terry c10th have low tw ist to produce a soft,fluffy,
highly absorbent surface.Com m on varieties include tw o-and tbree-pick terries.For
exam ple, a three-pick terry c10th,the highest quality, has two picks underthe pile
'I
oop and one pick betw een loops.The follow ing figure show sa three-pickterry c10th
with closed Ioopson both sidesofthefabric.
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Com ponentsofan al
r-letterry w eavl
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Forbothtypesofterryweave(three-andfour-pick)thefollowingrulesapply:
The Ioop w arp yarns always bind around the second weft afterthe fullreed
beat-upz
There m ust be a shed crossing ofthe ground warp yarns afterthe fullreed
beat-up in orderto avoid slipping back ofthe weftyarnsafterthe reed beatup.This rule is som etim es,albeitvew exceptionally,deviated from forfourpickterry.
310
lfthe Ioops m ust be form ed alternately above and under the fabric according to a
certain directive, a specialw eave interchange is necessary. Tw o types of weave
interchangesare used:
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311
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Specialseven pickterrydesign withtwo-pickgroupsand fullbeat-up
adjacentyarns.The surface becom esm ore com pact,less porous,and absorbsm ore
slow ly as com pared w ith Ioop-pile terry.
Since terry fabrics are used for applications w here great water absorbency is
required,only fibres from naturalpolym ers can be used.Cotton is by farm ostoften
used.Viscose presentsthe draw back ofsw elling m ore in w et condition,which m akes
viscose fabrics shrink m ore.Besides,viscose presents a considerable Ioss ofstrength
in w et condition and viscose terry fabrics has a less soft hand than cotton terry.
Ifpile construction is used forsilk,m an-m ade fibres,orfur,these textiles are presented to the
consumerin their richest,most Iuxurious textures.Pife fabrics feelsoftand downy.Silk pile
takesa rich,deep colour,especially when one looksdirectly into the pile.Ifthe pile is pressed
dow n,thefabrictakeson asilvery,satin cast.
Pile fabricsare warm and hence are bestused forfalland winterwear.Transparentvelvetwith
a Iong pilq and Ioosely woven back is notso warm as a fabric with a shortpile and a tightl
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woven back.An all-silkvelvetiswarmerthan asilkwith a cotton backorrayon pile.Nylon pile is
veryresilient,resistswaterborne stains,and iseasilym aintained.
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312
Forvelvetdresses,dressm akersusually cutthe fabric so thatthe pile runsup.The wearerthen
can appreciate the richnessofthe fabricby Iooking into the pile.Anotherreason forhaving the
pile run up isthatthe pile isIessIikelyto m atfrom friction.Velvetdrapeswell,especially when
itisaIIsilk,and Iooks e/ective in both tailored and feminine lines.Cotton velvetis stifferand
because of its bulkiness is generally more appropriate for sportswear than for'Iightweight
dresses.Velvetsandcorduroyscanbemadespot-resistantandofdurable press.Corduroysare
frequently m adewater-repellentforraincoats.And there are some washable velvets.
The terry weave generally appears in towels,bath mats,and bathrobes.The fibresare usually
cotton.Since the pile is uncutcotton yarn,the fabric washes welland should be fluffed,not
ironed.The more Ioops on the surface ofthe fabric,the more absorbent the c10th.Bathmats
may have rayon pile pnd cotton groundwork.W hile these fabrics are most attractive,their
Iaundering qualityand durabilityare questionable.
Frieze ,an upholstery and drapery fabric,m ay be made in wool,nylon,m ohair,and cotton.ltis
averydurable,uncut-pile fabricthatdry-cleanssatisfadorily,butsince the dirtsettlesbetween
rowsofpile,frequentbrushingsare essential.
'
313
FLOCKqD FABRICS
floc1ofthedsiredIength.Thefibresmaybedyedbeforetheyareattachedtothefabric,or
thecompletedfabricmaybedyed.
Applicjion ofFlockto Fabrics:
The flock is applied to the fabric in one oftwo m ethods.The mechanicalflocking processsifts
loose flock onto the surface ofthe fabric to be coated.A series ofbeaters agitate the fabric,
causing mostofthe fibresto be setin an uprightposi
tion,with one end ofeach fibre ''Iocked''
into the adhesive.
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MECHANICALFLX KINGPqr- co
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The second method causesthe fibres to be attached in an upright position by passing them
through an electrostatic field.The fibres pick up the electric charge and align them sel
ves
vertically.One end penetrates into the adhesive,and the flock isform ed.Electrostatic flocking
ensuresmore com plete verticalpositioning,and the resultantfabricsare ofbetterquality.ltis
am ore costlyprocess.W hen buying fabrics,a consumercannottellwhich processwasused.
315
TUFTING:TUFTED CARPETS
Introduction:
The tuing technique is a very important technique for the production of floor covering
materialsuch as pile carpets.However,it is also applied for the production ofe.g.blankets,
toweling,coatsand furim itations.
Tufting consists in piercing yarnsthrough a primary supportfabricby meansofneedlesin such
awaythatpiles(cutorIoop piles)areformedonthesupportfabric.Afterfurthertreatmeot
e.g.anchoring the pile by means ofa precoat and applying a secondary backing a com pjetely
finished tufted carpetisobtained.
1. Thepile(eithercutorIoop),
2. The prim arysupportfabricorprimary backing,
3. Theprecoat(adhesive),
4. The secondary backing.
Allthese elementsare represented in thefollowing figure.
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of polyam ide,orsom etim es polypropene orotherm an-m ade fibres.The pile yarn can
,
contain metalorcarbon fibresifantistaticpropertiesare required.
A pile yarn should presentthe follow ing properties:
. ...
Be wellwearresistant,
Have good dyeing properties,
Presentgood resilience,
Difficultsoilability,
Easycleanability(releaseofdirtparticles).
Naturally,other im portant aspects w hich determ ine the choice of a pile yarn include
resistance to m icro-organism s and insects,m oisture absorption capacity,hiding ofdirt
particles,soilresistance,electrostatic properties,flam e resistance etc.
Itgoeswithoutsayingthatthe yarn should have sufficientand uniform strength so asto
avoid as many breakages,and hence m achine jtops,as possible.M oreover,threading of
the yarn through the needle eyesrequiresa uniform cross-section and therefpre regular
withlatexorbyair(splicers).
2. Supportfabric(primarybacking):
Duringtufting,pileyarnisstitchedthroughasupportfabric(orprimarybacking).Itcan
eitherbe a woven fabric ora non-woven (actually,a spinning fleece).Fabrics include
jute,polyesterfilamentyarn orstaple fibre,polypropene tapes,glassfibres etc.Nonwovens are mainly based on polyester and polypropene (sometimes blended with
polyethylene).
W hilstbefore the fabric was almost always based on jute,nowadays this has almost
completely disappeared.Indeed,jute contains oils which can penetrate the pile and
thus cause soiling and problems when dyeing.Also,jute is Iess rot resistant and
thereforesubjectto micro-organisms.
Polypropeneisanimportantsubstitutionproductfotjute.Fabricsmadeofpolypropene
tapes,usually in plain weave,have a massof80 to 150 g/m 2.These are thin fabrics,
which can easily be pierced and are sujted for alIneedle gauges.Such materialis
andwithaweightuptoapprox.120g/m2.Suchfabricsarestrong,notsensitiveto
317
tem perature differences,can be stretched w ell,are notthick and can easily be pierced.
1
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ofpolypropene.AnexampleisTypar(DuPont)whichissuitedforaIlgaugesandhasno
weightrangesbetween90to 190g/m2.Non-wovenspresentlittleornoresistanceto
the needle when piercing.This furthers uniform pile height and placing of the Ioops
(tufts).
A non-woven used forthe prim ary backing can also be based on polyesterfilam ents.For
The pile which is applied on the prim ary backing,m ust be anchored during a following
operation.Such anchoring improves the dim ensionalstabili
ty,gives better sound and
hetinsulation,good shearresistance,etc.Anchoring is done by applying a precoat.This
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Beforethesecondarybackingisfullycured,itcanbetreatedwithanengravedcalendafi)r,
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Subsequently, definitive curing is carried out:approx. 140 C for a rubber Iatex and :
approx.1800c fora polyvinylchloride foam backing.
cutpiletuftedcarpetincontrasttoaIooppiletuftedcarpet(notcut).
Tileworking ofa simple tufting machine isdescribed asfollows.The m ovementofthe needles,
which m ust pierce the pile yarn through the primary backing,is controlled by the head shaft
with eccentric discs,via crankshafts and pressure shafts.The fine needles,which are mounted
on the needle bar, are given an up and downward m ovem ent.The pile yarn is supplied
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Looper
Stage 1
Stage 2
Slage3
Makingatufted carpetwi
thclosed (short-loop)pile
Ifthe needlespierce through the prim ary backing,the resulting Ioops mustbe held underthe
support fabric by the Ioopers fixed on a shaft.The distance between the Ioopers and the
supportfabric determinesthe desired pile height.The tension device ofthe pile yarn keepsthe
pilebacksclose to the bottom side ofthe primary backing.
lfthesupportfabricornon-woven passesoverthereedplate(orsupporttable),theloopers
withdraw and the Ioopscomefree.The needleswith the pile yarn which pierce through the
backing,move up again and the Ioopers return in the pile loopsformed:this gives a Ioop r
closed pile carpet.
319
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Cloth
F'il:t
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Looper
Stage1
S'age 2
Stage3
(Iooppile).Heretoo,asupportfabricpassesoverthereedplatewhiletheneedleswiththepile
yarn pierce through the substrate.The loops formed Iie overthe Iooper and must be cut by
meansofinclined knivesm oving up and down.
The following figure gives a schem atic representation ofthe form ation ofa tufted carpetwith
cutpile.
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Tbe pile height of a tufted carpet depends on the delivery ofthe pile yarn,the Iength ofthe
needlesand the distance between the prim ary backing and the Ioopers.The pile height ranges
from 3m m to over40m m .A high cutpile isapplied forso-called shag carpets.ln case ofa noncutpile,pile heightreachesapprox.halfthe heightofthatofa shag carpet.
An im portant concepton a tufting m achine isthe gauge:i.e.the distance betw een tw o
successive needle points expressed in inches.The gauge determ ines,forexam ple,the pile
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MajorTufted CarpetConstruction:
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typeused,theclosenessorIoosenessofthepileortufts,thetypeofyarnstrudure(simpleor
complex),thepresenceorabsenceofanadhesivebinderonthebackofthefabric,andthesize
ofthe article.M osttufted fabricsfound in household articlesorapparelthatare smallenough
to fitinto hom e laundry equipm entare washable.However,where care labels are provided,it
isessentialto follow aIIdiredionscarefully.
r?,
INTRO DUCTIO N
AND
W oven Fabric
A
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Knitting is the m ethod ofcreating fabric by transform ing continuous strands ofyarn into a
series of interlocking Ioops, each row of such loops hanging from the one imm ediately
preceding it.The basicelementofa knitfabric structure isthe loop intermeshed with the Ioops
adjacentto itonbothsi
desandaboveandbelow it.
jKnitted fabricsare divided into two main groups,weftand warp knitted fabrics.
The weft knitted structure is very different from the warp knitted one.The difference is
apparentfrom both warp and weftknitted structuresare shown in sim plestform sin below .ltis
323
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W arp Knitting
The knitting industry belongsto the branchesofthe textile ihdustrywith Iong tradition and the
knitted goodshave been know n forcenturies.ln the early days they were m ade by hand and
the first hand operated knitting machine was not invented untilthe sixteenth century.This
1758:JedediahStrutt,theinventorofthedoubleknit(rechts- rechts)technique.Thisinvention
refers to an attachment forthe hand knitting frame,which became world famous underthe
name ''Derby rib machine''
1798:M onsieur Decroix arranges the needles radially into a corona,which rotates and thus
movesthe needlesone afterthe otherthroughthe kni
tting stages.The circularknittingframe is
born.
1805:Joseph Marie Jacquard presented his controlapparatus for shed building on weaving
Ioomsin Lyon.Itisnotclearasto when Jacquard started getting interested in the problemsof
the knitting industry after his success in the weaving field.But today we do encounterthe
324
1847:M atthew Townsend obtainsa patentforhis invention ofthe Iatch needle.A new epoch
in the knittingtechnique begins.W ith the help ofthese needlesstitch form ation becam e easier,
because the press was no Ionger necessary.The result was:sim plification ofthe m echanism ,
increase in production speeds,and reduction ofcosts.
1878:D.Griswold gets a patent for a circular knitting m achine,w hich can produce plain or
ribbed fabric tubes in any desired distribution.The verticalcylinderneedles are enhanced by
horizontaldialneedles,also indi
vidually m oveable in radialslots.ThisIeadsforthe firsttime to
two new denotions:smallrib machine and Iarge rib m achine.
sliders(needlepushers)wasbuiltinEnglandbythefirm Wildt.
1920:Besidesflatknitting machines?increasing use ismade ofcircularknitting machinesforthe
fabrication ofcolourpatterned fabrics.This isdone'with the help ofyarn changerdevicesand
needle selection viapattern wheelsand puncht::1tapesm adefrom steelorpaper.
1935:Afterthe production of circular sinkerwheelm achines was started in 1906,the firm
M ayer& Cie.began producing circularknitting m achines.M ayer& Cie.introduced m ass-line
production ofthese m achinesin 1939.
1946:After this period noteable further developm ents were made in circular knitting with
regard to higherperform ance and new productsasa resultofan increase in feedernumbers,a
raise in the production speeds and the use ofnew needle technologies.The oId pinion feed
w heelunitswerereplaced by new yarn deliverydevicesIike tapefeedersand measuring meters
325
film-taper-controlled ''M oratronie', which later on gets into serial production. Today a
com puterisused fordata storage and a diskette isthedata carrier.
1967: The Iegendary OVJA 36, w hich is probably world-w ide the most successfulcircular
knitting machine so far,isexhibited atthe ITMA in Basle.M ore than 7000 machinesofthistype
werebuiltinthefollowingyears.
Knitted fabrics of a wide variety of types are presently enjoying unprecedented consumer
demand.In m any end-uses,where formerly woven fabricsheld undisputed away,knitted c10th
hastaken a com manding Iead,while in those end-useswherethe knitted fabrictraditionally has
been suprem e,production advanced by Ieapsand bounds.
To m ostpeople,knitted fabricissom ew hatofan unknow n quantity.Few peoplecandistinguish
itreadily from woven fabrics;fewerstillhave anyconception how itisproduced.
Knitted Ioop:
A kink ofyarn that is interm eshed at i
tsbase i.e.when intermeshed two kink ofyarn iscalled
loop.
Knitted stitch:
Stitch is a kink ofyarn that is intermeshed at its base and at itstop.The knitted stitch is the
basic unitofintermeshing and usually consists ofthree ormore interm eshed loops,the centre
Ioop having been drawn through the head of the lo/er Ioop which had in turn been
intermeshed through i
tshead by the Ioopwhich appearsabove it.
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Kinkofyarn
Kni
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Knitted Stitch
Closed Ioop
Open Ioop
Top arc:
Theuppercurved portionoftheknitted Ioopiscallidtoparc.
Bottom half-arc:
The Iowercurved portion thatconstitutes in a weftknityed Ioop,halfofthe onnection to the
adjacentloopinthesamecourse.
Legsorside lim bs:
The Iateralpartsofthe knitted Ioopthatconned the top arcto the bottom half-arcs.
327
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SinkerIoop
Needle loop:
The needle Ioop isthe sim plestunitofknitted structure.Needle loop form ed bythetop arcand
the two Iegsoftheweftknitted loop
Needle loop =Top arc+ Two legs
SinkerIoop:
The yarn portion that connects two adjacent needli Ioops belongiig in the same knitted
course.Bottom arclso called sinke'rIoop.
Open Ioop:
A knittedloopofwhichathreaentersandIeavesattheoppositesideswithoutcroFsingover
itself.
Closed Ioop:
A knitted Ioop of which a thread enters and Ieaves at the opposite sides with crossing over
itself.Itismadebyspecialneidle.
stitchwithitsneighboursoneithersideandaboveandbelow it.Knittedloopsarearrangedin
rows and colum ns roughl
y equivalent to the weft and warp of woven structures termed
''courses''and '
/wales''respectively.
W ale
328
Course:
Acourseisaprejominantlyhorizontalrow ofIoops(inanuprightfabric)producedbyadjacent
needlesduring the same knitting cycle.
In weft knitted fabrics a course is comppsed ofyarn from a single supply termed a course
Iength.A pattern row isa horizontalrow ofcleared Ioopsproduced by one bed ofadjacent
needles.In a plain weftknitted fabricthis isidenticalto a course butin more com plexfabricsa
pattern row may be com posed oftwo ormorecourse lengths.
In warp knitting each Ioop in acourse isnorm allycom posed ofa separate yarn.
W ale:
A wale is a predominantly verticalcolumn of needle Ioops produced by the same needle
knitting atsuccessive knitting cyclesand thusinterm eshing each new loop through the previous
loop.ln warp kni
tting a wale can be produced from the sam e yarn ifa warp guide lapsarund
the same needle at successive knitting cycles thus are m aking a pillar orchain sti
tch Iapping
Stitchdensity=Walesperinch(wpi)xCoursesperinch(cpi).
Interm eshing pointsorcrossoverpointofa needle loop:
AI1needle Ioops oroverlaps have four possible intermeshing or cross-over points,two.at the
head,where the next new Ioop willbe draw n through by that needle and anothertwo atthe
base where the loop hasinterm eshed w i
th the head ofthe previously form ed Ioop.Any one of
the fourpoints at which stitches are intermeshed.The intermeshings atthe head are always
identicalwith eachotherasare interm eshingsatthe base with each otber.
329
Fourinterm eshingpoints
An im possible intermeshing
It is impossible to draw a new Ioop through the oId Ioop so that itstwo feet are alternately
intermeshed.A new Ioop can thusonly be intermeshed through the head ofthe oId Ioop in a
mannerwhich willshow a face Ioop stitch on one side and a reverse Ioop stitch on the other
side,because the needle hook isunidirectionaland can only draw anew Ioop down through an
oId loop.Bottom cross-overpointissituated atthe base and top cross-overpointissituated at
the head.
singleIengthofyarnwhichincludesoneneedleIoopandhalftheIengthofyarn (hal
fasinker
Ioop)betweenthatneedleIoopandtheadjacentneedle Ioopsoneithersideofi
t.Generally,
the Iargerthe stitch Iength the more elastic and Iighterthe fabric,and the poorer its cover
opacity and bursting strength.
Stitch Length,l= one needle loop+ two halfasinkerIoop.
Extended sinkerIoop:
A sinkerloopthatiswiderthan the othersinkerIoopsin the fabricand thatisproduced when a
needle isinactive orhasbeen removedfrom the needle bed orneedle bar.
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Extended sinkerIoop
Face Ioop
Back Ioop
atitsIegsaresituatedabovethetoparcofthestitchformedinthesamewaleintheprevious j
course.Thissideofthestitchshowsthenew loopcomingthroughtowardstheviewerasit j
passesoverand coversthe head ofthe oId Ioop.Face Ioop stitchestend to show the side Iimbs 1
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Technicalface orrightside:
The undersurface ofthe fabric on the needles willthusonly show the face stitchesin the form
oftheside Iim bsorIegsofthe loopsoroverIapsasa seriesofinterfitting &Vs''.
TechnicalbackorIeA side:
The uppersurfaceofthefabricon the needleswillonlyshow reverse stitches i
n the formx
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sinkerIoopsorunderIapsand the headsofthe loops.
Doublethreadstitch:
Also called double Ioop stitch orspliced stitch.A stitch formed from two endsofyarn.
7;r
331
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:
hooksfacing towardsthe sam e direction and the headsofthe needlesw illalwaysdraw the new
loopsdownwardsthrough the old Ioopsin the sam e direction so thatinterm eshingpoints3 and
4 willbe identicalwith interm eshing points1 and 2.
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Balanced structure:
This isa double faced structure which has an identicalnum berofeach type ofstitch produced
on each needle bed and therefore showing on each fabricsu/ace usuallyin the sam esequence.
These structuresdo notnorm ally show curling attheiredges.
Fabricdraw -off:
Fabricisalwaysdrawn from the needleson the side rem ote from theirhooks.W hen two setsof
needlesareem ployed,eitherarranged vertically oratsome otherangle to each other,each set
ofhookswillface away from the othersetand the fabricw illbe produced and drawn away in
the gap betweenthetwo sets.
Knitting m achines:
The machinesthose produced fabricsby intermeshing orinterloping ofone orone setofyarn.
Knitting machinesare divided asfollows* W eftknitting machine:
A machine producing a knitted fabric by interm eshing Ioops formed successively
acrossthewidth ofthefabricfrom a yarn fed substantiallycrosswiseto the length of
fabric.
* .W arp knitting machine:
A machine in which the fabric form ation occurs by interlacem ent of Ioops formed
sim ultaneously acrossthe fullwidth ofthe fabric from a system ofyarnsw hich are
fed to the needlessubstantially inthe direction ofthe length offabric.
@ OtherIoop formingand com bined technique m achines:
M achines thatform the fabric by the technique of intermeshing ofyarn Ioopsbut
which cannotbe defined eitherasweftoraswarp knitting machines.
Needles:
Needle isthe principalkni
tting elem ent.Needlesare divided into two categories according tot
theirfunctionsasfollows.
* Independentneedles:
Q!
Independentneedle
1
United needle
Needle carrier:
A partof the knitting m achine containing independently m oved needles in a needle bed or
united needlesin a needle bar.The needle carriermay beflatorcircular,cylindricalordialtype.
Fabricface type:
The basictype ofconstruction offabricsproduced on the respective knitting machines:
Rt:Single face fabric,also called right- Ieftfabric;knitted on one row ofneedles.
@ RR:Double face fabric,also called right- rightordouble rightfabric;knitted ontwo
rowsofneedles.
@ LL:Links- Iinksfabric,also called Ieft- Ieft ordouble Ieftfabric;knitted on one or
two rowsofneedles.
Theworkingdiameter(Circularneedlebedsand needlebars)
OrTheworkingwidth (FIatneedlebedsand needle bars)
The needle gauge orneedle pitch.
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Theworking width:
The working width ofthe machine should notbe missused withthe 'tadualworking
The needle gauge ofa knitting machine (also called cutorgage)isa measure
expressingthenumberofneedlesperaunitoftheneedlebed(bar)width.
Gauge,N = How manyneedlesare used inone English inch.
N = Num berofneedles
O ne English inch.
Highestneedle gauge isabout60 and lowest needle gauge isabout2 to
2.5.
The needle pitch is the distance between two neighbouring needles in the sam e
needle bed (bar),from the centre ofa needleto the centreofthe neighbouring
needle.
eedlepitch(Lengthunits/needle)=N
eedlegauge(Iength unit)
335
Selvedged fabric:
A sel
vedged fabric is one having a ''self- edge''to itand can only be produced on m achines
whose yarn reciprocates backwards and forwards acrossthe needle bed so that a selvedge is
formed asthe yarn risesup to the nextcourse atthe edge ofthe fabric.
Cutedge fabric:
cutedge fabricis usually produced by slitting open a tube offabric produced on a circular
machine.A slittube offabricfrom a302diametermacbinewillhaveanopenwidthof94'
'(#d)
atknitting and before relaxation.
Tubularfabric:
This m ay be produced in double faced orsingle faced structures on circularmachines,orin a
single faced form on straightmachineswith two setsofneedlesprovided each needle setonly
knitsatalternate cyclesand thatthe yarn only passsacrossfrom one needle bed to the other
atthetwosejvedgeneedlesateachend,thusclosingtheedgesofthetubebyjoiningthetwo
singlefaced fabricsproduced on each needle settogether.
Open lap:
An open lap is produced eitherwhen the underlap isin the sam e direction asthe overlap,orit
is om itted so that the next overlap comm ences from the space where the previous overlap
finished.Closed laps are heavier,m ore com pact,opaque and Iess extensible than open laps
produced from the same yarn and atacomparable knittingquality.
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O = overlap,U = underjap
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Closed Iap:
A closed lap isproduced when an underlap followsin the opposite direction to the overlap and
thusIapsthe thread around both sidesofthe needles.
The overlap:
The overlap is a shog usually across one needle hook by a warp guide which forms the warp
yarn into the head ofthe loop.The swinging movement ofthe guide to the hook side and the
return swing afterthe overlap produce the two side lim bsorlegs ofthe Ioop which has a very
similarappearanceonthefacqsideofthefabrictoaneedle Ioopproducedbyweftknitting.So,
overlap isa Iength ofyarn in a warp knitted fabricthathasbeen placed overthe needle during
loopformation.
The underlap:
The underlap shog occursacrossthe side ofthe needlesrem ote from the hooks,on the frontof
single barand inthe centre ofdouble barneedle machines,itsuppliesthe yarn between one
overlap and the next.So,underlap isa length ofyarn in a warp kni
tted fabricthatconnectstwo
overlapsinconsecuti
ve courses.
'
337
knitlingbasedontheseelementsasfollows.
The Needles:
The fundamentalelem entin construction ofknitted fabrics isthe knitting needle.Needle isthe
m ain knitting tools and also the principalelem entofm achine knitting.During yarn feeding the
hook is opened to release the retained old loop and to receive the new loop which is then
enclosed in the hook.The new Ioop is then drawn by the hook through the oId Ioop which
slideson the outside ofthe bridge ofthe closed hook.AIlneedles m usttherefore have some
method ofclosing the needle hookto retainthe new Ioop and exclude theoId Ioop.
338
The Iatch needle is the m ost widely used needle in weft knitting,because itis self- acting or
Ioop controlled.Itis also regarded as more versatile in term softhe range ofm aterialsthatcan
be processed on Iatch needle machines.Bearded needles are Iess expensive to manufacture,
can be produced in finer gauges and supposedly knit tighter and m ore uniform stitches
compared with Iatch needles,buthave Iim itationswith regard to the types ofmaterialthatcan
be processed as wellasthe range ofstructuresthatcan be knitted on them .Bearded needle
machines are fasterthan the equivalent Iatch needle macbipes.The com pound needle has a
short,smooth and sim pl
e action,and because itrequires a very sm alldisplacementto form a
The m ain parts of the bearded,Iatch and compound needle are describe and shown in the
above figures respectively.Variations of Iatch neqdles ipclude rib Ioop transfer needles and
double - ended purlneedles,which can slide through the oId Ioop in orderto knitfrom an
opposing bed thusdraw a loop from theopposite direction.
Inacylindricalneedlebedtheknittingneedlesareplaced betweenihetricksinsertedincuts
alongthe cylindersurface generator.The dialneedle beds have the needle groovescutradially
' i.e.horizontally.The butts of the needles in circular needle beds, both cylinder and dial,
protrude from theirsurfaces.Thariksto the needle buttsthe needlescan be dtiven along their
groovesbycamslocated in cam boxes.
''
.
;
339
The com pound needles are used in weft and w arp knitting m achines.In contrast to
standard spring - bearded needles and latch needlesthe com pound needle consists
oftw o separate parts- the stem and the sliding Iatch.Atthe top ofthe com pound
needle stem there is a hook.The tw o parts rise and fallas a single unitbutatthe top
of the rise the hook m oves faster to open and at the start of the fallthe hook
descends fasterto close the hook.
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340
The latch needle is the m ost widely used needle in weft knitting, because itis self- acting or
Ioop controlled.Itisalso regarded asm ore versatile in terms ofthe range ofm aterialsthatcan
be processed on latch needle m achines.Bearded needles are less expensive to manufacture,
can be produced in finer gauges and supposedly knit tighter and m ore uniform stitches
compared with Iatch needles,buthave Iim itationswith regard to thetypesofm aterialthatcan
be processed as wellasthe range ofstructures that can be knitted on them . Bearded needle
machines are fasterthan the equivalent Iatch needle machines.The com pound needle has a
short,sm ooth and simple action,and because itrequiresa very smalldisplacementto form a
stitch in b0th warp and weft knitting,itsproduction rate isthe highestofthe three m ain types
of needle.Compound needles are now the m ost widely used needles in warp knitting and a
numberof manufacturers also offercircularm achinesequipped with com pound needles. The
operation speeds of these machines are up to twice those of the equivalent Iatch needle
machines.
The m ain parts of the bearded,Iatch and com pound needle are describe and shown in the
above figures respectively.Variations of latch needles include rib Ioop transfer needles and
double - ended purlneedles,which can slide through the old loop in orderto knitfrom an
opposing bed thusdraw a Ioop from the oppositedirection.
ln a cylindricalneedle bed the knitting needles are placed between the tricks inserted in cuts
talongthecylindersurfacegenerator.Thedialneedlebedshavetheneedlegroovescutradially
j i.e. horizontally.The butts of the needles in circular needle beds, both cylinder and dial,
protrudefrom theirsurfaces.Thankstotheneedlebuttstheneedlescanbedrivenalongtheir
roovesbycamsIocatedincam boxes
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341
The Cam s:
Cam is the second primary knitting element.The cam s are the mechanicaldevices which
convertthe rotary m achine drive into a suitable reciprocating action forthe needles orother
elem ents.Because aIlneedles have a reciprocating action eitherserially orseriatim,excepton
the bearded needle sinkerwheeland Ioop wheelframeswhere the fixed needle circle merely
revolves.The cams are carefully profiled to produce preciselptim ed movement and dwell
periOds.
'
The cam sare oftwo types,Engineering camsand Kni
tting cam s.
* Engineering Cam :
wearoccursatspeed.
b. Cam and countercams:Thisarrangem entprovidesacam and itsfollowerin each
direction ofmovem entbutisobviously more expensiveto m anufacture.
The boxorenclosed cams:Thisem ploysa single cam followerwhich isguided by
the two cam races of a groove on the face ofthe cam .However,change of
contactfrom one face to the othercauses the followerto turn in the opposite
direction producingwearwhich cannotbe compensated.
d. The contour,ring orpotcams:Itisthe reverse ofthe boxcam asthe cam profile
projectsoutfrom one face ofthe cam in the form oflip with acam - follower
placed on eithersijeofit.Thisisa popularand easily adaptable arrangem ent.
Although camsare comparatively cheap,simple and accurate,atspeedsabove 800
coursesperminutetheyaresubjecttoexcessivevibration.Forthisreason,atspeeds
in excessofthatEccentri
cdrive isnow employed.
1
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'
342
Eccentric:
The eccentric is a form of crank w hich provides a sim ple harm onic m ovem ent with
sm ooth acceleration and deceleration.lts w ide spread use is the result of adapting
this sim ple m otion and m odifying it to the requirem ents of the warp knitting
The angularknitting cam acts directly on to the butts of needles or other elem ents
to produce individuai or seriatim m ovem ent in the tricks of latch needle weft
knitting machines as the butts pass through the stationary cam system (revolving
cylinderm achines)orthe cam spassacrossthe stationary tricks (reciprocating cam
boxflatmachinesorrotating cam - boxcircularmachines).
On weft knitting m achines, yarn feeds m ust m ove if the cam s m ove, in prder to
Knitting cam s are attached either individually or in unitform to a cam -plate and,
KnitCam
Tuck Cam
M issCam
The knitting cam s are divided in to three groups, such as knit cam ,tuck cam and
miss cam.At each yarn feed position there is a set of cam s (m ainly knit cam )
consisting ofat least a raising or clearing cam ,a stitch orIowering cam ,guard cam
and an up throw cam whose com bined effect is to cause a needle to carry out a
knitting cycle if required.On circularm achines there is a rem ovable cam section or
doorso thatknitting elernentscan be replaced.
343
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The Up throw Cam :lttakesthe needles back to the rest position and allowsthe
that the two are adjusted in unison.ln the above figure there is no separate
upthrow cam ,section X - ofthe raising cam isacting asan upthrow cam .
d. The Guard Cam ;These are often placed on the opposite side ofthe cam - race to
Iim itthe m ovem entofthe butts and to preventneedlesfrom falling outoftrack.
)
1
344
The Sinkers:
The sinkeristhe third primary knitting element.It is a thin metalplate with an individualor
collectiveactionapproximatelyatrightanglesfrom thehooksidebetweenadjoiningneedles.
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FunctionsofSinker:
<
Itmay perform one orm ore ofthe following functionsdependentupon the m achines knitting
actionand consequentsinkershape and movem ent:
Loopform ation
Holding- down and
Knocking- over.
According to these functions the sinkers are alsc divided into three groups, such as Ioop
form ing sinker,holding-down sinkerand knocking-oversinker.
* The first function ofthe sinker is loop form ation.On bearded needle weft knitting
machines of the strai
ght barfram e and sinker wheeltype the main purpose of a
sinkeris to sink orkinkthe newly Iaid yarn into a Ioop as itsforward edge orcatch
advancesbetween the two adjoining needles.On the bearded needle Ioop wheel
frame,the bladesofburrwheelsperform thisfunction whereason Iatch needleweft
knitting machines and warp knitting machines,Ioop formation is nota function of
thesinkers.
@ A second and m ore com mon function ofsinkers on m odern m achines is to hold
down the oId Ioopsata lowerIevelon the needle stem sthan the new Ioopswhich
are being form ed and preventthe old loopsfrom being fifted asthe needfes rise to
clearthem from theirhooks.The protruding nib or nose ofthe sinkerispositioned
overthe sinkerloopsofthe oId Ioopspreventing them from rising withthe needles.
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On tricot warp knitting machines and single bed weft knitting m achines,a slot or
throatis cutto hold and controlthe oId loop.The sole function ofthe sinkerm ay be
as a web holderor stitch com b as on the Raschelwarp knitting machine in which
case only the underside ofthe nose performsthe function.
On latch needle weftknitting m achinesthe holding-down sinkershave a rectangular
gaP CUton theiruppersurface remote from the nose into which the sinkercam race
fitsto positivelycontrolthe sinker'sm ovem ent.
Hoiding-down sinkers enable tighter structures with im proved appearance to be
obtained, the minim um draw-off tension is reduced, higher knitting speeds are
possible and kni
tting can be com menced on em pty needles.
Holding-dow n sinkers may be unnecessary when knitting with two needle beds as
the second bed restrainsthe fabricIoopswhilstthe othersetofneedlesmove.
* The third function ofthe sinker- as a knock-oversurface - where its uppersudace
orbellysupportsthe oId loop asthe new loop isdraw nthrough i
t.
On tricot warp knitting m achines the sinkerbelly is specially shaped to assistwith
Ianding aswellasknock-over.
On Iatch needle machinesthe verge oruppersurface ofthe trick- plate serves as
the knock- oversudace.
The Jack:
Thejackisasecondaryweftknitting eiementwhich may be used to provideflexibility ofIatch
needle selection and movem ent.itisplaced below and in the sam e trickasthe needle and has
itsown operating buttand cam system .The needle may thusbe controlled directly by itsbutt
W hen the yarn m ovespastthe needles,the fabric willbe stationary because the Ioopshang
from the needles.Thisarrangem entexistson aIIwarp knitting machinesand on weftknitting
m achinesw ith straightbedsorcircularmachineswith stationarycylinderand dials.On straight
machinesofboth weftand warp type the yarn carrierorguide hasa reciprocating traversing
movementwhichtakes i
ttowardsand away from a suitably- placed yarn supply.On stationary
cylinderand dialm achines,how ever,the yarn supply packages m ustrotate in orderto keep
w ith the continuously revolving yarn feeds.Because the Iatch needle bedsofthese flatand
circularweftknittingmachinesarestationary,itisnecessarytoreciprocatethecam - carriages l
346
and revolve the cam - boxes so thatthe needle buttsofthe stationary trickspassthrough and
the needles are thus reciprocated into a knitting action at the exact mom ent when the
traversingfeed suppliesa new yarn.
M ost circular weft knitting m achines have revolving needle cylinders and stationary cams,
feeders and yarn packages.ln thiscase, the fabrictube mustrevolve with the needles asm ust
thefabric rollersand take - up m echanism .
By sinking the yarn into the space between adjacent needles using Ioop forming
sinkers or other elements w hich approach from the beard side. The action of a
straightbarframe isillustrated buta sim ilaraction occurs on otherbearded needle
weft kni
tting machines.The distance SLofthe following figure which the catch of
the sinkerm oves pastthe hookside ofthe needle is approximately halfthe stitch
length.
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Method -b
M ethod -c
* M ethod - b:
By causing latch needlesto draw theirown needle Ioopsdown through the oid loops
asthey descend one ata tim e down the stitch cam . This method isemployed on aII
Iatch needle weftknitting m achines.The distancq SL ofthe above figure which the
head ofthe Iatch needle descendsbelow the knock- oversurface, isapproximately
halfthe stitch Iength.
M ethod- t:
By causinga warp yarnguideto warpthe yarn loop around the needle. The lapping
movem entofthe guide isproduced from the com bination oftwo separate motions,
a swinging m otion which occursbetween the needlesfrom the frontofthe mahine
to the hook side and return and a lateralshogging ofthe guide parallelwith the
needle baron the hooksideand also the frontofthe machine. The swi
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347
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Yarnfeeding(a):ThenewlyfedyarnisIaidunderthethroatsofkinkingsinkers.
4. Pressing(d):Now,theneedlebeardisimmersedintheneedlegroovebyapresserdisc.
In thiswaythe fed yarn isclosed in the needle hook.
(calledoIdIoops)Iandonthebeards.
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Knitting Action orknitting cycle on latch needles
isto draw the o1d Ioopsbehind the needle Iatch.Clearing is effected during needle lift.
The old loop isretained bythe beak ofthe sinkershifted to the cylindercentre so asto
avoid its dispiacem ent together with the needle.At the time of ciearing,the sinker
remainsim mobile.Clearing iscom pleted whenthe needle reachesitsupperposition.
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2. Yarn Iaying orfeeding (b):In the course ofneedle downward motion,the hooktakes
hold ofyarn com ing from the yarn guide and effects it's laying.Atthe momentw hen
laying isstarted,the sinkerbeak m ustretreata Iittle from the cylindercentre so as not
to furtherim pede the loop form ing process.
3. Underlappingoryarndrawing(c):FurthermovementofyarnjustIaidanditsforwarding
under the needle hook is called under lapping or draw ing. Actually, drawing is
perform ed sim ultaneously with the yarn Iaying when the needle startsto m ove down.
4. Pressing (c):The aim ofpressing isto close the needle hook with the yarn Iaid in it.
W hen the needle Iowers,its Iatch contactsthe oId Ioop Iying nearthe knock- offplane
and retained from lowering by the sinkerchin.The o1d Ioop interacts with the Iatch and
closesit.
6. Joining (d):At joining,the new yarn comes in contact with the oId Ioop.Joining is
accom plished sim ultaneously w ith the beginningofcasting- off.
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9. Loop draw-off(f):The aim ofthisoperation isto draw theoId loop behind the needle
back.Draw-offofnew Ioopsiseffected by sinkerthroats.Atthe sam e time,exercising
theiraction on the knitted fabric,the chinsofsinkers withdraw the oId Ioopsfrom the
knitting zone.The machine take-down mechanism promotesthisoperation.
Loopdraw-offiscompleted when the apexon the interiorside ofthe hookhead reaches
the knock-off plane Ievel,which corresponds to the initialposition for the described
Ioopform ingprocess.
1. Clearing (b):The stem ofthe compound needle lifts from the bottom posi
tion.The
newly formed Ioop is under the needle hook.The guide bar is racking over one or
2. Overlapping oryarn Iaying (c- g):The needle stem risesand the guide barstartsits
m otion, intersecting the Iine of needles.At the m oment when the guide bar passes
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3. Underlapping(g):Theneedlesstem continuesitsdescent.Theguideneedlehasalready
intersected the Iine ofneedlesand pursuesits m otion.The new ly overlapped yarn does
notm ove togetherw ith the needle stem being retained by the upperedge ofthe sinker
nib.The com bined motionsofthe guide needles and needle stem s bring the new yarns
under the hooks.In underlapping,the sinker starts m oving backward to the m achine
centre.
353
position,the sliding Iatch overlapsthe needle hook so thatthe hooktip engagesinto the
groove in the upperpartofthe Iatch.The sinkercontinuesitsm otion and,with i
tsbelly,
bringstbe old loop along tbe sliding latch to the closed hookofthe needle.
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6. Joining ormeshing (i):The needle stem with the sliding Iatch continuesthe downward
m otion.On the descentofthe needle head to the Ievelofthe upperedge ofthe sinker
belly,the oId loop joinsthe new warp yarn which isunderthe needle hook.The guide
needle continuesto m ove away from the m achine centre.
