Chemistry Orientation Workshop #1 What IS Chemistry?

CHEMISTRY ORIENTATION
Workshop 1: What is Chemistry?

1. The Elements
2. Atoms & Molecules
3. The Role of Electrons
4. Ions
5. Makin' Molecules
6. Naming Molecules
Workshop 2: The Properties of Atoms & Molecules

1. Counting atoms & Molecules: The Mole
2. Mixtures Elements and Compounds
3. Allotropes
4. States and Phase Transitions
5. Solutions: Concentration
6. Density: Partitions
7. Pressure: Pressure Explosion
8. Heat and Energy
Workshop 3: Stoichiometry and Valency

1. Sodium Chloride at the Molecular Scale
2. Carbon Dioxide at the Molecular Scale
3. Balancing Chemical Equations
4. Molecules: How They Shape Up
5. Matter & Electromagnetic Radiation
Chemistry Orientation
Workshop #1
What IS Chemistry?
3
1.1 The Elements
1.1 The Elements
The Periodic Table is made up of elements.

There are a finite number of elements (~ 111) and these
are very well known and understood.
Perhaps there are other kinds, but they certainly havent
been found on Earth or identified elsewhere in the
universe.
91 of these occur naturally, and the remainder have all
been produced in laboratory experiments.
Each element is given a chemical symbol.
These symbols are either one or two letters.
Many are obvious, others are not what you think due to
their latin origins!
H Hydrogen
He Helium
Li Lithium
Be Beryllium
B Boron
C Carbon
N Nitrogen
O Oxygen
F Fluorine
Ne - Neon
Na Sodium (Natrium)
K Potassium (Kalium)
Fe Iron (Ferrum)
Ag Silver (argentos)
Au Gold (Aurum)
Hg Mercury (Hydrargyrum,)
Sn Tin (Stannum)
Sb Antimony (Stibium)
1.1 The Periodic Table of Elements
1.1 The Periodic Table of Elements

Problems;
(a) Which element can be found in Group 3, Period 4?
(b) Which halogen can be found in Period 3?
(c) How many transition metals are in the 4th Period?
(d) Which element has an atomic number of 16.
(e) Which element has an atomic mass of 16.
(f) What is the group number of the noble gases?
(g) Which element can be found in Group 5, Period 2?
(h) Is Mo a metal or a non-metal?
Atomic Number
Atomic Mass
Group Number
Noble gases
3
4
5
6
7
Transition Metals
Halides
Im a bar-man you idiots
Lanthanoids
Actinoids
7
1.1 The Elements
1.1 The Elements
The Group 1 elements are all

characterised by the fact that
they have one outer electron.

they have two outer electrons.
We also call this a

"valence electron".
Be
All of these "alkali metals" are

very reactive.
Just like the Group 1

elements, all of these "alkali
earth metals" are very
reactive.
They all react with water and

oxygen readily, however not
Mg as violently as their Group 1
counterparts.
They all react with water and

oxygen very readily.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=822QcMbpKZg
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sNdijknRxfU
Ca
Sr
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5UJTR-LA1z4
9
10
1.2 Atoms Whats Inside?
1.1 The Elements

they have 7 outer electrons.
F2
These elements have

different reactivities toward
H2O and O2 compared to
Groups 1 & 2.
Br2
These elements like to be

diatoms (F2, Cl2, Br2, I2),
with ____________ bonds.
Cl2
If you like, two molecules

share electrons.
*The relative mass of an electron is not actually zero, but it

is so small that it appears as zero when expressed to the
nearest whole number.
I2
11
12
> 99.9% of an atoms mass is from protons & neutrons

These particles sit together to form the
nucleus.
The number of protons determine the identity of the

element.
An atom with six protons is carbon. Always!
The nucleus only occupies a small

volume at the very centre of the
atom.
The electrons orbit the nucleus.
~99% carbon atoms have 6 neutrons

Some have 7, others have 8.
But ALL carbon atoms have just 6
protons.
As we will see in lectures next week, electrons

