P0002-96

Hysteretic Relative Permeability Effects and

ReservoirConformance- An Overview
D.Brant Bennion
F. Brent Thomas
Ronald F. Bietz
Hycal Energy ResearchLaboratoriesLtd.

Abstract
Hysteretic effects refer to the difference between relative
penneability and residual saturation values as a given fluid
phase saturation is increased or decreased. The difference
between initial, trapped, mobile and irreducible saturations are
clarified. Hysteretic effects can impact a number of reservoir
production scenari~ in both favourable and unfavourable
fashions. Hysteretic effects can operate positively in such
processes as anti-water coning technology (A W AT), mobility
cootrol in cyclic projects. such as a water alternating gas
treatment or cyclic thennal stimulation operation, or in
heterogeneouscarlxmates in a process known as the successive
displacement process (SOP). Adverse effects include phase
trapping and critical vs trapped saturation hysteresis effects.
Discussion on the favourable use of hysteretic effects for
conformance control processes, such as gas or water shut-off,
are also presented.

Introduction
The conceptof relative permeabilitywas introducedto modify
DalCiesLaw, describingsingle phaseflow in a porousmedia,
for the extremely complex multiphaseflow effects occurring
when more than a single immiscible phase is presentin a
porousmedia. Relative permeabilityvalues strongly control
the flow mechanics, pressure and production responseof
virtually every producingoil or gasproperty and, therefore,a
properundelStandingof how they are infl~nced is important
in the process of reservoir optimization.
Relative
penneabilitiesare expressedas functions of water (for wateroil systems)or total liquid saturation(for gas-liquidsystems),
and have beenwell documentedin the literature' to be strong

functions of such parametersas pore system geometry and

tortousitf,
wettabilityJ,4,S, initial phase saturations6,
temperature1,viscmity of fluids', interfacial teosion9 and
hysteresiseffectslo,ll.12.
The subjectof hystereticeffects is the
topic of this paper.
What ~ Hysteres~?
Hysteresis refers to the directional saturation phenomena
exhibited by relative permeability curves. In many porous
media.relative permeabilityval~ are a non-uniquefunction
of saturation, having different values when a given phase
saturationis being increasedthan when it is being reduced.
This phenomenais illustrated for an oil-water casein Figure
1. Commencingwith a condition of 100% water saturation
(" A-), an oilflood is conducted,reducingthe water saturation
to point "B- along relative permeabilitypath A-B. In a waterwet porousmedia,this processis often referredto as primary
drainage(drainagereferring to a processwhere the wetting
phasesaturationis being reduced). Reflooding with water,
referred to as an imbibition processin a water-wet porous
media (a situatioowhere the wetting phasesamratioois being
increased),we move to point "C" along relative permeability
path B-C. It can be seen that the initial condition of 100%
water samrationis not re-achieveddue to capillary trapping,
resulting in a residual oil saturation being obtained. A
subsequentdrainage watertlood (C-B) results in different
relative permeabilitypathsbeing traced,in comparisonto the
equivalent imbibition process (B-C). This phenomenais
known as hysteresis.
In general, hysteresis is more
pronouncedin the non-wettingphasethan in the wetting phase,
but may occur in both phaseswith up to two orders of
magnitude difference in relative permeability at equivalent