9. Loopforming(i):Theneedlecontinuestomovedownward.
10.Draw - off(j):Draw - offiscarried outonfurtherrotation ofthe machine'smain shak
and needle Iift.Asthe needle Iifts,the yarn m ay be drawn from the newly form ed Ioop
to the guide.
to needle bed shape, provides the support for the majority of the machines
mechanisms.
* Powersupply:The machine controland drive system co -ordinatesthe powerforthe
devices(ifequipped).
@ Fabric Take - away:The fabric take away mechanism includesfabrictensioning,wind up and accom modation devices.
* Quality control:The quality control system includes stop motions, fault detectors,
automaticoilersand Iintrem ovalsystems.
M achines may range from high - production,Iimited - capability modelsto versatile,multi
purpose modelshaving extensive patterningcapabilities.The m ore complexthe structure
being knitted,the Iowerthe knitting speed and efficiency.The sim plest of the knitting
machines would be hand - powered and m anipulated whereas power- driven m achines
may be fully autom atically- program med and controlled from acomputersystem .
355
1.
PlainorSinglejerseycircularknittingm achine
II.
111.
IV.
Plain,Single-jerseyjacquard,Pifeand Sliverknitmachine
Tw o needle beds
FlatKnitting M achine:
Generalstructureofa Flatknitting machine:
The Fram e:
The needle beds
Conceptofmachine gauge
- The c
arriage and yarn guides
- Feedi
ngtheyarn
The take-down device
Selectingthe needles
Selection ofhigh and Iow butts
-
* M ain Features:
Flatknitting machine hastwo stationary needle beds
Latch needlesare used
Angularcamsofa bi-directionalcam system isused
The cam system isattached to the underside ofa carriage,w hichwith
itsselected yarn carriers.
The carriage traversesin a reciprocating manneracrossthe machine
width
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357
AdvantagesofFlatknitting machine:
The flat machine isthe mostversatile ofweftknitting m achines,itsstitch potential
includes needle selection on one orboth beds,racked stitches,needle-outdesi
gns,
striping,tubularknitting,changesofknitting width and Iooptransfer.
A wide range ofyarn counts may be knitted permachine gauge including a ium ber
ofends ofyarn in one knitting system,the stitch Iength range is wide and there is
the possibility ofchangingthe m achine gauge.
* The operation and supervision ofthe machinesofthe sim plertype is relati
vely Iess
arduoustbanforotherweftknitting machines.
* The number of garm ents or panels simultaneously knitted across the m achine is
dependent upon itsknitting width,yarn carrierarrangem ent,yarn path and package
accomm odation.
UsesofFlatknitting machines:
Articlesknitted on flat machines range from trim m ings,edgingsand collarsto garment
machines(fullyfashionedmachines).Cleaningclothes,three-dimensionalandfashioned
productsfortechnicalapplications,multiaxialm achinesare underdevelopment.
ClassificationsofFlatmachines:
M achines range from hand propelled and manipulated m odels to fully-autom ated
electronically controlled power driven machines. The four classes of flat knitting
m achinesare:
a) TheVee-bedflatwhichisbyfartheiargestclass;
b) FlatbedpurlmachineswhichemploydoubleendedordoubleheadedIatchneedles
c) Machineshaving asingle bed ofneedleswhich include mostdomesticmodelsand
the few hand m anipulated intarsia m achines
d) Theuni-directionalmulti-carriagemachinesmadebyonemanufacturer,
a) Vee-bedFlatknittingmachine:
Vee-bed flatknitting m achinesare widely used forthe production ofsweater,collarcuff, etc. This machine describe in details in the following chapter of sweater
knitting.
'
b)FlatPurlknittingmachine:
(
Flat purlorIinks-links m achine with double-headed Iatch needles are Iesscom mon (
than Vee- bed typesto which they aresim ilarin m ethod ofoperation.
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358
* They share with Vee-bed type very good patterning scope, increasing shaping
potentialand relatively Iow productivity.
End-usesand m achinetypesshow slightly lessdiversity than Vee-bed equipmentbut
hand operated typesand circular-flatpurlm achinesexist.
c)DomesticSinglebedFlatmachine:
* These machinesare no longerproduced forindustrialuse.
The needles are actuated by cams mounted in a carriage traversed by hand.
Patterning and abilityto shapethe fabricdepend upon manualoperations.
A typicalm achine hasa36 inch working widthw ith 5to 6 needlesperinch.
Circularknitting m achine;
The term circular covers aII those weft knitting m achines whose needle beds are
* Latch needlecylinderandsinkerring(forsingle-jerseymachine)/dial(fordoublejersey rib and interlock machine) revolve through the stationary knitting cam
system .
359
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to 30 'lnches.U1:1to 60 inch dl
The follow ingfeaturesofa modern circularfabric producing machinethatensure th
* The top and bottom stop m otions are spring-loaded yarn supports that pi&
dow nw ards when the yarn end breaks oritstension isincreased.Thisaction relea
the surplus yarn to the feeder, thus preventing a press-off, and sim ultaneou
com pletes a circuit w hich stops the m achine and illum inates an indicator warn
* l
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. spring-loaded detector points are carefully positioned around the cylind
according to theirparticularfunction.A pointeris tripped to stop the m achine i
fault orm alfunctioning elem entsuch as a yarn slub,fabric lum p,needle head,ja
etc.
* spoon,
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* The revolution counters for each of the three shifts and a pre-set counter for
stoppingthemachineoncompletionofaspecificfabricIength(incourses).
@ Normally side creelisused.
* Lint bloweris used.This reducejthe incidence of knitted-in Iint slubs,to improve
quality when using open-end spun yarns.lt also reduces cross-contam ination by
fibresfrom othermachines.
ProductsofCircularknitting m achine:
Fabric machines:rolls offabric with the following end-uses:jackets,ladi
es'tops,spods
and T-shirts, casual wear, suits, dresses, swim wear, bath robes,
Garmentblank machines:Underwear,T-shirts,jumpers,pullovers,cardigans,dresses,
suits, trouser suits, vests, briefs, thermal wear, cleaning cloths,
technicalfabrics.
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classifitatidnofiirtularknittingmathines:
There are
- three typesofcircularknitting m achines
a) Revolvingtylinderlattbneedlemachines:
They produce mostweftknitted fabrics.They are oftwo main types-
1.
OpentoporSinkrtoporSinglejerseymachines'
lI.
Dialand cylindermachine
Open top machineshaveone setofneedlesusuallyarranged in the cylinder.
Except in the case ofcertain effed fabric m achines such as pelerine,cylindernd
dialmachinesare ofeitherthe rib orinterlock type.
M achinesofboth typesm ay orm aynothave patterning capabilities.
b) Revolvingcylinderbeardedneedlesingle-jerseyfabritmathine:
There are two types ofcircularbearded needle single-jersey fabric machines still
manufactured,
The SinkerW heelm achine orFrench orTerrottype machine.
The Loop wheelframe orEnglish type m achine.
c) CirculargarmentIengthmachines:
* They are generally of body-width size or larger having a cylinder and dial
arrangem entora double cylinder.
@ They are of the sm all-diam eter hosiery type with either a single cylinder, a
cylinderand dialordouble cylinders.
FabricM achine:
The fabricmachine hasthe following main features:
362
*
*
bordersandbeeasilyadjustablefordifferentgarmentsizes.
363
blanksthatarelattersplitintotwoormoregarmentwidths(blanket-widthknitting).
* They produce knitwear, outerwear and underwear. Underwear may be knitted
eitherin garm ent-length orfabric form,w hereas knitwearis normally in garm entIength form, w hich is a generic term applied to most weft knitted outerwear
knittedfabric(single-jersey,doublejersey).ltiscutandmade-upfrom fabricusually
knittedonlargecircularmachines(26*or30*diameter),althoughthereareIarger
and smallerdiameterm achinesused.Generally,gaugesarefinerthan E14.
The yarn is supplied from cones,placed eitheron an integraloverhead bobbin stand oron a
free- standingcreel,through tensioners,stop motionsand guide eyesdown to the yarn feeder
guides.The fabric,in tube form ,isdrawn downwardsfrom insidethe needle cylinderbytension
rollers and is wound onto the fabric batching rollerofthe w inding down frame.The winding
down m echanism revolves in unison with the cylinder and fabric tube and is rack - Iever
operated via cam -followersrunning onthe undersideofa profiled cam ring.
Asthe sinkercam - plate is mounted outside on the needle circle,the centre ofthe cylinderis
open and the m achine isreferred to asan open top orsinkertop m achine.Com pared with a rib
machine,a plain m achine is simplerand m ore econom icalwith a potentialofm ore feeders,
higherrunning speeds and the possibility of knitting a widerrange of yarn counts.The most
populardiameteris26''givingan approximatefinished fabricwidth of60''to 70''.
n2
An approximatel
y suitable countm ay be obtained usingthe form ula Ne= F-.,where Ne= cotton
-
18
4. Needlecylinder(inthiscase,revolvingclockwise)
5 Cylinderdriving wheel
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7. Sinkeroperating cam sw hich form a raised trackoperating inthe recessofthe sinker
8. Sinkercam - cap
9. Sinker trick ring which is sim ply and directly attached to the outside top ofthe
needle cylinderthuscausing the sinkersto revolve in unison with the needles
10.Needle retaining spring
11.Needle- operating camswhich,likethe sinkercam sare stationary
12.Cam - box
13.Cam - plate
14.Head plate
15.Cylinderdri
ving pinion attached to the main drivingshaft.
Cam system :
The cam system consistsofneedle cam system and sinkercam system .The following figure
show sthe arrangem entand r.elationship betw een the needle cam sand sinkercam sasthe
.
',
365
elem entspassthrough in a Iek to rightdirection with the Ietters indicating the positionsofthe
elem entsatthe variouspointsinthe knittingcycle.
The needle cam race consistsofthefollowings,
1. Theclearing cam orraising cam
2. Stitch orIowering cam
3. Upthrow cam
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Thearrangementoftheknittingelementscan beseeninthefigure(c)Thecylinderneedle 1is :
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Position - 1 Restposi
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Position- 4 :Yarn presenting position, Position- 5 :Cast- on position,Position- 6:Knock- overposition
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4 = needle tytm
5 = carp trac:
5 =ecvllndeneeam segm ant
7 - cvlindercam segment
8 a.cvlindercam co- rfng
& = s'nkerring
O = wnkerring grow e
Figure - c
367
These sinkers obtained their m ovem ents for stitch form ation by m eans of the sinker cam
segment 12,which is fixed to a stationaw sinkercam ring 13.In the construction shown,the
sinkercam ring 13 is Ioosely housed on the sinkerring 99the holding fixture prevents itfrom
turning round.The sinkerthroat 15 ofthe holding-dow n orknocking-over sinker holds down
the fabric when the needle is moved upwards.The stitchesare knocked overatthe knock-over
edge 16.Thefeeder17 presentsthe yarnto the needles.
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Positi
on - 1 :Restorground posi
tion,Posi
tion- 2 :Tucking- in positi
on, Position- 3:Clearing positi
on
Position - 1:The rest position is shown in the following figure.The top edge ofthe
needle head ison levelwitb the knock- overedge ofthe holding - down orknockingoversinker.The latterhasbeen m oved towardsthe cylindercentre to such an extent,
thatitsthroatholdsdown the sinkerloop ofthe kinked yarn Ioop,presentinthe needle
head.
Position -2:Thisposition isshow n in the figure below.The needle has been m oved
upwardsfrom i
tsrestposition,wherebythe fabricwasheld down in the sinkerthroat.
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The oId Ioop has opened the needle Iatch and Iies on it. The arrangem entofthe #arrt'
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l
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nker .'
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Position - 3:From the tucking-in position the needle has now been moved into its
highestposition.Since the fabrichad been held down bythe throatofthesinker, the oId
Ioop slideson the needle stem to a position beneath the Iatch. The yarn feederprevents
aclosing ofthe Iatch.The sinkerremainsatrest.
Position - 4:The needle is moved down from the clearing position. Justbefor the old
Ioop begins to close the Iatch the new yarn m ust be Iaid into the needle head by the
yarn feeder.In orderthatthe Iatch can be closed by a furtherdownward m ovementof
the needle, yarn feeding m ust be completed im mediately after crossing the yarn
presenting position.In the figure,the sinkerbegins moving towardsthe rightand away
from the cylinder centre, since the fabric no Ionger needs to be held by the sinker
throat.The verticalposition ofthe needle isthe same in the yarn presenting position
and the tucking-in position.The fundam entaldifference, however,isthatinthe tuckingin position the oId Ioop from the previous row Iies on the needle Iatch, butis beneath
the Iatch forstitch formation inthe yarn presenting position.
* Position - 5:From the yarn presenting position the needle ism oved furtherdownwards
by meansofthe take-down segment18along with the counterguide segm ent19, figure
(a).Now theneedl
e latchisclosedbytheoIdIoopandthenew yarnisheld intheclosed
needle head.The sinkerhasbeen m oved into itsextreme rightposition, so thatthe oId
Ioop Iieson the knock-overedge and the new yarncan be pulled through the old Ioop.
* Position - 6:The needle is moved furtherdow iwards by meansofthe take-down cam
Thusitispossibleto preciselyadjusttheIengthofthenewlyformedIoop
SinkerTim ing:
The mostforward position ofthe sinkerduringthe knitting cycle isknown asthe push pointand
itsrelationshipto the needlesisknown asthe sinkertiming.
369
ofa rib (double knit)circularknitting machine.The set-up ofthe cylinder3 with itsknitting.
elements1to9isthesameaswithplaincircularknittingmachines.lnahorilontal(rib)dial10
grooves11 are m illed in.The latch needles12are housed and guided in these grooves.The dial
needle 12 obtainsits motion forstitch formation througb its butt 13,which extendsinto a cam
track 14.Thiscam track 14 isformed by the cam parts 15 and 17,which in turn are fixed to a
dialcam plate 18.During the rotation ofthe cylinder and the dialthe cylinder needle 1 is
moved vertically and tbe dialneedle 12 is m oved horizontally,corresponding to the shape of
the cam trackinthe cylinderand dialcams.
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settingfortheproductionofdoubleknitlocked fabrics(interlockfabrics).
* Rib gating:The follow ing figure showsthissetting in a frontview and in a top view.Th
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Dialneedlesin grooves1,3,5,...
Cylinderneedlesin grooves2,4,6,...
Dialneedlesin grooves 2,4,6,...
Cylinderneedlesin grooves 1,3,5,...
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and in the dial,and these have to be controlled and cleared independently.One sortof '
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needle is normally prejent in the grooves 1,3,5,.. and the other needle sort in the
grooves2,4,6,...However,otherneedle combinationsare also possible.
As a rule rib machines can be converted into interlock m achines when they have atIeasttwo
different needl: types both in the cylinder and in the dial,whereby these needles can be
independently controlled.A clutch in the drive forthe cylinder and the dialis used to turn
eitherthe cylinderorthe dialoverhalfa needle pi
tch,so thatthe cylinderand dialneedlesare
directly opposite to one another.The working procedure atany given feederis now the same
asin the usualinterlocksetting.Theoretically,interlock machinescan also be converted into rib
m achines in the same manner.Interlock machinesare howevernorm ally in a finergauge range.
W hen cylinderand dialneedlescrossone anotherin rib setting,there would be very Iittlespace
inbetween,andthiscould Ieadtostrainanddamageofyarns.Generallydoubleknit(rechtsrechts)circularknittingmachineswithaninterlocksettinghavegaugesfinerthan224.
Needle Tim ing orCoordination betw een cylinderand dialcam s:
Needle tim ing isthe position ofthe dialneedle knock-overpointrelativeto the cylinderneedle
knock-over point measured as a distance between the knock-over points ofthe two lowering
cams,i.e.thecylinderanddialsti
tch cams,in needles.Collectivetimingadjustmentisachieved
by m oving the dialcam plate clockwise or anti-clockwise relative to the cylinder, individual
adjustmentatparticularfeedersasrequiredisobtainedbymovingorexchangingthestitchcam
profile.Depending on the coordination between the cylinderand dialcam s,one differentiates
betweensynchronizedtiming(alsoknownaspoint,jacquardor2x2timing)anddelayedtiming
(alsoreferredtoasriborinterlocktiming).
Needle timing influence the appearance,the quality and propertiesofthe fabric produced on a
rib circularknitting m achine.
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372
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Synthronized timing:
The cylinderand the dialneedles knock-overtheirknitted Ioopsatthe sam etim e. ltisthe term
used when the two positionscoincidi withtheyarn being pulled in an alternating mannerin
two directionsbytbe needlesthuscreating a hi
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In thiscase the importantthingsthat''the knocking-overdepth ofthe cylinderneedles isequal
tothe knocking-overdepthofthe dialneedles.
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Delayedtim ing
W hen this tim ing is used the cylinderand dialneedles are pulled in the sam e position. The
knocking-over position is attained at the same point by the cylinder and dial needles.
Synchronizedtimingcanbeused onallmachinesandfoiaIIrib and interlockknittedstrudures
except:
* Thosewith Iaid-in yarns
* Sim ultaneoustuckingatcylinderand dialneedles
* Riband interlockbased pile fabrics.
373
Structures knitted using synchronized tim ing w illbe loose and consistofuneven stitches.
The following figures illustrate the phasesofstitch orIoop form ation on a rib circularknitting
machine workingwith synchronized tim ing.
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Thedialneedlesknock-overtheirknittedIoopsIaterthanthecorrespondingcylinderneles.
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W ith delayed timingthe dialknock-overoccursafteraboutfourcylindernee'
dleshave drain'
loops and are rising slightly to relieve the strain.The dialIoops are thus com posed bf the
fabricistighterandhasbettrrijidity,itisalsoheavierandwiderandIessstrainisproducedon
theyarn.Sotheadvantigesofusingdelayedtimingasfollows:
Tightstructure
* Evenlyformqd stitches
*
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* Heavierand widerfabric
@ Lessstrain on theyarn during the sti
tch form ation
Longerdialstitchescom pared to cylinderstitches.
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375
The bove figure showsa cylinderand adialcam setfordelayed timing.The knock-overpointof
the dialneedles,position'8, is shifted in the direction of rotation ofthe machine overthe
distance correspondingto the delayed tim ing,in relationto the knockoverpointofthe cylinder
needles,position 6.On a circularknitting machine setfordelayed timing onlysuch fabrictypes
can be produced,where alIthe cylinder needles work in each feeder.Iffabrics are produced
using only everysecond cylinderneedle,knitting can be carried outin an interm ediate position.
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Stitch orIoop form ation ofRib circularknitting m achine with delayed timing
Posi
tion - 1:The rest position for the cylinder and dialneedles.The heads of both these
needlesare inthe areaofthe corresponding knock-overedgesofthe cylinderand the dial.
Position - 2:The dialand cylinderneedles move more orlesssimultaneously into theirtucking
positions,ascan beseen in the abovefigure,posi
tion 2.
Position- 3:Afterthelatchesofthe dialand cylinderneedleshave been opened in thetucking
position,the yarn feedercom esinto action in circum ferentialdirection;itstask here isto
376
preventa premature closing ofthe Iatches.The cylinderand dialneedles attain theirclearing
positions,above figure,position 3, roughlyatthe sam etime.
Position - 4:The cylinderand dialneedlesare pulled backagain and they m ove into theiryarn
presenting positions.The newly presented yarn is Iaid in the open needle hooks ofboth the
needles,abovefigure,pqsition4.
Position - 5:Since the dialcams have been shifted in the direction ofrotation ofthe m achine
thecylinderneedlesare pulled earlierthanthe dialneedles. The cylinderneedle Ioop closesthe
latch and lieson the closed head ofthe cysinderneedle. The dialneedle is approximately in its
yarn presenting position,above figure,position 5. The yarn feederstops priorto the cast-on
posi
tion,so thatthe cylinderneedle Iatch can be closed.
Position - 6:The cylinderneedle ispulled furtheruntilitreachesitsIowestpointin the clearing
position,as shown in the above figure, position 6.The dialneedle is stillroughl
y in its yarn
presenting position.The newly presented yarn is pulled through the cylinder needle loop to
form a new Ioop.The oId loop is knocked over as a cylinderstitch. The Iength of this new
cylinderIoop determ inesthe Iength ofthe cylinderand dialsti
tchesto be formed Iater, since
the dialneedle can obtain yarn only from the nei
ghbouring cylinderIoops during knock-over.
Thefefore the drawing-in depth ofthe cylinderneedle issetsom ewhatIongerin delayed timing
ascom pared to synchronoustiming.
Position - 7:The dialneedle is row pulled back and itm oves into the cal on position,above
figure position 7;the loop lies on the closed Iatch of the dialneedle. From its knock-over
positionthe cylinderneedle now beginsto move upwardsin thedirection ofitsrestposition.
-
Position - 8:ln thisposition, the diasneedle attainsits knock-overposition, while the cylinder
needle is stillapproaching its rest position. Here the drawing-in depth ofthe dialneedle m ust
be sufficiently measured so thatthe dialneedle can form a Ioop outofthe yarn Iengthsofthe
cylinder Ioops, drawn in earlier by the neighbouring cylinder needles in their knock-over
positions,position 6.A closerexam ination revealsthat, while being pulled back,the dialneedle
drawsin more yarnfrom the cylinderIoop placed contrary to the direction ofmachine rotation
,
as com pared to the other neighbouring cylinder Ioop, since the Iatter has already given up a
partofitsyarn reserve to the previouslyformeddialIoop.
Due to thedelayed knock-overofthe dialneedle one obtainsmore uniform stitch Iengths, since
the given yarn length,determ ined by the drawing-in depth ofthe cylinder needle, is evenly
distributed overseveralstitches. Thisresultsin a m ore even appearance ofthe fabric. Afterthe
knock-overpositionthedialneedle isguided into itsrestposition.
Advanted tim ing:
This isreverse ofdelayed tim ing in thatthe cylinderIoopsrob from the dialproducing tighter
dialIoops,advancementcan only be aboutone needle, thistype oftim ing issometimes used in
377
lntrlock isproduced mainly on specialcylinderand dialcircularmachinesand on some doublesystem Vee-bed flatmachines.An interlockmachine m ustfulfillthefollowing requirements:
Upon reaching its extreme top position forclearing,the cylinderneedle 7 starts moving down,
as itm ustrecei
ve the yarn which is being laid.In the course ofthisoperation,the loopsofthe
cylinderand the dialneedlesshiftfrom the needle Iatchesonto theirstems.
ThedialneedleVIl,whichhaseffectedclearing,retreatsbackwardsjustenoughto bringtheoId
loop w hicb itcarriesunderitshook.The needle 8 receives a new Ioop,while the needle VI1
rem ainsatdwell.The needle 9 isshown inthe m om entw hen pressing iseffected and needle
10duringtheoperationsofjoining,casting-offand atthebegihningofIoopforming.Thenew
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formed ofoncom ingyarn lieson the stem ofthe dialneedlesX and Xl.Atthe sametimeof
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The needle XIffects Ianding over and the needles 12 and 13 Iift,and as a result,the loops
formed by these needles are released.The needles X6land Xl4Ithus acquire the possibility of
form ing new loopsbyrobbing the yarn from the released Ioops.So,forinstance,the needle XII
startsform ing a new Ioop by reducing the new Ioop ofthe needle 12.The needle 13 and 14
continue theirupward m otion.W hile the needlesXlll,XIV from theirIoops,the needles 15 and
XV have already formed new loops.A fullIoop course on the interlock machine isform ed by
two knittingfeeders.
lnterlotk Cam System:
The cam system consists of cylinder needle cam system and dialneedle cam system .The
following figure showsthe necessary cylinderand dialneedle cam mingJto produce one course
ofordinary interlockfabric which is actually the work oftwo knitting feeders.ln this example
the dialhas a swing tuck cam which willproduce tucking ifswung out ofthe cam -track and
.
knittingifin action.
379
B and C,are the stitch and guard cams respectively and are vertically adjustable for
varying stitch length.
* D,isa upthrow cam,to raise cylinderneedlew hilstdialneedle knocksover.
* Eand F,are theguard cams,to com plete the track.
* G and H,provide the trackforthe idling needles.
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* 5,isan auxiliary knock-overcam to preventthe dialneedle re-enteringoId loop.
6 and 7,provide the trackforthe idling needles.
8, is a swing type clearing cam,w hich may occupy the knitting position as shown at
feeder1 orthetuckposition asshown atfeeder2.
Interlock thus requires eight cam system s or locks in orderto produce one com plete course,
two cam system sforeach feederin each needle bed.Basic cylinderand dialmachinesand flatm achineshavingthisarrangem entare often referred to aseight-lockm achines.
380
Links-tinksorPurlKnitting M achine
stitchformation orIoop formation on a purlknitting m achine:
Links isthe Germ an word forIeftand itindicatesthatthere are Ieftorreverse Ioopsvisible on
each side ofthe fabric.In a similarmanner,the German term forrib is rechts-rechts (rightright).
The following figuresshow the m ain loop-forming elem entsare two headed Iatch needlesand
needle sliders.
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other,astheseslotsaredisposedoneoppositetheother.Th&ribsofthepartitionscanddhave
teeth D and Jwhichform a knock-overbar.
Two sliders M and N correspond to each needfe.The slider M can engage the needle's Ieft
head, while the slider N can engage the right head of the needle, and displace it in a
transferredtothemiddleoftheneedle,asshowninthefigure(b).
On the forward m ovementofthe sliders,theirheads raise the bossesL and R and both sliders
disengage with the needle.The sliderwhich isfirstto begin its backward m otion Iowers and
381
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Waje.
382
two othercourseson the otherneedle bed,then a reverse stitch isobtained in which two face
coursesalternate with two reverse courses.The repeatofthisknitwillbe RH= 4.
Links-unksCam System:
The cam system sofa flatIinks-linksm achine are illustrated in the following figure.Theyconsist
ofthe following cams:the pointers7 and 7'by m eans ofwhich the sliders are directed to the
big centralcam s9 and 9';thetop orclearil
ng m ovable centralcams 13 and 13'serving to effect
clearing and needle transferfrom one needle bed to tbe other;the guide cams 6,6'and 10,10'
bringing the sliders in operation position;the stationary top centralcam s 15 and 15',Iim iting
the upward movem entofthe slidersand Ioweringthem afterthe Iift;the switch cams8,11and
8'#11'andthe bridgesP and P'.
The bridge hasthe following parts:cams forraising the sliders2 and 2';the Iowering cams 14
and 14/,which pressthe slidersatthe momentoftheirengagementwith the needles;the Iatch
openers 1,1/and4,4';the big bosses3 and 3',im pedingthe needle's independentIifting atthe
m omentoftheirengagementand disengagem ent with the sliders;the sm allbosses5,12 and
5',12',supporting the needlesatthe m omentwhen the latch openerscome in action.
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384
side to side.The course wise extension is appfoxim ately twice that of the w ale
wise extension due to the degree of constraint im posed on each Ioop by its
intermeshing.The Ioop pulled vertically extends by half its Iength X 1, w hile the
loop pulled horizontally extends by its w hole length, 1.The degree of recovery
from stretch is not a property ofthe construction but depends on the nature of
the raw m aterialand yarn construction. It norm ally has a potentialrecovery of
40% in width afterstretching.
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Plain/Singlejerseystructure(Back)
Edge curling:This fabric curls atthe edge w hen the fabric aftercut in relax state.
lt has a tendency to curltow ards the back atthe sides and towards the front at
the top and bottom .The difference in construction between the two facescauses
stress in the stiucture so thatthe fabrictendsto curl. The I
ooparms(face)exerta
Iength wise stressthatcurlsthe top and bottom edges ofthe fabric tow ards the
face.The needle and sinkerIoopsw hich are on a horizontalplain, pullthe sidesof
the fabric and curlthem tow ards the reverse side ofthe fabric. Pressing orother
d.
Unroving:The plain knit structure can be easily unravelled from the edge w hich
was knitted Iast.Thisselvedge isthe top edge when the fabric is held upright, as
produced on the knitting m achine. ln contrastto otherknitfam ilies,the plain knit
construction is sym m etricaland can also be unravelled from the edge knitted
first.This edge isatthe bottom w hen the fabric is held upright. So the plain fabric
385
succession and a 'Iadder''w iilform .It isa fault but we considerit'ps properties.
hosiery,fully-fashioned knitwearandsinglejerseyfabric.
End usesofplain knitstructures:
Plain knit structures are used for basic T-shirt under garm ents, m en's vest, Iadies
hosiery,fuljy-fashioned knitwearetc.
End use depends on some factors such as materialused;yarn types and yarn count/
lineardensity;m achine gauge;fabricthicknessand weight;typesoffinishing etc.
Notation ofplain knitstructure:
The following figure shows the sym bols ofone popularm ethod used in many countries
around the world.In thissystem an ''x''sym bolrepresentsa face loop and an '/0'/isused
to representa reverse loop.
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m achine'sback bed.
386
M any types of rib structures can be produced according to the arrangement of active
needlesinthefrontandbackneedlebeds.Thesimplestribstructureisthe1x1rib. To knit
this structure, aIIthe needles in both needle beds are active.The arrangement of the
needles, each positioned in between two from the opposi
te bed and a sequential
movement,ensure thatthe Ioops are produced alternately,one towards the frontand one
towardsthe back.W hen every third needle is inactive and is posi
tioned between two active
needleson the opposite bed the 2x2 rib fabricisformed.
Thegeneralcharacteristicsofthe rib structure family are asfollows:
a.
structures.Thefabricusuallybeingsymmetricalon bothsides,isnotsubjectedto
unbalanced stresses.
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Edge curling:The fabric being in m any cases sym m etricalon b0th faces is not
exposed to unbalanced stressand therefore doesnotcurl,itIiesflat,w hen cut.
d.
Unroving:Rib structures can easily be unravelled from the edge knitted Iast i.e.
the top when the fabric is held upright as produced on the knitting m achine.Rib
structures how ever,cannotbe unravelled from the edge knitted firsti.e.from the
bottom .The arm softhe connecting Ioopsenterthe Ioops above them from both
sides.Any attem ptto pullthe yarn causes the connecting Ioops to tighten and
blocks unraveiling.Because ribs cannotbe unroved from the end knitted firstand
because of their elasticity,they are particularly suited to the edge of garm ents
such asthe tops ofsocks,cuffsand the waistedge ofgarm ents.
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stretched. In rib structures,drop stitches can only run tow ardsthe edge knitted L
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Purlfabricsareknitted onmachineswithspecialequipment(onesetofneedles),whichare
double-ended latch needles and special devices of drive them , allow ing Ioops to be
interm eshed in two directions.Purlfabrics are characterized by the factthatthey have face
and reverse Ioops in the sam e wale.This type of structure can only be achieved on purl
m achines or by rib loop transfer. Rib m achines w illknit purl structures if Ioop transfer
between the beds is possible.Loops on the frontbed can be transferred to needleson the
backbedandviceversatoproduceiaceandreverseIoopsinthesamewale.
Onapurlmachine,thetricks(theslotsinwhichtheneedlesareIocated)ofthetwoneedle
beds are directly opposite and in the sam e plane.This allows the double-ended needles to
be transferred across from one needle bed to the other,enabling fabrics to be m ade that
have face and reverse loopsin the same wale.
There are two types ofpurlm achine - Flat purls,the needle bedsofthese machines are set
on the same plane instead of being in an inverted ''V''form ation and circularpurls,which
have tw o superim posed cylinderone above the otherso thatthe needles move in a vertical
direction,both typesofm achines are capable ofproducing garm ent Iength orotherarticle
sequences.
390
To produce a purlknitstructure on a ''V''bed flat knitting m achine, a loop transferability is
required.The sim plest1x1purlstructure isproduced accordingto the follow ing procedure:
111.
IV.
Not allIoops have to be transferred after the com pletion of each course. The 2x2 purl
structure is produced when two coursesare knitted on each needle bed before the transfer
operation.
W hen the knitting machine issophisticated enough to handle both Ioop transferand needle
selection,the varietyofpossible purlstructuresisunlim ited.
Although the purlknitfam ily includes m any different structures, the generalcharacteristics
can be sum marized asfollows:
a.
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1x1Purlstructure(Faceside)
b.
1x1Purlstructure(Backside)
contraction,ahorizontalribelectwhichmakvsthem elasticihiklength
dired ion.Thisis an advantage, especially w hen com pared w ith the very lim ited
Iengthw ise extensibility ofplain orrib strud ures. Thefabri
tiststrtcliible in1he
391
fr baby wear where elongation and expansion are required due to the fast
,
growingrateofinfantsandtosimplifytjqdressingprocess.
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1x1Purlstrqcture(Backside)
Edge curling:The fabric is usually balanced and does not tend to curl.This
how everdependson the arrangem entofthe loops on the face and reverse side
d.
Unroving:Purlknit structures can easiiy be unraveled frpm the edge knitted Iast
i.e.the top edge ofthe fabric when held upright,as producet on the knitting
of only one type of Ioop,behave like plain knits when .unravelliqg is concerned.
They can be upravelled from both ends.
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Laddering: A dropped stitch can easily start a chain reaction 9nd produce a
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Ateachfeedera1x1ribstructuresknittedatadjacentfeedersinterlaceeachotherandform
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each other.
Interlock hasthe technicalface of plain fabric on both sides,but its sm ooth surface cannot
be stretched outto revealthe reverse m eshed Ioop w ales because the wales on each side
are eyactly opposite to each otherand are Iocked together.
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1x1lnterlockstructure(Backside)
1x1lnterlockstructure(Faceside)
W hen two di
fferent-coloured yarns are used, horizontalstripes are produced if the sam e
colour is knitted at two consecutive feeders,and verticalstripes if odd feeders knit one
colourand even feedersknitthe othercolour.The num berofinterlockpattern rowsperinch
isoften double the machine gauge in needlesperinch.
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be produced.
plain
1x1 Rib
1x1 Purl
1x1 lnterlotk
Property
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Appearance
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Extensibility
tengthwise Moderate(10-20%) M oderate
Very bigh
Sam e on both
sides,Iikeface
ofplain.
M oderate
Widthwise
High(30-50%)
Vewhigh(50-100%) High
Moderate
Area
Thickness
and
W armth
Moderate-high
Thickerand
warm erthan
plainwoven
made from sam e
High
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warm erthan
pfainwoven
Moderate
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thickerand
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Curling
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yarn
Eitherend
Onlyfrom end
knitted Iast
Tendencyto curl No tendencyto
curl
Ladies'stockings, Socks,cuffs,
fine cardigans,
waistbands,
men'sand ladies' collars,m en's
shirts,dresses,
outerwear,
base fabricfor
knitw ear,
coating.
underwear.
vew high
Very m uch
thickerand
warmerthan
plain woven
Eitherend
Onlyfrom end
knitted last
No tendencyto No tendency
curl
to curl
Children's
Underwear,
clothing,
shirts,suits,
knitwear,thick trousersuits,
and heavy
sportswear,
outerwear.
dresses.
395
ldentifieationofSinglejerseyand Doublejerseyfabric:
Weftknittedfabricsmaybeapproximatelydividedintosingleordoublejersey(double-knit)
according to w hetherthey were knitted w ith one ortwo setsofneedles.
Doublejerseyfabricshavethefollowingfeatures-
* Bothsidesofthefabriccontainonlyfaceloops(basicribandinterlockfab/ics)oronly
backloops(basicpurlfabri
.c)orcombinationoffaceandbackIoops.
* Both sites are same appearance forbasicand balanced structure,butdifferenton
otherstructures.
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constructed ofonly one type ofknitted Ioop.In reality however,most knitted strudures
contain,in addition to the standard knitIoops.The standard loop isa flexible form ationrcan
easily change its shape under small Ioads and is responsible for the strtchabte
characteristicsofthefabric.
A knitted loop stitch is produced w hen ateach yarn feed,a needle receives a new loop and
knocks-overthe oId Ioop which isheld from the previous knitting cycle,so thatthe oId loop
W hen these stitches are deliberately selected,a preponderance of knitted Ioop stitches is
necessary within the structure in orderto m aintain its requisite physicalproperties.Apart
from the knitted Ioop stitch,the two m ostcom monly-produced stitchesare the floatorm iss
stitch and the tuck stitch.Each is produced with a 'held loop'and shows its ow n particular
Ioop m ostclearly on the reverse side ofthe stitch asthe Iim bsofthe held loop coveritfrom
view on the face.
'
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1
397
The Iim bsofthe held Ioop are often elongated asthey extend from its base interm eshing in
one course to where its head is finally interm eshed a num ber of courses higher in the
r
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a. W hentuckorheldstitchformationisperformedwithoutcast-off(figure-a),joining,
casting-off and sinking are excluded from the Ioop form ation cycle. In this case,the
needles4 and 7 knitthe loops3 and 6,w hile the needle 5 pedorm saIlthe operations
sel
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andthetuckIpop 2.
b.W hentuckstitchformationispedormedwithoutcleringoperation(figure-b)the
selected needle isIifted forincom plete clearing.Afterclearing on needles4 and 7 has
been perform ed,thesesneedlesare fed with the yarn 3 from w hichthey knitnorm al
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furtheroperations;the held Ioop 1 and the tuck loop from yarn 3 are in the hook of
needle 5.ln this m ethod controlofheld Ioop length is possible,as the operation of
sinking isperform ed by the needle holdingthe Ioop 1.
question(figure-c).lnthiscycle,theneedles4and7knittheIoops3and6from the
fed yarn,perform ing aIInecessary opvrations. In the nextcycle the needle resting in
itstop m ostposition form sa new Ioop.
ln both cases,the yarn ofwhich Ioops 3 and 6 are m ade, rem ains in form ofa Iong
floating linkbetween Ioops3 and 6)the Iong Iink(afloat)isIaid onthe held Ioop 1
k.. .
.Feed a
.
Feed 2
Feed 1
SingleTuck StitcbG
. . . Feed3
.
. Feed2
. * . Feed 1
'
'
399
Assuggestedbyitsname,themissstitcheffectiscreatedwhenoneoftheknittedIoopsis
m issed during the production sequence.The deform ed Ioop isthe resultofa needle which
has notparticipated in one sequence of Ioop form ation.lt has retained its Ioop longerthen
:
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400
2. Theyarn carriertravels across the m achine feeding new yarn into the hooks ofthe
active needles.
3. Active needles descend to knockoverand form new Ioops.The needle in the centre
createsthe 'm iss''effectby retaining itsIoop.
The connecting yarn between the newly form ed loops sim ply passes behind it.The
elongated Ioop form ation iscalled a ''held''Ioop.
The notation ofthe floatstitch:
The inactive needle and the unformed Ioop are shown in notation systems by em pty spaces.
W hen the fabric isillustrated in squares,the appropriate square isleft blankasillustrated in
the following figure.The notation in this figure is ofthe structure presented in the above
figure.These structuresare produced on a knitting m achine w ith one needle bed only.The
two comm on notation systems in squares are shown as used in the English speaking
countries(a)andinGermany(b).
W hen the needle notation system is used,the yarn issim ply drawn as skipping the inactive
. Knitting plain knits.W hen the raising cam s ofone needle bed are com pletely
w ithdraw n to m issallthe needles,the m achine knits with the otherneedle bed only.
ltproduces a plain knitstructure,asillustrated in aIlnotatioh system in the follow ing
figure.The m issing procedure can be carried outon the frontneedle bed so the rear
401
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someoftheneedlestomiss.The2x2(inGerman2:1)inthefollowingfigure(a)isthe
m ost popular rib structure for garm ents elasticated w elts.As can be observed from
the illustration,in each needle bed tw o needlesare active and one m isses.In another
ribstructureshowninthefigure(b),thecombinationofactiveandmissingneedlesis
different.
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Note that in notation in squares,the 2x2 rib is not m arked w ith tw o face Ioops and
tw o reverse Ioops.lnstead,it is m arked asproduced on the m achine i.e.the inactive
m issing needlesappearasblanksquares.
@ Im provem ent of the fabric's w idthwise stability. A m issed Ioop, creates a short
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403
The repeated m issed sequence is lim ited by the properties oftbe yarn form ing tbe
held Ioop.TheIoad isplacedonthisyarnand thenumberofmissespossibledepeqds
on itstensile properties.
* M arking ofgarm ents.The differentappearance ofthe m issed Ioop can be used for
the m arking of cutting Iines.Arm holes or a ''V''neck Iines can be defined the on
garm ents,during the knitting process.