DO NOT orbit the nucleus like planets in the
solar system!
The number of electrons in a neutral (uncharged)

atom is the same as the number of protons.
Protons are positive, while electrons are negative
13
1.2 Atoms - Neutrons
14
1.2 Atoms and Molecules
CiC - Ch.1.7
Elements
To the nearest whole number, protons and neutrons have

the same mass.
The atomic mass (also, mass number) may be
determined by counting the total number of nucleons;
Atomic Mass = # of Protons + # of Neutrons
O2
N2
He
Compounds
H2 O
15
CO2
16
CiC - Ch.1.7
Youll often hear

that atoms and
molecules are too
small to be seen
with the naked
eye. But we do
have instruments
that allow us to
see them.
CiC - Ch.1.7
IBM scientists discovered how to move and position

individual xenon atoms on a metal surface using a scanning
tunneling microscope. The technique was demonstrated in
April 1990 at IBM's Almaden Research Center in San Jose,
Calif., where scientists created the world's first structure: the
letters "I-B-M" - assembled one atom at a time.
We can even
write
with
them!!
(CO molecules)
17
1.3 Electrons
18
1.3 Electrons
Electrons are ~2000 times lighter than protons.

But when it comes to combining atoms to form
molecules, it is all about electrons.
We will talk about electrons a lot during the first

two weeks of CHM1011.
To understand how molecules form, one must
first appreciate how electrons behave!
Because the nucleus is large

compared to electrons, we can
generally consider it to be stationary
In contrast, electrons are small and
highly mobile.
In simple terms, there are two forms

of bonding:
Ionic Bonds
Covalent Bonds
Most importantly, it is electrons which form

chemical bonds.
Chemical bonds attach atoms to each other to
form molecules.
Electrons are the glue that hold atoms

together!
19
20
1.3 Electrons
1.3 Electrons
On the right, you can
see how these shells
contain different
numbers of electrons.
As atoms increase in size, they contain more and more

electrons.
These electrons arrange themselves in "shells".
The lowest energy

shell contains just 2
electrons
Electrons in the inner shells core electrons dont really

play a role in determining the chemical properties of an
element.
The next two shells

both have 8 electrons.
It is the outer electrons valence electrons which are

most important here.
The next two have 18

electrons.
21
1.3 Electrons
22
1.4 Ions
2, 8, 8, 18, 18 does that pattern look familiar at all?
Earlier, we mentioned that a neutral carbon atom has 6

protons, and 6 electrons.
They have equal but opposite charge - so having the
same number of each cancels that charge.
HOWEVER
Carbon atoms can bind an additional electron.
Carbon atoms can lose one (or more) of its electrons
This creates a charge imbalance:
Carbon with 6 protons & 7 electrons will be charged.
Negatively charged an anion
C23
24
1.5 Makin Molecules
1.4 Ions
Carbon with 6 protons & 5 electrons will be charged.
Positively charged a cation
C+
Much in the way protons are attracted to electrons,

cations are attracted to anions.
Table salt is a nice example:
Sodium chloride.
NOT composed of Na and Cl.
Composed of Na+ and Cl-.
All elements can form ions!

Some are more likely to form anions.
Some are more likely to form cations.
Some do NOT readily form ions at all!
The bonding in sodium chloride is

considered to be ionic.
Na is prone to forming cations.
Cl is prone to forming anions.
How are these ions are formed?????
The driving force for this is for the atom to obtain a full
outer shell of electrons.
This is often called the Octet Rule.
We will explore this in Workshop 2
25
1.5 Makin Molecules
26
1.6 Names and Formulas in Chemistry
An example of a covalent molecule is carbon dioxide.

This molecule contains:
One carbon atom
Two oxygen atoms
Carbon monoxide - CO
Phosphorus trioxide - PO3
Phosphorus pentoxide - PO5
Heptane - C7H16
In this case, there are no ions.

But the electrons in the bonded atoms are actually
shared.
27
Carbon dioxide - CO2

Carbon tetrachloride - CCl4
Iron Hexahydrate - Fe(H2O)6
Decene - C10H20
28
-ide, -ite & -ate

Determine the names of the following compounds;
NaBr
These three suffixes can be a little confusing at first.

