OP

TEACHER EDUCATION DIVISION

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
2002

INTRODUCTION

This RESOURCE BOOK is a compilation of materials obtained from various sources.It

is hoped that it will be of assistance to Education lecturers and student teachers. This
Resource book is not meant to be a text; it is more of an introductory guide towards
the teaching of Education in English.
This RESOURCE BOOK provides an overview of the entire Education Syllabi for the
KPLI and KDPM programmes. It consists of three components, namely, Pedagogy,
Psychology and Teacher Profesionalism. The materials are arranged according to topics
and not by semesters. Therefore, lecturers are encouraged to refer their respective
syllabi and source for additional input from the reading list provided.
This Resource book attempts to:
i.

provide a general overview of the Education syllabus for the KDPM, KPLI
(SM) and KPLI (SR) programmes;

ii.

introduce key terms for the various topics in the three components, namely
Pedagogy, Psychology and Teacher Professionalism;

iii.

provide brief notes pertaining to the key terms identified;

iv.

list the various sources where the notes have been obtained.

Content

Introduction

Content

Pedagogy Component

4 - 171

Psychology Component

172 237

Teacher Professionalism

238 315

Resource Book Compiling Panel

316

Acknowledgement

317

PEDAGOGY
COMPONENT

CHAPTER 1: CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Overview
In this Chapter, we shall cover,

Concept of classroom management

Teacher as a classroom manager

Factors affecting classroom environment

Preventive classroom management

Classroom discipline

Key Terms

Classroom management

Teacher as an effective classroom manager

Authoritarian leadership style

Democratic leadership style

Laissez-faire leadership approach

Mandated time

Allocated time

Instructional time

Engaged time or time on-task

Academic learning time

Communication

Rules and procedures

Disciplinary problem

Disciplinary plan

Further Reading
Arends, R.I. (2000). Learning to teach (5th Ed). Boston: McGraw Hill.
Kyriacou, C. (1991). Essential Teaching Skills. Hemel Hempstead: Simon &
Schuster.
Moore, K. D. (1995). Classroom Teaching Skills (3rd Ed). New York: McGraw Hill.
Slavin, R. E. (1991). Educational Psychology (3rd Ed). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Robiah Sidin (1993). Classroom Management. Kuala Lumpur: Fajar Bakti.
Suggested Input
1. Classroom management : actions and strategies used to maintain order in the
classroom
2. Teacher as an effective manager: able to get students cooperation, maintain
their involvement in instructional tasks, and carry out the business of classroom
smoothly. Example, the teacher has to lay down rules and procedures for
learning activities. Sometimes this role is viewed as nothing more than that of
disciplinarian, the person who must see that the classroom group and its
individual members stay within the limits set by the school, the limits set by the
teacher, and the limits set by the tasks at hand. In fact, the teacher must also
manage a classroom environment. He organizes the classroom space to fit his
goals and to maximize learning. Seating must be arranged; posters hung;
bulletin boards decorated; extra books, learning carrels, and bookshelves
installed. Classroom management for the teacher also involves modeling a
positive attitude toward the curriculum and toward school and learning in general.
Finally, a teacher needs to manage and process great amounts of clerical work.
There are papers to be graded and read, tests to be scored, marks to be entered,

attendance records and files to be maintained, notes and letters to be written,

and so forth.
3. Factors affecting classroom environment: There are factors which affect
classroom atmosphere

Leadership style: Different leadership styles will affect the atmosphere

of students learning. (i) Authoritarian leadership will discourage learning,
the teacher tends to put down the students when they make mistakes. (ii)
Democratic leadership, the sharing of responsibility, seeks compliance
through encouragement rather than demands. The teacher is kind,
caring, and warm, but also firm. Self-esteem is developed by sharing of
responsibility. Research has shown that productivity and performance are
high in well-run democratic classroom. (iii) In laissez-faire leadership
approach, the teacher is completely permissive. Anything goes!
Everyone does his or her own thing.This type of leadership often leads to
chaos. It produces disorganization, causes student frustration, and
results in little if any work.

Physical environment: An attractive room is conducive to learning. As a

teacher, you will in most cases have full responsibility for the appearance
and comfort of you room.

Room arrangement: Your room arrangement should aid teaching and

learning and help maintain discipline. The seating arragement should
focus on the chalkboard since most class instruction occurs there. You
should also provide access to pencil sharpeners, reference books,
learning centres, trash containers, etc. Place these accessories behind
or to the side of the students focal points, since travel to and from them
can be distracting.

Motivation: The teacher should try to motivate the students by (i)

expecting the best from students (ii) modelling desired behaviour (iii)
establishing a positive atmosphere (iv) actively involving students (v)
making learning seem worthwhile (vi) cultivating self-esteem (vii)
capitalizing on curiosity (viii) use reinforcement n (xi) using competition
(x) reducing anxiety

Time in schools and classrooms: Schooltime is obviously limited. In

fact school time can be divided into five different categories: mandated
time, allocated time, instructional time, engaged time, and academic
learning time.