On iongerproduction lines,garm ents can be code m arked in a hidden place to allow
machine recognition andtrouble shootingduring Iaterproduction processes.
andareproducedonmachknesequippedwithanyknowntypesofneedles. .
A tuck stitch is com posed of a held loop,one or m ore tuck Ioops,and knitted Ioops.It is
produced w hen a needle holding its Ioop also receivesthe new loop which becom es a tuck
Ioop because it is not intermeshed through the oId Ioop,but is tucked in behind it on the
reverse side ofthe stitch.
Itsside Iim bsaretherefore notrestricted attheirfeetby the head ofan oId Ioop so thatthey
can open outwardstowardsthe two adjoining needle loopsformed inthe same course.The
tuck loop thusassum es an inverted 'V'or'U'- shaped configuration.Tuck stitch structures
show afaintdiagonalIineeffectontheiisudace.
'
ln analysis,a ttlck stitch is identified by the fact that its head is released as a hum p shape
swi
thdrawn,whereasaknittedloopwouldrequireto
im m ediately the needle loop aboveiti
be separatel
y w ithdrawn and a m iss stitch would always be floating freely on the technical
back.
The following figure showsastitch created bya knitting sequence called ''Tuckinf'.The
effect is created by an enlarged knitted loop with a segm ent ofyarn tucked behind it.A
com parison w ith figure ofthe m issstitch,reveals a sim ilarityto the floatstitch construction.
The stretched loop appearsin botb m issstitcb and tuck stitches.
The tuck stitch is form ed, as suggested by its nam e, w hen the yarn is tucked into the
structure by the needle,instead of being form ed into a loop.The stretched deformed loop
originated as a norm alknitted loop w hich was held by the tucking needle w hile the other
needlesknitted an additionalcourse.
404
Feed 3
Feed 2
Feed 1
Single TuckStitch F
. * . Feed 3
.
. Feed 2
. @ . Feed 1
Aswith the niiss stitch,the deformed stretched Ioop,robs some yarn from the ajacent
Ioopsthusreducingthem in size.
An im portant features of the tuck stitch is that the tucked yarn is placed behind the
stretchedfaceloop,asshownagain inthe abovefigure,drqwnfrom the reverse side.Thisis
im portant when a yarn should not appear on the fabric face,as further explained in next
tropics.
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In the series of following diagram s,the form ing procedure of a tuck stitch is shown.The
differentstepsin the sequence are:
1. The previouslyformed Ioop is in the hookofthe needle which now startsto ascend.
405
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3. A new yarn is fed into the descending needle.Since the new yarn is not pulled
through the previous Ioop, it does not acquire a Ioop shape. Instead, it is sim ply
4. The needle now ascendsto clearing position and both previousIoop and tucked yarn
drop underthe latch.
5. The descending needle isfed w ith a yarn.The previousIoop togetherwith the tucked
yarn slide underthe Iatch,close itand slide overthe hook.
6. The new yarn ispulled into knockoverpositin ahd form s a new loop.Note thatthe
tuckedyarnishookedbetweentheiwoknittedloops.
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Tuckinginthehook (withoutclearingoperation)
''Tucking in the hookd',described above,isthe m odern way oftuckstitch formation.
anotherw ay forform ing a tuck stitch,as described in the following seriesofdiagrams.
sequence,called ''Tucking onthe Iatch''lisdescribed asfollows:
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1. The previous Ioop is held within the needle's hook which now ascends to clearing
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Atclearing position,the previous Ioop is dropped underthe Iatch.A new yarn isfed
into the hookofthe needle,w hich now startsto descend.
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5. The previous Ioop and yarn slide under the Iatch,close it and slide outside of the
hook.The new ly fed yarn is in the hook'senclosure.
6. The needle is pulied into knockover position w hile form ing a new loop through the
previous one.The yarn fed into the hook during the previous cycle assum es a tuck
form ation identicalto the one described above.
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Tuckingonthelatch (withoutcastoffoperation)
E(
407
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The sequence oftuck form ing ''on the latch''by restricting the m ovementto knockover,is
notasreliable as the ''tucking in the hook''.Loopsm ay accidentally slip offthe latch during (
the shortened descent and a norm alloop m ay form instead ofa tuck stitch.The m ethod is '
used in oldermachinesw hich are restricted by theirraising camsarrangements.
Forobtaining a tuck stitch on spring-bearded needles,the mostwidely used m ethod consists
in obviating the operation of pressing.'Seleded needles are not presied during loop
form ati6n,and underthe notpressed needle hookboth the newlyfed yarn and the oId loop
are slid.The notpressed needle do.
esnotpedorm the operation ofold Ioop casting-off!
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TuckIoop and held loop on the spring bearded needles
Formanufacturing the tuck stitches,knitting machines with spring-bearded needles require
pressers are used.The needles have theirindividualpressers w hich can be switched in for ;
pressing or sw itched off for tucking.The best exam ple of such m achines are the Cotton
Patent m achines;their pressers are m ade of a series of segm ents individually driven for
knitting ortucking.
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nwarp-knittingmachineswithspring-bearded needlesmovinginunison(tricotmachines),
so called ''cutpressers''are em ployed which are m ade ofa steelorplastic barwith cut-outs i
atthepressipgedge. The cut-outscan be covered inorderto controlthe processoftucking-1
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Th@ German standard notation system insquares(b),usesa 'V'andan inverted 'V'shapeto
sym bolizethe tuckstitches.A 'V'm arksa fronttuckand a '
A'm arksa reartuck.
W hen the needle notation system is used,the yarn is m arked as fed into the needle but
409
consekutive tucks have been possible,m odern equipm entcan produce up to eightor
even ten such consecutive sequences.
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Tuckingoverfouradjacentplain needles
Each side ofthe head of a tuck Ioop is held by a sinkerIoop from the course above.
Iimb will occur. Dependent upon structural fineness, tucking over six adjacent
needles is usuallythe m axim um unitbefore snagging becom es a problem .
b. Increasing fabric w eight and thickness.The tuck yarn is added to the standard loop
without a knitting sequence and no new loop is produced.A large num ber of tuck
stitchescan thusadd to the w eightand thicknessofthe fabric.
Such a structure is the ''cardigan'',illustrated in the follow ing notation figure.W hile
the front needle bed knits, the needles of the back bed tuck. In the follow ing
sequence,the procedure is reversed.In this way,one course is produced every two
knitting cycles and the fabric advances only one course spacing w hile containing two
yarn ends.
The cardigan fabricis therefore very heavy,bulky,insulating and issuitable for heavy
outerw eargarm ents.
Tucks on rear need le bed
lncreasing fabric w idth.The principle described above also shows w hy fabric w idth
increases as a result of a Iarge num ber of tucks. This increase is caused by the
presence ofm ore yarn in the structure,and the restrictive forcesapplied by the tuck
coursesto the tendency ofthe rib to contract.
d. Insertion ofproblem atic yarns. NotaIIyarns are able to be form ed into the shape ofa
loop due to theirm echanicalpropel ies.W ith tucking procedures,such yarns can
410
inserted into the fabric w ith only a m inim um of bending stresses show s in the
follow ing figure. Note that w hile the centralneedle tucks, the rest of the needles
m iss.The fabric does notadvance and the Ioop ofthe tucking needle is notstretched.
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Every knitting m achine is restricted by the thickness of the yarn w hich can be
processed and turned into a fabric.Contrary to popular belief, the thickness ofthe
yarn isnotIim ited by the size ofthe hook.
lt is lim i
ted by the size ofthe trick in the needle bed,into w hich it is pulled in the
knockover position. Tucked yarns need not pulled into knockover position, as
described before.Yarns w hich are m uch too thick for regular knitting can thus be
inserted in the fabric by tucking.
.
.
..''
T u ek
f. Garm ent m arking.The different appearance ofthe tuck stitch, in com parison w ith
the standard loop background,can be used to mark cutting Iines in the garment
411
during the knitting process.Furtherm ore,the knitting m achine can code mark the
garm entin an obscure place to allow m achine identification forquality controlduring
laterproduction stages.
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t. The needle ascendsto knitting position in which the Ioop withinthehook clearsthe
latch.
2. No yarn isfed to the needle w hich then descends.The Ioop slides underthe Iatch,
closesitand slidesoverthe needle'shook.
3. The needle ispulled into knockoverposition and the loop dropsfrom it.
X. /. , /''.
The notation ofthe dropped stitch:
A dropped stitch has no specialnotation sym boland is shown sim ply as a knitting needle.
Som etimes however,the yarn sim ulated in tbe needle notation system isdraw n asa broken
line to suggestthatcontraw to norm alprocedure no yarn isbeingfed.
412
Knit l I I I I
I lI I l
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The Propertiesand Usesofthe Dropped Stitches:
A drop stitch fault willresult ifa needle releases its oId loop without receiving a new one,
som etim es yhis technique is used to achieve a press-off on all needles in a set between
garm ent Iength sequences.A drop stitch orpress-off stitch is used very occasionally in flat
knitting to caus certain loops in a plain structure to be m uch Iargerthan the rest.
Knitting takes place on ohly one bed ofneedlesand selected needles in the otherbed pickup loops which are im mediately pressed-offby notreceivihg a new yarn.The yarn from the
Dropstitchwalesaresometimesusedtoprovideaguidefortilecuttingoperation.Asecure
structure isonly produced when aneedle retainsitsoId Iooh ifitdoesnotreceive a new
Ioop.
Previous chapters have show n that a dropped stitch creates a ''Ladder'' in the fabric by
creating a chain reaction in the wale.To controlthe procedure and to be able to stop the
Iadderataspecified point,aspecialwaleneedsto beformed.
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intbthefabricbkaneedlewhichpreviouslkwasinactive.SeveralknittingsequencesIater,
the sam e needle isprogram m ed to drop itsstitch.The chain reaction w hich develops,runs
downthewaleand stopsatitsroot.Theloopsadjacenttotheladderincreaseinsize,as
shown in the above figure.
413
As m entioned in the previous chapter there are only four knit structure fam ilies, the
com bination ofw hich m akes aIIthe knitted fabricsand garm ents produced in w eftknitting.
To sim plify explanations,aIIthe basic weftknit structure families were described as being
made onlyofbasic knitIoops.In reality however,otherloop typesexistwhich,togetherwith
the sim ple one, com bine to enhance the patterning potentialand the variety of knitted
fabricsand garments.
AlIthe knitstructures excluding the basic structures are m ade ofa com bination ofthe three
Ioop structures described previous chapteri.e.the standard knit Ioop,the m issed and the
tucked stitch.W hen tuck or m iss Ioop or both tuck and m iss loop are com bined with the
standard knitloop in case ofplain orsingle jersey structure then itiscalled derivativesof
singlejersey structures.Similarlythere isIotofrib based structuresi.e.called derivativesof
rib structure,interlock based structure i.e.called derivatives of interlock structure and purl
based structure i.e.called derivativesofpurlstructure.
Threads of different coiours are com bined in stripe form .lf different dyed or
contrasting colours are used atdifferentfeeds by supplying packages ofcoloured
yarn on a m ul
ti-feed machine ofa single jerseystructure,avarietyofhorizontal
stripes can be obtained on the sudace of the knitted fabric. For casualT-shirt
garm entssuch horizontalcoloured stripesare com m only used.
By usiig fancy yarns.Instead of sim ple regular single yarn.fancy yarn such as
slub,knop,m lange,Ioop,crepe yarn etc.can be carefully knitted in the fabricto
give som e interesting results.
414
*
Byusingextremelyfinegaugeforfineryarnorcoarsegauge(sweater)forcoarser
Yarn.
SingleJersey Derivatives:
Thestructuralmodificationsareusedto averygreatextentin designing plain-knitstructures
by modi
fying the order of knitting.The plain knit strud ures can be m odified with the
following alternatives.
Knitloop and m issIoop
KnitIoop and tuck loop
KnitLoop,m issIoop and tuckIoop.
The following figure illustrates the notations of som e sim ple tuck and float stitch single
jerseyfabrics.
1. Cross M issDesign:
.
*
.
*
.
*
.
*
415
Second course: M iss on aIl odd num ber needles and knit on alIeven
num berneedles.
2. Birds Eye orDouble CrossM iss Design:
First course:Knit on aIlodd num ber needlesand m iss on aIIeven num ber
needles.
Second course: Knit on aII odd num ber needles and m iss on aII even
num berneedles.Sim ilarasfirstcourse.
Third course:M isson aIIodd num berneedlesand kniton aI1even num ber
needles.
Fourth course: M iss on aII odd num ber needles and knit on aIIeven
num berneedles.Sim ilarasthird course.
3. W eftLotknitDesign:
W eft Iocknit is a knit-miss single jersey structure.So one set ofneedle is used to
produce this structure. The repeat of the structure com pletes on four courses.
Knitting sequence fora repeatasfollow s:
4
3
2
1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
*
*
.
.
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Firstcourse:Kniton aIIneedles.
Second course: M iss on alI odd num ber needles and knit on aII even
num berneedles.
Third course:Sim ilarasfirstcourse knit on aIIneedles.
Fourth course: Knit on aII odd num ber needles and m iss on aIl even
num berneedles.
416
2
1.
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Firstcourse:Kniton alIodd num ber needles and tuck on aIIeven num ber
needles.
Second course:It isopposite oftbe firstcourse i.e.tuck on aIIodd num ber
needlesand kni
ton aIIeven num bernedles.
Polo pique is a knit-tuck single jersey structure.So one set of needle is used to
produce this structure. It is a very popular structure to produce cut and sew knit
wear.Th prom inency of the design appears on the back side of the fabric.The
repeatofthe structure com pletes on fourcourses.Knitting sequence fora repeatas
follows:
First course:Knit on alIodd num berneedlesand tuck on alleven num ber
needles.
417
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Notation diagram
Face side
Fourth course: Tuck on aII odd num ber needles and knit on aII even
num berneedles,w hich issim ilarasthe previousthird course.
Back side
Back side
Face side
Pique Lacoste
'
Face side
Heavyorjumbo Pique
.
..
Back side
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Face side
Lycra pique fabric
418
Firstcourse:Knit on aIIodd num ber needles and tuck on aIleven num ber
needles.
Second course:Kniton aIIneedles.
Third course:Tuck on aIIodd num berneedles and kniton aIIeven num ber
needles,w hich isopposite ofthe firstcourse.
Fourth course:Sim ilarassecond course kniton aIIneedles.
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Notation diagram
Faceside
Back side
Single Lacoste
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Face sl e
ac sl e
Double Lacoste fabric
Face sl e
produce this structure. The repeat of the structure com pletes on four cursest
Knitting sequence fora repeatasfollows:
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3
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Notation diagram
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A generic nam e applied to a range of knitted fabrics made on a rib or interlock basis,th !7
construction ofwhich is often designed to reduce the naturalextensibility ofthe structure?
The term is generally confined to fabrics knitted on m achines af E10 gauge or finer and ''
maybeclassifiedaseithernon-jacquard orjacquarddoublejersey.
1. Double Piqu:
i
?
Doublepiqu isadoublejerseyfabricmade onarib basis,usingaselectionofknitted,
loops and floats.The two m ost im portant sequences are known as Swiss double
piqu and French double piqu respectively,and the knitting sequencesforeach are'
shown in the followingfigure.Double piqu is also known aswevenit,rodier,andC
overnit.
.
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Sw issDouble Pique
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a) SwissDoublePique:Knittingsequenceforarepeatasfollows-
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vt/vv
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pkp qyy. ks
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423
tw o yarns are inserted into the fabric in orderto com plete one fullcourse i.e.Ioops t
on the one needle bed and Ioopson the otherneedle bed.
.
The two courses w hich m ake the ''Cardigan'' repeat are illustrated in the above
needle notation system .The Knitting sequence fora repeat asfollowsk '
-
Because of the Iarge num ber of tuck stitches,both Cardigan and Half Cardigan are
very bulky, in com parison w ith other knit structures. They are som etim es very
fashicnable and are used forheavy outerw earsuch as sw eater.
.
.
A w eft-knitted rib-based fabric,consisting ofone row of1x1 rib and one row ofplain )
knitting made on qitherset of needles.The appearance and characteristics of the
)
(
Firstcourse:regular1x1ribstructure.
Second course; plain structure, all needle of one bed is active and all'
t
needles ofotherbed is inactive.
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3
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. . . . .
:
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s MilanoRib:
(
)
424
ratio of the course Iengths of two rows.The Knitting sequence for a repeat as
follows-
(.
-5.
*
@
*
f.
-5o f.
-s*'f.
-5@:.
-3
e
. . . . .
@ * * o @
Rom a Rib:
2s2/W
'////
7. Latoste Piqu:
.'
425
l
1
I
2
3
thebackingateverythird (ground)feed.ThefollowingIeftfigureshowsa
fabric.
12
11
10
*
*
*
*
e
*
*
*
*.
e
e
*
*
*
*
e
*
.
e
*
*
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e
e
e
$%
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*
.
t-
Poplin Fabric
9. Poplin Fabrie:
Poplin isa flatterstructure.lt is used forthe sam e purpose ofgabardine fabric.It
type ofsingle blister with a two needle w idth repeat.The above right figure
the notation diagram ofa poplin fabric.
426
10.Blisterfabric:
'
nib gating
Ground (*)
A A A A A A
Ground(*)
C ll II #l l
D lIlIlIl1IIlI
2ndfeedeC
r I ll ll ll
Ground (*)
B B B B B B
D !lIll l
3rd feeder
Il II.II1
Bl
i
ster(D) n IlIIllIIlIII
4thfeede
Cr lI ll ll l
.
! IlIIIll
,stfeeder
Cj jj jj jjj
D IIlI II
1stfeeder
::' A A A A A A
Blister(D1
2ndfee '
' 1IlIIlIIIlIII
er
C Il lI lI 1
Blister(D)
''
3rd feeder
l1I!IIIlllIII
Cjll Il lI I
Ground (*)
B BB B B8
t' IIIIllI
4thfeede
rll lIl lll
C
Blister(D)
oi IIIIllIIlIllI
5th fna--r
C II llI Il
Bl
ister(E!)
E'
6th fte er
(::
III1IlIIlIIlI
Il lIl I1
zrw'
.:t*
-:tl1
Single blisterfabric
21t1--'
:7'
11-111
Double blisterfabric
427
11.ReliefFabric:
*
*
@
@
*
*
@
*
.
.
*
*
@
@
.
*
*
*
.
*
@
@.
.
@
*
*
*
*
Single ReliefFabric
.
+
. ''
*'
.
*
Double Relieffabric
M ost interlock variation structures have six or eight feeder repeat sequences as only
alternateneedlesin one bed are in adion in a course.
1. Single Pique orErossTutk Interlock Structure:
Itw asone ofthe first to be produced,by placing tuck cam s in the dialatevery third
feeder.The tuck stitchesthrow the fabric out approxim ately 15% w iderthan normal
interlock to a satisfactory finished w idth of over 60'/! they break up the sudace
unifprmityand helpto maskfeederstripinessbuttheyalsp iqcrepsefabricweight.
Single pique isa tuck-kni
tinterlockstructure.So interlocknqedle gating system is
used to produce this structure.Long and short needles in dialand cylinder,Iong
..
428
needles facing shortneedles and vice-versa.The repeat ofthe structure com pletes
on sixfeeders.Knitting sequence fora repeatasfollow s:
First feeder:Knit on allshort cylinder needles and tuck on aI1short dial
needles.
Second feeder:Kniton allIong cylinderand dialneedles.
Third feeder:Kniton alIshortcylinderand dialneedles.
Fourth feeder:Knit on aIIlong cylinder needles and tuck on alIIong dial
needles.
Fi
fth feeder:Kniton al1shortcylinderand dialneedles.
Sixth feeder:Kniton alllong cylinderand dialneedles.
6
* *
e
*
*
* *
e
'
*
*
* *
* * *
*
. . . . .
+
* * * * *
*
* e' * * *
* *
*
* *
* . . .
o
* e
. . . .
+
j. * * * *
429
lt is the knit m iss equivalentofsingle pique but it is narrow erand Iighterin w eight.
Cross m iss isa m iss-knitinterlock structure.So interlock needle gating system isused
to produce this structure.Long and short needles in dialand cylinder,Iong needles
facing short needles and vice-versa.The repeat of the structure com pletes on six
feeders.Knitting sequence fora repeatasfollows:
6
*
*
4
3
2
1
. .
*' *
. 'ty:J4.'F.
z.
J7%
. . '... ..
..
.
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5
4
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e
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. . . . .
;.
(
.
ki
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54
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4
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431
6
. . . .
*
* * * *
*
e
+
. . .
e
* * * *
e
* * *
6. BourreletStructure:
10
9
8
* * *
*
*
*
*
*
*
e
e
433
8
7
5
4
3
2
8. superRom a Strutture:
Superrom a is an exam ple ofa tuck bourrelet,this one som etim esterm ed horizontal
6
5
4
3
2
1
* *
* *
* *
* *
434
Third feeder:Kniton aIIshortcylinderand dialneedles.
Fourth feeder:Kniton aIIIong cylinderand dialneedles.
Fifth feeder:Knit on al1short cylinder needles and tuck on allshort dial
needles.
Sixth feeder: Knit on aIIIong cylinder needles and tuck on aII Iong dial
needles.
Seventh feeder:Kniton aIIshortcylinderneedlesand tuck on aIIshortdial
needles.
Eighth feeder:Knit on aIIIong cylinderneedles and tuck on aIIIong dial
needles.
Firstfeeder:Kniton aIIshor'
tcylinderand dialneedles.
Second feeder:Kniton aIlIong cylinderand dialneedles.
Third feeder:Kniton aIIboth Iong and shortdialneedles and aIIcylinder
needlesrem ain idle.
Fourth feeder:Kni
t on alIboth shortand long cylinderneedles and aIIdial
needles remain idle.
4
'
* * * *
l
j
-10.Eortina Structure:
!
..
t.
!.
(
Cbrtina isthe six feederversion ofpunto dirom a,produced on interlock cam m ing
w ith run-through cam s w here m issipg is required.So it is a m issknit interlock
structure.lnterlock needle gating system is used to produce this structure. Long and
shortneedles in dialand cylinder,Iong needles facing shortneedles and vice-versa
t
i
,
435
The repeatofthe structure com pletes on six feeders.Knitting sequence fora repea
asfollows:
)'
6
@'
0.
l
1
1
i
1
(
!
1
'
436
* G* * U*
*
. . . .
*
It has a row oftuck stitcheson one side after each tubular course w hich produces a
slightripple effect. It isa tuck-knitinterlock structure. Interlock needle gating system
is used to produce this structure. Long and short needles in dialand cylinder long
,
needles facing short needles and vice-versa. The repeat of the structure com pletes
on eightfeeders.Knitting sequence fora repeatasfollow s:
First feeder:Knit on aIlshort cylinder needles and tuck on alIshort dial
needles.
Second feeder:Knit on alIIong cylinder needles and tuck on aIIIong dial
needles.
Third feeder:Knit on aI1b0th Iong and short dialneedles and aIIcylinder
needlesrem ain idle.
8
7
.
x. .
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..
'
. (.
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:7'
437
ln tbree-colourjacquard,each needle willbe selected to knit once apd miss twice ata
sequence offeeds,so thatthree feedercoursesw illproduce one design row .The greaterthe
num ber of colours in a design row,the Iowerthe rate ofproductivity in design rows per
machine revolution ortraverse,assum ing striping isnotem ployed.
I
fstriping isemployed withjacquard selection,differentcolourscan beselected atdifferent
design rows so thatthere are more colours in the totaldesign than in one design row .For
exam ple,a four-feed m achine w ith four-colour striping at each feed could knitfourcolours
perdesign row buthave a totalofsixteen coloursin the design depth.
'
1
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438
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representationofthedesignforsingle-jerseyknit/missjacquard.
Fa>
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r@w:
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8 - Face wales
IE c B B A A ' B IB d.
m
c IA c B c Ic IB Ic A
I AI
AI
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'c AlAj
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8
A
Single-jerseyknit/missjacquard
B
A
439
Accordion Fabric:
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Straightaccordion fabric;
In straight accordion fabrics,every odd needle w as ofthistype,so every odd needle
tucked when not selected to knit. The follow ing figure show s a repeat of
representation oftwo pattern rowsforthe straightaccordion fabrics.
11 A
B C
B C, A
Feeds
.
o
6 .(I
4
3
2 I
O
O
.
*.
*
*
@
@
O
@
O
.
.
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O
.
O
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+
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O
O
@
.
B
A
@
.
B
A
O = odd needles
Straightaccordionfabric(Tuckingonnon-knittingodd needles)
440
includingpilefabrics)throughbetweenadjacentwalesonto theface.Thefollowing
figure shows a repeat of the representation of two pattern rows for the alternate
accordion fabrics.
=
11 A c a c c tB tc. x i
1 A
5 11
4
@
*
@
E
*
*
B
A
E
O
*
E
O =oddneedlesand E= even.needles
Alternate accordion fabric
'
(Tuckingonoddneedlesatoddfeedersandevenneedlesatevenfeederswhennonknitting)
.
(:
The selective accordion fabric is the third type of accordion. It is mostw idely used
butit requires a three-step pattern wheelorotherselection device which can select
the tuck Ioops so thatthey are carefully distributed to create the m inim um ofstitch
distortion on the face of the design. The following figure shows a repeat of the
representation oftwo pattern rowsforthe selected accordion fabrics.
441
Ix A
I x A c
6
3
2
1
B c
B e c 1x 1A I
@.
*'
@.
5 11
4
I
.
B
A
B
A
(Tuckingonlyoncarefullyselectednon-knittingneedles)
A rib-based fabric in w hich the design on the effectside is reversed on the other
by alternation ofthetwo com ponentthreadsbetween thetwo sides.
*
@
@
@
i
*
*
.
p
*
*
@.
*
@
@
*.
*
@
@
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*
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442
.
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colourB
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ColourA
a A c B c c B c lA
1 A A C B B C jA A
&
*
*
*
e
*
@
*
e
e
*
*
*
*
*
*
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I
*
*
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e
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A
*
443
:II A
V- - U-=
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I A A C 8 B C )A t!-A
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.
.
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.
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.
.
>
The reverse side ofa rib jacquard fabric characterized by courses in which knitted
and floatloopsofone colouralternate w ith knitted and floatIoops ofanother w ithin
,
and betw een successive courses. Fordoubl
e jersey fabrics,birdseye ortwillbacking
is preferred as this is a m ore stable structure w hich is better balanced and has a
pleasing,scram bled-colourappearance on the backing side. It is achieved by knitting
the backing on alternate needles only and arranging foreach colourto be knitted by
odd backing needles at one feed and even needles atthe next. The optim um num ber
ofcolours is usually three.
444
.
@
.
*
colourA
Cojour:
ColourA
@
@
coIourB
., colourc
*
@
Z.
-7
@
@
ColourC
.
@
.
@
'
445
1 A A C jB B C A jA
Fe :
6
E
@
@
*
*
@
*
*
@
@
o
@
@
@
11
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*
@
.
*
.
@
.
@
.
.
.
.
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*
@
@
.
@
.
@
.
@
.
.
.
.
.
.
O =odddial(backingneedles)andE=evendial(backingneedles)
Ribjacquard with birdseye backing
446
(FuIIyFashionedKnitwear)
ln traditionalgarment produdion,rectangularflatknitted panels are cut to the required shapes,
which are then sewn together.W hen a panelhasto be cutaccording to a m arker,the amountof
wasteisconsiderable and profitsare reduced.
Fuily fashioning is the process whereby portions of a garment are shaped at the selvedges by
progressively increasing or decreasing the num ber of Ioops in the width of the fabric. Such
narrowing and widening produces the shape of a piece of garment that would otherwise be
generated bycutting.Sweaterisatypicalfullyfashion knitwear.
'
garmentpiecesaresealedandnotIiabletofraying,socanbejoined bysimplenon-bulky
Seams.W ith the corred making-up equipment,this method produces a higher class
garment.
* The shape ofthe panelis more accurate when produced during the knitting operation '
ratherthen being cutIater.
447
However,kni
tted underwearism ade on afuily fashioned basis, asthough the quantity isnow very
smallcompared tothatmade in the 19thcentury.
M en'sheavy rib sweatersare also fully fashioned on hand flatknitting machines, asare fine gauge
Iadiessuitsand dresses.
@ The hand flat machine is stillwidely used but most modern machines are powered.
M achinesare udiltwith 1.5to 20 needlesperinch inwidthsfrom afew inchesto 76 inch.
@ Many are employed to produce collars and rib trim mingsforgarments made on other
machines,butbecauseofthealmostunlimitedpatterningscopeavailablewithjacquard
flatmachinesconsiderable numbersare used forthe productionofpatterned fabricsand
garment Iengths.Automatic narrowing has been common on these machinesforsome
time and modelsare now being offeredwithfullfashioningcapability.
TheirmaindisadvantageisIow productivity compared with othertypes.
n one direction
using 15 or.more carriagesthattraverse overthefrontsection and return overthe back
one:the resulting machine isthusa hybrid circularflatm achine.
-
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Theyarnunwoundfrom thespoolispickedupbythefeedingsyst
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A spring securing barand aneedlesecuring barare also attached tothe needle bed to keep needles
and springsin acorrectslidingposi
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Thetarriage:
The following figure shows the schematic diagram of the carriage of manualsweater knitting
machine.ItismadeupoftwometalplatesIinkedbyastiffbridge(P);theplatesworkindiyiduall
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7Brushesare also mounted on the carriage to ensure a sm00th needle Iatch opening and granta
correctfeeding oftheyarn,which isshown inthefollowingfigure. Aswith alIyarn carriers,the yarn
carrierrepresented below iscom posed ofthefollowingelem ents:
A - istheblockwhich guidestheyarn carrieron itsguidingbar;
. B - isthesupport;
C- is the feeder holder,fixed with a hinge to enable the yarn carriers to pass one
anotherand
D - isthefeeder.
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The Cam-loeks:
The cam-locks are a cam system which givesthe necessary working information to the individual
needles;they include afixed part,working assupport, and movabl
e cams,which can bedivided into
raisingcamsand Iowering orknock-overcams.The rai
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The fixed ormovable camsform a sym metricalchannelwhere the needle buttslides;the needle
movesdownward and upward inthe groove to form the stitch.The di
fferentpartsofthe camsare
chamfered;theirprofilesarecurvilinearto m akethe needlemovesmoothly.
The angle ofinclination ofthe cams rangesbetween 400and 500;these valuesgrantan optimum 7
running of the needle and avoid high pressures between metal parts during the motion and
excessivq tensionsontheyarnduringthe downward stroke ofthe needle.Thecarriageallowsthree
differentworkwaysaccordingtothe needle stroke and to the positionsofthe raisingcam :
@ Knit stitch - when the needle carries out a complete stroke,reaching the maxim um
heightontheIoopingplane.
* Tuck stitch - whenthe needle reachesthetucking piane and receivesa new yarn while
stillholdingitsformerIoop,thusformingtwo loopsin theone needle hook.
@ M issorfloatstitch - when the needle isnotknitting and remainsoutofthe knock-over
plane.
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High-buttand Low-buttneedles:
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The latch needle can have two differentbuttheightswbich make itahigh-butneedle oraIow-butt
needle.The assembly of high-butt needles and Iow-butt needles on the knitting machine allows
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and Ioopingcams.
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Theloopformingprocessinasweater(twobedflat)knittingmachinei
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figure.Itcomprisesthefollowingoperations:
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* Clearing(ontheneedles1to3)
* YarnIaying(ontheneedle8)
@ Yarndrawing
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* Loopforming(ontheneedle10)and
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Atthe tim eofclearing,the needlesm ove overadistance suffi
cientto m ake theold Ioop passfrom
the latch onto the stem . W hen thisoccurs,theold Ioopsare retained from Iifting togetherwi
ththe
needlesbythe actionoftheforce thatdraws-offthe knittedfabric.
Asthe needles move down, they grasp the new yarn in consecutive order. To obtain casting ofold
Ioops C in the following figure on the new yarn, it is necessary that the needles be sufficiently
Iowered in relation to the knocking-over plane. The amount ofneedle lowering in relation to the
knocking-overplane(sinkingdepth)determinesthesizeofformedknittingIoops
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Allthe movements necessary to accomplish the loop-forming processare imparted to the needl
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bythe camsastheyexercisetheiraction onthe needle butts.
FabricTake-down:
Knitted fabricsrequire a specialsystem to take them down while they are formed on the kni
tting
machine.On manualflatknittingm achines, afterthefirststrokeofthe carriage, asteelreed isfitted
into thecourse;the reed ishooked usinga steelwire, which i5shown in thefollowingfigure.
453
The descriptions which follow, relative to different types of classic fabrics,embrace the basic /
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knowledge of every knitter.These descriptions are often illustrated by photostaken on a hand y
machine,asthistype ofmachine isthe mostsuitable fordescribingthe basi
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The set-up:
The startm ade by a set-up.The yarn isfed to the needles by the yarn carrier,passesfrom one :
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needleto the other,i.e.from frontto backthenfrom backtofront.Thisisthe firstrow ofthewelt- y
asingle row ofyarn- and can be representedgraphically asfollows:
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454
commences by a welt.Butthe utilization ofautomatic flat machinesimpedesthe use ofa set-up
comb becausethe variousarticles knitted follow one anotherwithoutstopping the machine. In this
case,they are separated onefrom the other, bya draw-thread orbypartialpress-off.
So thatthe firstrow ofthe weltiscorrectlv executed, itis importantthatthe yarn,in passingfrom
0ne needle tothe other,passesalso from frontto backand backto front. In effect,ifthisisnotso,
thefirstrow isimperfect.
Tubularfabric:
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The following figuresillustrate the cam platesofa hand sweaterknitting machine arranged fortheLS
production oftubularfabric.Two raising cams,one atthe front,one atthe back,are outofaction.'
Thus when the carriage travelsfrom leftto right,the back needles only willform a stitch.On the
otberhand,when the carriage goesfrom ri
ghtto left,only the frontneedlesform a stitch.ln this(
manner,the Iowering cams A and B are always inactive.They musttherefore be fixed ata highert
position than the othertwo so asto avoid any tension onthe stitches.In the following rigbtcorner
figureofcam -boxesthe clearing orraising cam 1'and 2setfortubularfabric.
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. Various proceduresofthe transferofstitches are described in the following section. Itis however
' possible to commence kni
tting on one needle-bed withouta rib wel
t. lnthiscase,a set-up comb is
Rib fabrics:
1x1rib:
Contraryto circularfabric orfabric on one needle-bed, aIIrib fabricsare made simul
taneousl
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the two needle-beds.Thusthe yarn passingfrom one needleto the otherpassesequallyfrom front
to backand backto front,asfortheset-up row . Itisowingto m achinesfitted withtwo needle-beds
and to ribfabricsthusproduced.
whichfollow,concerningtuckstitches(cardiganstitch,halfcardigan,nopps,repeatedtucks)relate
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ln cardigan stitch the lowering cam s can aIIbe set on the same division.However,to ensure a
normalappearance to the fabric,the tuck mustbe generallyand asm uch aspossible,shorterthan
the stitch.'-rhe Iowering cams Nos.2 and 4 in the above figure willthus be setto aboutthe 'flush
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W henthe carriage travelsfrom rightto Ieft,thefrontand back needlesm ake a complete ascension
and form a single stitch.Thisisthe 1x1 rib row.W hen the carriage travelsfrom leftto right,the
back needles make a second single stitch,whereas those of the front make a tuck.This is the
cardigan row.The lowering cam No.4 - which determinesthe Iength ofthe tuck- willbe placed a
little higherthanthe otherone.
The rightsideofthefabricwith the single stitches.Itpresentsthischaracteristicthatthe stitchesof
one row predom inate whereasthose ofthe following row are almostinvisible.The predominating
stitchesare relati
velyIargecom paredwith thoseofthe precedingrow.Theygive thefabricacertain
appearance ofpearlstitch,whichsometimesthefabriciscalled.
Needledrop design:
action.lnthesameway,in1/2rib,1needlein2i
sinaction.
ThefollowingIeftandmiddlefiguresshow the2in3rib(2/3).The2/3ribisverycommonlyknown
as2x2 rib,wiich isa classicexample ofarib fabric.On each needle-bed 2 needlesin3 are in action.
Theinactive needle issituated in thecentre ofthe needlesin actiononthe opposingneedle-bed.
459
Ribfabricscannaturallybe insinglestitchesortuckstitches,injustthesamewayasribonaI1the
needles.Thus,the2/3ribcanbe2/3cardigan or2/3halfcardigan.Ribsaregenerallyveryelasticin
theirwidth,especially when in single Stitches.Thiselasticity isthe resultofthe spacesmade bythe
inactive needleswhich thusgivespaceto the closingupoftheribs.
Outofaction.Thissolutionisusedformachineswithoutjacquardandfi
ttedwithneedles
having a single heightofbutt.In thiscase,the inactive needle ispushed downwardsto
the base of the needle-bed.lts butt occupies a position which is below the bottom
raisingcams.
Rib2/3followedby1x1ribwith,betweenthetwo,2rowsoftubularfabriconalltheneedles,which
is shown in the above middle figure.The same sample withoutthe two tubularrowsshowssmall
holesbetweenthe2/3ribandthe1x1rib,whichisshownintheaboverightcornerfigure.
Needle-bed Racking:
Duringthe processofIoop formation,the needle-bedsare stationary and the tricksofone are set
between the tricksofthe other.Thisisthe knitting position,and the needlesofb0th bedsare able
to kni
tsim ultaneousl
y.0ne ofthe needle bedscan be driven sideways a shortdistance.
to change
the relative positioning ofthe needles.In thisrespect,the needle-bedsofflatknitting machinesare
notstationary.AlIflat knitting machines are provided with a needle-bed racking system which is
used forshi
fting onebed in relation to the otherby meansofaSpecialcam placed onthe machine's
side,whilstatthe sametim e maintairlingthe needle-bed gap.
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* Oneofthe needlebedscan bemoved afew needlesto one side and stillbe positioned in
a knitting arrangement.The needles ofone bed are between the needles ofthe other.
Thisiscarriedoutto assistthe transportation oftransferred Ioopsto a new location orto
distortthe regularverticalarrangementsofthewales.
Notethatthe rackingofthe needle bedscan take placeonlywhen aIIthe needlesare in the resting
position.This time is between the completion of one machine knitting cycle and before the
commencem entofthe next.Any attemptto rack the needle bed while some ofthe needlesare in
theclearing position and the needlesare intermeshed,willresultin mechanicaldamage.
The racking motion allowsthe creation ofinclined patterns (right-hand orIeft-hand)on the knit
fabric.Thefollowingfiguresshow thefabricsproduced bythe racking System .
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( AutomaticIoop transfer:
466
The process ofautomatic Ioop transferson V-bed knitting machines and the working mechanism
taking part in loop transfers are shown in the following figures. For Ioop transfer an auxiliary
elementm ustbe broughtinaction and itisthetransferunit. The Iatch needlehasa recess,'a'which
accommodates the transferunit forIoop transfr.The process of Ioop transferis fulfilled in the
followingsteps:
@ needleSelectionforIooptransfer(a);
risingtheneedletosuchapositionthattheIoopremainsontheopenIatch(a);
* thetransferunit1Iowersontotheneedlerecess(b);
@ the needle rise,coupled with thetransferunit,and thetransferunittakesoverthe Ioop
(c);
* therisingtransferunitreleasestheneedlewhi
chIowersintotheneedlebed (d& e);
now,the transfer unit is shifted by one needle spacing to the needle which is to take
overtheIoopcarriedbythetransferunit(e);
@ new needietakesthetransferredIoopover(e& f).
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167
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5. transferneedle rack;
6. clearing;
i. pressing;
8. Ioop removalfrom thetransferneedle onto spring-bearded needle;
9. separation ofneedles;
lo.transferneedleoutofaction.
Fabric narrowing and widening are performed wi
th identicalinteraction ofloop form ing elements
andtranjferqeedles.
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Thesequenceofoperationsatthetransferofahalf-loopisillustratedinthefollowingfi
gure(a-f)
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rhe above right figure shows the position of the needle and transferpoint with cutout at first
ressing.
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The second method involvesIatch needleswith side recessesand shoulders.The needle shoulde
stretchesthe loop broughtto the levelofthe head ofthe Ioop receiving needle in opposite needl
bed,thuspreparingtheIoopto piercing bythereceivingneedle.