HYSTEREnC RELAnvE PERMEABllJ1Y EFFK'TS AND RESERVOIRCONFORMANCE - AN OVERVIEW

saturatiom. In most cases,the relativepenneabilityfor a given

phaseis greaterwhen its saturationis being increasedrather
than decreased.This phenomenacan be usedadvantageously
in situationssuch as a cyclic steaminjection process,since it
will enhanceoil mobility and retard high water production
rateson a return flow cycle.
Two dominant mechanisms came the saturation hysteres~. In
the primary and secondary drainage case, a portion of the
hysteres~ ~ due to the disparity between the initial condition
of 100% water saturation and the trapped irreducible oil
saturation. This ~ commonly referred to as trap hysteres~.
The difference in relative pemleability curves caused by the
motion between the same endpoint saturation ~
~ due to
microscale hysteretic effects, or sometimes called drag
hysteres~. It is believed to be primarily due to a phenomena
known as contact angle hysteresis. Contact angle hysteresis is
pictorially illustrated in Figure 2. It refers to the fact that, as
immiscible interfaces advance in a IX>lOUS
media, the effective
angle of the advancing interface, which ~ related by wettability
and capillary dynamics to the relative ease of the fluid
displacement in the porous media, ~ different between
advancing and receding phase conditions. This difference,
which appears to be a strong factor of the degree of surface
roughness and torblooty which exists in the system. ~ believed
to be the root came of hysteretic microocale relative
permeability effects.

To further complicate the issue. not only is the relative

penneabilityvalue a function of the direction of the saturation
cbang~. it is also a strong function of the tenninal saturation
endpointreachedbeforethe direction of the saturationreversal
occurs.This is illustrated in Figure 3. It can be seenthat the
relative penneabilitypath, if a saturationreversaloccursat an
intennediatesaturationlevel (and not an endpointsaturation).
will result in the relative penneability curv~ tracing
intennediate paths between the secondary drainage and
imbibition curvescalled a scanningcurve. Sincethesecurves
have virtually an infinite number of va1u~. measurement
would be expensiveand technicallydifficult. They are mually
detenninedusing analytical models such as thosedeveloped
by Killough').
Saturation Definitions
To provide a discussion on hysteretic effects, a proper
defmition of a number of commonly confused saturation
cooditionsis necessary.
Initial Fluid Slduralions. This representsthe true fraction of
the rock actually occupied by oil, gas and water at initial
reservoir conditions. There are a number of methods for

detenniningfuese values
I., which are crucial to proper
evaluationof relative penneability. It shouldbe notedthat the
initial saturation conditions do not, in many situations,

rooo2-96

representthe i"educible saturationconditionswith which they

are often confused. In somereservoirs,the initial water, gas,
or condensatesaturationmay exist at some value which is
considerably less than the irreducible or mobile valuelS
(Figure 4).
Critical Fluid Saturatioll,f. This representsthe minimum
phasesaturationwhich must occur when the minimum phase
saturation is being increased the first time such that
connectivity of the phase is establishedand finite relative
permeabilityexists,so that the phasecan begin to flow in the
porousmedia.This shouldnot be confusedwith the trappedor
irreducible saturation.Examplesof a critical fluid saturation
would be the point of fust free gas mobility in a subbubblepoint~pleted black oil system.the point of first liquid
hydrocarbon condensate production in a sub-dewpoint
retrogradecondensategas system,or the point of first water
productionas water saturationis increasedin a desiccatedor
subirreduciblewater saturationsystem (Figure 4).
Trappedor Irreducible Fluid Saturation. This representsthe
saturationvalue obtainedwhen a fluid saturationis reduced
from a large mobile value to an immobile value. This is also
the i"educible saturationas is commonly detenninedfrom a
primary drainagecapillary pressuretest or a waterflood to
ultimate Sm(Figure 4).
Mobile Fluid Saturation. ~
value is subtly different from
the critical saturation as it is the value to which the saturation
must be increased after a trapped or irreducible saturation is
obtained by a displacement process. The value is generally
identical to (in an ideal situation) or larger than the trapped or
i"educible saturation (Figure 4).