-ide is used when there are just two elements in the
compound;
Hydrogen sulfide - H2S
Carbon Dioxide - CO2
Sodium chloride - NaCl
Potassium bromide - KBr
CaCO3
KNO3
BaSO3
-ite and -ate always correspond to anions with oxygen

carbonate - CO32nitrite - NO2nitrate - NO3sulfite - SO32sulfate - SO423phosphite PO3
phosphate PO43-
MgCl2
K3PO4
29
30
Carbon chains in organic chemistry;

meth-, eth-, prop-, but-, pent-, hex-, hept-,
Rubbish tips, farts &
methane
Cranbourne
ethane
housing estates
propane
butane
Cigarette lighters
pentane
Petrol - predominantly
these kind of C5-C12
aliphatic
hydrocarbons
hexane
heptane
31
32
2.1 What is a mole?
Workshop #2
Properties of
Atoms and Molecules
How many objects are in a dozen?

How many objects are in two dozen?
How many objects are in 7.75 dozen?
12
24
93
How many objects are in a bakers dozen?

How many objects are in a bakers two dozen?
13
26
How many objects are in a score?

How many objects are in 20 score?
20
400
How many runs (cricket) are in a century?

How many runs are in a double century?
100
200
33
2.1 What is a mole?
34
2.1 How to convert from mass to moles.
How many molecules are in a mole?
6.02x1023
How many molecules are in 2 moles?
1.20x1024
A student measures some anhydrous copper sulfate crystals to

have a mass of 2.345g. How many moles of CuSO4 is this?
(Molecular mass of 159.6 g/mol)
How many molecules are in 3 moles?
1.81x1024
No. of moles =
How many molecules are in 0.5 moles?
3.01x1023
1.51x1023
1.01x1022
mass
molecular mass
2.345 g
=
159.6 g/mol
= 0.01469 moles CuSO4
= 1.469x10-2 moles CuSO4
35
Scientific
notation
36
2.1 How to convert from mass to moles.
2.1 How to convert from moles to mass.
A drug manufacturer measures some amphetamine crystals to

have a mass of 5.56 g. How many moles of amphetamine is
this? (Molecular mass of 135.21 g/mol)
A student determines they have 0.3404 moles of acetic acid

(C2H4O2). How many grams of material is this equivalent to?
{Atomic masses; C = 12.01, H = 1.008, O = 16.00}
No. of moles =
Mass C2H4O2
= (molecular mass C2H4O2) x (# of moles)
Mass C2H4O2
= (2x12.01 + 4x1.008 + 2x16.00) x (0.3404)
Mass C2H4O2
= 20.44 g.
38
2.1 How to convert from moles to mass.
2.2 Mixtures, Elements, & Compounds

In society, we often hear about
chemicals, and in mainstream
media, these chemicals are
usually talked about in a negative
context.
Theres lots of chemicals in
processed food.
Dont swim in the lake, its full
of chemicals.
A lab assistant determines they have 0.0345 moles of ethanol

(C2H6O). How many grams of material is this equivalent to?
{Atomic masses; C = 12.01, H = 1.008, O = 16.00}
Mass C2H6O
Mass C2H6O
Mass C2H6O
As it happens, everything is
made of chemicals;
Water is a chemical
Oxygen is a chemical
39
Ahhh, the dihydrogen oxide

stings my eyes!!!
40
10
In the most fundamental sense we can separate matter

into pure chemicals and mixtures.
Pure chemicals can either be elements or compounds.
An element is a chemical which includes only one kind of
atom. Eg. H, He, Fe, O2 (oxygen gas), O3 (ozone)
A compound is a chemical which includes more than
one kind of atom. Eg. H2O, CO2, H2SO4, CuSO4.6H2O
A mixture is defined by having two of more elements or
compounds in combination with each other. Eg.
Swimming Pool Water (H2O + NaClO)
Ocean Water (H2O + NaCl)
Dishwashing water (H2O + soap + food scraps)
41
42
20c coin
43
44
11
2.3 Allotropes
CiC - Ch.2.3
2.3 Allotropes
CiC - Ch.2.3
Diamond, graphite, soot & fullerenes are allotropes of