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Loop transferin1x1rib
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The sequenceofIooptransferoperationsisasfollows:
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* Needle selection forloop transfer
* Bending the Ioop transferring needles towards their receiving counterparts with
recesses,in the otherneedle bed - in circularknitting machines,or- in V-bed knitting
machines- racking oneoftheneedlebedsfor0.5needle spacing
* Bringing the loopson selected needlestothe I
evelofneedlesinthe opposite needlebed
* Puttingthetransferred Ioopsonthe hooksofreceiving needles
* Casting-offthe Ioopsfrom the needlestransferring the loopsonto the headsofreceiving
needles
* Openingthe latchesofneedleswhich have cast-offtheirIoops
@ Bringing theneedlesintotheirinitialposi
tion.
I lI I I l
NINI ININI I
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Changingfrom rib to plain
Cable Design
471
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machineisreduced.Theprofitabilityoftheprocessshouldbeconsideredbyweighint
togetherthe raw materialcostsandthereduction incuttingoperations,agiinstthi
knitting efficiencyand productivity.
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ypesofTransferStitches:
1
1
Therearefourmaintypesoftransferstitches:
:f?
1. Plain needle I
oop transferstitches- Itis produced by transference ofa Ioop from o '
needleto anotherinthe same bed.
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ln designsthe plain Ioop transferstitches is termed a Iace sti
tch whereas in selve
jhapingitistermedfashioning.Lacestitchescanbeproducedonweftknittingmachiq'
with spring bearded needlesand latch needles.Forobtaining a lace effect,theloopsc
betransferred into neighbouringwaleseitherbyremovingthe Ioopsofneedlejonwhi
they have beenformed orwithoutremovingthem from those needles.
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@ Pelerinestitches(sinkerIooptransferstitches):
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PelerineStitch(SinkerIooptransferstitch)
bedisequippedwi
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dersand bends.Transferjacksinpairsare
used,wi
th right-hand bend and left-hand bend,Onejackisused incaseofsinkerIooptransferon
oneneedlelleftorrightrespectively),ortwojacksareusedforsinkerlooptransferontwo needles
tleftandright).
Processofknittingthe pelerinestitches:
Theprocessofknittingpelerine(nipp)stitchesiscarried outinthefollowingsequence:
@ selectionofsinkersltransferjack)forlooptransfer;
* advancingthe transferjack nibsto the Iine ofknock - overplane ofthe needses in
oppositeneedlebed(fig.b);
* graspingthesinkerIoop 'H'bytransferjacknib,andbringingthesinkerIooptothe Ievel
ofneedlehooksinoppositeneedlebed(fig.c);
* transferthe sinkerl
oop 'H'on the needlesofthe opposi
te needle bed (fig.d);these
'needlesarepartly protruding from theirgrooves;
473
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@ retreatofthejackstotheirini
tialpositions;thesinkerIoopisIaid ontheopenIatchesof
the protruding needlesoftheoppositeneedle bed;
@ bringing the needleswithsinkerloopto theirinitialpositions.
TransferofsinkerIoopscan be perform ed in one,two,three orfourconsecutive Ioop courses,on
the sam eneedles.
Fancy Iacing stitches:
are unique to itand havethe term 'ajour'in theirdescription,which implisa sequence ofsamples.
Ajourf-orknupf-alsotermedfiletIace,weftknittednetandknottedstitch-squareaperturesin
an all-over effectthat is popular for m en's athletic underwear.On an E16 fine gauge m achine,
1/18'scottonor2/70deniernylonmightbeused.A courseoflongloopsisknittedandthetwoside
Iim bsofevery second needle Ioop 'B'are spread sidewaysonto the needle Ioops'A'.The second i
s
knitted w ith ashortstitch length andtuckingoccurson needles'B'to m ake theaperture wider.
A A A A A A A A fk A A
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II
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2nd row : Plain atthe front
474
I
1str0w :rib 1/1,wi
tj uneven needles
front.
rear,
Double mossstitch:
Thisfabricisavariation ofthe precedingsam ple.The stitch formationchartisillustrated in below.
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Tucked m ossstitch:
This fabric is also a variation ofthe preceding sam ple.The stitch formation char'
t is illustrated in
below.
475
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Links-linksknit:
Links-linksknitsare based on the conceptofsuperimposi
tion,onthesam ecolumn ofplain stitches
and purlsti
tches.These structured stitches were originaily made on specialmachines featuring
groovedflatand coinciding needle beds,equipped with specialdouble-hookneedles.Today,thanks
to easier stitch transfer options,these structured stitches can be made quickly and safely on
standardflatknitting machines.
The characteristic appearance of Iinks-linksdesignsconsists in presenting al
ternated areas ofpurl
stitchesand plain stitches,often arranged so asto create a design motif.A classicexample ofIinks-
Iinks structured stitches is that shown in the (above middle figure)illustration,that is,the
chequered design.
476
Flaiting isoften utisized on puristitch machines.This follows the same principle as plaiting. In rib
fabrics,the plaited yarn does notappear.ltremains contained atthe interiorofthe fabric. On the
otherhand,in plain on one needle-bej,the plaited yarn appearson 0ne side, i.e.atthe front.0ne
canthusobtainplainfabricsin differentcolours,depending onwhetherthey areseen atthe backor
thefront.
Fabrics in purlstitch are eminently suitabie for this possibility, because they aqe com posed, in
principle,ofa succession of rows knitted in plain, eitherat the front or the back.The plaiting
enablesthereforetheseplainrowstobeintwocolours.Thetwosamplesattheabove(middleand
rightfigures)areofidenticaltexture,buttherightoneisplaited.
Cable design:
Other classic knitting structures that can be made thanks to stitch transfer are cables. ln cable
designsthe verticalwales cross each other,have alwaysbeen very popularin the sweaterknitting
trade.The basic conceptconsistsin producing a seriesofplain stitch colum nson a purlsti
tch base.
Aftera numberofrows,some ofthe stitches, correspondingto halfthe stitch columnsin question,
are transferred on the otherstitch colum ns,while the sti
tches ofthe latterare transferred to the
previousstitch columns.The stitchesarethuscrossed overand produce the classiccable effect.
The cables can be ofvarioussizes.A large numberofvariations exist, from ''two needle cable''in
which two walescrosseach other,to ''
twelve needles cable''where six needlesswitch placeswith
anothergroup ofsixto form averywide design effect.The principleofwalecrossing isillustrated in
asimplifiedIoopconfi
gurationdiagram (below rightcornerfigure)inwhicha''fourneedlescable''is
drawn.The mostcommon and classic cable design isthe ''six needlescable'?which isshown in the
following leftcornerfigure.Thissize ofcabie ispopujarbecause althoughthe effectisdearitisstill
in proportion with a garment.The only Iim it to this size is determined by the displacement
achievablebythemachine aIIin onego.
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AranorDiamon esign
TheW elt:
A welt is an attractive and secure edge of a knitted article that helps to prevent laddering or
unrovingofastructure.I
tisformed eitherduringthe knitting sequence (usuallyatthe start,and
paralleltothecourses)orasaIaterseamingoperationduringmaking-up.Seamedwelts,whichare
made afterthe knittingprocess,mayoccurinany position inthe fabric.
Typesofwelt:
478
* The turned welt:A weltthatconsistsofa double fold ofplain fabric and is m ade on a
straight - bar knitting machine. AIIor al
ternate sinker loops of the first course are
retained whilethe weltfabric is knitted and Iaterintermeshed with the needle Ioopsofa
subsequentcourse.
* Reverse welt:A rollweltin which the plain coursesare interm eshed towardsthe reverse
side ofthe fabric.Thisweltisused particularly forstockingswith turnovertops.
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latch needle
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1nlaid
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Accordion welttop
Accordion welt top:An accordion top,welt and m ock rib,can be produced on singlecylinder half-hose and sock m achines, and on other m achines using a single set of
needles in a tubulararrangem ent.Elastom eric yarn is Iaid-in to odd.needles only fora
few coursesso thatwhen the firstplain course isknitted by the textile yarn,the straight
contracted elastomeric yarn Iies through its sinkerIoops,form ing a neat rolledge.The
elastom ericyarn isthen usually inlaid on a two-tuck two-m issora one-and-one basisat
each course or alternate courses for a num ber of courses.As the elastom eric yarn
reiaxes, it causes alternate wales to be displaced into a mock rib configuration.
Som etimes,the second course oftextile yarn isknitted only on alternate needles.
* Rib welt:M ost fully-fashioned and stitch-shaped underw earand outerwear garm ents,
half-hose,and sockshave ribbed borderscontaining a weltsequence thatis produced by
causing the sets ofneedlesto act independently ofeach otherafterthe 1x1 rib set-up
course.W hen the rib borderisto be knitted in 2x2 rib,the needle bed iseithershogged
to form a skeleton 1x1rib needle arrangementoritisknitted on a normal1x1 rib needle
set-outfollowed by rib loop transferto achieve 2x2 rib forthe border.
Three typesofweltare possible when needlesare arranged in 1x1 rib set-out.These are:
1.The TubularorFrench welt
2.The RollorEnglishw elt
3.The Racked w elt
1.The TubularorFrench W elt:A weltm ade on a rib basis,in w hich the num berofcourses
w ith loops interm eshed in one direction is equalto the num berofcoursesw ith Ioop
479
interm eshed in the otherdirection.In m aking such a welton a 1x1 rib,the firstand Iast
courses are knitted on both sets of needles and the intermediate courses consist of an
equalnum ber of plain courses on each set of needles.The tubular welt is the m ost
popular welt because it is a balanced structure that is reversible, Iies flat, can be
extended to any depth and is elastic.Its only disadvantage isthat itcan becom e baggy
during washing and wear unless knitted tightly. Apart from old cottons patent Rib
Fram es, most garm ent-length knitting machines can knit this welt. The split welt is
actually a tubular wel
t knitted at the end ofthe garment sequence instead of at the
beginning.It is used asan open tube fora collarorstolling,to fitoverthe cutedge ofa
garmentto which itisthen Iinked by a through stitch.
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Rollwelt
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Racked welt
2. TheRollorEnglishW elt:
A weltm ade on a rib basis,in which aIIthe courses ofIoops exceptthe firstand lastare
interm eshed in the same direction towardsthe face side ofthe fabric.In m aking such a
welt on 1x1 rib,the first and last courses are knitted on both sets of needles and the
interm ediate coursesare knitted on only one setofneedles.The rollweltis produced by
kni
tting approximatel
y fourcourses on one set ofneedlesonl
y whilstcontinuing to hold
the setting-up course of Ioops on the other set ofneedles.ltis bulkierand Iess elastic
than the tubularw elt and has the disadvantage ofIong held Ioops.This welt is knitted
particularly on half-hose and Iinks-linksgarment-length circularm achines.A reverse roll
weltis knitted forsleeveswith turn-back cuffsand forturn-overtop socks.To obtain this
welt,theoppositesetofneedles(thebottom setofneedlesonhal
f-hosemachines)are
caused to hold theirIoops so that the rollofthe welt appears on the otherside ofthe
structure,buti
tison theface when the fabricisfolded over.
3. The Racked W elt:
Garm entpanelseparation:
480
1x1rib,toseparateribsknittedin2/3rib,etc.
481
The separating sequence differs according to the knitting structure at the end ofthe completed
paneland the rib construction ofthe next.Only some com mon proceduresareshownin thebelow.
A separating draw thread isshown in thefollowing leftcornerfigure.I
tis inserted between a panel
finishing in a 1x1 construction and a panelstarting with a 1x1 rib.The sequence is based on the
principle ofknitting the draw thread in a plain construction.Itiseasierto pulloutIater.To change
from 1x1ribtoaplainconstruction,twodi
fferentm/thodscanbeused:
@ AIIloopscan betransferred to one needle bed.
One needle-bed can be activated to pressitsIoopsoff.
The manualm achineisnotalwaysequipped totransferIoopsautom atically and manuaitransferring
is time consuming. It is naturalthat the press-off technique is preferred.A press-off Sequence
should be wellcontrolled and prepared to avoid Iaddering which isusuall
y associated with dropped
stitches.
Separation bypress-off:
Anothermethod isthe press-offdraw thread construction,which,although more expensive in time
andyarn,tendsto be m ore popular.Thecourseprecedingthe startofthe new garmentisknitted in
1x1 rib and then one setofneedlespresses-offits Ioops,leaving a single plain course ofextra Iong
draw thread Ioops that can be quickly and easily removed.Priorto the press-offcourse,Iocking
courses are produced by knitting three ormore addi
tionalcourses,only on the setofneedlesthat
are to press-off.These help to reducetension in the structtbre afterpressing-offand thusreducethe
possibilityofIadderingback.
The draw-thread monopolises a yarn carrier which could be of greater advantage forsomething
else.Onthe otherhand,itcannotbe used forseparating two fabricswhen someofthe needlesare
e
limi
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d.
Forexampl
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by
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482
Theseparation Ny press-offconsistsofpressingoffallorpartofthe stitchesofone needle-bed.To
avoid thestitchesrunningto the bottom ofthe preceding piece,the press-offisalwayspreceded by
few rowsofsingle bedfabric.
o separate the two pieces,one m ustcut, then draw outthe thread ofthe slack row. This can be
fthe pieces.
rjacquard.This method is idealbetween two fabrics during which certain needles must be
liininated.From 1x1ribto2/3ribor1/2 ri6etc.
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ostgarment-length machines using two needle beds have a butt arrangementoftwo Iong, one
ortforeach bed,enabling 2x2 rib knitting afterpressing offthe loopsofa 1x1 rib set-outand
?commencementofknittingononl
y Iong buttsoneach bed in turn.
483
J.
Shapeformation(Fashioning):
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To alter the shape of the panel?the courses are widened by increasing the number of knitti'
l
needl
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vedges.The two operationsrequire differe
knitting procedures.
TheW idenings:
.
W idening is the process of increasing the width ofthe knitted fabric produced,by increasing t
numberofworking needles.
To widen the width of a knitted piece,gradually needles are added - thus stitches - at t '
selvedges.Generally,widening isdone needle by needle.Specialcasesinvolve two needlesaton
being put into action. The angle at the widened selvedge depends on the frequency of t
widenings in relation tt)the rows of knitting.Thus,widenings ofone needle every two rows
stitchesismore rapid than wideningsofone needle everyfourrows.
:
To increase the width ofthe piece knitted by a stitch,itissu#icientto add a needle in adionatt
selvedge.The wideningofa rib fabric requires,naturally,2 supplementaryneedles,one atthe fro
the otherattheback,which isshown inthefollowingIeftfigure.
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.
484
sample in 1x1 rib,has been widened as perthe method explained now by means of a 6-point
,
narrowing handle.The widening done in this way takes mtlch Ionger, but give a m ore regul
ar
appearance to the selvedges.
'
group,where anew wale maystart. The em ptyspace?followed bythe tuckIoop formed atthe next
knitted course, Ieaves a hole in the fabric. It is usualin com mercialpractice to fillthis hole by
moving a previously knitted Ioop to commence the new wale. Such holesrestrictthe wideningsto
single needleonly.
yy
j
yj
yj
yj
yyV
A single widening
Onflatkni
ttingmachines(e.g.V-bed knittingmachine)wideningcanbeperformedintwoways:
byputtinginactiontheborderneedles(oneneedleoneitherside, inaIoopcpurse)and
* bytransferringtheborderloopsontkaneedlesjustputinaction(oneneedlefrom either
sideinaloopcourse)andextendingtheworkingrangeoftheyarncarrier(foroneortwo
needlesjustputinaction,oneitherside, inaIoopcourse).
Anotherway ofwidening isperformed asfollows:
Onlyone sel
vedge ofthepanelcan be widened with eachstrokeofthecarriage.
W hen a specialtwin carriage machine isused, two coursesare knitted in each carriage
Stroke.
No transferoperationsare required forwidening and the course is increased sim ply by
adding new active needlesto thepanel.
4. The newlyactivated needlesare introduced on the Sidefrom whichthe carriage startsits
traverse.W hen the carriage travelsfrom rightto Ieft, needlescan be introduced atthe
ri
ghtselvedge.Inthisway, the new I
oopsare secured in the needle'shook.
5. To complete one cycle ofwidening on b0th sidesofthe panel, the carriage hasto travel
oncein each directionthusknittingfouscourses.
l
485
The Narrowings:
This is the reverse ofwhattakes place in widening i.e.narrowing isthe processoflessening the
width ofknittedfabricproduced,bydecreasingthe num berofworking knitting needles.
The following Ieftfigure showsthe 1x1 rib in 12 gauge narrowed on a typicalautomaticm achine,
K K
486
W hennarrowing,theinnermostIoopofthegroupbeingmovedcombineswiththeIoopadjacentto
i
t.Thefigure representstwo loopsbeing movedbyone loop space, thuslosingone loopattheedge.
I
tis possible on plain fabricto movethe edge Ioops more than one needle space, Iosing m ore than
one loop atthe edge.ln the fully fashioned industry these are known as 'needle narrowings'e.g.
two needle narrowings where the outer group are moved in two needles, Such mul
ti-loop
narrowings produce smallpuckers where the Ioops combine. The num berof Ioops in the group
being movedvariesfrom threeto seven.
Onflatknittingmachines(e.g.V-bedknittingmachine)narrowingcanbeperformedintwoways:
by putting outofaction the bordering needles and casting offtheirIoops;atthe same
timetheworking range oftheyarn carriershould respectivelybe decreased;
by transferring the loops ofthe needles to be put outofaction, on the neighbouring
needses,in order to prevent unraveling of the loops;the working range of the yarn
carriershould respectivelybedecreased.
Anotherwayofnarrowingisperformed asfoilows:
To decrease the size ofthe course and the widih ofthe panel,needles have to be
deactivated atthe selvedges. The Ioops held by these needles cannot be pressed-off
(ladderscanbeformed).lnstead,theseIoopshaveto betransferredinwardstoactive
needles.
Loops cannot be transferred from needle to needle on the same bed. The operati
on
involvesthe transferofIoops to the opposite bed;racking and then transferring them
backtoadjacentneedles.Theprocedureisfurthercomplicatedbytheneedtotransferin
oppositedirectionsateach selvedge.
487
Narrowing of both selvedges can be performed after each stroke of the carriage
regardlessofitsdirection.lfthe panelissymmetrical,identicaloperationsare performed
foreachselvedge.
29 cm
2
y'
/, 1
cm
55
11 cm
15 cm
1 cm
12
59
12 cm
'x
x
-29
Ni cm
40 cm
M easurementsofagarmentpanel
16
Panelmeasurementsconverted into wales& courses
* For this example, the fabric quality is 4 wales per centimeter and 5 courses per
required(180- 160=20),or10operationsoneachselvedgeofthepanel.
J
,
488
* The widening hasto be completed during the knitting of90 courses. l
fthese available
courses are di
vided by the numberof widening operations, the resultis 9,One extra
needle hasto be included in the knitting operation every 9 courses, on the rightand on
theleft.
* Afterthe widening operation, the paneliskni
tted on the same num berofneedlesfor10
centimetersor50 courses.
* The narrowing procedure followsand the numberofactive needleshave to be reduced
from 180 to 80.The narrowing takes place on both sidesofthe panelin asingle routine.
Trajitionally,two needlesoneach side are eliminated each time so the width isreduced
byfourwales.The numberofoperationsis 180- 80 = 25
.
4
* Narrowing should be completed within 65 courses. These available coursesare divided
bythe numberofnarrowingoperations. 25 operationsare required so 15operationsare
carried outafterevery 3coursesand 10 operationsafterevery2 courses.
* Afterthenarrowing operations, the panelisknitted on thesame numberofneedlesfor2
centimetersor10 courses.
Fullyfashioned panel
A fully-fashioned panel,produced on a modern flatknitting machine, is shown in the above figure.
In additiontothe fashioningtechniques, the panelisdesigned with protruding elements.
Exampleno.i:
Msing the detailsshown in the figure below asan example, the following sequence is necessary in
rderto calculatetherequired fashioningfrequenciesfrom thedimensionsofagarmentpart:
* Convertthe Iength dimensionsin each sectionto totalnum berofcoursesby multipl
ying
the length measurementby the coursesperinch. Thus,7 x 20 = 140;4 x 20'= 80;5 x 20
= 100 courses.
::
7
'.
t'
yJ'
.
489
Convertthewidthdimensionsatthestartofeachsectiontototalnumbersofneedlesb?
1
'
#
- ..
#.- -- - - -
F
t
!
t
!'- . .-
.- -
.-
5'
4
'
Doub'eneeddenarroh
plnq
b-
- -
Finished 16w'p,
20 cpi
....- -- ---.
- -
18','---
>
1
l
7''
Sinqleneetlewideninq
'
-,6.,
l l1x1rib
--k
M easurem entsofagarmentpanel
* There are 16 single-needle widenings occurring during the knitting of 140 courses;
assum ing the first fasbioning occurs in the first course, there willbe 16 - 1 = 15
fashionings in 140 - 1 = 139 courses;139 + 15 = 9 with a remainder of4.Thtls 4
fashioningsmustoccurat10 course intervalsand the remaining11at9 courseintervals.
* Forty double-needle narrowings occur during 100 courses, again assum ing the first
fashioning occurs in the first course;99 + 39 = 2 wi
th a remainder of 21.Thus 21
fashionings occur at 3 course intervals and the remaining 18 fashionings occur at 2
courseintervals.
Example no.3:
panel are required. In the following figure the measurements of a sleeve are presented, in
centimeters,to beused asan example.
* The nextstage isto translate the panelmeasurementsinto walesandcourses,accordin!
tothequalityofthefabricthatisknitted bythe machinewiththe requiredyarn.
49c
* Assum ingforthisexam pie thatthe fabricquality is4 walespercentim eterand 6 courses
per centim eter, the converted measurem ents are calculated and presented in the
following second figure.
@ Afterthe knitting of the elastic border,the first fashioning process is required and the
knitting width hasto be w idened from 72 w alesto 128 overthe period of 192 courses.
128 - 72 = 56 single widening operations are required or56 +.2 =-28 on each side dfthe
panel.
52
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72
1e
M easurementsofagarmentpanel
Ifthe available 192 courses are divided by the fourcourses required foreach widening
operation, tbe result is 48 cycles out of wbich only 28 are required. The twenty
unnecessary cyclesare spread am ong the required 28 so thatthe procedure isasfollows:
* The narrowing procedure follows and the num berofactive needles have to be reduced
from 128 to 32over144 courses.
* The narrow ing takes place on both sides of the paneland is carried out in a single
routine.Usually two needleson each side are elim inated so that each tim e the width is
reduced by fourwales.
128- 32
* The required num berofoperationsis
= 24 .
4
491
W hen the available 144 courses are divided by the shortest sequence between
narrowingoperati
bns(2coursesoronecarriagestroke)theresultis144+2=72.
Sinceonly24operationsarerequired,eachcantakeplaceafter3sequences(72+24)=3
or:
* 24narrowingoperationseachafter6courses(threecarriagestrokes).
To com plete the sleeve,the same width is keptforan additional10 centim eters or60
EOUCSES.
Linking operation:
A method ofjoiningtogetherthe edgesofa pieceoffabricorfabricsbyasingleordoublechainstitch on a Iinking machine,in which one ormore ofthe piecesoffabricisrun on to the pointson a
linking.Thejoiningtogetheroftwoedges,usuallyknitted selvedgesisalsocalledcupseaming.The
edgesto bejoinedare positivel
yfed toa sewing pointbytwo cup-likewheels.Cup seamershave
been used almostexclusivelyforthe assemblyoffully fashioned knitwear.
Linking machine,straightorcircular,provided with grooved pointsspaced to recei
ve Ioops, which
arethenjoinedtogetherbychain-stitch.
unking machine:
Linking machines have a common basic construction that consists ofa circular '/dial'?containing
grooved pointsthatface radially outwards,which is Shown in the foll
owing figure.ltison to these
pointsthatthe fabric is placed.The diameterofthe dialvariesaccordingto the particularmak: of
the machine,and the spacing ofthe pointsvaries between differentgauges ofthe machine. The
gauge isstillspecified in imperialmeasure aspoints perinch ofcircumference. Forknitweargauges
areavaijablefrom 3.5points/inchto24points/inch.
The points rem ain static except in the Sense that the dial revolves relative to the Iooping
mechanism.The Iooping mechanism consistsoftwo moving parts:the needle andthe Iooper. These
are carried in a supporting arm mounted internall
y on the dialplate, so thatthe I
ooping elements
are presented in the vicinity ofthe points.Two variations ofthe machine exist, one where the
needle entersthe workfrom the inside ofthe dial,and the otherwherethe needle entersthe work
from outside the dialand the Iooperworksonthe inside.
Principleofstitchformation:
To cm plicate matters,two form sofneedle exist:an eyed needle sim ilarto those found on other
seam ingmachinesand ahooked needlesim ilartothatusedforhandcrochetwork.
Printipleofstitch fofm ingattion onlinking m achine equippedwith eyed needle:
Eyed needle;the needle isusually mounted sothatitentersthe workfrom the outside, slidingalong
thegroove ofa particularpoint.In doing so i
tcarriesthethread with it.Oncethrough the fabricit
492
figure-b.Asfheneedlestartstowithdraw,thethreadistrappedatthe baseoftheneedle,causing
theloop formed on the looperside ofthefabricto bellout,which isshown in thefollowingfigure-c.
The loopernow entersthis loop and holds itwhile the needle withdraws,which isshown in the
following fi
gure-d.The dialnow advancesone pointspace and thewhole cycle beginsagain,which
sshown in the following figure-e.The chain isformed on the side ofthe fabricfacingthe inside of
thedial,.e.onthe Iooperside.
1
2
3
(a)
1
,
3
#=
(t))
1
23
Yarn stand
(c)
zA
Tensiondevice-w.
Needle----'
r,+
points
.-
2
3
---Dial
zr
td)
Work pfessefz
4+
worktray
.. .
Footcontrol
(e)
Generalview ofaIinkingmachine
Stitchformingactionofaconventi
onalneedleIinking
machineformingsinglechainstitch
Principle ofstitth forming adion on Iinking machine equipped with hooked needle:
Hooked needle;the crochethookisusuallym ounted onthe inside ofthe dialand entersthe work
alongthe groove in the point,asdescribed before,butin the opposite direction.Thethread is
presented tothe needle bya yarn carrier.Thisisatube onComplettmachines,and a smallring on
t
493
M athbirk machinery.The thread entersthe hook ofthe needle which withdraws dragging a loop
through the fabric and through the previouslyformed Ioop.The needle retainsthe loop on i
tsstem
asthedialm oveson one pointand the cycle startsagain.
Thread controliseffected by two principalmethods:a tension device usually ofthe spring loaded
disctype,and a yarn take up device thatcontrolsslackness in the thread between the disctension
and the stitch formingzone.M ostIinkersalso have fitted ayarn trapping devicethatactswhenthe
needle iswithdrawingon the conventionalneedletype.Linkersare used in the making up ofknitted
outerwearinoperationswherea Ioop forIoop seam isrequired orwhere aseam ispreciselyIocated
down a particularwale.
Exam plesofloop forloop seams are closing the shoulderseams ofsome typesoffully fashioned
garm entsorclosingthe toe on socks.An exam ple ofwale seamingforprecision isthe attachingofa
pocketto thefrontpanelofa cardigan.
494
Reasonsoffabricfaults:
Yarn m anufacturingfaults
Fabricm anufacturing faults
Fabricprocessingfaults- dyeing,printing orfinishing faults
Sourcesoffabricfaults:
Thesourcesoffaul
tscouldbe(incircularknittingmachine,80%faultscomesfrom yarn)
Faultsin yarn and the yarn package
Yarn feeding and yarn feed regulator
M achinesetting and pattern defects
M achine m aintenance
Climaticconditionsin the knitting plant
Fabricfaults:
Knitted fabricfaultsare very different in nature and appearance and are often superimposed.
The mostcomm onfaultsare:
Broken ends,holesorcracks
Drop stitch
C10thfall-outorpressed-offsti
tches
Snagging orsnags
Tuckordouble loop prstitches
Bunching-up
Verticalstripes
Horizontalstripes
Soilstripes
Colourflyorcolouredtinges
Distorted stitchesordeformed ortilted Ioops
Holes:
Holesare the resultofcracksoryarn breakages.During stitch form ation the yarn had already
broken in the region ofthe needle hook.Depending on the knitted structure,yarn count,
495
m achine gauge and course density,the holes have differentsizes.This size can therefore only
be estimated ifthe com parable finalappearanceofa com parable fabricisknown.
Hole onthefrontside
Possible causes:
a) Yarnparameters
*
*
*
@
*
*
b) Iftheyarn istrappedbetweenthecheektaperandtheclosingIatch
yarn dam age
Tob smallstitches
- di
fficulty in casting-offofthe stitches
-
Drop stitches:
These are the result of a defective needle.They also occurw hen a yarn is not properly fed
during stitch form ation,i.e., not properly Iaid-in the needle hooks.These are the unlinked
knitted Ioops.
Possible causes:
b) Brokenneedlehook;
c) Due to high yarn twist and Iow fabrictake-down-tension the kni
tted Ioop
could falloutofthe hook;
496
i:
;
..
#.?
.
..
.pn
,4A
4
.
,
Drop sti
tchesonthe frontside
d) Impropersettingoftheyarnfeed anglei.e.badlysetyarnfeeder
@ The yarn is not caught by the needle hook,Exam ple - Iow yarn tension
and high yarn vibrations
e) Yarnfeederwronglythreaded-in;
f) DialIoopIength notproperly relatedto cylinderIoop Iength;the Ioopjumps
outofthe needle hook;
g) Badtake-up;
h) Verydrymaterial;
i) lnsufficientyarntension.
C10th fall-outorPressed-offstitches:
Itisan area consisting ofdropstitchesIyingside byside.Theycan occureitherwhen ayari is
Iaid-out orw hen itbreaks withoutany im mediate connection.C10th fall-out can occuraftera
drop stitch especially when an empty needle with closed Iatch runs into the yarn feeder and
rem ovestheyarn outofthe hooksofthefollowing needles.
'
w .
;.. xx.'xe..e .
i
.''
.. .
. .#.
* ,....*jup.
y.,
,e 'r.xgh
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+.4:
.
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9
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.
-<.
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k.
?. <4.
.k.,4
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.
u. . .
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ut$!#
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C10th fall-out
Possible causes:
a) Yarn breaksbeforetheyarnfeeder
b) Yarnpackagewindingfaults,poorpackagebuildup;
c) FibrefIy blodttheyarnguides,feedersetc.
497
Needle m arksorVelicalstripes:
Verticalstripescan beobservedasIongitudinalgapsinthefabric.Thespacebetweenadjacent
wales isirregularand the closed appearance ofthe fabric is broken up in an unsightly manner.
Verticalstripes and gaps in the fabric are often the result of a m eager setting,i.e.,the yarn
Verticalstripes
Tuck Ioops
Possible causes:
a) Twistedorbentneedlehooks;
b) StiffIatchesand needles;
c) IncorrectclosingofthehookbytheIatch;
d) Heavilyrunningneedles;
e) Damageddialandcylinder;
f) Damaged needleIatchand needlehooks;
g) Damagesonotherknittingelements.
HorizontalStripes:
These are caused by unevenness in the courses; they traverse horizontally and repeat
themselvesregularl
y orirregularly.
Possible causes:
a) Deflectorindialcam broughtintotuckposition.
b) Deflectornot completely switched off.Needle can stillgrip the yarn and
formsa tuckIoop.
c) Yarnfeederbadlyset.
d) Differencesintheyarnrunning-intension.
e) CoulieringnotconstantatalIfeeders.
f) Jerkyimpulsefrom fabrictake-up.
j
)
t
Barre'ness:
Barre'nessisthe periodiclateralirregularities
StructuralBarre'ness:
Possiblecauses:
lndividual yarns differ with respect to count, properties or
-
structure;
Shadow Barfe'ness:
Shadow like changesin the appearance ofthefabric. Very di
fficult
to detectand done by reflected Iight.
a) Thickandthinplacesintheyarn;
b) Fabrictake-uptooweak.
Bunching-upon frontside
Snags:
Snags m ainly occur while processing filament yarns.The tendency towards snagging can be
reduced by using yarns with a coarsersingle filamentcount,lessercrim p elasticity and bigher
twist.
!. .
.
) .
..
..
$'
yj.
.
'
. .
.
..
.
'
i
. .
.
,
5O0
Possiblecauses:
c) Thecoursedensityorcoulieringisnotsetcorrectly.
The loopsare too tight,e.g.with interlock.These loopsare notrem oved from the needles.
Soilstripe:
Soilstripes can appear botb in the direction ofwales as wellas courses. Soilstripes in the
direction ofthe wales are solely caused by the knitting machine. In mostcases they are socalled needle stripes;they occur when individualneedles have been replaced or when the
workingofm echanicalorautom aticoiling orgreasingdevicesisdefective.
Stripesorsoiled placesin the direction ofthe courseswere already presentusuallyin the yarn,
ifnotcaused bya standing course asa resultofmachinestoppage.
ColourFly:
'
Colour fIy consists of single fibres, bunches of fibres or yarn pieces in varying colours. It
addi
tionallysticksontheyarn oriskpitted intothefabricand isvery difficultto remove.
W y
Unsettledfabricappearanceon frontside
Unsettledfabricappearanceon backside
501
System count:
* Thecircularknittingmachineoperatingprinciple(singlejersey,rib,purl)
* Possibilities(plainandstructuredknits,jacquardfabrics),andalso
* M achine gauge.
System densityornumberofsystems/inchofnominaltylinderdiameter:
*,
System densi
ty(SD)describesthenumberofsystem /inchofnominalcylinderdiameter.
No.ofsystems
System density(SD)=Nominalcylinderdiameter,d(inch)
Example:
Ifthe system countis96 and the nom inalcylinderdiameteris30'',then
System density(SD)=
No.ofsystem s
96
= =3.2Systems/inch.
Nominalcylinderdiameter,d(inch) 30
Oncircularknittingmachinestoday,system densityIiesbetween0.4and4.8systems/inchof
cylinderdiam eter,depending on the machine m odel.
502
* Themachineoperatingprinciple(singlejersey,rib,purl)
@ Themachinepatterningunits(jacquardordraw courseunit)
* The type and construction ofthe circularfabric to be produced (e.g.
singleordoublesidedfabric),and
* The type and propertiesofthe yarn to be processed (e.g.carded or
combedyarn,naturalorman-madefibreyarns)
The knitting speed isindividuallyadjustable,and mustbeadaptedtotheindividualinfluencing
variablesfrom case to case.
n .d .n
'
V =3937 X 60 m/sec.
.
W here,n = 3.14
d = cylinderdiam eterin inch
n = cylinderrpm
39.37 = conversion factorfrom inch to meter
60 = conversionfactorfrom mins.to secs.
Example:
Ifthe cylinderdiameteris302and the cylinderrpm is35then
A.d .n
Theknittingspeed,V=3937 X 60 =
.
3.14 x 30 x 3s
=1.396 m/sec.
39.37 X 60
CircularmachineknittingspeedsgenerallyIieinarangebetween0.8and1.8m/sec.
The above equation can be sim plified to som e extent ifthe constantdim ensions likent39.37
and 60 are com bined asone factor.
Factor=
3.14
39.37 X 60
= 0.00133
% V=0.00133xdxn m/sec.
503
Exam ple:
Iftheknittingspeedis1.63m/secandthecylinderdiameteris26*,then
The m achine rpm,n =
V
1.63
=
= 47.137 2$47 rpm
0.00133 x d 0.00133 x 26
courses/min.
A circularkni
tting machine with 72 systems(no.offeeder)and an rpm of25 permin.has
therefore a perforrnance numberof
SF=L=n.S courses/min.
O
r,
n=
SF
S
perm in.
Example:
n=
Actualoutput
x 100 %
Theoreticaloutput
5O4
Production calculation:
It has been expounded in the sections above that the output of a circular kni
tting m achine
depends on a series ofdifferent influencing variables.A wealth of machine data and data on
thefabricto be produced isrequired forcal'
culating production capacity.
In this respectthe cylinderdiameterd in inch,the gauge E,the system count S,the machine
rpm n,and the efficiency Ievelq ofthe circularknitting m achine m ustbe known.The follow ing
data onthefabricto be produced m ustalso be available:
* Theconstruction(e.g.single-jersey,rib,purletc.)
* Thecoursedensityorcourses/cm,and
* Theweightperunitareaingm /m 2.
M achine output:
The machine capacity orperformance in running m/hris calculated in accordance with the
followingequation:
M achinecapacity,L=
Speedofmachine in rpm X No.ofsystem orfeedersonthe machineX efficiencyX 60 minutes
No.offeedersorsystem spercourseX coursespercm .X 100
Example:
Calculate the Iength in meters ofa plain,single sided orsingle-jersey fabric knitted at 20
courses/ cm.on a 30''diameter22-gauge circularmachine having 108 feeds.The machine
operatesfor8 hoursat36 rpm at87% efficiel
ncy.
Speed ofm achine in rpm X No.ofsystem orfeederson the m achine X efficiencyX 60 m inutes
No.offeedersorsystem spercourseXcoursespercm .X l00
36 X 108 X 87 X 60 X 8
1 X 20 x 100 X 10O
= 811.82 m etres
Exam ple:
Calculate the Iength in meters ofa plain,single sided or single-jersey fabric knitted at 16
courses/ cm.on a 26*diameter28-gauge circularmachine having 104 feeds.The machine
operatesfor8 hoursat29 rpm at95 % efficiency.
Machine capacity i.e.thetotalIength ofthe fabricin metres
=
Speed ofm achine in rpm X No.ofsystem orfeederson them achine X efficiencyX 60 m inutes
No.offeedersorsystem spercourse X courses percm .X 100
505
=
29 X 104 X 95 X 60 X8
1 X 16 X 100 X100
= 859.56 metres
Fabricw idth:
Thefabricwidth(WB)inmetreiscalculatedinaccordancewiththefollowingequation:
F
Cylinderdiam eter in inch X A X m achine gauge
abricwidth,W B =
W ales percm .X 100
Exam ple:
Ifthe cylinderdiam eteris30*,machine gauge is32andthe walespercm .is14,then
The Fabric W idth,W B =
30 X 3.14 X 32
14 X 100
= 2.153 metres.
Production capacity:
Iftheproductioncapacity Pofacircularkni
ttingmachineisto becalculated in kg/hr.,itcanbe
calculated in accordance withthefollow ingequation:
Production capaci
ty, P= RunningIengthinmetreperhourX FabricwidthinmetreXWei
ghtinGSM Kg/hr.
looo
Exam ple:
Ifthe production in running m etres perhouris63.76,fabricwidth is1.76 metresand the fabric
weightis160gm/m2,then
Yh0 ProdUction C3P3CitY, P= LXWBXWei
76X160 =17.95 Kg/hr.
100g0htinGSM =63.76Xy1.
xc
Production exam ple:
Valuesofarticle:
Structure:plain(Single-jersey)
Yarn:cottonNm50/1(Ne29.6/1)
Coursedensity18courses/cm.
Walesdensity13wales/cm.
Fabricweight125gm/m2
n X SX 60 X'R
eeders/courseXcoursesXcm X100
35 X 96 X 60 X 0.85
1X 18 X 100
=95.2m/hr.
506
* Interlockcircularknitting m achine:
An interlock fabric comprising, in the sim plest case,two part courses.These part courses
com plement each other to make a fullcourse,and therefore two system s br feeders are
required forproducing one course.
Valuesofartide:
Structure:plain interlock
Yarn:polyesterdtex76/1
Coursedensity17courses/cm.
Walesdensity14wales/cm.
Fabricweight100gm/m2
M achine performance Lin m etreperhour=
n X SX 60XTt
feeders/course X courses/cm X 100
31 X 96 X 60 X 0.85
2 X 17X 100
=44.64 m/hr.
= 30 X 3.14 X 28 = 1.88 m
wpcm X 100
14 X 100
100c
lxample- 2:
Valuesoftircularknitting m athine:
M achinediam eter30''
Gauge E42
'
Numberoffeeders108
M achinespeed 31 rpm
M achine efficiency 87%
M achine pedorm ance Lin m etre perhour=
looc
=8.39Kg/hr.
Valuesofarticle:
Structure:plain interlock
Yarn:polyesterfilamentyarndtex50f88/1
Coursedensity19courses/cm.
W alesdensity23wales/cm.
Fabricweight100gm/m2
n xsx6oxn
feeders/courseXcourses/cm X100
31 X 108 X 60 X 0.87
2x19x100
=45.99 m/hr.