How Hysteretic Effects Can Affect Reservoir Conformance

and Production
Hysteretic effects may positively or negatively influence
reservoir perfonnance.Some examplesof each situation are
given for illusttative pu~.
Positive Effects
Mobility Control. Hystereticrelativepenneabilityeffectshave
often been used as a mobility control agent to preferentially
reduce the mobility of one phase over another to achieve
superior confonnancecontrol and ultimate sweep efficiency,
particularyin the presenceof adverseviscosity ratios. A prime
example of this techoology is the water alternating gas
treatmentor WAG processused to reduce the mobility of
injected gas in a horizontal gas injection project. The
interfering effects betweenthe gas and liquid p~
are used
to selectively retard the speed of gas migration. Since the
water, due to its higher viscosity, tends to preferentially
channelinto the higher penneability channelsof the reservoir

DB. BENNION,FB moMAs. R.F.BIIZ

it tenm to screenoff thesebetter quality zonesand selectively

reduces the permeability to gas. Due to hysteresis and
mobility effects,it is more difficult for the gasto displacethe
water from this zone than to be preferentiallyredirectedinto
zones of lower permeability. which tenm to improve the
overall conformanceand sweepefficiency of a horizontal gas
injection project, particularly in thick pay zones or zones
containinghighly variable permeability or high permeability
streaks. This phenomenais pictorially illustratedas Figure 5.
Water Coning Reduction. Hysteretic relative permeability
effects are the basis of anti-water coning technologyused in
some heavy oil ~rvoir
situations. Due to the extremely
adverseviscosity ratio betweenmany heavy oils and active
bottom water presentin some of thesesystems,rapid water
coning, high water cuts and marginal or uneconomic
productionoccurs. It bas often beenfound in suchsituations
that the presenceof a mobile gas phasesaturationappearsto
preferentially reducethe water phasepermeabilityover the oil
phasepermeability.This tendsto selectivelyreducethe water
cut, and may improve dle economicsof a marginalwell by the
simple injection of a slug of inert gas in the near wellbore
region. A particular application of this technology was
patentedin the 1980'sby the Alberta Oil SandsTechnology
ResearchAuthority (AOSTRA) under the trade nameA WAT
(Anti-Water Coning Technology). Figure 6 provides an
illustrative set of gas-water relative permeability curves
showing the basisfor this technology.
Enhanced Cyclic Production. The me of a simulation model
with hysteretic relative permeability capability is sometimes the
only method of accurately predicting the performance of some
cyclic projects, particularly cyclic steamfloods in heavy oil
applicationsl6. This is illustrated in relative petmeability curves
as pictured in Figure 7. It can be seen that the higher water
phase relative permeability on the water injection cycle aids in
increasing the ease of injectivity of the hot water and steam
condensate into the formation. The lower oil phase
permeability, as its satUIation is being reduced, allows the hot
water!steam to b~
some oil and peneb'ate deeper into the
formation which improves the contact and size of the heated
zone. Conversely, on the production cycle, oil production rate
is enhanced as the water mobility is reduced, since its
saturation is being reduced, and the oil phase relatively
permeability may be significantly increased. This results in
enhanced production of oil rather than rapid production of the
less viscous water phase.
Succesli.,e Displacement Process (SD/? The suc~ve
displacement process is a recently researched process which
appears to utilize saturation hysteresis effects as a basis for
enhanced oil production as a by-product of an immiscible gas
and water displacement process. The mechanism is not
entirely \Dlderstood, but is pictorially illustIated in Figures 8(a)
to 8(d). The prime application for the SDP has been observed

in vertical displacementsin heterogenouscarbonatefonnations

with strong bottom water drives with immiscible gas injection
projectsfor preaure support. The mechanismof the process
is illmtrated as follows:
Figure 8(a) Initial saturation conditions. The oil wet carbonate
media, generally a reef type structure with considerable vertical
relief, exhibits oil wet behaviour with a low initial water
saturation encapsulated in the central portion of the pore
system (i.e. 5% water, 95% oil).
Figure

8(b)