carbon.
Elements may exist in different forms allotropes.
The oxygen atom, molecular oxygen and ozone are an

example of allotropes.
45
2.4 Solid, Liquid & Gas
2.4 Solid, Liquid & Gas
Matter may exist in one of

three states - solid, liquid or
gas.
These are also referred to as
phases.
The lowest energy state of any
substance is always solid.
If enough energy is provided to
a substance, it may undergo a
phase transition to the liquid
phase. Additional energy may
then cause a further phase
transition to the gas phase.
Phase transitions have the

following names;
(s) (l)
melting
(l) (s)
freezing
(s) (g) sublimation
(g) (s) deposition
(l) (g)
evaporation
(g) (l)
condensation
Think about the phases of water
H2O(s); ice
H2O(l); water
H2O(g); steam
47
Coke & Mentos

Mythbusters
48
12
2.5 Solutions and Concentration
Throughout chemistry, we often use chemicals in

solution.
In some cases this is the most convenient, and safest way
to handle a chemical.
Take hydrogen chloride for example:
A gas at room temperature, and very
toxic (lungs!).
Readily dissolves in water (to make
hydrochloric acid), and is a much better
way to regulate how much youre using
at a time.
Safer.
But it is still a hazardous material!
Most commonly, we measure the concentration of

solutions in molarity.
This is the number of moles per litre of solvent.
Units: mol/L OR M
Eg. If a student measures out 20 mL of a
0.5 M solution of hydrochloric acid, how
many moles of HCl are in solution?
# moles
= molarity x volume
= 0.5 x (20/1000)
= 0.01 moles
It is more useful to a chemist to know the
number of moles, rather than the mass.
49
50
2.6 Density
You are probably quite familiar with the idea that oil floats
on water.
The first point is that oil does not dissolve in water, but
we will discuss this in more detail during the CHM1011
lectures. (Polar vs Non-polar!)
What if I diluted this to 100mL?

How many moles of HCl are now in the conical flask?
Has the concentration changed?
But WHY doesnt the water float on the

oil?
Density!
Density is measured in g/cm3
Water has a density of 1g/cm3
Oil is less than 1g/cm3, so it floats on
top of the water.
51
52
13
2.6 Density
2.7 Pressure (Gases)
The experiment on the left is using

a different non-polar solvent called
dichloromethane (DCM).
Does not mix with water!
Density = 1.33 g/cm3
Pressure is a term used throughout both physics and

chemistry.
It can apply to solids, liquids or gases.
The concentration of gases
are usually expressed as
pressure.
Units: Pa, or kPa (others!)
In this case DCM is more dense

than water.
Water floats on top of DCM.
The pressure of the atmosphere is approx. 100kPa
This piece of glassware is called a

separating funnel.
We will explore this further during Week 6 lectures.

pV = nRT
53
2.8 Heat & Energy
54
Chemical reactions can release or

absorb energy (e.g. heat, light):
Workshop #3
Valency
& Stoichiometry
exothermic
*Combustion
*Hydrocarbons, Hydrogen
*Thermite Reaction
2 Al + Fe2O3 Al2O3 + 2 Fe + HEAT
endothermic
*Salt in ice (water)
*Ice melting
55
56
14
3.1 Sodium Chloride
3.1 Sodium Chloride
Earlier today, we talked about NaCl.

Even if you have never studied
chemistry before, you know this
molecule well - table salt!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mx5JJWI2aaw
Is the following reaction spontaneous?
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) g 2NaCl(s)
We have an abundant source in the

ocean, but how would we MAKE
sodium chloride in the laboratory?
We can make sodium chloride just as

easily without being so dramatic!
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) g NaCl(aq) + H2O
Most molecules can be made in a

number of different ways.
But can we just take the constituent
elements, and throw them together?
Why do you think this reaction, even at

room temperature, very rapidly forms
NaCl(aq)?
57
3.2 Carbon Dioxide
58
3.2 Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide gets a lot of bad press in the media!