507
Fabricwidth, W B in metre = dx'
n-xE
= 30x3.14X42 = 1.72 m
w pcm x 100
MachineperformanceinKgperhour=
23 x 1o0
L X W B X W eight in GSM
1000
Valuesofarticle:
= 2x105X l00
.
dX W X E
26 X 3.14 X 20
16 X 100
=37 m/hr.
= 1.02 m
1000
1000
Exam ple- 2:
Num beroffeeders96
M achine speed 23 rpm
M achine efficiency80%
Yarn:polyesterdtex150/1
Coursedensity12courses/cm.
Walesdensity11wales/cm.
Fabricweight180gm/m2
n x sx 60x n
30 X 3.14 X 20
11 X l00
= 1.7 m
508
looc
Exam ple:
Valuesofcircularknitting machine:
M achinediam eter30''
Gauge E28
Numberoffeeders96
M achinespeed 35 rpm
M achine efficiency 80%
Valuesofartide:
Structure:plain(Singlejersey)
Yarn:cottonNm50/1(Ne29.6/1)
Stitch length0.25cm
ProductioninKg/hr=nXSX(WXdXEXsti
tchlengthi
ncm)X60XN.X0.4536
lcoxlookNex84cx0.9144
nXSX (dXEXsti
thchIengthincm.)X'
q. '
Ne
x 0.00001112598
35X96x(30X28X0.
25)X80
29.6
x0.00001112598
= 21.22 Kg.
Exam ple:
Calculate the Iength offabric produced pershiftat 75% efficiency of a knitting m achine from
thefollowing particulars:
No.offeeders48
Fabricopen width 264 cm
Stitch densi
ty 15
M achine speed 20 rpm
M achine diameter30 cm
M achine gauge E 14
Fabricwidth = Totalno.
ofwal
es
W ales percm .
Againsti
tchdensity=wales/cm xcourses/cm
Courses/cm = Sti
tchdensi
ty = 15 =3
wales/cm.
Lengthoffabricproduced perminute =
coursesperminute = nXS =
COurSeS perCm
CPCY
20 X 48
= 320 cm =3.2m
509
tength offabric produced pershiftat75% efficiency = 3.2 X 60 X 8 X 0.75 = 1152 m .
Exam ple:
Calculate the courses/cm ofafabric producing 1152 metresper8 hours shiftin a circular
knitting machinew iththefoll
owing particulars:
No.offeeders48
M achine speed 20 rpm
Efficiency 75%
courses perm inute X 60 X 8 X 0.75
Length offabricproduced pershiftat75% efficiency=
courses per cm
20 X 48 X 60 X 8 X 0.75
Courses/cm =
1152X 100
=3
rqtio.
Stitch density isthe most important one in defining knitted fabric properties and is directly
relatedto appearance,weightperuni
tarea,thickness,drape and manyotherfactors.
The stitch Iength isthe absolute quanti
ty of any knitted fabric and is directly related to the
stitch density. ln generalterm s,for any knitted fabric, as the Ioop size increases the Ioop
density decreases.Forsim ple fabricsthe relationship can be expressed in a single equation:
S =- K
12
W here S is the stitch density, I is the Ioop Iength and K is a constant for the particular
construction.A large amountofdata and research workhasbeen carri
ed outrelating theabove
expression to the characteristics of plain fabric,and definite values of K have been proposed.
Forother constructions,while the proposition stillholds the situation is m ore complex and
furtherstudy isrequired.
Exam ple:
510
0.8
So double the Ioop size means halfthe weight per square unit.Usually in kni
tted fabrics,for
fabricsofasimilarconstruction,asIoop Iength increasesso the size ofyarn increases.Yarn sizes
are them selvesexpressed notin term sofdiameterbutin weightperunitIength.
In a kni
tted fabric,to maintain cover,as the Iength of loop doubles so the diam eterofthe
thread mustdouble.
Coverisa sim ple ratio ofthe area ofa knitted fabriccovered byyarnto the area covered bythe
gaps in between Ioops.It can be demonstrated thatfora given knitted structure,ifthe cover
ratio ism aintained throtlgh a range offabricswith differentIoop Iengths,then those fabricsare
'
relatedincharacteristicsoftightness/Ioosenessandotherphysicalproperties.
ThisconceptofcoverIeadsto the property of'norm ality'ofa knitted fabric.A 'norm al'fabricis
one thatis neithertoo tightand stodgy nortoo Ioose and floppy.Lay observersgiven a range of
fabrics of differing loop size and yarn size make surprisingly similarjudgements on what
'norm ality'isin aknitted fabric intended fornorm alapparel.
There isa simple form ula that can be used to express 'coverfactor'ortightness factor,taking
into accountand abbreviatingdiam eterofyarn,length ofIoop and Ioop density.
Coverfactor(cf)=
Count in tex
Fora particularvalue ofcoverfactorwe can obtain a range offabrics having sim ilarnormality
relationships. The calcul
ationforweight/m'involvescombiningtheequationforstitch density
and the equation forcoverfactor:
G5M = CPIX W PI
N X I(cm )x 9.158
e
GSM = CPIX W P1
N X l(m m ) x 1.55
m
GSM =CPlxWPlxI(mm)xTexx0.00155
ln anotherform,
GSM =CPIxWPIxl(mm)xDenierx0.00017
GSM = Loops/cmzxl(cm )xtex
A
2 K
sIoopspercm =
12
10
511
K X tex
Therefore GSM = I(cm)X 10
AsTex = (cfx1)2
ThereforeGSM ofafabric= KX(cfxI)2
IX 10
relaxedcondi
tion,i.e.thatthere willbe Iittle shrinkage ofthe fabric/garmentwhen itisinthe
consumer's possession.Relaxation tests can be carried outon fabricas a routine procedure,or
as spot checks on suspect deliveries.There are British Standard procedures for relaxation
Machine gauge
18
20
20
24
22
24
20
22
24
28
Yarn countused
28
28
28
30
30
30
30
34
34
M achine aauge
22
25
28
22
24
28
34
28
28
Forsingle-jersey,G = Tex
1400
and fordouble-jersey,G =
Tex
,where G ismeasured in
needlespercm .
The yarn countto be used on a circularknitting m achine depends Iargelyon the pitch,and thus
onthe m achine gauge.Forany given machine gauge itcan Iie within a Iargerrange,because on
the sam e machine differentyarn counts can be used,depending on the knitted structure,the
desiredoptics(fabricappearance)andthefabricproperties.
512
onthemachinegaugeandseveralfabrictypes.ThevaluesinNe(convertedfrom valuesinNm)
referto staplefibre yarnsandthose in dtexare related to filamentyarns.
YarncountandmachinegaugeforSingle-jersey
vachinegaugcE
seedles/inch
s
t$
7
8
,
10
12
14
15
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
Yarncountand machinegaugeforInterlock
Yarncotlnt
Ne
2.5/2- 7.*12
3.s?z'- 9.5/2
5.0/2 - 12.0/2
7.O/2 - 14.0,r2
, sj,, . a s j,
10.5/2 - 10.5/1
14.0/2 - 12.0/1
8.5/1 - :4.0/1
10.5/1 - 16.5/1
12.0/1 - 19.021
.14.
0/1- 23.5/1
18.0/1- 26.0/1
21.5/1- 295/1
23.5.
87- 35.5/1
26.5/1 -41.5/1
29.6/G-47.5/1
3b.5/1-59.0/1
41
,b/
3- 71.0/1
dtex
660:2 - sbo.rz
ssoxz - 4ooxz
470:2 -aaoxa
4 x2- 280X
2j o
q
.,.m . 0 . 00s . 0
280x2- 200:?
23bx2 - 150:2
2O0x2- 236x1
15Ox2- 2O0x1
250:1- 167x1
2O0x1- 15Ox1
167:1- 122x1
750:1- 1:0x1
14Ox1 - 7O0x1
122x1- 84x1
110x1- 76x1
lOox1- 67x1
84x1 - 55x1
12
14
15
16
18
2O
22
24
26
28
ac
,
,32
10
12
14
15
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
atj
a;
Yarn count
Ne
dtex
2/14.0/2 - 2/21.5/2 800x1- 550x1
2/18.0/2 - 2/23.5/2 660x1- 470:1
2/21.5/2- 14.0/2 660x1- 400x1
0
.,
16.5/2- 12.0/1 330:1- 235:1
21.5/2- 14.0/1 280x1 - 200:1
12.0/1- 16.5/1 235x1- 167x1
14.0/1- 19.'0/7 220x1- 160x1
16.5/1- 21.6/1 200x1- 133x1
21.5/1- 23.6/1 167x1- 110x1
23.5/1- 29.5/1 156:1- 100x)
28.5/1- 35.5/1 733x1 - 100x1
33.0/1- 41.5/1 122x1 - 90x1
35.5/1-- 47.6/1 110x1- 84x1
41.5/7- 63.0/1 10Ox1 - 76x1
47.5/1- 5:.(j/1
)xg- 67x1
5a.()/?- 71.oj1 a(
76x1- 5c:1
2/2
,a
3.,
5y
/2
,.r
18
,.j2
, 4j0
,x
y1
,.,
3,
30
,x1
g
Yarn count
Ne
2.521- 95/1
3.5/1 - 12.0/1
4.711- 14.0/1
6.0'/1- 16.5/1
7.O/1- 18,0/1
8.5/1- 20 0?'1
1o.5/1- 23.5/3
14.0,
,1- 26.o/:
q6.b/1- 29.j/:
q9
2p.0/1- a5.5/:
.5,
'1- 41.5,q
2a,s,
.1- 47.st1
Machine gauge E
Needles/inch
5
6
7
dtex
720x2 -622:1
620x2 -500:1
500:2 -420x1
833:1 -360:1
660x1- 3OOx1
50Ox:- 280x:
360:q- 2OOx1
3t)Ox1- 167:1
2sox1- 15cx1
2oox1- 7zzx,
1scx1- 1lox1
:2zx1- 84.:1
Machine gauge E
Needles/inch
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
1
q4
s
,:
ga
20
22
24
Yarn count
Ne
dtex
12.0/2 - 16.5/2
800x1- 550x1
14.0/2 - 19.0/2
660x1- 400:1
16.5/2 -21.5/2
550:1- 330x1
19.0/2 - 12 0/1
470:1- 280:1
21.5/2- 14.0/1
4OOx1- 235x1
12.0/1- 18.0/1
330x1- 20Ox1
14.0/1- 20.0/1
280x1- 167:1
16.5/1- 23.5/1
235:1- 150x1
20
,0/
1
29.
5/
1
2(mx:- ,22x1
za syp- as.5,,,
jo.
yx:. qccx,
ra.
.s
yg. 4.7.5/,
jstlxq. goxj
4,'s/g. sa,c/p
jzzx: . ;sx1
4.,?.s/g. sa.oy)
,oox:. o.
:yj
53.o/q - 71.0/1
8.4x1 - 55x1
Nameoffabrics
Equations
Single-jersey
Pique
DoubleIacoste
1x1 Rib
Lycra 1k1Rib
Lycra2x2Rib
GSM =519.05-9.1216Ne
lnterlock
513
Fabrics
GSM
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
Plainor
Single-jersey
36.12
33.3
30.48
27.66
24.84
22.02
19.2
16.38
Pique 1x1Rib
Wcra
1x1Rib
47.66
44.32
40.98
37.64
34.3
30.96
27.62
24.28
47.22
44.84
42.46
40.08
37.7
35.32
32.94
30.56
42.27
39.81
37.35
34.89
32.43
29.97
27.51
25.05
Wcra lnterlock
2x2Rib
45.82
43.66
41.5
39.34
37.18
35.02
32.86
30.7
59.96
55.84
51.72
47.6
43.48
39,36
35.24
31.12
GSM = Y
afncount(Ne)XSti
tchlength
GSM
Yarncount(Ne)xStitchIength
whereK isaconstant
Yarncount(Ne)xStitchIengthxGSM =K
Stitch Iength=Y
arncount(Ne)xGSM
ConstantKvalues
Single-jerseyorPlain
12068.509
Double Iacoste
1x1 Rib
2x1 Rib
Interlock
14855.2
16431.497
19005.333
24013.8
These values are get from a research work.It m ay be changed.For getting more accurate
resultsitneedsm ore data from differentindustry.
514
presenceofIinksJconnedingthe Ioopsintheadjacentcourses.Dependingonthemethodthe
warpyarnisIayedontheneedles,theloopsareofthefollowingtypes:OpenIoops(courses11
and1V),closedIoops(courses1and111),wi
thonesideIinks(coursesIand111)andwithtwo-side
Iinks(courses11andlV).
**
M
*X .
*
@.
z . . &. . .
# . . .e. . . .
E*)*o* . .y.k
5
5 2
/'#
(a)
2 J #
I o l I I5/
(D)
Beam s supply the warp sheets in parallel form to the guide bars w hose pattern control
determinesthetim ing and configuration ofthe Iapping m ovem ents in the form ofoverlapsand
nderlaps.The needles intermesh the new overlapsthrough the oId overlapsto form the
interm eshed loopstructure.
Part.ofthe yarn,between the Ioops which connect the wales together, is referred to asthe
underlap.Thetwosidesofthefabricarereferredtoasthetechnicalface(thesideonwhichthe
knitted Ioopsare pmminent)and the technicalback(the side on which the underlapsare
prominent).
515
The Guides:
W arp guides are thin metalplatesdrilled with a hole in theirIowerend through which a warp
end maybe thradedifrequired,theyareheldtdgetherattheirupperend ina metalIeadand
arespacedinittothesamegaugeasthemachine.TheIeadsinturnareattachedtoaguidebar
so that the guides hang dowp from it w ith each one occupying a posi
tion at rest midway
between two adjacent needles,in this position the warp thread cannot be received by the
needlesand itwillmerilyproduceastraightverticalfloat.
Sw in
A e -k
h( Swiew
N
Yo
516
Overlap,that Iength of yarn in a warp knitted fabric that has been placed over the needle
during Ioopformation.
Underlap ,thatIength ofyarn in a warp knittedfabricthatonnectstwo overlapsin consecutive
coursesk
Abarrunningthefullwidthofamaciineandequipped:1thguidesthroughwhichthreadsare
passed sothattheIateralmotionsimpartedto theguide barsbythe patterncontroleviceare
transm itted to the threads.
Each end ofyarn from each warp is Iocated in the knitting zone by passipg through the eye ofa
guide.AIltheguidescontainingtheyarnsfedfrom asinglewarp,arecoqnededto aguide bar,
so thataIIofthem move uniformly with it.
t
Theindividualguidesareusuallycastin1inchunits-whichinturnarefiitedontheguidebars.
The guidesswing between and around the needlesinorderto warp the yarn arund them to
form a new loop.Theyalso shog side waysto connectthe walesinto afabric.
5
2
Guide needles
Each guide bar is norm ally supplied with a warp sheet from its own beam shaft to suit its
requirementsofthreading and rate ofwarpfeed foritsparticularIapping m ovem ent.
occasionally,1wo partly-threaded guide bars m ay be supplied from the same full-threaded
beam provided they m ake Iapping movementsofthe sam e extentto each otherwh11stmoving
in opposite diredions.The m inim um num berofguide bars and warp sheets forcom mercially
acceptable structuresisusually two.
517
foraIIthe guide bars asthey pivoton a comm on rockershaft.It isderived in a sim ilarmanner)
to the needle and other element bar motions from the m ain cam-shaft and is adapted viar
Ievers, pivots and Iinkages.The two swinging m ovem ents produce the two side Iimbs when
combined with the overlap shog.W hen the overlap is om itted the guides swing idly between
-
adjacentneedlesand achievenousefulpurpose.
.
4
1
Guie ''.- -
* pato
Guie Y a
*
*
Rewrn > lx
drum
.
.
*
@
..'*
e *
* *.
Qe;
O
O
O
a= f.
a caj @
- r- .wz
. j
u
o
sle w o
* 4
a 2
cbQl
o
o yojj. .
* 1
sle w o
* 1
s1
An increase in heightfrom one Iink to the nextproducesa thrustagainstthe end ofthe guide
barshogging itpositivelyinto the m achine,a decrease willproduce a negative shog towardsthe
pattern shftasthe result ofthe action ofa retqrn spring.A constant.height willproduce no
'.
The drive forthe pattefn shaftisobtained from the main cam-shaftvia bevetgearsand a
universaljointtoaworm whichderivestheworm wheelofthe pattern shaft.The ratio ofcamshaftspeedtothepatternshaftspeed isusually16:1, therefore 1!
-th ofthe sudace of'
6
a:
pttern
-
differentchainIinksmovetheroller(9)andslide(8)sothatthepushrod (7)movesthe.guide
barand displacesitIaterally.The rollerand pushro are held againstthe pattern drum by
springs.
'
lo
8
Link
*
%
5 .
6
%*
w
N
N
patterndrum
-> .
w'
.
' oo
'
N.
o .I
.
Patterninjmechanism ofatricptmachine
@*NN
xY '
Pattern disc
(
1
l
519
A Iateralgatihgadjustmenttothepositionofthqguidesiscarriedoutbychangingthelengthof
thepushrodusingthebolt(10).Thepatterndrum withitspatternchaincanbeeasilyreplaced
bya patterp disk,preciselypre-cutforacertain design.Althoughthediskcan only be used for
one Iapping sequence, it has the advantage of a very accurate,smooth and high-speed
perform ance.
Pattern wheels provide accuracy and smooth running at high speeds but they are only
rconomicalfor Iong production runs of the comm on sim ple repeat structures; for fancy
structures,frequentchangesofpattern and Iong pattern repeats,the shogging movem entsare
obtained byassem bling achain ofre-usable pattern Iinks.
Ehain Iinks:
TheidenticallyY-shapedchai
inks#re sim ilarin appearance to atuningforkwiththe forkend
.n l
leading.The tailofthe preceding Iinkfits into the fork ofthe succeeding link and the Iinks are
held togetherby pins which are pushed through holes in the side ofthe forkand tail,the pins
pass through aIlthe tracksand chains and the endsfit into grookes in the serrated flangesof
the pattern drum so thatas the drum turnsthe chain Iinks are advanced in unison,in corred
timing.
The link isslightly arched to fit the surface ofthe pattern drum .ln orderto ensure that the
widersideoftheIinktakesthegreaterIoadwhenpushingtheguidebars, theforkside isthe
Ieading partofthe Iinkwhen connecting a chain.Linksare made to fita certain machine gauge.
To elim inate any confusion,the gauge isstamped on to the link,togetherwith the heightofthe
linkin needlespaces.
TMo steepananylemovestheguidebarbeforetheswingtothehooksidehasbeencompleted.
A long angle causesthe guide barto move Iaterwhen the swing-backhatalready started.A
badly timed shogging movem ent mightcause the yarn to be cut between needlesand guides
and,in extreme cases,knitting elementscan be damaged.
A grinding gauge is usually supplied by the m achine manufad urerand the Iinks m ustonly be
520
d
.>i
@7
.... . ..... .=
A profileofapatternchain
W ithdirecttransmissionoftheshoggingmovementfrom chainIinkstoguidebar,asdescribed,
the exactdistance shogged isthedifference in heightsbetween the two successie links.:This
method is em ployed on m ost high speed machines and on the ground guide bars of m any
m ulti-barRaschels.
Chain Iink numbering com mences with '0'height and every gqide 'bar chain sequepce m ust
containatIeastoneofthese'0'Iinksbecausewhentheguidebarisonthiqlinkitwillbeini:
nearestposition to the pattern mechanism,during thatparticularlapping movement.Tripy
linksarenumbered0,1,2,3,4,5,etc.,andwtthdirectshogging,eachwillbesuccessivelyone
needlespacehigheryhanthepreviou!Iink so thaton a28gaugtricotmachine,a '2'Iihkwill '
;
be'
Zt
g
.thi
28hinch(0.9mm)higherthan,av'l'Iinkwichwillbez
nchhigherthana.0,link.lfa,y,
.
..
linkisplacedafterag0'link zonvlnee'
dlqspace shog awayfrom'the pattern:mechanism willbe
.
mechanism will-ccur.If two Iinks f the sam e height are placed next to,each other,for
.
.
'
the$menedlesjaces.
'
..
Itmustbeunderstoodthata heightofIink,forexample'0',doefnotrejresntafi
xed positlon
between two needle spaces,itrepresentsthe nearestposition each guide in a particularguide
barapproachesthe pattern m echanism during thatlapping m ovement.W hen a guide bafison
a'0'link,aIIguidesinthatbarwillbqintheir'0'positioqbqtqachgwilloccqqyl
q d,j
ffrqn!jpl
.
'
samespacebetweentwoadjacentneedlesandyetbek
differen'Jthqightspfr-j
jiattha'yoint.
;yhk
'
('?w .'''.'.'!: .'=.'
E
.
%
.x
'''
.)g .. .
AchainnotationisaIistincorrectsequenceofchainlinknumbqrikpacediiknittihgiiy
,cles .
foreachguidebarnecessarytoeproduceaparticularstiuctufe.TV differenci'C,it.emtwe
e
n
t
h
e
first '
... . . s -.!x vk.
,
?.
..-
twoIinksisnormallytheoverlap.'ltmustberememberidthaitheliiksarej.
inediigiiheriii
closed IoopwiththestartingIinkforeachbarjoinedtoitsIastIink.Forthisreasp,undrlap
movemenistowardsIeftandrighttendto balanceeachother.
521
The num beroflinks percourse isfixed foreach machine,a m inim um oftwo isusually required
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withtheovrlapoccurringbetweenthesecondIinkofonecourseandthefirstIinkofthenext 1
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522
Provided thedirection and extentofthe overlapsare correctly indicated in the Iapping diagram
and chain notation,the underlapsw illalwaysbe correctly positioned aseach extendsfrom the
end ofone overlap to the startofthe next.
->
.
t z
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O =Overl
ap and U = Underl
ap
Overlap movements:1- 0,2- 3
U
o
/ 2-a
u
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Underl
apmovements:0/2,3/1
Chainnotation(2Iinkspercourse)
ln the lapping diagram,the firstoverlap willbe drawn in a curve overa pointfrom space 1 to
space 0and thesecond from space 2to space 3.The Iapping diagram iscompleted byjoining
523
The greaterthe extentofthe underlap in needle spaces,the heavierthe fabric and the m ore
horizontalthe path ofthethread asitcrossesthe structure.
a) ClosedIap-anoverlapfollowedbyanunderlapintheoppositedirection.
b) OpenIap-anoverlapfollowedbyanunderlapinthesamedirection.
c) OpenIap- onlyoverlapsandnounderlaps.
d) Laying-in-onlyunderlapsandnooverlaps.
e) Miss-lapping-neitheroverlapsnorunderlaps.
0
*
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U
@
U
2' 1 O
.
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a
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1/1-2
a)ClosedIap
b)OpenIap
c)OpynIap
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0-0/2-2/1-1/3-3
d)Laying-in
O
1-1/1-1/1-1
e)Miss-lapping
basicIappingmovement,whicharedescribedinthefolloFing:
524
1. PillarorChain R itch:
Since the guide bar does not Iap the adjacent needles, there are no sideways
connections and no fabric is formed.Forthe sam e reason,i
t is very difficultto form a
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Closed-lap pillarstitch
The pillarlapping movem entcan be open,closed orcan be a com bination ofclosed and
open Iaps.The m ore com m on open lap chain construction is form ed w hen the guide
Iapsthe needle alternately from the right and the Ieft.The chain notations, as derived
from figure are 0 - 1 forthe firstcourse and 1- 0 forthe next.
To produceaclosed lap pillar,theguide hasto lap the needle continuouslyin the same
direction and the chain notationsare 0 - 1foraIIcourses.A closed chain construd ion is
Iess com mon because the guide,w hile rotating around the needle in the sam e dired ion,
mayinsertan undesiredfalsetwistintotheyarn.
Constructions m ade w ith a com bination of closed and open Iaps, as well as
construdions ofonly closed Iaps,are usually produced in orderto achieve a certain
technologicalaim .
525
Having no sidew ays underlaps,the yarn consum ption ofa chaining guide baris relatively
very sm all.This,and the fact that the construction is very stable Iengthw ise,m akes it
very popularforthe production ofcertain fabrictypes.
Pillarconstruction can easily be unraveled from the end knitted last by pulling on a free
end of the yarn. Although usually a disadvantage,this characteristic is used in the
production ofIace edgingsasa m ethod ofseparating the bandsafterfinishing.
2. TritotR itch or1 and 1 O pping M ovem ent:
Tricotstitch is a stitch form ed ofone warp;the tricot Ioops are disposed in an alternate
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chainnotation:2-1/0-1 Chainnotation:1-2/1-0
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m ovem ent
m ovem ent
structure
Although a fabric is form ed by this Iapping m ovem ent it has as w ith m ost single-bar
fabrics,a restricted com m ercialvalue.As with pillarlapping,the 1 and 1 m ovementcan
be formed open or closed.The closed 1 and 1 structure is m ore popular.The chain
notationsfortheclosedlapconstructionare1-2/1-0andfortheopenone:2-1/0
1.Fortricotmachines,the chainreads1-2- 2/1-0 -0 and2- 1- 1/.0-1-1
respectively.
The guide bar producing a 1 and 1 Iapping m ovem ent consum es m ore yarn than a
chaining one,however,the am ount is stillrelatively sm all.The construction isflexible,
lightand very popularin the produdion oftwo guide barfabrics.
Tricot is a w arp-knitted fabric knitted w ith tw o fullsets ofw arp threads,each set . q
making,a 1 and 1 lapping m ovem entbutin opposite directions.Additionally the term is
l
l
.
526
now used generically to cover aIItypes of w arp knitted fabric m ade on tricot w arp
knitting m achines.
3. Cord Stitth or2 and 1 tapping M ovem ent:
Itdiffersfrom tricotin the length oflinks.lt is knitted from a one warp system and the
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Chainnotation'
.3-2/0- 1
Closed 1ap Cord stitch
By increasing the underlap produced by the guide bar by one m ore needle,a 2 and 1
structure is produced.The Ionger shogging m ovem ent causes the yarn to lie m ore
horizontally in the fabric, thus increasing the widthw ise stability. The guide bar
consum esm ore yarn so thatthe fabric isheavierand hasa bettercovering factor.
e'
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Chainnotation:2-3/1-0
Closed 2 and 1 Iapping m ovem entorCord stitch Back side ofclosed 2and 1 structure
As before,the Iapping m ovem ent can be open or closed,the closed one is the more
i
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.
527
The 2 and 1 Iapping movement is used in conjunction with the 1 and 1 Iap forthe
production ofthe m ostpopulartricotknitted fabric,nam ely Locknit.
4. LongerReciprotating tapping M ovem ents:
construction or satin stitch is form ed and as with the other structures, it can be
producedwithclosed(fig.a)oropen(fig.b)Iappingmovement.
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Satin stitch differsfrom tricotand cord in the Iength oflinks.Itisalso knitted from a one
warp system and the Ioopsare formed by one yarn in turn in adjacentcourses,every
threewales(% =49Rh=2).
M ore yarn is used with the produdion ofthis Iapping m ovem ent,w idthwise stability is
a) Toincreasestability
b) When produced onthefrontguide bar,the long underlapsfloating onthe
technicalpackapplyabrightndsmoothappearancetothefabric.
purposes.Velvetstitchalsocanbeproducedwithclosed(fig.c)oropen(fig.d)Iapping
movement.Thechainnotationsfortheclosed Iapstructureare4-5/1-0andforthe
open one 5 -4 /0 -1.The Iongerthe underlap,the greatertheweight,stabilityand
528
density of the fabric.Velvet stitch differs from tricot, cord and satin in the Iength of
Iinks.It has Iarge Iink Iength'com pare to other. It is also knitted from one warp system
Itis a stitch in which each yarn consecutively forms Ioops in a m ultitude ofadjacent
wales.ln atlasthere are loopswith single-side and double-side Iinks. The sm alleststitch
repeatis Rb= 3 in width,and in heightRh= 4.The graphicalrepresentation ofyarn Iaying
in this atlas is show n in figure.In high repeat m ul
ticourse atlas the Iinks connect the
adjacentwalesfirstin one direction,and then in the reverse direction (to the initial
wale).
Atlasstitch norm ally m eansTricotAtlas. TherearevarioustypesofAtlasTricotAtlas- 2 course TricotAtlas,3 course, 5 course TricotAtlas,etc.
Cord type Atlas
Satintype Atlas
VelvettypeAtlas.
The Iapping movem ents illustrated in figure are called atlas m ovements. The guide
moves to one side for a few knitting cycles,Iapping the needles on its w ay. After a
predeterm ined num berofcourses,the guide reverses.
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BacksideofanAtlasstructure
Atlasmovementsl#l
#erfrom one anotherbythe numberofcoursesin one repeatand
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bythetypeofIappihgsed(openorclosed).A typicalatlasfabric(s-coursetricotatlas)
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529
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Chain notation'
.
Chain notation'
.
4-5/3-2/1-0/2-3
6 -7/4- 3/1-0/3- 4
8-9/5-4/1-0/4-5
Loop inclination,w hich is very prom inent in a single-bar fabric, willtake a different
shape w hen an atlas m ovement is produced. W ith the production of a1Ipreviously
The guide can be shogged by two needle spaceson the hook side ofthe needle during
an overlap.ln this way,two needles are wrapped by each yarn and both willdraw the
Ioopssim ultaneously.
'
ThisIapping m ovem entis usually produced in orderto add body and stabilityto a singleguide-barfabric.
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chainnotation'
.2-0/0-2
Tw o-needle overlap construction
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The factsth
530
attw o separate loops m ustbe draw n from a relatively sm allam
and that one ofthe tw o has no access to the guide'and w arp cau
ountofyarn
placed on the yarns and the needles
se a Iot ofstress to be
. Usual
l
y,
when
pr
oduci
ng
a
tw o-bar fabric, w ith
incorporated tw o n
eedleoverlap,the movementshould be produced by th
bar. The yarns of the front guide bars float freely on th
e frontguide
e
f
ac
e
of
t
he
f
abric and, if
necessary,
can m ove m ore easily into the knitted Ioop.
Figure illustratesa construction in w hich chaining and two
needle overlap arecom bined.
As can be observed, each needle receives tw o yarns and horizontal c
between the wales
onnections
are form ed. The fabric has erect Ioops, is relatively stable and
resem blestheappearanceoftwo-barfabrics.
The chain notations forthe structure in figure are 2 0/0- 2 andfortricotmachine
with 3 linkspercourse movement2- 0 - 0/0-2- 2.
531
andthe roletheyjlayinloopformation.
The sinkersused forTricotknitting machinescontrolthe fabricthroughoutthe kni
tting cycle.
The fabric isheld in the throatsofthe sinkerswhile the needlesrise to clearand the new Ioops
are knocked overin-between them .
ln Raschelknitting however,the fabric is controlled by a high take-up tension and the sinkers
are only usedto ensure thatthe fabricstaysdown when the needlesrise.
ltisforthis reason,thatthe fabric produced on a Raschelmachine ispulled tightly downwards
from the knitting zone,at an angle of about 1600 to the backs of the needles. 0n Tricot
machines,high take-up tension isnotnecessary,andthe fabricispulled gentlyfrom the knitting
zone ata rightangleto the backofthe needles.
532
Tricotwarp knittingmachineshavethefollowingimportantfeatures:
* In the past,Tricotm achinesmainlyem ployed bearded needleswith
T
a presserbar.
ricot machines have a gauge expressed in needles per inch
and chain Iink
numbering0,1,2,3,4,etc., generally withthree Iinkspercourse.
strudures, especially two guide bar structeres with both bars overlapping and
underlapping.
533
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The above knitting elem entsofthe tricotw arp knitting m achine are described asfollows,
* The Needle:
M odern Tricotw arp knitting m achines,apartfrom a smallnumber,are constructed
w ith com pound needles.The bearded needle,w hich untilrecently dom inated the
field oftricotknitting,can stillbe found running efficiently and reliably in thousands
ofm achines around the world.Its knitting action is,however,nonharm onic,and so
im posed m any Iim itationson the m achine builders.
The needles are set in tricks cut in the needle bed ofthe m achine
534
le the closing
, F hi
elem ents,being cast in units halfan inch long, are setin a jeparate bar
of th
. The cas
ting
e closing elem ents is required to ensure perfectly ac
them .
curate spacing betw een
* The Sinker:
The sinker is a thin plate ofm etalw hich is placed betw e
en aih needle.Th sinkirs
are usually castin units, one inch Iong,w hich in turn are screwed into the sinkerbar
.
WW'
Different nam es are given to different parts of the sinker according to their
operation.The neb ofthe sinker(1)and throa!(2)are used to hold down the fabri
c
whilethebell
yofthesinker(3)isusedasaknocking-overplatform
wa -a
535
Tricot machines are produced witb 2,3, or 4 guide bars,an arrangement which
requires the sam e num ber of warps to be used.Tricot m achines with a larger
numberofguidebarsareproducedinverysmallnumbers.
The knitting cycle or Stitth form atibn of the Tricot W arp Knitting M achine
spring-beardedneedles:(a)clearingandbeginningofyarnIaying;(b)yarnlaying;(c)completion
ofyarn Iaying;(d)underlapping;(e)pressing;(f)Ianding;(g)joining;(h)casting-off;(i)Ioop
form ing and sinking.
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a)Clearing
b)Yarnlaying
c)CompletionofyarnIaying
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g)Joining
h)Casting-off
i)Loopformingand sinking
Stitchformation orkni
ttingactionofaTricotwarp kni
ttingmachineequipped withBearded needle
aspacingbetweentwo adjacentneedlestothefrontfaceoftheneedlebed.Aftertheguidebar
536
againtothebackoftheneedlebedasshowninfigure(b).Asaresult,eachwarpyarnisIaidon
the needle hook.Yarn Iaying iscompleted w hen yarnsarrive onto the needle stem . Forthis,the
needlesIi
ftandtheyarnspassontotheirstems(figure-c).Onlythoseportionsoftheyatnwhich
run from the oId loopsto the guide needlesare laid on the needles. Forthis,atthe time ofbar
racking the centresofthe guide holes mustnotpassbelow the upperpointofthe needle head.
After the yarn has passed from the hook onto the needle stem (figure-c),the yarn is
underlapped, orbrought underthe needle hook. For this,the needles are Iowered so as to
bring the yarns under the needle hooks; the oId Ioop retained in the throat of sinker
approachestheneedlehook(figure-d).Astheyarnisunderlaphed,thetipsoftheneedlehooks
m ust be disposed between the sinker nibs;this ensures a reliable insertion ofthe new Ioop
undertheneedlehook.Further,thepresserpressestheneedlesandloses(figure-e)theaccess
underthe hookto the old Ioop.
0n furtberlowering,the old Ioopsslip along the needles onto the hooks, i.e.the operation of
Ianding iscarried out.In orderto reduce needle hookdisplacem entalong the press, the sinkers
closetotheneedlestobewrappedduringthiscycle(00).
' .
In position 'b',the main parts ofthe needles stak to rise so thatthe needle hooks open. The
underlapshoggingmovementisnow completed(600).
Inposi
tion'c',theneedlesareintheclearingposiiionwiththepreviousIoopsIyingonthestem
oftheneedle.Theclosingelementsriseslightl
ybutdonothrotrudeoutofthegroovesofthe
needles.The sinkers move backwards to relax the hold on the fabric. The guide bars startto
swingtheguidesinbetweentheneedlesontothehookside(1200).
Position'd'illustratestheguidesintheextremi
tyoftheswing.Theguidesofbothguidebars 1
deoftheneedlesthuscreatingan 1
are now shogged,usually one needle space,on the hooksi
overlap.Theclosingelementscontinuetheirupward movementinsidethe loops,restingonthe
c
needlestem (195).
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a) Knock-ove0r
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b)Holdingdown()of
the fabric-60
*-.
d)
th
c)Swingthroughof0the
4,
d)'Overlappingofth0e
guidebars-120
warpthreads-195
o u
-
.-:
/
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e)Takingthewarpthreads-
f)Closureoftheneedleand
2550
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g)Startoftheknock-over-3450
Sti
tchformationorkni
ttingactionofaTricotwarp knitting machineequipped withCompound needle
needlestartstodescend(2550).
In position 'f',the needlescontinue to descend.The rate,however,in w hich the two parts of
the needle descend is notequal.The main bodyofthe needle isgaining on the closing elem ent,
so thatthe hook isbeing closed.The previousIoopsrestoutsidethe closed hookon the closing
element,while the newly wrapped yarn is trapped w ithin the closed hook.The sinkers now
m ove backwardsto position theirbellies underthe hooks.lnthe same position ofthe kni
tting
cycle,theguidescan startthe new underlapshoggingmovement,which positionthem infront
0
oftheneedlestobewrappedduringthenextknittingcycle(315).
Figure 'g'showsthe laststep ofcurrent course production with the needles descending with
their respective closing elements into the knock-overposition.Tbe guide bars are now in the
midstoftheunderlapshoggingmovement(3450).
538
needle barso they can m ove away towardsthe back ofthe machine forthe restof
the knitting cycle.
The needle trick-plate verge actsasafabricsupportIedge and knock-oversurface.
Thefabric isdrawn doWnwardsfrom the needlesalmostparallelto the needle barat
an angle of120 to 160 degreesby a seriesoftake-down rollers.
The warp beamsare arranged above the needle barcentred overthe rockershaftso
thatwarp sheetspassdown to the guide barsoieitherside ofit.
The beam sare placed above the m achine so it is accessible at the frontforfabric
inspectionand atthe backformechanicalattentionto the knitting elements.
* The guide bars are threaded iommencing witb the middle bars and working
outwardsfrom eitherside ofth: rockershaft.
* Theguidebarsrenumberedfrom thefrontofthemachine.
@ W ith the Raschelarrangement there is accomm odation for at least four 32 inch
diameterbeam sorIarge numbersofsmalldiameterpattern beam s.
* The accessibility ofthe Raschelmachine,itssim ple knitting ad ion and itsstrong and
efficienttake-dow n tension m akes itparticularly suitable forthe production of
539
Pr* t/#
SiO e N
MO WIO
e
Trlek ptlw
F.m--*.
540
The loop w ithin the hook opensthe Iatch w hen the needle risesforclearing position
and closes itwhen the needle descends forknock-over.A broken end (thus an
emptyneedle)causestheIatchtostayclosed,sothatno loopscanbeformed.Such
a needle has to be m anually opened in order to allow Ioop form ation to resum e.
Raschelm achines are constructed in differentgauges ranging from 6 to 32 needles
perinch.
* Tritk Plate:
The Ioop form ation in a Raschelm achine,takes place on the upperedge ofthe trick
plate.This barcan be considered as a needle bed,sine the needles are placed in
trickscut into it.The top edge ofthe trick plate is designed to ensure perfectknockover operation w hich is of utm ost im portance when producing a fabric w ith Iong
underlaps.
= >
RaschelSinkerunit
Itm ustbe rem em bered thatthe Raschelm achines depend greatly on fabric tension
541
Latch guard
A closed hook does not receive a new yarn and causes a fault in the fabric
. The w i
is placed o
re
n
t
he
h
ook
s
i
de
of
t
he
needl
es
s
o
t
hat
t
he
f
l
i
ck
i
ng
I
a
t
f
chesare stopped and
orced dow n w hen the needlescontinue to ascend.
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Threeguide barsnestinginthesame
displacem entline
542
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To decrease the weight and to allow a greater num ber of pattern bars to be
assem bled, these bars are designed as narrow , light-weight strips of m etalonto
which individualguide fingersare attached.Holesare drilled and threaded into the
light-w eight guide bars at regular intervals, so that the individualguide fingers,
accom m odating theiryarns,can be fitted in any desired position.
These guide bars,although only partly threaded and containing only a few threads
each,are shogged individually according to the pattern.Each of them ,therefore,
must be mounted in a separate sliding bracket and driven by a separate pattern
chain.Being only partly threaded,they allow the m achine builderto set them atan
angle so thattheirguide eyes are setin the sam e displacem entIine.This principle is
Twodifferenttypesofguidebarassembliesareillustrated inthefollowingfigures(a)
and (b).Figbre(a)showsthe knitting zone ofastandard Raschelmachine with six
fully threaded guide bars.Figure (b)shows a similar machine with three fully
threaded guide bars and six pattern bars in three displacem ent Iines.
543
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a) Kni
ttingzoneofaRaschelmachine
equipped with si
x gui
de bars
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To increase knitting speeds, som e m achines are so designed as to allow only the
front bars to com plete the overlap m ovem ent before the needles startto descend.
ln this case,alIotherguide bars are capable ofinlay only.