Immiscible

gas cap encroachment as gas injection

for pressuresupport continues.This results in stable gravity

drainageof oil. in somecasesdown to fairly low oil saturation
values of 20-25%. This establishesa zone of high gas
saturationin the gravity drainedzone.
Figure 8(c) Gascapblowdownand oil sandwichdisplacement.
The depressurization
of the gascapresultsin the active aquifer
displacingup a sandwichof unrecoveredoil from the baseof
the reservoir. As the oil bank penetratesthe highly gas
saturatedzone,hystereticsaturationand relative permeability
effects result in a very high trappedgas saturatioo(generally
in excessof 50%) being retainedin the oil encroachedzone.
Figure 8(d) Aquifer Encroachment.Following the displaced
oil sandwich~ the active water front. Due to the high trapped
gassaturation.the encroachingwater appealSto be redirected
by hystereticrelative permeabilityeffectsto penetrateportions
of the pore space not previously accessedduring the gas
drainageprocess.Th~ resultsin a measurablereductionin the
residual oil saturation(to perhapsas low as 10%) over that
obtained during the conventional gas drainagep~,
and
representssignificant incremental recovery which may be
obtained from what was thought to be a depletedreservoir
during the blowdown cycle.
This phenomena bas been documented in a number of reservoir
applications in die literaturel7.

Negative Effects
Phase Trapping. Phase trapping has been well documented in
the literature as a me(;.hanism of substantially reduced
productivity in many reservoir applicatioos.I..9. Phasetrapping
is caused by a combination of both adverse saturation
hysteresis effects and associated adverse relative penneability
effects ~ illtmtrated in Figure 9. Common situations where
phase trapping may occur are the use of water-based drilling,
completion. stimulation or kill fluids in overbalanced
conditions in low initial water saturation condition
gas
reservoirs or strongly oil wet oil reservoirs (both of which
exhibit extremely low initial water satUlations). Hydrocarbon
phase traps may be established through the use of oil-based
drilling, completion or stimulation fluicb in gas reservoir

HYSTERImC RELAnvE PERMEABIU1Y ~6,;13

applicatioos or retrograde condensatedropout effects during the

production of rich gas condensate reservoirs.
Massi" Critical and Trapp,d StlJuration Hysteresis. In some
reservoirs, the difference between the initial critical mobile
saturation level, when the phases saturation is being increased
and the trapped saturation value, when that phases saturation
is being reduced, can be significant. This is schematically
illustrated as Figure 10. An example would be in a black oil
depletion process where the reservoir p~
is dropped a
significant degree below the saturation pressure. This will
result in the liberation of a large amount of free solution gas.
The critical gas saturation will rapidly be exceeded and gas
will begin to flow but, as pressure continues to drop, the value
of the mobile gas saturation will also tend to rise. If the
pressure decline is then halted, and we attempt to flow back
into the highly gas saturated zone, a much higher -trapped- gas
saturation than the initial critical value will usually be
obtained. This may significantly reduce the mobility of the oil
phase, resulting in a large loss in potential productivity.
Using Hyst6retic
R6lati"6
P6rmeability
Eff6CU for
Conformanc6 Control PUrpOS6S.Some examples have already
been presented as to how hysteretic relative permeability
effects may influence conformance control.
Potential
applications include:
Gas Shill 0.0: Gas phase relative penneability may be
preferentially affected by selective treatments with an
immiscible fluid The selective injection of water based fluid,
possibly a surfactant. into the upper portion of a high gas cut
weD may result in the hysteretic trap of a higher water
saturation in the zone of high gas saturation and penneability,
and result in a ~ient
or pe~nt
reduction in gas-oil ratio.
Inclusion of a surfactant may generate a high viscosity stable
foam system when contact is made with zones of high gas
saturation. This will result in a large portion of the pole system
which is available for mobile gas to flow being occluded by
the immobile foam phase and, once again, result in a
preferential reduction in the gas phasepenneability. Treatments
of this type tend to be somewhat transient in effect due to
gradual degradation of the foam system over time by
adsorption (particularly in clastic fonnations) and dispersion
effects. This process is illustrated schematically as Figure 11.