(i)

Mandated time: the time set by the Ministry of Education.

A typical school is in session from 7.45 in the morning until
2.05 in the afternoon for about 190 days. This set time must
be used for both academic and nonacademic activities.

(ii)

Allocated time: During the mandated time, a variety of

subjects must be taught plus time must be used for lunch,
recess, transitions between classes, announcements, etc.
The time appropriated for each of these activities is called
allocated time. The goal of classroom management is to
expand the amount of time allocated for learning.

(iii)

Instructional time: Teachers attempts to translate allocated

time into learning through instructional time. They try to
translate the available, tangible blocks of class time into
productive learning activities. The students may not make
full use of the instructional time to learn. Instead, they may
be daydreaming during seatwork or some may be goofing
off.

(iv)

Engaged time or time on-task: It is the actual time

individual students spend on assigned work. Students are
actively (physically or mentally) participating in learning
process during engaged time. So, one of the goals of
classroom management is to improve the quality of time by
keeping students on-task.

(v)

Academic learning time: Time on-task isnt always

productive. Indeed, students often engage in an activity at a
superficial level, with the result that little understanding or
retention takes place. If this is happening, the teacher must
motivate the students to make time on-task more productive,
they must maximize academic learning time. This means

that the students performance must be at a high success

rate (80 percent or more).

Communication: When problems arise in the classroom, good

communication between teacher and students is essential. This means
that more than just the teacher talks-students listen pattern must be
taking place. Real communication is an open, two-way street, in which
you talk but you must listen.

4. Preventive classroom management: Many of the problems associated with

student misbehaviour are dealt with by effective teachers through preventive
approaches. Some of these approaches are briefly described below:

Establishing rules and procedures to govern important activities in the

classroom. Rules are statements that specify the things students are
expected to do and not to do. Usually, rules are written down, made clear to
the students, kept to a minimum. Procedures, on the other hand, are the
ways of getting work and other activity accomplished. They are seldom
written down, but effective classroom managers spend considerable time
teaching procedures to students in the same way they teach academic
matter. Student movement, student talk, and what to do with downtime
(occurs when lessons are completed early or when students are waiting for
upcoming events, like moving to another class or going home) are among the
most important activities that require rules to govern behaviour and
procedures to make work flow efficiently.
o

Categories of rules: (i) Relations with the adults and peers be

polite and friendly, be friendly and helpful; help your friends; (ii)
Academic work work hard and quietly; do your best; try; (iii)
classroom rutines put your hand up; settle down quickly and quietly;
(iv) relations to self respect yourself; be smart; accept your own and
others mistakes; keep trying; you can do it

(v) safety take care;

be safe; take care of your friends safety.

o

Example of classroom routines: going in and sitting down quietly

when they arrive; collecting and returning books; getting equipment
out or moving around the classroom.

Maintain consistency: Effective classroom managers are consistent in their

enforcement of rules and their application of procedures. If they are not, any
set of rules and procedures soon dissolves.

Preventing deviant behaviour with smoothness and momentum: Another

dimension of preventive classroom management involves pacing instructional
events and maintaining appropriate momentum. Common problems in
maintaining smoothness and momentum are: (i) dangle: leaving a topic
dangling to do something else (ii) flip-flop: starting and stopping an activity
and then going back to it (iii) fragmentation: breaking instruction or activity
into overly small segments (iv) overdwelling: going over and over
something even after students understand the facts.

Orchestrating classroom activities during unstable periods (example,

opening of the class, during transitions, closing of the class): This involves
planning and orchestrating student behaviour during unstable time. Students
are coming from other settings (their homes, the playground, another class)
where different set of behavioural norms apply. The new setting has different
rules and procedures as well as friends who have not been seen since the
previous day.
o

The beginning of the class is also a time in most schools in which

several administrative tasks are required of teachers, such as taking
roll and making annoucements. Effective classroom managers plan
and execute procedures that help get things started quickly and
surely.

Transitions are the times during a lesson when the teacher is moving
from one type of learning activity to another. Planning is crucial when
it comes to managing transitions. Cueing and signaling systems are
used by effective teachers to manage difficult transition periods.

The closing of the class is also an unstable time in most classroom.

Sometimes the teacher is rushed to complete a lesson that has run
over its allocated time; sometimes materials such as test or papers
must be collected; almost always students need to get their own
personal belongings ready to move to another class, the canteen or
the bus. Effective classroom managers anticipate the potential

10

management problems associated with closing class by incorporating

the appropriate procedures into their classroom.

Developing student accountability: Effective classroom managers always

hold students accountable for their work, such as completing and handing in
their assignments on time or little learning will be accomplished.