Basit knitting ad ion ofa single needle bar tatch needle Rasthelw arp knitting
m achine:
The movement of the knitting elements of a Raschelmachine is illustrated in the following
figures. It is im portant to note at this stage that Raschelm achines are buil
t with different
knitting m ovements, according to the spcific requirements of the product. The following
explanation isonly one exampleofsuch a knitting action.
a) Theneedlesareatknock-overpositionjustafterthecompletionofthepreviousknitting
cycle.The sinkersmove forward to securethe fabricwhilstthe needle startsto rise from
knock-over.The guide barsnow producethe underlap movem ent.
544
<N-w*==r Wl
&
(bl
(*
(uelm rllp)
clearing
(e) overj.
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a) Theneedlesareatknock-overposition,afterthecompletion ofthepreviouscourse.
Both parts ofthe needles,togetherwith the trick plate,swing towards the back ofthe
machine and position themselves under the sinkers.Underlap shogging m ovem ent is
now carried out.
c) The needlesare in the clearing position with the previous Ioops resting on the stem.
Underlap shogging movem entisnow completed.
545
d) Theneedlebar,closingelementbarandtrickplateswingtothefrontofthemachine, so
thatthe guides m ove in between the needles to the hook side. The ground guide bars
are now shogged sidewaysto produce the overlap.
e) Theneedlebar,closingelementsbarandtrickplateswingback, sothattheguidesmove
between the needles to the back. The needles can startto descend w hen the ground
bars are at the back.The closing elem ents stay up, so that the hooks are closed
,
trapping within them the newlyw rapped yarns.
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lopsslide outsioe the closing elements. Needle bar,closing elements and trickplate continue
theirswingingtowardsthesinker.Underlapshoggingm ovementcan now start.
g) Theneedl
esdraw thenewl
ywrapped IoopsthroughthepreviousIoops. The swing movementis
nearlyfini
shed andthe guide barscontinueto shogthe underlapIateralm ovement.
1.Overlap
2.Lapping
3. Landing
4. Knock-over
546
b) lnformationconcerningthetypeandcountoftheyarnthreadedineachguidebar
c) Lappingmovementofeachbar.
d) Therun-inofeachbar.
e) Threadinginformationiftheguidebarsarenotfullyanduniformlythreadd
f) Fabricqualityandweight.
g) Thefinishingprocess.
.
The above-mentioned information varies widely fordifferent manufacturers and end- uses, so
that there is no pradicalIim it to the num ber of different fabrics that can be produced on
modernwarp knitting machines.
Tbe single-barstrlletures are not suitable formost comm ercialapplications. They are usually
very unstable dimensionally and some ofthem willeven spliteasily ifonl
y sli
ghtly damaged
Furthermore, most single-bar strudures exhibit an unbalanced Ioop strudure and Ioop.
inclination isverypronounced.
The bulk ofthe fabrics, manufactured today on tricot machines, are construded by two fully
threaded guide bars,fed from two separate warps and producing a different basic Iapping
movem ent.The relative m ovementofthetwo guide barsin com bination with the m agnitude of
theshogging,determ inesthe appearance aswellasthe propertiesofthe fabrics.
TricotFabritorFuIITricotStrud ure:
The basic lapping movem ent oftwo fully threaded guide barsisthe so- called tricotordouble
tricot.ln figure theschematiclapping m ovem entisillustrated with both guide barsknitting the
sqme l-and-l Iapping m ovem ent in opposite diredions. sucha Iapping movementproducesa
Iight-weightfabricsince the underlapsare very short.
Although the fabric is com merciall
y very attradive, i
t is only seldom used due to a major
disadvantage;eachwaleofthisfabricisconnededonlytotheadjacentwales, sothatthefabric
s/litsveryeasilyi
fayarnisbrokenorastitchdropjed.
547
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Frontbar:1-0/ 1-2
Back bar:1-2/1-0
As alImodern tricotm achines are equipped with a pattern m echanism which usesthree chain
linksforeach knitted course,the chain notationsare:
Frontbar:1-0-0/1-2-2
Backbar;1-2-2/1-0-0
LotknitFabric:
The m ostwidely produced warp knitted fabric isprobably locknit.The lapping movementofi
ts
two guide barsisillustrated in the following figure.W hile the back guide barshogs a l-and-l
lapping m ovem ent,asintricot,the frontguide barshogstwo needle spaces.
touch and togetherw ith a considerable elasticity m ake the fabric m ostsuitable forIadiesk
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t construction tendsto contrad widthwis
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finalwidth may o
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s mainly
on knittingconditions, yarn type,yarntension,etc.
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Frontbar:2- 3- 2I1-0-1
Backbar:1-0-0/1- 2-2
Reverse LotknitFabrit:
Thisfabric belongsto the othergroup oftwo fully threaded guide barfabrics
stable and stabl
y the semi, namel
e structures.In thisgroup ofstructures, the Iongerunderlaps prodqced by the
b
ackguide barare locked underthe shortunderlaps ofthef
rontguide barand are restrided in
movem ent.ltis made with a longerunderlap on the back barand a sh
guide bar. Reverse Iocknit isconsidered only a sem i
orterone on the front
stable fabric and stillshrinks considerably
on Ieaving the knittingzone.
Frontbar:1-2-2/1-0-0
Backbar:1-0-1/2-3-2
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SatinFabric(Three-NeedleStrudure):
A fabric with the same lapping movement on the back guide bar and an increased Iapping
m ovem ent on tbe front bar is called a satin fabric.The lapping m ovement ofthis fabric is
drafted schematically infigure and ascan be observed,the frontbarshogsone needlespace
longerthan in Iocknit.W hile the technicalface issimilarin appearance to Iocknit,the technical
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Frontbar:1-0-1/3-4- 3
Backbar:1-2-2/1-0-0
Sharkskin Fabric:
The sharkskin fabric isconstruded asa reverse version ofsatin.The loop structure showsthe
Iongerunderlapsofthe backguide barlocked underthe shortunderlapsofthefrontguide bar-!
These trapped underlaps restrictthe shrinking potentialoftbe fabric which istherefore more?
rigidandmorestablethanthosepreviouslydescribed.
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The surface of the technical back is rough which is probably the reason for the name
'Sharkjkin''.The lapping movem entsare illustrated in figure and the chain notationsare:
Frontbar:1- 2-2/1-0-0
Backbar:1-0-1/3-4-3
Four-Needle Strudure:
Fabric with longerunderlapson the frontguide barare also manufadured. Such isthe fourneedle satin with a 4-and-1 Iapping movementas illustrated in figure. Asfortbree-needle satin,
thisfabric exhibits a very sm ooth and shiny technicalback due to the Iong parallelunderlaps.
Like allfabrics with free and Iong front barunderlaps , itshrinks on Ieaving the knitting zone
and urlsatthe selvedgestowardsthetechnicalback.
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Satin Structure
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Sharkskin'
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aric
back theheavierthefabricandgreatertberiskofsnagging.jhechainhotationsofthisfabric:
Frontbar:4-5-3/1-0-2
Backbar:1-0-0/1-2-2
A 4-and-1 movement ofthe back guide bar produces even higherstability and decrease
shrinkageevenfurther.Thisfabricijcalled:fol-needlesharkskin andtheIappingmovementis
illustratedinfi
gure.Thechainnotationsoftii
sfabricare:
Frontbar:1-2-2/1-0-0
Backbar:1-0-2/4-5-3
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551
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Forbrushed fabrics,the long underlapsproduced by the frontguide bar, are raised during the
finishing process by rollers covered with card-clothing. The metalcaid rollers rais the pile
gradually and aftera few such stages, the pile isformed.A differentamountoffibrescan be
broken to form varying effed s.
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Loop pile fabric
ltisalso possible to shearthe pileso thata veloureffed is produced. The Iapping m ovem entof
atypicalbrushedfabriccdnstrudion isillustrated intheabovefigure. In thisfabric,the Iapping
movementsofboth barsarecarried outin the same diredio:. In thisway the fibres raised out
ofthe long underlaps ofthe frontguide barcan be easily'pulled with no resistance from the
b
fackguide barunderlaps.Furthermore, thethreadsoftheback'guidrbarhelptoreducethe
abric width which occursanyway during this mechanicaltreatm ent. The density and heightof
pile can be increased by increasing the front guide bar underlaps to four, five or six needle
Spaces.
Greatquantities ofbrushed fabrics are m ade with triacetate yarns in the frontguide barand
polyam ide yarnsin the backguide bar.
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The production of pile knits has steadily grown in variety,im portance,and volume.They ar
construded as fleece, high pile, terry, and velour knits. Depending upon the type o '
construdion,theyare used firfurfabrics,rugs,and fashion apparelfabrics.
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Fleete knitfabric:
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Thekindsoffibresused aredependentupontheuseobjective.Theyareusedforsuchpurposes
asIiners,active sportswear,outerwear,and plush toys.
Fleece knits can be made on circular knit machines in any one of three di
fferent types of
construdion.The m achinesm ay be complex,utilizing eitherspring orIatch needlesemploying F
sinker-top,dial
,cylinder,ordial
/cylindermechanisms.W iththisequipment,variouseffectscan
be produced.
554
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Schematicofthree-yarnfleececonstruction
Tw o thread fleece:
Anothertype of fleece knit is the two-yarn system .One yarn,which provides the ground or
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Schematicoftwo-yarn double lay-in fleece construd ion Structure ofpileknitshowingsliveryarn before raising
555
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Thetechniquesforkni
tting high pilefabricsare quite complex.The slowerand morecommon
m ethod usesa plain knitwith heavyyarn forthe background and a carded sliverforthe pile.As
the needles pullthe ground yarn to form Ioops,they catch and draw thesliverthrough,causing
thefibrestogetIocked into place asthestitch istightened.Produdionrunsfrom 5to 11yards
(4.5to 10m)perhour.
557
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The producti
on ofsliverorhigh-pile furry fabricson circularknitting machines is based on the
equipment,a so-called carding device,is employed to feed-in fibres into the Iatch needles at
each knitting feeder.Normally each carding unit consists oftwo feed rollers forthe sliver, a
carding rollefand a doffer.The feed rollers draw in the sliverand present it to the carding
roller,w hich has a m uch higher surface speed in relation to the feed rollers. Asa resul
tihe
fibresarestretched (IaidmoreorIessIinear)andparallelised.Thedoffertakesoverthefibres
from the carding rollerand com bs them into the needles with specially shaped wires. Atthis
fibre combing pointthe needle isin cleared position.
For the production of coloured or strudure-patterned high-pile fabrics, or combinations
containing colourand structure,the needles at each com bing point are selected according to
the pattern in order to obtain fibres of the corresponding colour. lt can be seen that the
combed-in fibres are procqssed togetherwi
th the ground yarn during Ioop formation. The
fibresprotrude from the fabricbase on the technicalIeftside.
A fastqrmethod usescircular-knitting units operating on a cut loop and ground-yarn principle.
Another technique is the cut-pile and ground-yarn m ethod on a Rachelmachine. High-pile
fabricscan also be m ade on double-knit equipmentto knit plain and Jacquard fleece with the
aid ofspecialdevicesincluding an inlayyarn carrier.
Kni
tted terryfabricsaremadeofavariation ofthejerseyknitconstrudionwheretwoyarnsare
fed simultaieously into the same needles.Thefabricis knitted by a plaiting techniquewhich
causesone yarn alwaysto appearon the face and the otheralwgyson the backofthe c10th. As
the fabric is knitted,the face yarn is pulled outby smalldevices to form the Ioop pile, Ieaving
the otheryarn to serve asthe ground. Knitted terfy isproduced in weightsranging insuitability
forrobesand beachwearto fashion apparel.
Circularknitted plush orterryisafabricwith yarn loopsprotrudingfrom thqfabricbaseononeoron
both fabric sides.M ostofthe plush fabricsproduced have one- sided Ioops.Plush can be
ss8
Face side
Back side
The mostim portantdem ands are a firm fixing ofthe plush Ioops in the fabric base and a very
uniform Ioop length.The more uniform the Ioop length is,the Iess materialis Iost when the
Ioopsare cutto produce cut-pile fabrics.Therefore the base fabric should not be too l
oosely
stitched.On the technicalrightside a precise plating ofthe plush yarn through the ground yarn
isextremely im portantduring the cutting processforcut-pile fabrics.In usage thispre-requisite
isIargely responsible forthefirm nessofthe pile.
Single-sided plated plush orterry isa popularleisure and sportswearstructure found in both
VelourKnitFabricorHenkelplush Fabrit:
Knitted velourfabricsare constructed in the sam e mannerasknitted terry.Afterthe materialis
knitted,the loop pile is sheared at a uniform heightand then brushed.So velouris achieved
during finishing by cropping orshearing the Ioops in both directions,to leave the individual
fibresexposed as asoftvelvety surface whilstthe ground Ioops remain intad .ltrequiresa fine
gauge strudure and involves a considerable Ioss of cropped yarn.The bearded needle sinker
w heelmachine has long been renowned forthis type offabric construdion.This produces a
soft suedelike surface thatis somewhat Iike thatofvelvet.However,knitted velour is softer
and has betterdrapability.lt is used for such fashion apparelas men's shirts and wom en's
dresses.
559
threads which join the chaining wales to each other The crochet galloon machine,
developed by Sand
as
.
b) Therearenosinkers,insteadafixedhold-backbarisfi
ttedinfrontoftheknockover
-
c) The closed Iap pillarstitches and inlay threads are controlled and supplied as
separate warp and weftrespedively.Each needle is Iapped from below by itsow n
warp guide which is clipped to a bar whose autom atic one- needle overlap and
return underlap shog is fixed and is controlled from an eccentric cam whilst its
upwardsand downwardsswing isderived from a rockershaft.
560
Weftthren
lnlay bars
Trick plate
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W arp w ide
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d) ThewarpyarnisoftenplacedIow atthefrontofthemachine.Theweftyarn,which
is often placed above and towards the back of the machine,supplies the carrier
tubes clipped to the spring-loaded inlay bars fitted above the needle bar and
shogged atthe rate ofone Iinkpercourse from pattern chainsaround a drum atone
end ofthe m achine.There are usually up to two warp guide bars and tfp to sixteen
weftinlay bars,which maybe mechanicall
y oreled ronically controlled.
561
Side Vi-
Front View
Carbine needle
Em broidee or Lace needles:They are carbine needles with pointed heads that can
penetrate pre-woven structures to produce em broidery effects.The needles can be
arranged forcoarsergaugesorforfancy set-outs,when the floating inl
ay threads may
be cutto produce separated fringed edgings.
'
* The tom pound needle:It patented by M iillerproduces less stress on the yarn during
Ioop formation so a widerrange ofyarnscan be used,and compound needlesIastup to
six tim esIongerthan bearded needles.
* Latch needles: It operate at uneconom ic speeds and have a short Iife due to Iatch
breakage.
562
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1.Theweftinl
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3.Thewarpoverlapwrap
<
4.W arpknock-overandunderlap
DifferenttypesofCrochetFabrics
563
A. Bearded needle,having a cranked end forIocation in thetricked and drilled needle bar.
564
C. Divider,occupying each rem aining space, usually having the sam e shaped frontas the
sinkerbutwith an extended tailatthe back.
D. Knocking-over Bit,one directly beneath each sinker and divider, having a 'throat'for
holdingtheIoopsand a'nose'forknocking-over.
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a) ThreadIaying:
Thecarriermovesacrossthe knitting head Iaying the yarn on the nosesofthesinkers
and dividersand the beard side ofthe needles.
565
b) Sinking:
Theslurcock(oneforeachknittinghead)travellingbehindthecarrier,contactsthejacks
and isshapedso thateach jackin turn pushesitssinkerforwardsto kinka Ioop around
everytwo adjacentneedles.
c) Dividing:
The catchbarm ovesthe dividersforw ardscollectively,whilstthe needle bartipsslightly
outwardsto allow the double loopsto be divided into equalsized needle Ioopsaround
every needle.
d) Pressingande)Landing:
The needle bar descends placing the new loops inside the hooks of the beards.The
vely
catch bar is now Iowered so that the sinkers as w ellas the dividers are collecti
controlled by itforthe restofthe knitting cycle.They now startto w ithdraw.The needle
bar m oves towards the sinker verge causing the beards to be pressed. A further
dow nward m ovem entofthe needle bar'Iands'the previouscourse of Ioops,resting on
the knocking-overbits,on to the closed beards.
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b)Sinkingtheloops
c)DividingtheIoop
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K nitting action orM ovementofthe knitting elem entsto produceone course ofloops
The drop-off:As the needle bar m oves away from the pressing-edge,the sinkers and
dividersw ithdraw so that the new ly-form ed course of Ioops drops offtheirnosesonto
the knocking-overbits.
f) Completionofknotk-over:
566
Holding e ow n:Asthe sinkersand dividers move collectively forward to hold down the
fabric,the needle barrisesto the thread-laying position.The catch baris slightly raised
to releasethe sinkersforindividualmovementatthe startofthe nextcourse.
On coarsergauge m achines itis possible to accom modate sinkersw ith reinforced butts
between every needle space thuselim inating di
viders and theirad ion.Some m achines
have selvedge dividerswith a Iowerforward ledge so that when the yarn carrierstops
overone dividerthe nextdividerinw ardsfrom itwillbe the lastto take thattraverse of
yarn whichwillslide into itsspecially-shaped lowerthroatand fbrm atightselvedge.
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The Fashioning action oftheStraightbarfram e
a) Thefashioningpointsortransferneedlesdescendandtheneedlebartipsbackwardsto
clearthem .
567
e) Theneedlesandpointsnow descendandtheneedlesboxwiththepointsagainsothey
receive the transferred Ioops.Asthe needlesand points descend below the sinkers,the
sinkersand di
viders move forwardsto hold dow n the Ioops.
N etting or N et Fabrics
568
A -Tulle,B-Net,C-Bobbinetfabric
TypesofNets:
There is a variety of netting;som e are produced underspecific trademarks.Among the best
known standard fabrics are noted here.These nets are classified as bobbinet,fishnet, filet,
maline,ortulle.
569
* Bobbinet:Itisahexagonalmeshthatmaybeverythinandtransparent(bridalillusion)
orfairly coarse and opaque (casementcloth),depending on the yarn countofthe
m aterialused to produce it.M ost bobbinet sold in the United States is produced in
England and France.
* Tulle:itisa fine,stiffhexagonalnetm ade from silk ornylon yarns.Itisvery similarto
bobbinet but Iighter in weightthan bridalillusion;some references do notseparate
bobbinetand tulle.Itisgenerally used fortrim m ing oroverdraping ofdressgoods.
* Fishnet:Itisa coarse open-m esh construdion created by knotting the m esh in a m anner
similarto afisherm an'sknot.
@ Filet net is m ade with a square mesh,and m aline net,used in m illinery,isa fine,very
thin,diaphanous,open diam ond shape with hexagonalholes.
570
Lace Fabrics
The main featuresofLace fabrit:
Lace isan open workfabricconsisting ofa networkofyarnsformed into intricate designs.Lace
m ay be hand orm achine made,and intricate patterns can be produced by eithertechnique.
Both narrow and wide Iace fabrics are available.The edges of the fabric m ay be straight or
curved.
It isan im portanttrim ming,foritisused fortable cloths,curtains,handkerchiefs,dresses,and
underwear.Lace consistsoftwo elem ents:
* The pattern,flower,orgroup,w hich forms the closer-worked and more solid portion,
and
* Theground orfilling,which servesto hold the patterntogether.
Partsoftate Construttion:
ln identifying various kindsofIace,referenceshave been m ade to theirdesigns.These patterns
are constructed ofdifferentparts,each having a particulardesignation.
.
* Bride,or Reseau:It is the fine yarn that form s the m esh which provides the sheer
ground(background)betweentheprominentpartsofthepattern.
@ Cordonnet:Itisthe heavyyarn thatoutlinesthe pattern.
* Picot:ltisadecorative Ioop used both in the pattern and on the edge ofthe lace.
* Toile:lt representsthe predom inant parts ofthe pattern made by braiding,knotting,
Iooping,ortw istingthe yarn.
571
UsesofLates:
Lace is a decorative fabric used in appareland hom e furnishings.Narrow Iaces are used for
trimsand insertions;wide Iacefabricsare used forcurtains,table cloths,and garments.
Laces are m ade in different widths for different uses. For exam ple, a narrow lace with a
scalloped edge is used fortrimm ing a baby's dress;a Iace w ith slitsoreyelets is so made that
ribbon m aybe runthrough it.
TherearesevenmajorusesofIaces:
1. All-over laces:An all-over Iace is a fabric upto 36''wide with the design or pattern
spread overthe w idth of the fabric and repeated in i
ts Iength.M any kinds of design
motifsandcoloursareused.Thefabriccanbeproducedinwidthsofoveroneyard(1
m)thataredevoidofscallops.Thefabriciscutandsoldfrom theboltlikewovendress
goods.The dressm akercuts itto pattern and makes it up into formalevening,dinner,
and cocktaildressesand blouses.
2. Flouncing:Flouncing appliesto Iaces 18 to 36 inches wide w ith a plain edge atthe top
and a scalloped edge atthe bottom ofthe fabric.Itis used forwide ruffles orflounces.
Often these flouncesare arranged in tiersto form a skirt.
Galloon:A galloon is a Iace upto 18 inches wide with a scalloped edge at top and
bottom .It m ay be used as an insertion between two cutedges offabric,orit may be
applique'd to afabric in bandsorasa border.
4. Insertion:Insertion isa bandofIace sewn between two piecesoffabricoron asingle
piece of fabric at the straight top or bottom edges.A variety of insertion is footing,
which hasa straightedge attop and bottom butno pattern.Footing isoften used atthe
bodiceoratthe bottom hem ofaslip.
5. Beading:Beading has slotsthrough which ribbon may be run.These slotsmay be found
in edgingsorgalloonsbutare m uch more comm on in insertions.
6. Edging:An edging is a Iace neverm ore than 18''wide that is straight at the top and
scalloped atthe bottom .Itissewn to the edge ofa dress,gown,blouse,handkerchief,
orIingerie.
M edallion:A m edallion is a Iace in a single design that can be appliqud to a fabric
ground forornamentation.It is som etimes used in the cornersofnapkins,ortowels or
asanornamentfpradress,blouse,orlingerie.
572
can snag easily. W hatever the quality, the construction of Iace requires som e care in
handling to prevent snagging and pattern distortion.The material is quite open; thus,
dim ensionalstability may be a problem in Iaundering and dry cleaning.Lace should either
be Iaundered by hand ordry cleaned,depending upon its nature.Ifit is to be Iaundered,
Iace should be either washed by hand squeezing suds through it without rubbing or by
putting itinto a mesh orc10th bag and machine washing atagentle cycle.Properly heat-set
nylon and polyesterIace can be handled with minimaldifficulty.Ironing orpressing should
be done carefully by placinga c10th overthe Iace to avoid tearing.
As was just indicated, Iace is important in both clothing and home furnishingsqThe
lnternationalFabricare Insti
tute suggests to consumers the following guide lines forthe
wearand care ofclothingcontaining Iace:
TypesofIace:
The two main typesofIacesare ''real''orhandm ade,and machine m ade.Linenthread isusuall
y
usedforrealIace and also expensive Iaces,butcotton,rayon,nylon,silkorotheryarnsare now
usedforvariousqualitiesandtypesand also formachine Iace.
The form erissofter,m ore irregularin mesh and pattern,and more expensive.Handmade laces
are created by m anipulating asingle yarn orgroup ofyarnswith bobbins,needles,and hooksto
produceintricatestitchformations.ThemajorclassificationsofhandmadeIacesarebobbinIace
(pillow), needle point Iace, crocheted (including Duchesse), embroidered Iace, darned
(includingsomefiletIace),knotted,tatting.
Handmade Iaces have always been highly prized as trim m ing for appareland '
as decorative
piecesforthe home.Unusually beautifuland intricately designed Iaces are retained in families
as heirlooms and are displayed in museumsasworksofart.Today,such Iacesasneedle point,
bobbin,darned,crocheted,and knotted are duplicated so expertly by machine thatthe average
consumerisnotable to determine whethera Iace ism achine-m adeorhandm ade.
573
a) HandmadeLaceorRealLace:
1. Bobbin Lace:
Som etim es called pillow Iace,the Iace design is draw n either on a pillow or on a
paper that is placed overthe pillow .Sm all pegs or pins are stuck into the pillow
along the design,and a Iarge num ber of sm allbobbins of thread are m anipulated
around the pegs orpinsto produce the Iace.A num berofthreads,each on its own
bobbin,are interlaced by tw isting and plaiting around the pins to produce the m otif
in a m esh construction.Asthe Iace is com pleted,the pinsare pulled outand the Iace
is rem oved from the pillow .M aking pillow Iace requires great skilland dexterity,for
aj m any asthree hundred bobbins m ay be needed to m ake som e patterns.
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ValenciennesIace.
574
Duchesse lace
Binche Iace
2. Darned Lace:
It has a design darned by a chain stitch onto a m esh background.W hen m ade by
hand,the design ofdarned Iace is sew n w ith thread and needle passed in and outof
a m esh net.There are two principaltypes ofdarned Iace.
Filet Lace
Antique Lace - hasa darned Iace pattern pn a rectangularm esh ground.
Filet Lace - hasa darned Iace design on a square m esh ground.
3. Needle pointLace:
Thedesi
gnforneedle pointisdrawn on parchmentstitchedto a backing ofstoutIinen,and the
lace ismade byfilling inthe patternwith button hole sti
tches.W hen the Iace iscompleted,the
parchm entisremoved.Needle pointIace ismade entirelyw ith a sew ing needle and thread.
A design is drawn on paper,thread isIaid overthe design,and the thread isthen sewn
in place with button hole and blanket stitches.
.
575
Alenon Lace
Venetian pointLace
Alenon Lace - has a solid design with a cord out line on a sheer hexagonal
ground.Itisdelicate butdurable.
MilanLace-isatapelacewithaneedlepointmeshandaIoop(picot)edging.
Rose point Lace - is a Venetian needle point lace having a delicate floraland
scrollpattern w ith a cord outline.
(brides)ofIoopsandloopededges.
4. Crocheted Lace:
U
X
Irish Iace
576
identified by a circle Iike m otifand picots around the edge ofthe m otif.Clover Ieaf
and w heeldesignsare the m ostpopular,butotherpatternsare also m ade.
Tatting Lace
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577
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b) MathineMadeLace:
Nearly aIIthe Iaces classified as ''realIaces''can be duplicated by machine w ith slight
variationsand sim plifications.
M achinery for m aking Iooped net w as invented about1764.Butthe forerunner of the
present Iace machine,the bobbinet m achine,was patented by John Heathcote in the
earl
y 1800sand was Iaterm odified by severalotherinventors,one ofwhom wasJohn
M any ofthe Iaces available today are produced on raschelknitting m achines orby
em broidering a sheerbase fabric.Knitted Iace ispredom inantin the m arket.The name
ofa Iace m ay derive from the city in w hich is originally produced orby design features
578
1. Leavers Lace:
The Ieavers lace m achine can produce the m ost intricate patternsfrom any type of
yarn into fabrics upto ten yards w ide.lt is a huge,com plex m achine that takes an
operatortw o to three w eeks to thread.Very thin, round, brass bobbins containing
up to 300 yds each are individually conveyed by carriages m oving back and forth
from one warp to another.As each bobbin is m oved to a predeterm ined position,it
sw ings betw een the w arp yarns and w raps its yarn around one w arp before it is
m oved to another.Since there are about 20 bobbins perinch,very intricate designs
are possible.The fabrics can be fairly expensive. Leavers Iace is used to a great
extent in the dressindustry.
2. Nottingham Lace:
.
The Nottingham m achine originated in Nottingham ,England.It also utilizes sw inging
brass bobbins but produces a flat Iace that is coarser than leavers lace. Its large
overallpatternsare used forsuch purposes astable cloths.
3. Bobbin Lace:
The Bobbin m achine em ploys the braiding principle.The Iace produced has a fairly
heavy texture,w ith an angular appearance and a uniform count.Bobbin lace Iacks
the fine texture and flow ing Iines ofthe Iaces produced by otherm achines.
4. RaschelLace:
Knitting m achines can be constructed to m ake Iace resem bling levers and crocheted
Iaces. The Raschel m achine, w hich has its needles set horizontally instead of
vertically as for knitting, can produce at high speed inexpensive Iace fabrics of
m anm ade filam entyarns.
5. Ratin Lace:
It is a m achine m ade Iace that has a ground ofheavy Ioops resem bling that ofterry
c10th.
6. SchiffliLace:
Although the schifflidesign closely resemblesIace,itisproduced by an em broidery
technique on the Schifflim achine developed in St.Gall,Sw itzerland.lt is produced
now by Swijs descendants from St.GallIiving in the northeastern part of New
Jersey,around Union City.
The m achine w as nam ed Schiffli,w hich m eans ''little boat'',because ofthe shape
ofthe shuttle.Item ploys682 to 1020 needlesto produce fine and intricate designs in
appliqus and em broideries on aIIkinds offabrics,particularly sheerfabrics such as
batiste,Iaw n,and organdy.The pattern is controlled by punched cards sim ilarto
those used in the Jacquard Ioom . The finished m aterial Iooks Iike eypensive
handw ork but costs m uch Iess.The fabrics produced range from narrow trim m ings
towidthsofupto15yards(14m),includingpileconstrudion.
579
Nonwovensareflexible,porousproductsconsistingofone ormorefibre I
ayers.Theseparate fibresmay
eitherbe preferentially oriented in one diredi
on ormay be deposited in a random manner.They are
bonded,by chemical,thermalor mechanicalprocesses into textile produds.Nonwovens are mainly
planarstrudures-Thisrelativelyyoungbranch ofthetextileindustryhasexpanded enormouslyafterthe
secondworld-warbecauseofthehigh produdion ratesandthe resultingcostsavings.
Contemporary nonwoven fabric datesto the early 1930s.Atthattime,a few textile com panies
began experim enting with bonded materials as a way of utilizing cotton waste. The first
com mercialprodudion of the produds now called nonwovens began in 1942 in the United
Statesin an effortto producefabricdired lyfrom fibres.The marketfornonwoven produdshas
experienced tremendousgrowth and has potentialform ore.
'
Nonwovensmay beclassifiedaseitherdisposableordurabligoods.Disposable,ornondurable,
nonwovensinclude such one-tim e use produd sasdiapers,m edicaldressings,household wipes,
and disposable protective clothing.Durable goodsare used forapparelintedacings,automobile
headliners,road underlaym ents,and carpets.
M anufad ure:
The basicsequence ofstepsin manufacturing contemporaw nonwovenfabricsisasfollows:
Preparation ofthe fibre---+ webformation ----+.web bonding---+ drying---+ curing ---+
finishing.
Forfilms,the chem icalsolution isprepared and extruded,orcast,asafilm .
Raw M aterials:
Polyesteris the m ostfrequently used fibre in the United States;olefin and nylon are used for
theirstrength,and cotton and rayon areused forabsorbency.Some acrylic,acetate,and vinyon
are also being used.
Fibresare seleded onthe basisoftheirpropertiesand expeded pedormance in end uses.New,
first-quality fibres are preferred over reused or reprocessed fibres.Both staple and filament
fibresare used,and itispossible to blend fibresofdifferentIengthsaswellasfibresofdifferent
genericgroups.The seledion offibresdependson the productproposed,the care typically
given it,and the expected ordesired durability.Asin the m anufacture ofaIIfabrics,the costof
the fibresused isim portant,asitinturn influencesthe costofthe finalprodud .
W eb Form ation:
580
W ebformationisthecreaiionofaIooselyjoined sheetstrudurebylayingdownfibresinoneof
severaltechniques including,but notlim ited to, dry-laid and wet-laid webs, spunbonding,and
casting film s.Both staple and filament fibres are used to form the web, which is usually too
weakto beusedwithoutadditionalprocessing.
1. Dry-laid w eb:
A dry-laid web isform ed by a processsim ilarto that used to produce a card sliverin
spinning.Fibrescan be separated by suspending them in an airstream and blow ing
them onto a beltorby using a m echanicalcard to form a uniform web on a m oving
belt.The fibres m ay be som ew hatparallelto each otherin a random web;they can
be m ade perpendicularby alternating Iayersoffibresatrightangles;orthe web m ay
have a parallelfibre arrangement similar to that of a combed yarn web. Fibre
bonding is achieved either through the use of a binder or adhesive or by the
inclusion in the blend of heat-sensitive fibres, w hich softn and fuse w i
th other
fibres,helping to sealthe finalfabric.
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581
This issim ilarto the processof m aking paper.The fibres are suspended in waterto
achieve a uniform suspension.Thisflows overthe m oving screen.W hen the water
filters out, the fibres rem ain in the form of a wet web.The rem aining water is
squeezed out and the fabric is dried.Further bonding m ay be achieved w ith rollers.
A bonding agent, such as therm osensitive fibres or an adhesive, m ay be
incorporated in the suspension to bind the web together as i
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a. Spunbopding:
This method isused forman-m ade filamentfibresthat meltunderheat,such as
. polyester.Spunbonding isa process by which fabricsare produced directly from
a therm oplastic polym er such as polyester, nylon, polypropylene, or
polyethylene.The m olten polym er is extruded through a spinnerette,cooled
slightly in the air,and laid on a moving conveyorbeltto form a continuousweb.
Asthe web cools,thefibresbond.
The pattern of the spun-bonded fabric and arrangement oftbe fibres can be
varied in severalw ays.The spinnerette can be rotated to deliverfilaments in
differentpatternsandarrangements;ajetofair(acontrolledstream ofair)can
be introduced to tangle the filam ents;the conveyor can be moved at variable
speeds to collect different quantities offilaments at selected Iocations;and
applying an electricalchargeto m akethefibresIoop and crim p.
Spuhbondedfabricsare strong because ofthe filamentfibresand are noteasilytorn.
Theyare usedforawidevarietyofproductsrangingfrom apparelinterlinings,carpet
backing,furniture and beddingto baggingand packing m aterial.Spunbonded fabrics
m ay be used in geotextilesto controlerosion orin constructing road.Som e
582
spunbonds m ade from olefins are used as a tough,especially durabl'
e substitute
for paperin w allcoverings,charts,m aps,tags and the like.
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Fabrics made by this process include M irafi 140, made from nylon and
polypropylene;Celestra polypropylene; Reem ay polyester;Tyvek polyethylene;
Typarpolypropylene;Bondtex polyester;Cerex nylon;and Bidim polyester.
b. M eltBlow ing:
M elt blowing also forms fabrics diredly from fibres, but it differs from
spunbonding in thatm olten fibre filam entsare attenuated and broken into short
Iengths asthey exitfrom the spinnerettes.In this process,the m olten polym eris
forced through a spinnerette into a high-velocity air stream .The im pad of the
airbreaks the filam ent into shortfibres,w hicb thn collect on a m ovihg belt to
form a w eb.Coolair distributes the fibres onto a m oving screen.As the fibres
coolthey bond,form ing a w hite,opaque w eb offine fibre.Because the fibres in
m eltblown nonwovensare fine,the fabrics m ake good filterm aterials.
c- r
My-
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583
11/.Film Fibrillation orExtrusion protess:
There is another m ethod offabric construction that does not startw ith a fibre but
Em* ssing
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Oo
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W eb Bonding:
Afterthe web isformed,bondsbetween thefibresm ustbe strengthened and stabilized.W ebs
are bonded byoneofthefollowing processes:
1. Chemicalbonding,witheitherIatexorchemicalreagents
2. Thermalorheatbonding,w i
theitherhotairora calender
3. Mechanicalbonding,byeitherneedle punchingorhydroentanglement
1. Chem italBonding:
surface texture than do those that have been com pletely coated by an adhesive. 584
Binderand adhesives used in m aking nonwoven fabrics include acrylic Iatexes, polyvinyl
acetate copol
ym ers,pol
yvinylchloride copol
ym ers, nitriles,ethylene vinylchloride,and
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585
Heatand pressure can be applied to bind fibres into a w eb.The two com m on thermal
bonding m ethods are calendaring and air heating. In air heating, hot air fuses fibres
within the web and on the surface ofthe web to m ake high-loft Iow -density fabrics.The
hot air is blown through the w eb in a conveyorized oven or sucked through the web
w hile itis passed overa vacuumed porous drum .In the calendaring process,the web is
draw n overand between heated cylindersto produce strong,Iow-loftfabrics.Spunbond
and m eltblow n nonwovens therm ally bond w hen the m olten flaments harden after
extrusion.Passing the spunbonded orm eltblown fibre w ebs betw een heated cylinders
called calendar rolls bonds fabrics m ore com pletely.Design effectscan be produced if
these cylinders have patterns em bossed on theirsurfaces.Heat can also be applied to
webs by infrared radiation orultrasound..
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Calendarbonding process
3. M ethanicalBonding:
combinedwithsomebulk,theyareavailableinweightsfrom 50to285grams(1.7to10
oz)andinthicknessesfrom 15to 160m ils.
Two basicstepsare involved in the construction ofneedle-punching nonwovens:
586
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b.
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The substrate may be filam ents, a scrim , or som e other form . Placem ent of the
substrate in the m iddle ofthe fibre web im proves the strength and structuralintegrity
ofthefinished needle-punched fabric.
The strength of needle-punched fabrics also depends on the fibre arrangem ent w ithin
the webs.Iffibresare placed pa/allelto each other,tbe finished fabric willhave good
strength in thatdirection butw illtend to be w eak in the opposite direction.Ifthe fibres
are in a random arrangem ent,strength isequalin aIIdirections.A tw o-step processfirst '
tacksthewebwith30to60punchespersquareinch(4.7to9.3persquarecm)andthen
punches with 800 to more than 2500 penetrationspersquare inch (125 to 390 per
squarecm).The highernumberof punchesisused forfabricssuch asblankets,which
are expectedto be subjected to considerable handlingduringuseand care.
The properties of needle-punched fabrics depend on the Iength and characteristics of
the fibres,the physica!properties ofthe w eb,and the techniques used to produce the
w eb.M ost needled fabrics Iack any structuralpattern because the needles punch and
interm ingle the fibres in such a random w ay thatthe fabricsudace appears uniform .
Needle-punched A brfc; produced with a mod@ed needle bed Jnd needles th/t
penetrutebeyondthestldleekoform Ioopson theblrkcanbemldetoresembleloop
pile,velounorvelveteen.TheIoopseithei@rele# uncutorarecutJpdbrushedtoWve
thexlldleeuppeqrunceo;thepile-wovenA :rfc.
Needle-punched fabricsfrequently are found in carpeting and otherfloorcoverings,w all
coverings,blankets,padding m aterial,insulation m aterials,industrialfabrics,and fabrics
forvehicles.
587
II.Hydroentangling:
jets to entangle the fibres,causing them to curland knot around each other. These
Spunlacing is often used in m aking kitchen wipes. The w ipes have a regular pattern of
holes surrounded by tightly entangled fibres. M any w ipes are also adhesively bonded
forincreased w etstrength.
DR#FORMED WEBS
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111.Stiteh bonding:
For the stitchbonding technique fibre w ebs are stitched through to hold the fibres
together. M aliw att fabrics are fibre w ebs that have been stitched t
ogether. The
resulting fabrics are used as lining fabrics, furnishing fabrics insulating m aterials
,
f
base
abrics fortufted goods,and in industrialand geotextiles. M alivliesfabrics,used in, felts
packing m aterials, insulation m aterials, and utility textiles are created by form ing,
,
stitchesfrom the fibres ofthe web itself. No additionalyarnsare required.
Otherbranded processesare kunitand m ultiknit. Kunitfabrics are form ed by feeding a
w eb offibres into a m achine w here a type ofcom pound knitti
ng needle formsknitting
stitches from the fibre w eb. These stitches hold the web together
and form a fabricthat
may have eithera plushlike,furlike
atappearance. Uses include liningsforclothing
, orfl
and shoes,plush fortoys, autom otive interiorfabrics
, acousti
caland therm alinsulation
packaging m aterial, and base fabrics to w hich coatings m ay be applied
,
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n the m ultiknit
588
process, two fabrics form ed by the kunit process are united into a double-sided,
m ultilayered fabric with knitting stitches m ade by a com pound needle w ith a sharp
pointthatcan penetrate both fabrics.Applications include insulation m aterials,garm ent
interlinings, base m aterials for m olded textile com posites, and as a replacem ent for
foam in carand furniture upholstery.