WaterShut Q6: Hystereticeffects can also be usedto aid in

watershutoff. Referencehasalreadybeenmadeto the A WA T
process when non-condensible gas injection is ~
to
preferentiallyreducewater cuts by a selectiveredoctionin the
relative permeability to water over the oil value. In zones
containing pure water, which cannot be readily isolated by
casing and selective completion. a similar effect can be
accomplishedby the direct zooe specific injection of an
immiscible non condensiblegas into the water saturatedzone.
This will establjsha zooe of high trappedgas saturatiooand

AND RESERVOIRCONFORMANCE - AN OVERVIEW

POOO2-96

may, depending on the rock geometry and relative penneability

characteristics, significantly reduce the inflow characteristics of
water from the affected zone. The establishment of a trapped
gas saturation in the oil saturated strata is obvio~ly
undesirable and should be avoided as this may substantially
aJso impair the permeability to oil. This process is illustrated
schematically as Figure 12.
Oil injection (although opposite of what we want to accomplish
is most producing wells) may also be an effectual WaR
reducing technique in certain situations where free bottom
water with an active drive in present. The objective of this
technique is to inject produced oil, or some other low viscosity
hydrocarbon, directly into the wet zone underneath the
producing zooe. Hysteretic effects will trap an irreducible oil
saturation in this zone which may reduce the effective
permeability to water by as much as 95%, depending on the
relative permeability characteristics of the porous media.

Conclusions
A discmsionon cyclic hysteresiseffects in dle exploitationof
oil and gas producingpropertieshas indicatedthat:
Significantsaturationand relative penneability hysteresis
occurs in many reservoir systems. The degree of
hysteresisis usually more pronoWlcedin the non-wetting
phase,but may be significant in both p~.
Researcl1
studiessuggestthat the degreeof hysteresisis relatedto
the magnitude of contact angle hysteresiswhich is, in
turn. a function of the amoWltof surfaceroughnessin a
givenreservoirsystem.Therefore,tight, low permeability
rocks with high surface roughnessmay exhibit more
hysteresisthan their more uniform higher penneability
counterparts, although specific detemlination on a
reservoirby reservoirsystemis required.
2.

3.

Thedifferencebetweeninitial, irreducible,critical, mobile

and trappedfluid saturationshas beendefmed.
Hystereticeffectsmay be advantageous
in reducingwater
coning problems, gas coning problems, enhancing
production from some cyclic projects (such as steam
injection) and reducing gas phase mobility in some
processessuch as water alternatinggasfloods(WAG) or
co-currentinjection projects.Residualoil satunttionmay
be substantiallyreducedin someheterogenouscarbooate
formationsdue to hystereticeffects in what is known as
the successivedisplacementprocess(SDP).
Hysteretic effects may also reduce productivity and
increaseproblemswith water and gas coning in certain
situationsdue to adverseeffects associatedwith "trap"
saturationhyste~ or what is more commonly referred
to as "phasetrapping".

DB. B~ON.

f.B rnoMAs, R.f. BIETZ

Acknowledgments
The authorswish to expressappreciationto Maggie Irwin and
Vivian Whiting for their assistancein the preparationof the
man~pt
and figures and to the managementof Hycal
EnergyResearehLaboratoriesfor the fimding of this work and
permissionto presentthe data.
References

Hooarpour,M. et al, ~elative Penneabilityof Petroleum

Reservoirs",CRC Press, 1986,Boca Raton,Florida.
2

3,

4.

s.

6.

Alps. J.J., et aI, "The Effect of Relative Penneability

Ratio, the Oil Gravity and die Solution Gas-Oil Ratio on
die Primary Recoveryfrom a DepletionType Reservoir",
TransAlME, 204,120, 1955.
Salathiel.R.A., .Oil Recoveryby SUlfate Film Drainage
in Mixed Wettability Rocks", SPE4014 presentedat the
SPE47th annualmeeting,SanAntonio, California,Oct 8,
1972.
Leach, R.O., et ai, "A Laboratory and Field Study of
Wettability Adjustment in Waterflooding",JPT, 44, 206,
1962.
Denenkas.N.D., ~e Eff~t of CrudeOil Compmentson
Rock Wettability", Tram A/ME, 216,330,1959.