What is it, and how is it formed?
The space-filling models below show the most basic

combustion reaction; C + O2 CO2
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

This is the chemical reaction representing the combustion
of pure carbon.
Black coal is an example of a real material, which is close
to pure carbon.
Ball-and-stick models may also be used to display atoms

and molecules;
59
60
15
3.2 Carbon Dioxide
3.2 Carbon Dioxide

Hydrocarbons + O2(g)
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
+ H2O (g)
Hydrocarbons are compounds

containing just hydrogen and carbon.
Petrol and natural gas are largely
composed of hydrocarbons.
The combustion reaction above shows
that this reaction generates:
Carbon dioxide
Water
Do you think the fuel burnt here is
100% converted to CO2 and H2O?
BUT, if carbon is burned in an environment with only a

limited amount of oxygen, a different reaction can take
place
2C(s) + O2(g) 2CO(g)

61
3.3 Balancing Chemical Equations
62
Balancing chemical equations may often be very straight

forward;
S + O2 SO2
When balancing equations, always be careful to do it in a

stepwise manner.
__S + __O2 __SO2
While in other cases it can be quite complex!
Take each element, starting from the front of the

equation, and count how many atoms are on the left-hand
side and the right-hand side.
2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O

These numbers are called coefficients and they are
required to balance the equations.
Sulfur; left = 1, right = 1

This reaction is balanced for sulfur
Oxygen; left = 2, right = 2
This reaction is balanced for oxygen
This reaction is fully balanced.
63
64
16
__C2H6 + __O2 __CO2 + __H2O
__C2H6 + __O2 __CO2 + __H2O
This example is more complex. Lets do this one step at a

time.
1. Try to balance the # of carbon atoms (start at the front);
Carbon: Left = 2, Right = 1. unbalanced
5, Lets try to balance the # of oxygen atoms;

Oxygen: Left = 2, Right = 7. unbalanced
2. Double the right-hand side to even up the carbon atoms.
7. Coefficients should be whole numbers, the way to deal with

this is to multiply by two.
6. Introduce a coefficient of 7/2 for oxygen.
3. Try to balance the # of hydrogen atoms;

Hydrogen: Left = 6, Right = 2. unbalanced
4. Triple the right-hand side to even up the hydrogen atoms.
8. This equation is now fully balanced!
65
66
3.4 Molecules: How They Shape Up
__C8H18 + __O2 __CO2 + __H2O

water
peroxide
chlorine
ammonia
__C8H18 + __O2 __CO + __H2O

__PbO2 + __HCl __PbCl2 + __Cl2 + __H2O
__Pb(NO3)2 + __AlCl3 __PbCl2 + __Al(NO3)3
ethanol
hexane
__Mg + __Mn2O3 __MgO + __Mn

__FeCl3 + __Be3(PO4)2 __BeCl2 + __FePO4
67
17

water
peroxide
chlorine

So is this molecule really flat?
ammonia
We live in a 3D world, and so we need to

be able to convey this in chemistry.
Sometimes molecules ARE flat, but what
about when they have other shapes?
hexane
ethanol
CCl2F2 actually has the following

geometry ___________.
But we need a system on drawing
these structures to convey the
geometry.
70
Here are the principle molecule shapes;
linear
trigonal
planar
bent
trigonal
pyrimidal
tetrahedral square
planar
T-shaped
trigonal squarebipyramid based

pyrimidal
Molecules may also have single, double or triple bonds.

The hydrocarbons ethane, ethene and ethyne provide good
examples of this;
disphenoidal
octahedral
71
72
18
Methane
How To Draw Lewis Structures

1. Determine the number of outer electrons associated with
each atom in the molecule (Methane: carbon atom has
four outer electron, hydrogen has one = 4 + 4x1 = 8 outer
electrons).
CH4 = molecular formula; does not express connectivity