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Finishing:
Thefinalstage inthe manufacture ofnonwovensisfinishing,which includesdrying,curing,embossing,
printing,and dyeing.Hot- airovens,infrared Iights,rollers over beated cans,orhigh - frequency
electricalequipmentcan provide the drying action,which also removes any sol
ventsremaining in the
fabric.Manyofthesefinishesaresimilartothoseusedforstandardwovenorknittedfabrics.
Care:
Care ofnonwovensdependson severalfactors,includingthe fibre used,the thicknessand diredionof
fibre I
ayintheweb,theadhesi
ve system used,and thefinishesand coloursapplied.Obviously,thecare
procedures for durable products willdiffer from.those for di
sposable products. Procedures for
discardingdisposablediapersand medicalproductsarenow regulated in somemunicipalities.
Im podantetonom icadvantagesinclude:
1.
II.
111.
(very)hi
ghprodudionrates,forexampleupto morethantenmetersperminutefordrp
IV.
V.
589
The appearance of nonwoven fabrics may be paperlike, feltlike, orsim ilar to that of woven
fabrics.They m ay have a soft,resilient hand, orthey may be hard,sti
ft orboardy with Ii
ttle
pliability.They may be as thin as tissue paperor many timesthickr. Nonwovens m ay be
translucent or opaque. Their porosity m ay range from high, free aidlow to minute to
im permeable.Theirstrength m ay range from Iow tearand burst strength to very high tensile
strength.They m ay be fabricated by gluing, heat bonding, or spwing. The drapability of
nonwovens varies from good to none at all.Som e nonwovens have excellent Iaunderability;
othershave none.Some m ay be dry-cleaned.
Nonwovens are engineered to provide particular properties suited to desired end uses. For
example,diaperscan beconstruded oftwo differentIayersofnonwoven fabrics:an outerIayer
com posd ofa wetting-agent treated polyester that willperm it rapid fluid penetration, but
wi
th m inimal Iateralw icking, and an inner Iayer of absorbent rayon. Thin, high-filtration
nonwoven fabrics for surgicalm asks can be com posed of m icrodenier fibres; thick, fluffy,
insulating nonwovens for skijackets can also be made of microdenier fibres. Research
continues in order to achieve or perhaps exceed certain properties of conventionally
construded c10th.
UsesofNonwoven Fabrics:
The use of nonwoven produds continues to expand. The many uses of nonwovens may be
classified as disposables, durable consum ergoods, and industrialmaterials. AI(these areas are
making increasinguseofthiskind ofmerchandise becauseofitsIow costand itssuitability for
m any needs.
Disposable nonwovens are essentially m ade forone-tim e use;but some such as dust doths,
,
m ay be laundered and reused a few times. General applications include personalhygiene
products,such as diapers and sanitary napkins;medicalpfoduds such
d
as surgicalgowns and
rapes;surgicaland industrialm asks, bandages,wipesand towels;bibsand even costum esfor
specialevents.Tbe
'y have recentl# become popularforIightweight''fun''cloths that can be
washed a num beroftim es.
Durable nonwovenshave wide applications. Consumerdurables include both household goods
or hom e furnishings,such ae for draperies, furniture upholstery
, mattr
ess padding,towels,
table dotbs,blankets and carpet backing and clothing or apparel such as forcaps,Iinings
,
interlinings,interfacingsand the reinforcem ntofotherfabrics.
,
590
differentialshrinkage between the fabrics being joined may produce a rippled garment;and
separation of the two fabric Iayers may occur when improperly applied interfacings are
Eleaned.
Otherspecialnonwoven productsare film fabrics,coated fabrics artificialsuedes and Ieathers
etc.
591
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PreparatoryProcessorPre-dyeingTreatments:
592
Preparatipnorthepre-hyeingstageincludesaseriesofoperationsthatp
'reparethetegtileproduct
for subsequent fini
shing treatments such as dyeing, printing,and finishing.Any processing aids
which may have been applied during spinning, weaving,orknitting m ustbe removed.These m ight
be spinning oils,waxes,sizes,etc.Any naturaloradventitiouscontaminantsmustalso be removed
so thatthe fabric hasthe required puri
ty forthe following processes. Thorough preparation is a
prerequisi
teforgood resultsatthefinishing.
These operationsvary according to the type offibre on which they have to be carried out, to tbe
structureofthetextileprodud (staple,top,sliver,yarn,fabric)andalsodependonthesubsequent
treatments to be carried out,which may change according to various fadors such as market
demands,customerrequirements,staffexperience, and availabilityofmachines.
The pre-dyeing stage includesforexample desizing,singeing,mercerizing, scouring,and bleaching.
Each process varies according to the processing condi
tions and the above-mentioned specific
W axing
W axing servesto lubricate the yarn,reducingto a minimum itscoefficientoffridion with the parts
with which itcomes into contact.This operation is normally carried outon yarns destined to be
processed on knitwearm achines,on which smooth running ofyarnsisessential.
5?3
Slngeing:
W ith this treatment fuzz and fibre ends are burnt offin order bighlight the fabric weave.It is
generallycarried outon gray piecesand the residuesare removed byafurtherwashing process.An
oxidizingflame,whichdoesnotIeave anytrace ofsootyresidue onfibres,isusedto carryoutthis
operation.
Fabricsingeingwi
thperpendicularflame
Fabricsingeing withtangentialflame
The flame can be perpendicularto the fabric,and only rarelytangential;the fabricispositioned ata
distance of1.5 to 4mm from the end ofthe flame and the machine is equipped with a suction
device underthefabric,whichattractstheflame and concentratestheheaton the fabric.The fabric
speed can range'from 60 to 120 metresperm inute.The singeing processwith perpendicularflame
ofthetraditionalsingeingprocess,itispossibletoapplyanenzymatictreatment(forcottonand
Iyocellfabrics),forexamplewi
thcellulose,whichuseschemicalagentstocorrodethefibresurface
andremovethefuzzfrom thefabric.
Normally singeing isdoneto those knitted fabricswhich willbe mercerized Iater.A typicalsingeing
machine has a detwisting unit,two typesofbrushes,eightgas burners,a cigger,fel
t rollers and
othernecessaryunitsIike suctionduct,feed and delivery rollersetc.Thefabricissingeing intubular
form and on face sideonly.The detwisting uni
tremovestwistduring fabricfeeding in machine.
8etween two typesofbrushesone isheavy brush and anotherone islightbrush.The brtlshesraise
the hairyfibres.The ciggercan be extended in circumference and bythisitopensthetubularfabric
in fullcircumference.ln this state the ei
ghtburnerssituated at2cm apartfrom allsidesoffabric
surfaceburnthehairyfibres.Thefabricispassedthroughthefireringabout70to80m/min.Thisis
agassingeing machine.
Singeing isalso doneatyarn stage.Forthe yarn singeing itisan operation carried outin or'
derto
elim inate yarn hairiness.The singeing system consistsofa package-to-package winderand agas
burner.Theyarn ispassed through the flame,which singesthe protruding fibresthatcausethe
s94
hairiness.Itrunsata rate of400 to 1000 m/min.The machine must, in order to obtain even
singeing,maintain aconstantyarn speed and anevenflam e.
The singeing system,in addition to normalmachine controldevices, also hasa fIy fibre evacuation
system and a flame temperature controlsystem .Since this operation reduces the weight ofthe
yarn,even by as much as 5-6 %,the yarn countwillalso be modified, and thismustbe bornein
mindwhendesigningtheyarn.
Desizing:
Thistreatm entiscarried outon woven fabricsto remove the sizing substance from the warp. The
Since amylaceous sizes are generally used for cotton yarns, it is possible to apply amylolytic
starchmoleculesanddonotaffecttheotherglucosepolymer(cellulose),siicetheyattackte1.4
alpha-glucosidebond ofstarch and notthe 1.
4 beta-glucoside bond ofcellulose.
Thisreadionmakestheuseofamylasesprofitable(whenapplyingstarchysizes)comparedtoother
desizingagentssuchasalkaliandoxidizingagents(oxidizingdesizing),whichattackbothstarchand
cellulose.
The oxidizing desizing process isused to remove non-starchy sizesthatdo notdissolve in wateror
toeliminatestarchysizescombinedwithpolpinylalcohol(thistreatmentiscarriedoutbeforethe
singeing process).This last treatment requires accura'
iely controlled operating condi
tions to
solubilise only sizesand avoid any possible fibre degradation.Enzymaticdesizingcan becarried ogt
indiscontinuoussystems(jigger)butsemi-continuousorcontinuoustechniquesaremorefrequent
afterihepad-batchwettingofthefabric.Themostfrequentlyused processesare pad-rolland padsteam.Iftbesize iswater-soluble,itcan be eliminated byhotwashing.
Stouring:
0n cotton fibres, this treatment rem oves fatty and pedic substances, softening motes and
preparingthematerialtoabsorbthesubsequenttreatmentagents.Scouringisusuallycarriedoutin
4oq wateraddi
ti
vated with textile auxiliariessuch as absorbing agents,detergents, emulsifying
595
lnstead ofthe traditionalscouring process,it is also possible to carry out an enzymatic scouring
d
ust,contaminantsand can becarriedk.outonyarnsand fabrics(wh
enwarpyarnshave been
bonded thetreatmenti
9
scalleddebondlng).Itiscarriedoutbymeansofsurfactants,detergents
,
and em ul
sifyingagents.
Scouring is usuall
y carried out by means ofcontinuous or discontinuous systems,with the same
machines used fordownstream treatments;tem perature,processing tim e,pH, concentration
reagents,depend on the fibre and on the m achine used.Incomplete scouring processes usually
originate dyeing a'nd printing defeds due to different degrees ofwettability and to inconsistent
affinityfordyesofthematerial.
Bleaching:
Bleaching treatments are applied to elim inate any impurity and obtain a pure white tone,to
prepare substrates for Iow-density dyes or prints and to level off undesired tone variations.
bleachingagentusedintextileprocessingissodium chloride(suitableforsyntheticfibres)thattakes
advantage ofthe oxidizing acti
on ofchlorine dioxidegenerated asaresultofthe hotacidification of
the solution ofthis salt.Unfortunately,chlorine dioxide is a toxic substance and attacks stainless
steels;tberefore itisnecessary to work in hermetically closed unitsequipped with suctipn systems
with resistantm aterialssuch asstoneware.
596
Bleachingoperationscan be carried outon yarns,wovenfabricsand kni
tted fabricswithcontinuous
canbecarriedoutafterchemicalbleaching,using0.2-0.6g/1
optical bleaching agent at pB 4 - s for acetic acid, at a
temperatureof500-600c for30 minutes.
J-box
M erterising:
This is a typicaltreatment for cotton yarns and fabrics, which improves the fabric luster and
wettability,ensures a covering effed fordead cotton,improvesdimensionalstability and dyeing
efficiency.
Thistreatment iscarried out using caustic soda,which determ inesthe contrad ion and swelling of
thefibres;they become translucentand increasetheirtensile strength,butreducetheirflexuraland
torsionstrength.The bean-likesed ionofthe fibre becomesfirstellipticand then circular,allowing a
betterrefledion oflightwith a consequentincrease efIuster.The treatmentisusually carried out
undertension,withcausticsodaat280-300Betboml'(approx.270-330g/1).Iftheconcentration
isIewerthan240Be'tbom),thetreatmentiscalledcausticizationandaimsatenhancingthedyeing
liquorpenetration intothefabric.
The liquortemperature usually rangesbetween 15 - 200c and itsuniform absorption isassured by
adding mercerizing wetting agents stable'in alkaline environment.Once the operation has been
carried out,alkalinitym ustimm ediately be neutralized by meansofa diluted acid solution.From a
chemicalpointofview,alkalicelluloseisthefirstmaterialtoform;the nextmaterial,whichforms
afterrepeatedl
y waterwashing ishydrocellulose,whichismorereadivethannaturalcllulose.
597
fabricisI
eftreactinginapaddingmangle.Thewithdrawalofthefabricwidthiscontrolledbymeans
ofan adjustable ringspreaderwhilethewithdrawalofthefabricIength iscontrolled by''slowing
down''the fabricbefore the finalsqueezing.The sodium hydroxide concentration isbroughtdown
to approximately 40Be'by meansofa circularshower. The fabric isthen washed,neutralized and
rinsed.
A typicalmercerizing process fortubularkni
tted fabric as follows.The mercerizing machine has a
detwisting unit,awatertrough,asodium hydroxide Iiquortrough,swelling unit,fourwashing units
and a neutralizing unit.The detwisting uni
t removes twist from fabric during feeding.In water
trough required water is supplied for caustic. In sodium hydroxide trough required amount of
caustic is com e from a central reservoir. The central reservoir store caustic at particular
concentration.There isalso a chillerwhich maintainsthe caustictem perature.The swelling unithas
some dancing rollerswhich controlthe fabrictension.Afterswelling unitthe fabricenters into first
washing uni
tand then second washing unit.Each washing unithasciggerwhich extendsthefabric
circumference as washing can be done very well.The cigger widths are keptsame forfirst and
fourth and same forsecond and third.Butthe temperatures are kept differentfor the aIIfour
washing units. Before entering third and fourth washing uni
ts the fabric is passed through
neutralization padder.Here aceticacid isused and impregnationtemperature iskept700C.
Anotherwell-proven mercerizing agent is Iiquid ammonia,which hasto be applied forvery short
times(abouthal
fa second).There areveryfew systemsbased onIiquid ammoniadueto the
difficultiesconnectedto the useofIiquid NHa.
Engineers have recently developed continuous mercerizing cycles and machines for combined
mercerizingand bleachingprocess.
598
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Heatsetting
Thisoperationiscrucialforfabricsmadeofsyntheticfibres(PE,PA,elastomers),fortriacetate,and
partlyforPAC fibres(setting),since itgrantsexcellentdimensionalstabilisationandcreaseproof
properties,maintainedtillthefabricisexposed(byairblowing)totemperaturesexceedingtheheat
settingone(afterbeingtreatedwithwateratatemperatureabovethesecondorderglasstransition
temperature,i.e.80-85*Cforacrylics).
Heatsettingiscarriedoutongrayfabrics(scarcelyapplied),onscouredfabrics(frequentlyapplied)
andondyedfabrics(scarcelyapplied).Theprocessgrantsexcellentdimensionalstabilityandgood
crease-proofproperties.Asfarasoperatingcondi
tionsareconcerned,thefabricmustbetreaied'
in
accurately controlled moistureand tem perature condi
tions.
Fibre
pol
yester(PE)
MinT.@C
170
MaX.T.*C
210
Time(insetonds)
15-50
Polyamide PA 6.6
Polyamide PA 6
Triacetate
170
160
160
210
180
180
15- 40
15-40
1$-40
Acrylic(PAC)
160
180-200
15-40
Elastomers
170
180 - 200
15-40
Machinesused:stenters.
Floctuatingtemperaturesinsidethestentercauseaconsistentvariationofcrystallinityinthefibre
qtrudure,whichleadstodifferentaffini
tyfordyes.Themoistureinthefibreproducessofthand,
butvariablemoisturepercentagesinthedifferentfabricsedionscreatethe abovementionet
defed (variablecrystallini
ty).TooIow temperaturesdonotallow agoodsettingwhiletoohigh
599
temperaturesandtooIongsettingtimescauseyellowing(PAandelasticfibres),Stiffhand(acrylics),
andIossofelastici
ty(elasticfibres).
The presence ofcombustion gas(N0x)producesayellowingoftheelastomers.Theheatsetting
processcarried outbefore scouring could fixthe stains on the fabric ormake the scouring process
more difficultdue to the modification ofthe Iubricating produds (cracking with emission of
pollutinggas).Heatsetting afterdyeingcould leadto the sublimationofdisperse dyes(i
fnot
accuratelyselected).
Decortitatio:(onlyforpolyester)
ThistreatmentisaimedatprovidingasiIky-smoothhandto polyesterfabrics(tillafew yearsago
thisprocesswasalso used to obtain microfilamentsbyincreasingthefibrefineness),aIustrous
effed and an enhanced drapability.The best results can be obtained with fabrics produced wi
th
CoarserYarns.
120-130*Cfor20-35minutes,with30-50VIofNa0H36@B.Oncetheprocesshasbeencompleted,
thefabriciswashedand neutralised.Processesand machinesused:open-width processonjiggers
orbeam dyeingmachines(batchsystems)orspecialtensionlessopen-widthcontinuousmachines.
ElastitFabrits
For elastic fibres, treatments depend on the chemical com position, which can be extremely
variable.As far as the fabrics containing segmented polyurethane fibres are concerned, the
suggested treatmentsto be carried outarethefollowing:
relaxation
heatsetting
-s
couring
-
bleachin/dyeing/printing
finishing
sincethefabricwidthonloomsisalwaysbiggerthantbefinishedone(tensionedyarnsonthe
Ioom).Manytechniquesareusedbutherearesomeofthemostfrequentlyusedones:table
600
stealing,steaming carried outattbe entry ofthe stenter,scouring carried outwith hotsolvents,
relaxation in hotwaterwith tensionl
essscouring;thesetechniquesgive poorerstabilisation results
and do notprovide permanentcrease resistancetotextilesandfabrics.
excessiveheatsettingcoulddecolorisethefabricwhileaninsugicienteatseuingwlllresultIipoor
fabricstability.
R ouring:It is necessary to carefully considerthe characteristics ofthe fibre com bined With the
polyurethaneelastomer.
Bleathing:This treatment is carried outusing sodium hydrosulphite;a suitable opticalbleaching
agentcan also be added.
W ashing
Rinsing and washing are the operations carried out most frequently during a com plete textile
finishing cycle.They are almost always cohneded to key treatments and aimed at removing from
thefabric insoluble matters,m attersalready in solution oran emulsion ofotherim purities.During
the fabricpreparation process,forexample,washing iscarried outafterdesizing,boiling and other
bleaching and mercerising processes; in dyeing,the washing stage is necessary to complete the
dyeing processitsel
forto eliminatethe dyestuffwhich hasnotbeenfixed;duringtheprintingstage,
washing perform s a finishing action.W hen using vatdyes ordisperse dyes,the washing process
aims at rem oving insoluble pigm ent substances from the fibre surface by means of wetting or
dissolvingagents.
Thiscould therefore be considered a crucialtreatment in the wholetextile process,because ofthe
frequent use and strong economic im pad. Manufadurers increasingly focus their attention on
a.formationofthedetergentIiquor(transferofmatter+energybymixing);
b.reachingoftheprocesstemperatureandwetting(transferoftheliquortothematerial);
'
601
''
t?
q
Oftenthesestepsoccursimultaneously.Theuseofsurfactants(detergents)duringthewashing)
stage is extremely important te speed up the wetting of the textile material, to facilitate the '
removalofdirtfrom the substrate,thus keeping the emulsion inside the Iiquorand pfeventing the
.
particlesIayingdownagainonthefibre.Crucialfactorsarewater(whichmustbequitesoftto avoid
precipitationofCaand Mg saltswhichcould give arough and coarse handtothetextile)and
chemicalproductstobeused(emulsifyingagents,softeningagentsandsurfactants).
)
contaminantsto be eliminated
obviously the use of detergents,as wellas operating conditions, depends on the nature ofthe
chemicalsubstancesto be elim inated,which need to be generallyclassified. A generalclassification
isshown here below:
:
'
.'
1)Spinningoils:Wemustdistinguishbetweenfabricsmadewithyarnsspunfrom combedor )
cardedfibres,whichareextremelydifferentintermsofquantity(5and1% respectively)and
.
the nature ofthe substances added:as faras nature is concerned, the Substances most '
frequently used are in b0th cases synthetic or mineraloils. These oils are usually made
.
'
.
.
'
'
and to their deep degree of penetration in the fabric; oily stains usually require a '
;
j
,
..
pretreatmentwithsolventssprayeddirectlyonthestain(bymeansofaspecial''spraygun''). #
They can also be removed using specialexpensive detergents containing solvents, orby '
.
meansofdrywashing;
q
'
4)solidresiduesofvariousnature(dust,non-fixeddyestuffs,etc.),usuallyfixedonthefabric :
L
,
y
by meansoffatty substances.To eliminate these residues, generalcleansing rulesmustbe '
observed and applied and specialatteqtion must be given to the m echanicalaction of
fridion.Itisworthspecifyingthatthe above mentioned discussion isnotataIIexhaustive;in J
-
particular,itisnotatextrelatingtothetreatmentandeliminationofseverestains(colors, r.
metals,microbiologicalattacks,etc.),which cannotbe treated with standard cleansing '
(
processes. Readers are recommended to consult the specific literature available on this ;
subjed.
1
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602
ashing machines:
notincluded(combinedwashingandmillingmachines):
Rope washing
Conventionalwashing
Traditionalwashing
Fastwashing
Nozzlewashing
Delicate washing
Conveyorbelt
Drum
Com bined with air
W ashing-m illing
W ashing
Batch-typewashing
Open-width washing
Continuouswashing
Traditional
Beating ham merwashing
Conveyor
Hydroplus
Serieswashing
Continuoussystem
Vibrocom pact
Solvent
makethefabricswell(thefabricispreviouslysewnontopandbottom andtakestheshapeofa
continuousring);these cylindersare assembled insidea vessel
,whose Iowerpartcontainsthe
detergent Iiquor.I
t is possible to wash a fabric inside thisvessel, by feeding itinto restricted area
withoutlaying itstretched out.The efficiencyofthisoperation isenhanced bythem echanicad ion,
which facili
tates both detergency and tension relaxation. This operation is highly cost-efficient
becauseopen-widthwashingallowsonlyoneworkingpositionandthereforeonlyIimited Ioadscan
beprocessed(max.180kg)whileqropewashingmachinecanincludefrom onetoeightropes,with
an overallweightexceeding 600 kg.Furthermore rope washing m achinesgrantreduced operating
timesthanksto a moreeffed i
ve mechanicadion.
603
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Open-width washing:
An open-width washing machine is usually a system featuring a verticalpath washing with driven
1)washingonrisingpaths;
2)washingonslping-downpaths,carriedoutbymeansofjpraynozzles,whichatomiseon
both faceand backoffabrics,performinga strongpenetrationaction;
4)extradionwashingbymeansofvesselintermediatesqueezing.
The Iongi
tudinaltension ofthe fabric remains perfectly unchanged on the whole path;i
t can be
Plushfibrilsareremovedfrom thevesselwithnoneedbrbrushesorIiquordilutions.Anothertype
ofmachine dividesthe washing processinto single steps,which aresystematically repeated.Inthis
way thewhole processcan be notonlyconstantlymoni
tored butalso accuratel
ycalculated.
chemicals-mixed-with-imhuritiesonthefabricinapercentagerangingbetween50and80%.The
washing Iiquorabsorbsboth impuritiesand chem icals.Thanksto a squeezingstep carriedoutby
m eansofsqueezing drumsassem bled atthe exitofeach unit,the dirty IiquordoesnotIeavethe
unitwith the fabric.In the nextunitthe Iiquorexchange processrepeatsonce more,butthe
washing Iiquorcontainsalways-lowerquantitiesofdirty particles.The repeatability ofthe process
togetherwiththeaddition offreshwater,are basicelementsto estim ate in advance the efficiency
ofthewashing process.High-pedormance washing units,equipped with double-rpesystem and
uppersupportingcylindersmade ofrubber,recom mended above aIIformedium and heavyfabrics,
allow the maxim um washing efficiency.Uppercylinders,individually driven and equipped with
supporting squeezingcylinders,grantanaccuratesystem control.In eachwashing unitthe fabricis
604
soaked twice in the Iiquor,which washes the fabric by passing through it,and squeezed by the
cylinders.The powerfulIiquorexchange inthe fabric isalso enhanced bythe synergiccrosswiseflow
ofthebath.
Continuou:washingsp tems:
operatingspeedsofatleast25m/minutes:thesespeedsareextraordinarilyhigherthantheone
obtained with batch open-width orbatch rope washing.The output is also strictly related to the
(ldropresssystem);thealternatingdirectionofthesolutionpassageallowsthetreatment
on b0thsidesandtheparticulardesignofthedriving rollers(the rollerinsidepartis
drivenbyamotorandtheoutsidebythefabric)allowsaminimum tensiononthefabric;
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Detailofvibrating system
'
4.
Somemachinesfeaturespecialwaterbladedevices(replacingspraynozzles)wichconveyahuge
quanti
ty of water, homogeneously and at high speed,on the whole width of the fabric, thus
perform inga really efficientwash.The system includesa pipe with aspecialnozzle releasingwater
Drying:
Thefrequencyofprocesses,requiringimpregnationofthetextilesubstrate(washing, impregnation
indyeingorfinishing Iiquor,desizingand so on),consequentl
y leadstotheneedofsubsequent
drying processes,with a high impacton processing costs. Depending on theirnature and structure,
textilefibresabsorbgreaterorlowerquantitiesofwater;thewaterabsorbedbythetextilematerial
is partl
y retained between the fibres and in the poresofthe fabric and partly more deeply in the
fabricbytheswollenfibres.Thewaterbetweenthefibresoronthefabricsurfacecanbeeliminated
mechanicallywhilethewaterintheswollenftbrescanbeeliminatedwithadryingprocesses
.
Generalremarkson dryingtethniques:
hoosing a drying technique,the cost efficiency ofthe drying system mustbe carefully evaluated:
he cost-effitiency of a drying processincludesmany fadorssuch as the quanti
ty ofsteam , w ater
nd energy required to evaporate one kilogram ofwateras wellas the evaporation capacity ofa
achine,expressed in kilogramsofwaterevaporated in oneoperating hour.
606
isnecessarytoblow inthedryinguni
tshugequantitiesofheatedairattesametemperatureofthe
drying unit,which Ieadsto huge energyconsumption. W hen settingthedesired moisture degree of
the air in the drying unit, it is worth considering that the best degree resul
ts from a correct
proportion between efficientoutputspeed and costeffectiveenergy consumption.
Adjustmentolthedryingspeed:
The optimum time a fabric spends within a drying unit must correspond exactl
y to the time
necessaryto eliminate the moisture on the surface and between the free spaces ofthe fibres;the
Heatingofthedryingunit:
The drying unitsare usuallyheated by meansofsteam with an averagethermalefficiencyofabout
64%.Betterthermalefficiencyisgrantedbydryersheatedwi
ththermalfluid(about80%).Highly
efficientheating isobtained by meansofdirectgascombustion, with an e#iciency ofalmost95%.
The operating tem perature can be reached in very short times and heating can be stopped
simultaneouslywiththemachine.
Hydroextrad ion:
Thisprocessremovesthewater(thewaterquanti
tyvariesaccordingtothetypeoffibre)dispersed
in the fibresby mechanicalaction;thisprocessaimsatreducing energy consum ption and iscarried
outbeforethefinalfabricdryingorbetweenthevariouswetprocssingstages(washing,dyeing).It
can be carried outinthe following ways:
Squeezing:The waterdispersed on the surface and in the spaces ofthe fabric is removed
by meansofthe pressure applied bytwo cylinders.
- Cent
rifugation:This process elim inates the greatest quantity ofwater dispersed on the
surface ofthe textile by centrifugalforce.Itisapplied above aIIto resistantyarns, kni
tted
goodsandfabrics.
-
607
2
1
1 - wetfoldedmaterial
2 - spreader
3 - vacuum slot
4- pre-driedfabricroller
1. Fabric
2. Heaters-blowingunits
3. Hotairblow
. 4. E
xhaustedairblow
A hot-flue
Stenter:itismadeupofmodularelements(arrangedIengthwiseandheatedbymeansofforced
hotaircirculation)wherethefabricpasseshorizontally, supported byabelt,bysupportingnozzles
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609
Thismachineisextensivelyused inthefabricdryingsector,butisalsousedfortheheatsettingand .
polymerisationoffinishingorbondingagentsinpigmentprintingpfocesses;itincludesan''entr/
area forthe fabric provided with a pad-batch,where finishesand finishing productsareapplied or
w bere the fabric issim ply squeezed.The use ofa drum coated w ith porousm aterial,w hich
dehydratesthe fabricbefore the drying step,provesparticularly efficient.
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A stenter
The uni
t isequipped with a stretching system to keep the fabricstretched and also with a special
device that control
s the perpendicularity ofthe weftto the warp.A11the drying systems are
assembled in the second sedion;they include a feeding system equipped with a fabric guiding
system and the drying unit.The endlesschains,with clips orpinsforfastening thi fabric,are
positioned aIIalongthefrontpart the dryingcompadmentand the exitsedion;they guidethe
fabricbythesel
vedge.Attheexi
tthefabricisreleasedautomaticallyfrom thefasteningdevicesand
wound up.
.
'
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610
lnthe Iatestgeneration ofstenters, manufadurers havetried to improve the quality ofthe fabrics
with more rational fabric feeding systems and innovati
ve solutions for heat treatment and
reproducibility ofthe various processing stages. Togetherwith an increased outputin continuous
operating conditions, manufacturers also aim at improving the machine utilization, reducing
m aintenanceto a minimum and cutting energyconsumption.
y/
Multi
-levelstenterusedforcoatingprocessesandincorporatedonanexistingo
perating Iine
M ulti-levelstenter:.
Advantagesofthem ul
ti-levelstenter:
* Compad strudure:thanks to the m ulti-leveldesign, the overallspace requirqd for the
installation ofthe stenterissmallerthan the one required fora standard flatstenterwith
the sameoutputrates.
* Hi
gh-performance drying process:forheavytextilesthe efficiency ofthe machine does not
depend on the evaporation on the surface buton the time required forthe drying process.
Powerfulventilation,generally applied to fltstenters, could cause an excessive drking of
thetextilesurface and damage the material, while fibresinside the fabriccould remain wet.
The internalmoisture migratesveryslowlytothe sudace.
* Delicate drying:in a multi-levelstenter,the dwing process does not affed the material
negatively and eliminates the moisture in the bestpossible way. In fact,we know that a
delicate treatment,e.g in a drying orheatsetting process, can be ensured onlywith a slow
ventilation of the material. Fulherm ore a Ionger treatment time, even at lower
temperatures,gives a better appearance to the finished material, compared to tougher
treatment conditions.The result is a bulky fabric wi
th a softer hand, which gives the
sensati
on ofmore weight.
Lower operating costs:thanks to reduced number of operators, smaller space required,
slightredudion ofthe yield forheavytextilesand reduced consumption ofenergy with the
same outputrateofaflatstenter.
611
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Longitudzalstctionofamuld-ltvtlstenterwithinternalexhaustchannels
timitsofm ul
ti-levelstenters:
-
onlyafew mul
ti
-levelstentermodelscanbeequippedwi
thpinihains.
in the path between one leveland the nextone, the fabric mustbe sustained to avoid tbe
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Contad dl ing:
Drum dryer:with this system , the fabric moves forward arranged on severalheated drums
d
. The
rying temperature rangesbetween 120-130*C and the cylindersare heated by meansofsteam at
apressureof1-3atm.Thisveryefficientand Iow-costdrying system isparticularlysuitableforflat
fabrics,with slightlyevidenced structure, whichcannotbeeasily affected bytensionduringfeeding
Used for intermediate drying and for Iight fini
shes; this system is not suitable for durable.
thermosetting resinfinishes.
612
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Drawingofadrum dryer
Dyeing(Colouration):
The dyeing process is aimed atgiving woven or knitted fabric its intended colour, crucialto its
ultimate use.The dyeing process can be carried out atdi
fferenl stages offibre processing, i.e.in
differentforms:staple,yarn,jabric(ropeoropen-widthj Jndpiece.Whenthedyeingprocessis
carried outduring the firstprocessing stages, forexampleonstaplefibres,abettercolourfastpess
can be achieved;bulk dyeing refersto the sNstem used to dye a staple fibfe before itis spun, this
processiscarried out in perforated baskets and although there may be areaswhere the dye does
not penetrate completely,in subsequent spinning operations these areas are mixed with the
thoroughly dyed fibre,thusensuringanoveralleven colour.
Yarn dyeing is carried out aker the fibre has been spun into yarn. Yarn dyeing is preferred for
manufacturingJacquard orstriped fabrics;thisdyeing method grantsa good colourfastnesssince
the dye penetratesthefibresand reachesthe yarn core. Skeinsare dyed in hanks,spoolsare dyed
in autoclavesand warp yarnsaredyed in perforated beamsIoaded in autoclaves.
Piece dyeing iscarried outonseveraltypesofmachinesand the materialcan be open-width orrope
dyed.A good dyeing strictly dependson di
fferentparam etersand conditionsthatcan be evaluated
immediatel
y (such asgood consistency ofthe dye and repeatability)orwhich require specific
fastnessevaluation (manufacturing,use,dryorwetprocessing)thatcan be controlled only by
meansofsubsequentIaboratorytests.
The machinesused are chosen according to the materialto be processed. The crucialfequisitesare
thefollowing:
protedion ofthesubstrate
repetitivenessoftheresults
-
cheapnessoftheprocess(dependingonprpcesstime,machineautomationdegree,Iiquor
ratio,costoftheproductsusedandwastewaterpurification).
613
Dissol
veordispersethedyeinawaterbath(wi
thmanual,semiautomaticandautomatic
colourkitchensaccordingtospecificprpsetrules).
Feed the dyesolutioninthe machine aftersui
tablefiltering (automaticcolourkitchen,
supplementaryvats,pumpsandfilters).
Transferthedyefrom theIiquortothefibre(processandmachine).
Distributethedyehomogeneouslyonthefibre(processandmachine).
Letthedyepenetrateinthefibrestructureandfixit(timeandtemperature).
W ashorrinsethe materialto removethe dyeon the sudaceorthe unfixed dyeing Iiquor.
Exhaustdyeing(distontinuoussystems):
Thedyeisdissolvedordispersedinthedyeingliquor.Thematerialisimmersedinthedyeingliquor
and is removed only when the dye has mostly transferred onto the textile to be dyed, distributed
homogeneously,wellpenetrated into the fibre and fixed.Atthe end ofthe processthe materiali
s
washed orrinsed to rem ovethe unfixed dye.
Paddyeing(tontinuousorsemi-continuoussystems):
This processis carried outusing mechanicalmeans (pad-batch wetting).The dyeing Iiquoris
distributed homogeneouslyontothefabric(i.e.alsothedye isdistributedhomogeneously).Ina
second stage the dye penetrates into the fabric and isthen fixed.Atthe end ofthe process the
materialiswashed.
Some operationsmustbe carried outforboth exhaustorpad dyeing:
dissolve ordisperse the dye in waterand filter.
achieve an homogeneouscontactbetween the dyeing Iiquorandthefibre.
m ake the dye penetrate into the fibre.
fi
xthedye inthecore ofthefibre.
finalwashing.
-
Thechoiceofdyeingequipmentdependsonthetypeoffabric(woven,knitted,nonwoven),andthe
fibres it contains. Polyester fibres often have to be dyed at temperitures over 1000C and so
m achines,which can operate underpressure,mustbe used. The dyeing processmay be continuous,
discontinuous(batch)suchasWinch,JiggerandJetdyeingmachineorsemi-continuous.
Thereisawidevarietyofmachinesusedforfinishingprocesses(pre-dyeing,dyeingandfinishing
treatmentsl.Asfarasdyeingmachinesareconcerned,themostimportantaspecttobeconsidered
istheconsistencyofthedyedistribution(orofotherchemicals)thatthemachinemustensurein
the shortestpossible time.Generally,the systemsallowing a hom ogeneousdistribution ofthedye
614
also allow agood removalofdirt, and a uniform contad ofbleaching reactantswith the material;
therefore whatwe say aboutdyeing, in mostcasescan be also applied to pre-dyeing and finishing
treatmentsthatrequirethe applicationofchemical
s.
Elassifkation ofmachinee :
Themachinesusedforpreparation and dyeing processescan be classified asfollows:
@ Classifkationacordingto thetextilesto be proessed:
The machinesto be used arechosenaccording to thetypeofmaterialto be processed.
-
Machinesfordyeingstapleoryarn(inskeins,packagesorbeams)
Machinesfordyeingwoven-kni
ttedfabricsorropekni
ts(thewidthisnotspread)
Machinesperdyeingopen-widthfabrics(thefabricisopenedandflattened)
Machinesfordyeing made-up garments.
Classifkationattordingtotheprocessingmethod:
The processing method to be applied dependson the quantityofmaterialsto be processed
andonthe typeoffinishing process.
-
Discontinuous(batch)systems.
Semicontinuoussystems.
- Cont
inuoussystem s.
-
The system to be used depends on the elementsthat make up the material(fibre and
eventualweaveh,aswellasonthetypeoftreatmen:tobecarrieuout.
CirculatingIituorsystems.
-
Thesystem tobeuseddependsonthetypeofmaterial(fibreform)andontheprocesstobe
carried out.
-
Systemsthatcanworkunderpressureathightemperatures(HTautoclaves)
'
Mathinestoprotessstaple,sliverandyarn(Generalremarks):
Thesemachinesareusedfordyeingstaplefibres(andalsoforcarryingoutothertreatmentssuchas
bleaching,scouringorfinishing)andmorefrequentlyfordyeingyarnfibresindifferentforms
(packages,cheeses,etc).Withtheuseofmodularandinterchangeablecarriersitispossibletocarry
outIoading and dyeing processesusing packagesofdifferentdiameters.These m achinesare
equippedwith automated systems,such asautomaticloading and unloading rackspositioned above
615
the machine,centrifugation and drying systems,to best satisfy the growing demand for system
optim isation.
Open-widthdyeingmathines(Generalremarks):
These systems are used fordyeing open-width and well-flattened fabrics. These systems can be
used alsoforcarryingoutpre-dyingtreatments(forexampleupgrading,bleaching,mercerising),
dyeing treatmentsand wetting operayionsforbothtypesoftreatment. Am ongthe systemsused for
open-width treatmentsi
tisworth pointing outmercerizing machines, ji
ggers,pad dyeingmachines,
beam dyeingmachines,continupuswashingsystems,stenters.
Ropedyeingmathines(Generalremarks):
'
These machines processthe fabric fed and driven Iengthwise to form a rope.The hydrodynamic
effed isobtained by meansofthe motion ofthe fabricrope, orby meansofthesim ultaneousropeand-dyebath motion,which ensuresa hom ogeneouscontad ofthe materialwith the dyeing Iiquor
and aquickexchangeofthedyeingIiquordispersed intheM aterial. Machinesrunningaccordingto 1
these operating principle are sui
table fortreating almostaIIthe fabrics made up ofextremely t
!
different fibres,woven orknitted fabrics,during preparation and dyeing stages, with only some
problemsoccurringwith Ioose-weave fabrics.During the treatmentsthe fabricsrun freelywefbwise
and therefore can freel
y shrink and set thus eliminating almost aIltensions. Suitable operating '
conditions and technicaladjustments also reduce to the minimum warp-wise tensions, and
continuousl
y movethe wrinklesofthe rope.
'
Pietedyeingmathines'tGeneralremarks):
Thesearediscontinqousprocessingsystems;themostmodernmachinesareequipped withrotatingj(
.
'
systems,which apply low Iiquorratios;the materialispacked in a perforated basket, which rotatesr
,
atvariable speed.Once the dyeing process has been completed,the system removesthe Iiquorinrf
excess from the fabric by centrifugation before unloading. These machines are equipped withr
autom ated systemsto optimisethe process.
Autoclaves:
)
j
.
uj
1
)
616
CirculatingIiquorpump(withflow reversalsystem)
. Expansion vat to balance the increase in Iiquorvolume,where the necessary dyes and
auxiliariescan be addedwithoutstoppingtheoperating cycle.
. Staticpressurepump(whichcanbeintroducedwhatevertheoperatingtemperature)
. Sample heater
. Contr
olboard forpartiallyorcompletelyautomated dyeingcycle.
AII manufacturers can now supply these machines equipped with miiroprocessor or PLC
consumption;whenthemachineisrunniqgpnlythecarrier,theheatexchangerandthecirculation
pumparecompIetelyimmersedintheIiquor,bhile,t'
h:freespceisfilledwithcompressedair.
SystemsequippedwithvolumeQradrreducersareactuallyusedto satisfytheincreasingdemandfor
machineswherebatcheswith differentweightscan be Ioaded andtreated (thuskeepingasteady
nominalIiquorratio).Thankstothesesystems,themachine canprocessfrom '1'to an'infinite'
quantity of packages for each shaft entailing considerabl qnergy saving, cutting plant and
produd ioncosts,aswellasaconsiderable reductionofdeliverytimes.In the past,the redudion of
theIoadingcapacitythankstotheaircushioncouldonlybeensurdWithverticalauioclavs;n0w it
can also beobtained with horizontalunits.