Caudle,B.H., et aI. -Further Developments in the

Laboratory Detennination of Relative Permeability",
TransA/ME, 192,145,1951.

7.

8.

Edmonson,T.A., '"The Effect of Temperatureon

Waterflooding",
JCPT,10,236,1965.
Lefebvredu Prey,E,. DeplacementsNon-Misciblesdans
les MiUuex Poreux Influence des ParametersInterfaciax
sur les PermeabilitiesRelatives",C.R. IV Coloq, ARTFP
Pau. 1968.
Leverett, M.C.. "The Flow of Oil Water Mixtures
Through Uncomolidated San~". TransAIME, 132,149,
1939.

10. Geffen, T.M., -Experimental Investigation of Factors

Affecting
Laboratory
Relative
Permeability
Measurements",1rans A/ME, 192,99,1951.

11 Osaba,J.S.,~e Effect ofWettability on Rock Oil-Water

Relative Permeability Relationships", Trans A/ME,
192,91,1951.

12. ~-31dson,B.C.,-MicroscopicObservatiomof Oil-Water

Displacementin Water Wet and Oil Wet Formatiom",

SPE3SSS,Presentedat the 46th annualSPEfall meeting,
New Orleans,Oct 3-6, 1971.

13, Killough. J.E. et ai, -Reservoir Simulation With History

DependentSaturationFunctions", Trans SPE of A/ME,
261, pp. 37-45.
14. Bennion, D.B., et at, "Detennination of Initial fluid
Saturations
A Key Factor in BypassedPay
Determinatioo", ~ted
at die PNEC 2nd annual
conferenceon Profile Modification and ConfoID18DCe
Control, August, 1996,Houston,Texas.

15. Katz, D.L. et ai, - Ab5eIlceof ConnateWater in Michigan

Gas Reef Reservoirs-,AAPG Bulletin, Vol. 66, No. I,
Jan. 1982..
16. Bennion,D.W .. et at. ~
Effect of RelativePenneability
on the SteamStimulation Process",JCPT, 1985.
7. Irwin, D., et al, "Bonnie Glen", Presentedat the 46th
annual technical meeting of the Peb'oleumSociety of
aM. June,1995,Banff, Canada.
18. Bennion. D.B., et ai, "Water and Hydrocarbon Phase
Trapping in Porous Media, Diagnosis, Prevention and
Treatment",JCPT, September,1996.
19. Bennion, D.B., et ai, "Reductiom in die Productivity of
Oil andGasReservoilSDue to AqueousPhaseTrapping",
JCPT, 1994.

F1GURE1
ILlUSTRATION OF HYSTERESIS EFFECTS
IN A WATER-WETTED OIL-WATER DISPLACEMENT

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Water Saturation

I
IllUSTRATION

FIGURE
.

FIGURE 3
OF A RElATIVE PERMEABILITY "SCANNING"
CURVE

ILLUSTRATK>N

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m

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Water Saturation

OF VARIOUS

SATURATION

(Wat.oUC888- Waterp~

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TYPES

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FIGURE
6
ILWSTRATIONOF EFFECT OF FREE GAS SATURATION

FIGURES
WAG PROCESSFOR MOBIUTYCONTROL

ON WATER & OIL PHASE RELATIVE PERMEABILIlY

(AWAT)

D
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FIGURE8
ILlUSTRATK)NOF TJiE SUCCESSIVEDISPLACEMENTPROCESS
FIGURE7
n.LUSTRATIONOF CYa.IC HYSTERESISEFFECTS
ON ENHANCEDPRODUCTIONRATES

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MECHANISMOF PHASETRAPPING

Iu.uSTRATOf

F1GtME 10
OF CRITK:AL AND TRAPPED SATURATION
HYSTERESIS EFFECTS