Structural formulas show how atoms are connected:
2. Arrange the outer electrons in pairs to satisfy the octet rule.
Lewis structures
show connectivity.
Space-filling
This Lewis
structure is
drawn in 3-D.
Chargedensity
73
74
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory
NH3 (Ammonia)
Assumes that the most stable molecular shape has the

electron pairs surrounding a central atom as far away
from one another as possible.
Four electron pairs as far from each other as

possible indicates a tetrahedral arrangement.
A
tetrahedral
shaped
molecule
has bond
angles of
109.5o
75
Unlike methane, one electron pairs is non-bonding and three

are bonding.
The non-bonding electron pairs take up more space than
bonding pairs, so the H-to-N-to-H bond angle is compressed.
The electron pairs are tetrahedrally arranged, but the shape
is described only in terms of the atoms present: ammonia is
said to be trigonal pyramidal shaped.
76
19
H2O (water)
O3 (ozone)
Unlike methane, two electron pairs are bonding and two are
non-bonding.
bonding pairs, so the H-to-O-to-H bond angle is compressed.
The electron pairs are tetrahedrally arranged, but the shape
is described only in terms of the atoms present: water is said
to be bent shaped.
Contains a single bond and a double bond and the central

oxygen atom carries a nonbinding pair.
bonding pairs.
O3 should be bent, the angle made by the three atoms
should be 117o.
77
3.5 Radiation and Matter

The colours exhibited by
fireworks & flame tests
correspond to the
frequencies emitted when
electrons jump between
shells inside the atom.
strontium
38Sr
78
copper 29Cu
79
80
20
CiC - Ch.2.5
CiC - Ch.2.5
In the same way that excited atoms, molecules and ions

can emit radiation, they may also absorb radiation.
Visible radiation typically excites electrons to higher

energies (from inner shells to outer shells)
Radiation from different parts of the electromagnetic

spectrum excite these species in different ways.
Ultraviolet energy, if sufficient, may even cause bonds to

break.
Microwaves cause rotational excitation in molecules &

infrared radiation causes vibrational motion.
This is called _______________________.

This is what happens to ozone in the stratosphere.
81
82
CiC - Ch.2.5
While in molecular oxygen higher frequencies (shorter

wavelengths) are required for bond dissociation;
O2
UV photon
l 242 nm
2O
Ozone experiences bond dissociation at lower

frequencies;
UV photon
O3
O2 + O
l 320 nm
83
21

Chemistry Orientation Workshop #1 What IS Chemistry?

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CHEMISTRY ORIENTATION

Workshop 1: What is Chemistry?

Workshop 2: The Properties of Atoms & Molecules

Workshop 3: Stoichiometry and Valency

1.1 The Elements

1.1 The Elements

The Periodic Table is made up of elements.

1.1 The Periodic Table of Elements

1.1 The Periodic Table of Elements

1.1 The Elements

1.1 The Elements

The Group 1 elements are all

The Group 2 elements are all

We also call this a

All of these "alkali metals" are

Just like the Group 1

They all react with water and

They all react with water and

1.2 Atoms Whats Inside?

1.1 The Elements

These elements have

These elements like to be

If you like, two molecules

*The relative mass of an electron is not actually zero, but it

1.2 Atoms Whats Inside?

1.2 Atoms Whats Inside?

> 99.9% of an atoms mass is from protons & neutrons

The number of protons determine the identity of the

The nucleus only occupies a small

~99% carbon atoms have 6 neutrons

As we will see in lectures next week, electrons

The number of electrons in a neutral (uncharged)

1.2 Atoms - Neutrons

1.2 Atoms and Molecules

To the nearest whole number, protons and neutrons have

1.2 Atoms and Molecules

Youll often hear

1.2 Atoms and Molecules

IBM scientists discovered how to move and position

Electrons are ~2000 times lighter than protons.

We will talk about electrons a lot during the first

Because the nucleus is large

In simple terms, there are two forms

Most importantly, it is electrons which form

Electrons are the glue that hold atoms

As atoms increase in size, they contain more and more

The lowest energy

Electrons in the inner shells core electrons dont really

The next two shells

It is the outer electrons valence electrons which are

The next two have 18

2, 8, 8, 18, 18 does that pattern look familiar at all?

Earlier, we mentioned that a neutral carbon atom has 6

1.5 Makin Molecules

Much in the way protons are attracted to electrons,

All elements can form ions!

The bonding in sodium chloride is

1.5 Makin Molecules

1.6 Names and Formulas in Chemistry

An example of a covalent molecule is carbon dioxide.

In this case, there are no ions.

Carbon dioxide - CO2