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Anatltoclavemodelusedonlyforpackagesincludesmanysmallhorizontalheaters(basicallycoils)
instead ofasingle heatedvat;each smallheatercan be Ioaded with a single package carriershaft.
617
Thisautoclave allowsworking with an extrem ely Iow (iquo
rratio.The m aterialto be dyed must
alwaysbeaccuratelyarrangedto avoid possibledispropo
rtion in the Iiquorforced underpressure
through it,in bothdired ionsalternately, from the core to the outersurface and vice
accordingtoprogrammabletimes(forexamplefrom 2to4cyclesperminute)
'
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Horizontalautoclave fofpackages
ln alltheseautoclaves, the dyeing Iiquoriskeptcirculating by meansofcentri
fugalorhelicalpumps:
these
pumpsmustkeep the Iiquorcirculating through the massoffibre, so thatthe fibre surface is
saturatedwiththe dye.To dothat, the liquorm ustovercome alIthe resistive forcesgenerated b
pifpfesandbythetextilemass(pressuredrop)andreversethe direction ofthe liquorcirculation ay
di
t
erenttimesto obtain an overalleven colour;in specificcases, the speed ofthe pum p impeller
chaenfb
esetbymeansofinverters(frequencyinverters)whichadjusttheflow oftheliquorthrough
t
ib
re m ass.
Package carrier
Staple carrier
618
These machines,built and tested according to the European PED standards, can operate at a
maximum operating pressure of5-6 bar,and are statically pressurized by meansofa pump orofa
compressed air cushion; they are suitable for treating synthetic fibres up to an operating
temperature of145@C,avoidingIoad-carryingdropsdueto cavitation ofthe Iiquorcirculation pum p.
The average liquorratio isapproximately 1-10.
beams;theyalsoallowscuttingtheIoadingcapacityintwo(seedrawingsofthedifferentcarriers)
thusincreasingtheoperatingflexibility.
W ith reference to the drawings above,we only need to add some detailed information about
packageyarndyeing.Thisdyeingsystem ismorepopularthanstapleandhankdyeing(cheesesare
noIongerused)sinceitismorecostefficientandenvironmentfriendly.Thediameter,andtherefore
the weight,ofeach single package greatly variesaccording to thetype offibre, to the count,to the
finaluseandto thedifferentclassesofthedyestuffsused. Packagescan be prepared bywindingthe
yarnonperforatedtaperorcylindricaltubesofdifferentheightanddiameter;thewei
ghtcanrange
between 700 gramsforvery fine cotton yarnsforshirts and kni
tted goods to 3.5-4 kilograms for
large polyesterpackages.
4
Cones
Cylindricalpackages
Cheeses
Tops
Differenttypesoftwo-leveloverlappingcarriers
The dyeing sectorhas recently undergone a very incisive improvementin automation and robot
control.Particularly,the handling ofthe packages is reduced to a m inimum;sim ple and reliable
robots load and unload the package carriers and carry out the subsequent dehydrating step by
meansofautom atic hydroextradors and drying by meansoffastdryerswith forced aircirculation
orhigh-frequencyheatedtunnels(seechapterondwing).
619
Hanks:
Hanksare usedforthe dyeingofskeins;a hankismade up ofa parallelepiped-shapevatdividedinto
compartmentsbyperpendicularpartitions.Theskeinsare arrangedon specialcarriers,whichcanbe
Iockedinspecialgroovesinsidethemacbine;theIiquorcirculatesinbothdirections(up-and-down
flow)andtheyarnmassmakesonl
yamoderateresistancesinceitnotverytightlypacked.The
machine operates with reduced Iiquorratios and the Iiquoritself is keptcirculating by means of
majorflow axialpumps(suitablefordelicateyarns),assembledinthefrontpartofthemachine.
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1centralwall;2pedoratedseparators;3perforatedsupports;4skeins;5circulation pump;6expansion
vat;7auxiliarypump;8serpentines.
Askeindyeingsystem (hank)
The Iiquorflow inversion isobtained by reversing the rotation direction ofthe motor;the liquoris
generall
y heated by means of serpentines assembled inside the machine orby means of heat
exchangers.'The hank can also run underpressure ata maximum temperature of 110*C and at
pressqresof0.5kg/cmz.Ifthepressurisationisobtainedbymeansofanaircushion,itispossibleto
avoid the externalcirculation ofthe Iiquorin a Iateralextension vat.Asa resul
t,the Iiquorcan be
m aintained ataconstanttem perature,reducing energy,steam and coolingwaterconsumption.The
onl
y negative asped isthe needto unload and load them achineeachtime itisused.Hankscan also
be used forwashingand bleaching treatments.
620
supplied by means of direct or indirect stearh heating.The fabric m otion is driven by a circular
ellipticwinch coated with a specialblanketto avoid the fabricslipping during the dyeing operation
with subsequentpossiblefabricscratches.
The rope to be dyed then passesthrough a rack on the verticalperforated divider, which ensures
the separation ofthe various folds ofthe rope and avoids possiblq entangling;the rope is then
transferred onto a cylinder,which guides the fabric during the Ii
fting from the vat carrying outa
sew the tailwith the head ofthe rope (the fabric mustbe sewn according to the grain Iine or
direction).
Themaximum motion speedofthefabric mustbeapproximately40 m/min.,since higherspeeds
could cause peeling;an excessive stretch duringthe Iiftingstagecould cause deformation while high
circulation speed could cause excessive rope beating with subsequent entanglem ent. The fabric
must not remain folded and keptstationary inside the vatfor more than two m inutes to avoid
possibledefectsorwrinkles;thereforetherope mustbe relativlyshort.
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621
Thismachineisusedpreferablyforpre-dyeingtreatments(scouring,washing,bleaching)sincethe
high Iiquor ratio ensures excellent results;when used fordyeing tfeatments this system requires
high energy consum ption, extensive use of auxiliaries, dyes and water, which Ieads to high
operatingcosts;furthermore,aninaccuratetemperaturecontrol(theIiquordoesnotmoveandthe
heatingsystem isassembledonlyon oneend)andthe Iimitedfreedom oftheropefoldscould
negativelyaffectthe dyeingresults.
This is one ofthe oldestsystems used forfinishing tretments,but i
t provesto be stillextremely
fundionalthanksto itsflexibility,above aIIforscouring and bleachingtreatm entsto be carried out
on small produd ion runs.This system can also be used for carrying out continuous washing
processes;thefabricisIoadedfrom oneside,driventhroughthemachinewithaspiralmotion(by
meansoftherack)andthenunloadedfrom theoppositeside.
liggers:
These machineshave been used fora Iong time to treatmedium-size Iotsofwoven with an openwidth exhaust dyeing process.The fabric moveswhile the Iiquorstands still,except forthe very
Iatestmachines,whicharealso equippedwith acirculation pump.
The fabric pieces are sewn togethertail-to-head,forming a sortof.ribbon..Atthe head and atthe
fabric
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The piece through speed and tensions are adjusted by specialdevices to avoid any change in
dimensionalstability,above allwhen treating Iightweightfabrics and/ordelicate fibres.The
maxim um diameterofthe roller can be 1,450 m m with a width of the piece of c10th ranging
between 1,400 and 3,600 mm.The piece throughspeed isadjusted between 30and 150 m/min.
and kept constant during the whole operati
on.Also the tension must be constant and it can be
622
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DyestuWs:
The desire to colourtextiles is an oId asspinning and weaving. Naturalcolouring materials have
been used for thousands of years; mineralpi
gments such as yellow and red ochre, cinnabar;
vegetable dyes such as indigo,litmus,Iogwood,madder,saffron;animaldyes such as cochineal,
Tyrian purple. Synthetic dyes were first produced in the 19th century and have now almost
com pletely replaced the naturalcolours.Environmentaland produd safety aspects are currently
very important.
Withtheexceptionofpigment/bindersystemsthetypeofdyestuffhastobechosentosuitthe
fibre substrate,because the formation of a physicalor chem icalbond between dye and fibre
dependsonthechem icaland physicalstruduresofboth dyeand fibre. A broad spedru'm ofcolours
isavailableincountlessshadesand awide rangeoffastnessforthe differentfibre typesand blends.
ColourFastness:
Colourfastness means the resistance ofthe colourto various insults which textiles may suffer
during manufadure and use,Fastness depends on the type ofdyestuffand the fibre substrate;
there is no universalcolourwi
ththe same fastnesson aIIsubstrates. M oreover,differentend uses
have different fastness requirements; underwear has different requirements from furnishings.
Therearestandardizedmethods(IS0 105)ofevaluatingthedifferenttypesoffastness.Themost
im portantare:
623
Coloursmayalsoberequiredtobefasttolightweather,seawater,solvents,ironing,etc.
chemicalIinkwiththefibre.Ithasveryjoodfastnessproperties.
@
BasitDye:Itissuitableforacrylicfibres(otherfibresbymordanting).Itreactswith
acidic groups,or mordantsta chemicalwhich can react or complex with a
chromophore to form an insoluble colour) in the fibre.It has good fastness
@
propertiesonacrylicfibres.
Atid Dye:Applicable for wool,silk, nylon.Applied from an acidic dyebath.The
fastnesspropertiesofthisdye-stuffdependsonthefibre type.
Printing:
Printing can be described asthe controlled placingofdefined areasofcolouron to asubstrate.The
colourantmustfirstbe broughtto the fibre surface usuall
y in the form ofa printing paste.Ifitisa
soluble dyestuff,itmustbe diffused into the fibres.The colourantmustthen be fixed in place and
finall
y,excessunfixed colourhasto bewashed out.
Printingcould bereferred to asa sortofselectivedyeing thatm akesan im portantcontribution to
fabricdecorationthanksto the com bination ofcoloursand dyeing methods.To obtain sharpl
y
defiqed,precise and reproducible patterns,the dyebathstraditionally used are notsufficient,
because'
ofihecapillarityand/orhygroscopicityoffibresandmigrationofdyesthatcannotgrant
shar.p and-w ell-defined colourpatterns.Itistherefore necessary to use specialIiquids,
conventi
onally called ''printing pastes'',w hose main charad eristicisa high degree ofviscosity
(improperiycalleddensity);inotherwordstheseprintingpastescoloursarefluidswhichoppos62
4
ea
high resistanceorfrictionto slidingormotion.
Asa consequence,the dyestuffapplied onthe fabricinwell-defined areasto reproducethe desired
pattern cannot migrate to other areas of the fabric. lt is also worth consi
dering that the high
viscosityofprintingpasteswillmakethedyeadheretothesurfaceofthefabricand the fibres,but
not penetrate into and fix on them . Theseoperati
ons(whichmaybereferredtoasdiffusionand
fixationduringthedyeingprocess)willbecarriedoutafterwardwithasteamingprocess
.
Printing Principles:
Regardlessoftheprinting process, there are severalbasicprinting principles:
Dired PrintingorOverprinting:
The printing paste is applied directly to the prepared fabricsurface. Overprinting indicatesthata
plain dyed fabric isprinted with apattern in adarkercolour. This method involves the following
steps:printing,drying,steaming and washing.
Thistypeofprintingisgenerallyusedforwhiteordyedcloths(usuall
ydyedinpastel
applyingthesequence ofallthe colours
shades),by
ilthe originalpattern hasbeen reproduced. This isthe
, unt
most common printing method and can be used with aIIthe main colourclassesofd
fabri
yes and on
csproducedwithanykindoffibre(someproblemsmayonl
yarisewithblends)
.
'
A whitedischarge
625
iswhen the originalwhite is restored to the printed area.A colourdischarge is when a separate
colouris applied atthe same time asthe discharge paste.Sometimesthe base colouris removed
ofbackground dyes(particularlyfor.reactivesonreactives.appliedonfabricsmadeofcellulose
fibres).Someoftheprintingmethodsaredetailedinthefollowing:
a) Resistprintingoncoveredbackground:apaddyeisappliedanddried;theprintingiscarried
outwithprintingpastescontainingprodudsavoidingthefixingofbackgroundcolour(but
they do notavoidthefi
xingofany brightenerused).The fabricisthendried,steamed and
washed(thisisthemostdiffusedresistprintingmethod).
b) Resistprinting by overdyeing:the operationsofthe resist printing method previously
detailed are carried outin inverse sequence;therefore the fabric isfirst printed and then
covered.
c) Resistprintingbyoverdyeing:thismethodissimilartothepreviousone,butthecovering
operation isreplaced withtherollerprintingofthebackground.
626
TransferPrinting:
Pigmentsare colourswhich do notdissolve and penetrate into the fibres. They have to be applied
'
tocarryoutasteamingprocess,assteamingisreplacedbypolymerisation(generallycarried out
simultaneouslywi
thdrying).
Thistype ofprinting process is verysim ple, I
ow-costand can be carried outeasily on aIItp esof
627
Printing Protesses:
Hand Printlng orBlx kprinting:
Thisis the oldestmethod ofprinting but i
t isseldom used nowadaysin the industry.The printing
paste isapplied by meansofawoodenblockwhich carriesthe design in relief,orbyastencil.
RollerPrinting:
ofthe18thcentury(kotIand:JamesBeII)andhasresultedinthedisappearanceofhandprinting,
which isa time-consuming printingtechnique.Thetechnique ofrollerprinting isespeciallyused for
verylarge batchesbutfacesgreatcompetitionfrom rotary screen printing.
The oldest mechanized method for continuous printing represents only about 16% of print
produdion today,and isdeclining.Rollerprinting iscapable ofproducingvery sharp outlinesto the
printed pattern which is especially importantforsmallfigures.The maxim um design repeatisthe
circumferenceofthe engraved roller.
endless blanket
back grey
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The design is engraved onto copper rollers, a separate roller for each colour.The rollers are
mounted againstthe large main cylinder,around which the fabrictravelstogetherwith a resilient
blanketahd a protedive back grey.The printing paste is Iocated in a trough.A transferrollerruns
partl
y imm ersed in th paste and in contactwiththe engraved roller.A doctorblade,scrapesaway
aIlofthe paste exceptforthatcontained in the engraving.A cleaning blade on the Qtherside
scrapes away any Iint picked up from the fabric.The pressure ofthe engraved roll
eragainstthe
fabriccausesthedesignto betransferred.Anyexcesspastewhichissqueezedthroughthefabric,is
taken up bythe backgrey.Thisprotectsthe blanketand preventsthe designfrom beingsmeared.
Advantagesanddisadvantagesofrollerprinting:
Rollerprinting is especially suited forprinting Iarge batches.Speedscan amountto approximately
1oo m etresperm inute.M oreover,rollerprintingcan be usedforveryfine printing.
628
For smallbatches,however,the changing times between printing of the various batches are so
considerable in the complete production process, thattheeffici
ency(costeffectiveness)inmachine
utilization can drop to 50% . The changing ti
me is necessaw for adjusying and preparing the
machinesf0ranew series.
using:severalprinting rollers.Each printing roller appliesone colour. During the printing process,
each colourwillbejjcrushedyybythefollowing rollersasmanytimesastherearecoloursleftto be
applied.Consequently,thecolourwillbepushedmoreand morethroughthefabricto be printed.
Deep coloursare hard to obtain,which benefitsscreen printing. There may be a reduction in colour
strengthofupto 50%.
Screen printing is comparable to stenciling. A distinction ismade between flatscreen printing and
rotary screen printing.In flatscreen printing, rectangularframes(screens)are used wi
th athin
gauze fixed to them.Rotaryscreen printing isdone with cylindricalscreens. The cylindricalscreens
contain the colourpaste and rotate overthe fabricto be printed. The dye isforced through the
cylindricalscreen which isperforatedaccordingto a particulardesign onto thefabricunderneath.
gauzethreads(hydrophobicmaterials)guaranteesatlghtlystretched meshwhichwillnotbend
underloading (with the colourpaste).The paste is kuxhed through the screen by meansof
squeegees onto the fabric according to a certain design. The development of fully automatic
printingmachinesforflatand rotary screenprinting in the middl
e ofthe twentieth centuryhasbeen
an important step.It has contributed to rotae screen printing becoming the most important
printingtechnique(>60%).
rlatkreenPrinting:
There are three types of flat screen printing, such as hand screen printing,semi-automatic flat
Rreenprintingand fell
y-aetomaticflatscreenprinting.
Hahd screen printing isto be considered acraftratherthan aproductive working method. The
f
abricisfixed to ablanketorbackgreyon aprinting table where the screensare puton. Normally,
629
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withintervafsforirying(wet-on-drymethod).Applicationwithshorterintervalsisknownasthe
Wet-On-Wetmethod.
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Fully-automaticflatscreenprinting:Increasingtheprintingspeedcanbedinebyappl
ying(printing)
aIIcoloursonthefabricsimultaneouslkwhichIeadstoacontinuousprocessinsteadofabatchwise
one.ln thatcase the fabric to be printed moves overa distance equalto the width ofthe repeat
(intermittentmovement)betweeneachprintingoperation.Therepeatisthatpartofadesignor
pattern which isrepeated on equaldistancesin Iength and width.Thedesign orpattern isthewhole
set of figures which are printed on the material.The materialto be printed is gummed to an
630
RotaryStreen Printing:
. ;.
.,
Fully-automaticflatscreenprintingisnotcontinuousyet.Rotaryscreenprintingpnthegtherhand
.
case with flat screen printing.Speed range from 30 to 50 metres/min.The standard internal
circumference of cylindricalscreens is 640 - 640.1 m m. However, other dimensions'afe al
so
possible.
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FundionalFinishiig:
The chemicalstructure of natural,artificialorsynthetic fibres detqrminessome ofthe properties'
thatarenaturall
ypresentalsoinfinishedproducts.Somefibres(suchasIineq,hemp,silk,nylon,
.
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above mentioned characteristics and many others make up positive and negative properties ofa
textile material,which mustbe accurately considered ip view oftheirfinalapplication.Te textile
produd finalappli
cation willbeconsidered from many pointsofview:wearability,hand,mechanical
resistance,wettability,washability,deformabili
ty,fire-proofability and manyothers.
Theword ''txtilefinishing''definesaseriesofprocessingoperationsappliedtograyfbticsto
enhance theirappearance and hand,propertiesa:d possible applications.The term ''finishing''
includesaIIthetreatmentsapplied to grayfabricssuchasscouring,bleaching,dyeingorprinting
'
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. .
Whc
ilewewillusetheterm 'functionalfinishinf withreferencetoaIIthemechani'
calotchmical
finishingoperationscarriedoutonfabricsalreadybleached,dyedorprintedtofuriherenance
theirpropertiesandpossiblyaddsomenew ones.Theterms'finishing'and'fundionalfinishinfare
thefeforesimilarandbothplayafundamentalroleforthecdmmercialexcellencyoftheiesul
tsof
textiles,strid lydependingon m arketrequirementsthatare becom ing increasihgly stringentand
631
unpredidble and permitvery shortresponse times.Depending upon the type nftextilesubstrate
to betreated (staple,yarnorfabric)fundionalfini
shingprocessesarecarriedoutusingdifferent
m eans:
Fibrenatureorfabrictobesubjededtofunctionalfinishingtreatments
Finalapplicationofthefabrictobesubjectedtofundionalfinishingtreatments
MethanicalrinishingTreatments:
M echanicalfinishingprocessescan be referred to asthose processesgenerall
y carried outon openwidth dryfabrics,with orwithoutheatapplication,which givethefabricgood dimensionalstability
632
Raising:the fibre end pulled out to the fabric surface imparts an insulating effed . This
processiscarried outby meansofhook-needlesrunning indifferentdiredionsonthefabric.
singeing:thefibreendspulledouttothefabricsurfaceareburntbymeansofaflame(see
preliminarytreatments).
W etfinishing:
W ettalendering:thisprocessisquitesim ilartothedryone.The onlydifferenceisthe use of
steam .
couplesofrollerspressedoneagainsttheotherwithadjustablepressqreandidenticalorsimilartip
speeds.The c10th passesthrough one ormore couplesofrellers,which exerta smoothing and a
pressingadion.Some rollersare stiffwhilesome othersare madeofsofterm aterial.Stiffrollersare
generally made ofsteelorhardened castiron and the surface can be chrom e-plated, nickel-plated
ormadeofstainlqsssteelandcanbesobjededtotretmentsthatgive:
*
*
*
amattappearancesimilartotheabrasiveblsting;
across-stripeengravingto impiovethefabricresistancqtosliding;
averythindiagonalstripepqttsrpingwithsilk-sheenappearance;
apatternedengravingwithembosedeffeds.
Thefabricpassingthroughtherollersof!hetalenderissubjededtoaveryuniform pressureaIl
along itswidth;ifthe rollersrotate atadifferentspeed,avigorousfridion effed isgenerated. Steel
rollersmaybeequippedinsuchawaytdbe heatedfrom the insid bymeansofsteam, circulating
fluidsoreledricalpower.Theyafesupportebyaverticalcentralframemadeofsteel,havingthe
samesizeofrigidrollers,whilethesurfceiscoatedwithsoftermaterialIikecotton(tostandhigh
temperatures),woolpaper(toenhancetheglazefinish),orjute,woolorplasticmaterialsuchas
633
polyamide.Therollerscoatedwithpaper/wool,containing45-50% ofwool,featuregoodelastici
ty
and excellentresistance to wearand are suitable forawidevariety ofapplications;theycan also be
w jdtjjqprgagy
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Calendering M achine
bypplyingsuitable(thermosettingresinorreadive-basedsubstances)finishingproducts.
The use ofdifferenttypesofcalendersgivesdifferenteffedssuch as:
Sheen appearance:it can be obtained by smoothing the c10th surface, which ensures a
betterreflection ofIi
ght.
Bettercoverage:itis due to the com pression ofthe c10th,which generates a flattening of
eachsingle yarn.
Softerhand:itisobtained thanksto a slightironing effect,which producesasmoother,and
softerclolhsurface.
Embossing:
634
Embossing is a parti
cularcalendering processthrough which a simple pattern can be engraved on
thecloth.Theembossingmachine ismade tlp ofaheatedand em bossed rollermadeofsteel, which
is pressed against another rollercoated with paperor cotton, its circumferehce being exactly a
whole multiple ofthe metalroller.A gear system drives the harmonised motion of the rollers,
preventing them from sliding and granting a sharp engraving ofthe patterned design. Afterbeing
engraved,the patterncan be stabili
sed by meansofan appropriate high-temperature treatmentor
by applyingsuitable starchysubstances.
The process can be applied offabrics made ofaIItypesoffibres with thq exeption ofwool. This
finishispermanentwhenappliedtofabricsmdeoftherm'oplasticfibres. Itisnotpermanentwhen
applied to untreatedfabricsmade ofnaturalfibresormanmpdefibresthatare notthermoplastic;
however,ifthese fabricsaretreated withcertainchemicalresins, the embossing isconsidered to be
permanent.T0 preservetheembossedfinish ofsuch fabrics,theyshould bewashed in Iukewarm
waterwith a mild soap,neverbe bleached, and be ironed on thewrongside whiledam p.
Sueding:
Thisoperation is oken carried outbefore the raising processto reduce the friction between the
fibresmaking upthec10th and consequentlytofacilitatethe extradionofthe fibreend. The sueding
processiscarriedoutonbothsidesofthefabricandmodifiestheappearanceandthefinalhandof
thec10th;when touched itgivesa softand smooth sensation si
m ilarto the one given by a peachgrain surface.
Grayfabricsaswellasdyedonescanbesubjededtothesuedingprocess;thec10thtobeemerised
m ust be com pletely free from any finishing resin oradhesive substance rem aining on the fabric
surface afterdesizing.The sueding processreduces mechanicand dynamometric resistqnce ofthe
fabric,thusmakingitmoresubjed totearingaidseamlng.
Thefabriccan run atdifferentspeedsinside the suedingunit;asm ooth pressure iskeptthanksto
twobalancingarmsassembledattheintryadattheexi
toftheunit.Thepiecesofc10thmustbe
sewnwithabrasion-resisianilaterialsucbaspolyesterornylon.Thegearsmustbesuitably
cleanedwithcompressedairjetssincethpreienceofpileresiduescouldclogtheballbepringsor
drop againonthefabricsurface thuscreatingsom e problemswith dyeing m achinesfilters. The
635
sueding process,which can affed the fabric with a very wide range of effects,can give some
problem when applied to knitted tubulargoodsbutit'swidely used on woven fabricswith different
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The sueding unitisequipped with 6 rollersperforming the sueding action on the face ofthefabric
and 1 roller perform ing its action ofthe back ofthe fabric;an advantage ofthis system is the
possibility to use sueding clothswith differentgrainson each single roller.Thanksto three dandy
fabric;the wide contactsurface allows very high operating rates.The great numberofmoving
rellersperforms a gentle action on each single sueding rollerthusgranting the maxim um sueding
smootbness.Furthermore the Ii
fe ofthe abrasive c10th ism uch Iongerthan the one assem bled on
conventional machines. In fad, 100,000.150,000 meters of synthetic fabric and up to
200,000.250,000 metersof100% cotton fabriccan be processed in standard processing conditions
beforereplacingtheabrasive;suedingunitscanalsobetransformedintoraising(napping)uni
tsby
assembling a special conversion kit. AIlsueding machines are equipped with a brushing unit
assembled atthe exitto reducethepowderresulting from thesueding process.
RaisingorBreshing:
TheraisingprocessisaveryoIdtechniqueknownalsoto Romans(aspicturedinsomepaintings
foundinPompeii).Thisoperationisparticularlysuitableforwoolandcottonfabrics;itgi
vesafuzzy
sudace by abrading the c10th and pulling the fibre end to the surface.Dbring those Iastyearsthis
processhasalsobeenappliedonpolyester/viscoseblendsandacrylicfabrics.
636
Bymeansofthisprocessaiairysurfacecanbegiventobothfaceandbackofthec10thproviding
several modifications of the fabric appearance,softer and fuller hand and bulk increase. This
enhances the resistance of the textile materialto atmospheric agents, by improving thermal
insulation and warmth provided bythe insulating aircellsinthe nap. The fuzzy surface iscreated by
pulling the fibre end outofthe yarns by meansof metalneedles provided witb hooks shelled into
the rollers thatscrape the fabric surface.The ends ofthe needlesprotruding from the rollersare
4s*-hooks;theirthickness and Iength can vary and they are fitted in a specialrubberbelt spiral
wound on the raising roll
ers.These rollersare generally al
ternatedwith arollerwith hooksdirected
Counterpileraising
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Raising rollers
The m achine also includes some rotating brushes, which suction-clean the nibs in pile and
counterpiledirections.Aduallythetrendgoestowardsaratioofraisingrollers/pilerollersequalto
or1/3.Thetwoseriesofrollershaveindependentmotionandcanrotatewithdifferentspeedand
directionthuscarryingoutdifferenteffects.
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onadjustment
Raising(nzpping)machine:
The adion ofthese system sisalm ostpowerfuland the resultsdepend uponthe effectsand the
typeoffabricdesired.Theraisingeffed canbeobtainedbyadjustingthefabrictension(5)orby
adjustingthespeedandtherollerrotationdiredion(2).OnceacertainIimithasbeenexceeded,the
excessive mechanicalstrejscould damagethefabric:itisthereforebetter,whencarryingouta
powedulraisin,topassthewetfabricthroughtheraisingmachinemanytimes(drywhen
processingcottonfabrics)andtreatthefabricsinadvancewithsoftening-lubricatingagents.The
pileextraction iseasierwhen carried outon single fibres:itistherefore suitable to reducethe
637
fridion between the fibres by w:tting the materialor,in case of cellulose fibres,by previously
steaming the fabric.For the same reasons, i
t is betterto use slightly twisted yarns.The same
machine allowsdifferentoptionsofindependentmotions:
fabricmoving betweenentryand exit
motion ofIarge drum
- mot
ion ofraising rollers
-
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Raisingthefaceandbackofthefabric;alschemeandb)view
The raising intensity can be adjusted by suitably combining the above mentioned independent
motions,the tension ofthetextile material,the numberof'pilewise'or'counterpile'raising rollers
and their relati
ve speed.Itis possible to obtain 'combed pile'raising effed,''semi-felting''effed
with fibrespulled outand re-entered in thefabric,and 'completefel
ting'effect.
Stabilisation:
Thisprocessproducesgreaterdensityandstability(e.g.theSanforsetprocess)andgivesthefabrica
controlled.compress
'ion shrinkage, which eliminates distortions originated during previous
processes.The fabricfinished with thistreatmentkeepsitsshape also afterrepeated washing thus
Thefabricshrinkageiscarriedoutwithseveralsimpleoperations:therubberbeltpressedbetwen
thesqueezing cylinderand the drum isstretched and,once outofthissqueezingunit,itagaintakes
638
itsoriginalshape.Thefabricism adeto adhereto the rubberbeltinthe squeezing area and,since it
can slide more easilyon the heated and m irror-polished sudace ofthedrum than on the rubber
one,itisforced to follow itduringthe subsequentshrinkage-The resulting effed isa continuous
and steady sliding between the drum and the rubberbeltand consequentlybetween the drum ant
the fabric.Since the stretching ofthe rubberbeltdependsupon the intensity ofthe pressurt
exerted bythe squeezing cylinder,each pressure variation correspondsto a shrinkage variatior
Therefore the higherthe pressure thegreaterthe shrinking effect.
* : #'# * #
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immediatelyafterthesqueezingcompressionmustbesubjededtotheslightesttensionsandthe
moisturem ustnotexceed optimum values.
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639
Tubularknittedgoodscanbetreatedonstenters(toimpartdimensionalstability),onlyafterthe
cutting operation and eventualbonding.Drying and dimensionalstabilisation of tubularkni
tted
goodscan be obtained by passing the relaxed fabricinto beltdrying unitsand by steaming them in
thefinalpath.
'
G
-- -- -- . .. --- -- -. . .--
CompadingProcessforTubularKnitted Fabrics
Thefabric(T),wetordampened withasoluti
on containingsoeningagentsinavat(V),isIaid
own,overfedbyaIittlecalender(C),onmetal-meshvibratingconveyorbelts(N)intoadryingunit.
nthefirsttwoconveyorbel
ts,thefabricisdriedwithhotair(1)whilevibrationsmakethefabric
hrinkfreely;thesteamingtreatment(2),whichsetsthedimensionalstability,increasesthefabric
bulk and givesa softhand to the fabric,is carried outon a third conveyorbelt. The fabric isthen
oldedinaspecialfoldingunit(A).Incaseoffurthercuttingandbondingunits,ashrinkingmachine
an be added to thesystem .
Detating:
rhis process is mainly carried out on wool by exploiting its elastic properties in hot and wet
onditionsby the dired adion ofthe steam on the fabric.Thistreatmentgivesthe processed fabric
hefollowingcharacteristics:
-
dim ensionalstability;
settingofpileafterraising;
reduction ofpossible glazing effectaftercalendering,thank to the swelling caused
by steam blownonfibres;
modificationofthehand,which ismuchm oreconsistentafterthetreatment;
pre-stabilisation to autoclave dyeing
640
Thesteam decating,whichisalsoreferredtoasdrydecating,iscarriedoutondecatingmachinesin
one continuous treatment or two discontinuous ones, according to the following operating
techniques:
-
drum decating(alternatedatatmosphericpressure);
autoclavevacuum decating(KD);
continuousdecating.
givefabricssomeproperties(e.g.flameretardancyandwaterrepellency),whichwouldbe
otherwise absent
Natefal(adhesives,fats,oils,starches)
Artifkial(modifiedstarches,modifiedcellulose)
Synthetit(synthesisproducts)including:N-methylolderivatives(thermosetting,readants),
Iinear readants (carbamates, epoxy resins), thermoplasti
c polymers (vinyl, acrylic,
polyethylene),polyurethanesandsilicones.
This classification,helpfulfor students,does not coincide with the produds ad ually sold on the
marketsince these productsare blendscontaining also eatalp tsand auxiliarieswhich interad and
produce complementary effeds.Itistherefore necessary to underline how chemicalfinishing can
affed the textile prdud by altering its mechanicalproperties, sometimes changing the colour
shade of its originalcolour fastness.Different techniques are available for applying the above
mentioned finishing substances:by solution,dispersion,and emulsion, pad wetting,exhaustion,
coating,Spraying,etc.The mostappropriate technique mustbecarefullystudied foreachfibretype,
and the most suitable chemicalfinishing process applied to obtain optim um results and grant a
reasonablesafetymargin foranypossible error.
Applireion oftbefinish:
The operations to be carried out when applying the finish to a textile substrate are mostly
conditioned bythe struduraland hygroscopicpropertiesofthematerialto be processed, by the
desired effects,by the physicaland chemicalnature ofthe elements that make up the finishing
substance and by the machine.soutputrate.In textilefinishing,we can distinguish between fi
ve
m ainapplicationtechniques:
641
a)padding;
b)sprayingbymeansofatomisers;
c)exhaustprocessintreatmentIiquor;
d)coatingcarriedoutbymeansofdoctorknives;
e)controlledapplicationofIow Iiquorquantities.
Paddingisby farthe mostcom mon amongthevariousfinishingtechniques.
Padding:
hemp,from syntheticfibrestojlassfibres.AsregardstheresinsusedforthecoatingIayer,
642
manufacturers once employed onl
y naturalsubstances, but are now using almost exclusively
syntheticpolymersofhigh molecularweight.
'
Today Manufadurersare constantly in the search forcoating substances thatare more and more
elastic,abletowithstanddi#erentmechanicalstressand washingconditions,and aboveaIIresi
stant
towearingandweatheragents.Thesecoatingpolymersarebonddtothfabiiibackingbymeans
ofcalenders,in thefdrm ofthinsheetsorare mainlyspread intheform ofaqujousdispersionsor
L
solutioisinsolvents..
!
The charaderisyics and the propertiesofcoated fabrics depend on the chemicalstructure ofthe
coatingresinsapplivdandthetypeofbackingfabricused.ThecoatingIayeruhdoubtedl
yplaysthe
Emostimportantro'ie'
iofzpp
' elrance,handandresistance properties:itseIasti
yy,itsbehaviourat
i
.
'''
weatheragents,depend.
on i
tschemicalcompcsition asasubstance witha highmclecularweight
and moreorIessthermoplasticqualities.
O Aening:
'
compositionandphysicalstrudure(lesscrystallinity=greatersoftness).Thefinenessofthefibreor
ofthefilamentdirectlyaffedsthesoftnessoftheyarn(woollens,worsteds,microfibersetc.).The
yarn twist ratio is inversely proportionalto its softness.The weave also contributes to reducing
onthebasisofoperatorksexprience.Itisanywaypossibletodistintuishbetweenmanytyhesof
soness:
a)surfacesoftness, .
b)surfacesmoothness,'
c)elasticity(tocompressionandstretching)
.'
;
.
'
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techniques;someofthesemethods(sueding,raising)havealreadybeenex'
plainindetilin
previoussecti6nsofthishandbook,whilesome othersrefersto machinesthatgivedifferent
degreesofsoftness,bymeansofhigh-speed'rope protessinginwetordryiondi
tions,withthe
dryingstagecarriedoutdurinjthetrattnent(withorwithoutsofteners6fenzymes.)T e
ipctionalcorepfthesemachinesarvthetwptnnelswherethefabriclsfedthtdughtwventuri
tubes.Theenergyappliedfordrawtngthematerialisproduedonlybyairanpressurelhefabric
'
' '
' ''''
flowingthroqghtheVenturitubesispushedathighspeedagainstagridonthemachinerearside;
thefabricthenslidesonTeflon-coated chutesand reachesthe machinefrontside to startthecycle
643
x r r
m Nx
Thefollowingpicturedetailsan industrialsofteningsystem .
A fabricsofteningm achine
Anti-staticTreatments:
climb,crackle,even spark and cause very minor but discomforting shock to the user.5ome
companiesdoapplyantistatictreatments,sometimesincombinationwithotherfinisheswhich:ay
have antistaticcomponentsin them .0ne form ofZepelissuch a finish.These vary in effedi
veness
and durability.Some manmade fibre pfoducers are making types of fibres which have built-in
antistatic propedies.There are several household produds used in Iaundering that provide
nondurableantistaticproperties.
644
Being characteristically hydrophobic,syntheticfibres presenta Iow electricalcondudivity, so Iow
that, afterrubbing againstotherbodies,they cai retal
;n tn eled'ricalchargefora Iongtime. Indee'
d,
..
'
responsibleforcrsatingthefamiliarcracklingsoundandfortheformati
onofthetinysparksandthe
genuine eledricaldischargesthatcan cause perceptible discomfort. To reduce this phenomenon,
nnecan operate inacontrolled environmentthathashigh relative humidity,usecondudorsthat
can discharge tie m iterl
al,ionise the atmosphere,oiap
'pIy hydropilicchemicalsubstances.
Chemicalprodudsthatconferan anti-static effecton syntheticfibredfori , on the fibre surface,a
thinfilm whoseelediicalcondudivi
tyishigherthanthatofthe'fibre. Thesesubstancesareanionic,
cationic,amphoteric,orevennon ionogenic.Thecondudivityofajyntheticfibreisthusincreased
when itiscovered with asurface-active substance in whichthe hydrophobicgroupsareoriented
toWardsthefibreaqdthehydrophilicgroupsareorientedawayffom it.
The presence ofmobileeledricalionsis,however, important.pependingonthejubstantivityofthe
chemical produds used, it is possible to choose between diffefent ppplication processes:
immersion,exhaustorpadding.Anti-staticfinishing treatmentsare rarelyapplied through spraying.
Chemicalprodudsthathavethecapacityto conferapermanentanti-staticeffed cond:nseathi
gh
temperatures;theycanevencondensewhenstoretatambienttemperatureinhermeticallysealed
roomsorcontainers(ascanepoxyresin-basedproduds).AIltheanti-staticprodudsavailableon
the marketcan be applied by padding,while onlyafew can beappliqd ujingtheexhaustprocess.
The materialisimmersed in Iiquorcontaining the anti-staticchem icalprodud , squeezed(to40-60%
.
(mildews)feedoffit.Thesituationisworsened,duringlongstorageperiods,bythepresenceof
starch finishing agents.Thisdamagecan be prevented bytheuseofantiseptics, baderia controlling
products containing quaternary ammonium sal
ts, and phenolderivatives. Dyestuffs containing
heavymetalscanalsoad asantiseptics.Permanentmodificationofthefibre(cyanoethylation)is
anotherpossibility.
Cellulosefibresare particularl
y susceptibleto m ildew;silkand woolare also susceptible, butto a
lesserextent.Such untreated fabricswillbecome stained, mal
odorous,and eventuallydeteriorated
645
y
bythefungusifallowedto remainin amoistconditionforaperiodoftime.Showercurtainsoij''<('
l
j.
. .
Othercottonfabri
csmaybemil
dewproofedathomebysoakingthemateri
ali
hverysoapywater, '
lt',kj
then,withoutrinsing,dippingitintoasolutionofcoppersulfate.Antisepticj,suchasboricacidind
..
,
--.
.j
t
miIdewproofingagents.Certainerganometalliccompounds,suchasoftinandcopper,arepowedul
mildew retardants.Copperim parts a greenish colourto fabrics.Certain resins based on melamine
formaldehydeare also valu#ble formildewproofing.Rotproofing,an extension ofmildewproofing,ij
veryim portantin agriculturalapplications
.,
:
.
Dim ensionalstability:
Cotton kni
tted fabricsintubularform often show excessive Iengthwaysshrinkageon washing unless
given a pre-shrinking treatmentbased on compressing the fabric Iengthways.A new technique isto . )(
.
pre-shrinkthefabricbytransferringi
tfrom onesudiondrum toanother,thesecondoperatingata
Iowersurfacespeed thanthe fitst.
TheMicrexProcessisalsoacombined chemical
-mechanicaltreatmentwhenappliedtoopen-widih
knittedfabricscontainingasubstantialproportionofcellulosicfibre.Thesequenceis(a)padwith
resin,(b)dry,(c)compressivelyshrinklengthways,and (d)cure,treatmentusuallybymeansof
infra-red radiation.Forfabrics containing a large proportion ofpolyesterorpolyamide fibre,the
paddinganddryingstagsareomitted,thefabricbvingcompressedandthenheat-setin arelaxed
state.Fabricstreated bythisprocessare claimed to have a Iengthwaysshrinkage on washing ofless
than 1%,and improved shape retention,lengthwaysstretch,and handle.
ji