5. Discipline: Teachers who attend to many of the aspects of classroom

management identified as crucial to positive learning events will avoid a great
many conflicts and have significantly fewer classroom disruptions. Even so,
there will be times when students bring problems to the classroom, and even
teachers who are very effective classroom organizers will be confronted with
unproductive student behaviour that requires intervention (Brophy, 1996).
Disciplining students for disruptive behaviour should be part of a continous plan
that is explicit to the teacher and students. Skills necessary for teachers during
disciplining procedures are the ability to work with teams of professionals who
can focus on the disruptive behaviour or a particular student, and the knowledge
to develop and carry out management and discipline plans.
The most important aspect of attending to disruptive behaviour is to return the
classroom to a constructive atmosphere. Regaining control of the classroom
quickly and avoiding involvement of more students that necessary is a goal
following any type of disruptive behaviour or confrontation. Several strategies
are important for the teacher when responding to disruptive student behaviour:
(i) Try not to make unreasonable requirement or overreact to disruptive
incidents.
(ii) Be honest about your feelings. If you are upset, disappointed, or
angry, explain to the students.
(iii) Be consistent and follow through with what you said you will do.
(iv) Be fair with your students. If you have made a mistake, applied rules
indiscriminately, or have implemented actions that are not working or
were not fair in the first place, apologize to your students. They will
respect you for your honesty and openness.

11

When students misbehaviour is serious and teachers effort fail to result in

appropriate behaviour, more severe strategies are needed. Consequences
may involve corporal punishment and suspension from school.
6. Disciplinary problem: is a behaviour that (i) interferes with the teaching act;
(ii) interferes with the rights of others to learn (iii) is psychologically or
physically unsafe; (iv) destroys property.

A disciplinary problem could not only

be caused by a student but it could also be caused by a teacher. When a teacher

inappropriately or ineffectively employs management strategies that result in
interference with the learning of others, he in fact becomes the discipline
problem. This is also true for inappropriate or ill-timed classroom procedures,
public address announcements, and school policies that tend to disrupt the
teaching and/or learning process.
7. Causes of misbehaviour : The most common causes of misbehaviour in the
classroom are: (i) boredoom failing to offer classroom activities that are
interesting, appropriately timed, challenging and relevant; (ii) an inability to do
the work a teacher has set because it is too difficult, expressed in inappropiate
language or it is unclear what pupils need to do; and (iii) effort demanded for too
long a period with a break which is difficult to sustain over a long period; (iv)
poor teacher organization visual aids do not work or there are too many
interruptions to the flow of the lesson; (v) confusion about teacher expectation
the teacher fails to be clear and explicit about the kind of conduct that is
expected; (vi) social or peer interaction conversation or behaviour can spill
over into the classroom from the corridor, playground or outside school; (vi) low
academic self-esteem students lack confidence in themselves because they
experienced failure before.

12

8. Practical strategies for managing misbehaviour (Kyriacou, 1991):

Ways of preventing misbehaviour

-

scan the classroom (see if any pupils are having difficulties and
support
them in resuming working quickly. Individual contact is more
effective than calling across the room.

Circulate (Go around the room asking pupils about their progress.
This uncovers problems which otherwise would not be obvious.

Make eye contact ( Do this with individuals when talking to the

class)

Target your questions (Directing questions around the class keeps

students involved.

Use proximity ( moving towards students who are talking indicates

awareness of their conduct. Standing by pupils keeps them on
task.

Give academic help (This encourages students to make progress

with the task set and is one of the best ways of pre-empting
misbehaviour.)

Change activities or pace (Sometimes lessons proceed too slowly

or too fast, so altering the activity or pace can be curcial for
maintaining students involvement.)

Notice misbehaviour (Use eye contact, facial expressions and

pauses to signal disapproval, so theres only a momentary
interruption of the lesson. Ignoring trivial incidents allows more
serious misbehaviour to occur.)

Notice disrespect (Discourtesy to you, as teacher, must be picked

up or it will undermine the standard of behaviour expected from
students.)

Move students (If necessary, separate students whose behaviour

is not acceptable, while stressing it is done in their interest).

13

The effective use of reprimands:

-

Correct targeting (It is important to identify correctly the student

who is responsible for misbehaviour)

Firmness (Use a clear and firm tone. Avoid pleading or softening

the reprimand once it is used.)

Express concern (Reprimands should convey your concern with

the students interests or those of other students affected by
misconduct.)

Avoid anger (Dont lose your cool, whatever the provocation.

Speak assertively, not aggresively, and don not rise to any bait).

Emphasise what is required (Stress what students should be

doing rather than complain about bad behaviour. Eg. You may
talk quietly with your neighbour rather than Theres too much
noise in the class.

The use of punishments: When reprimands do not work

-

Focus on the misdeed (avoid personalised punishments so that

the student is forced to consider the consequences of his/her
action);

Follow promptly after the offence (punishment will be more

effective in modifying behaviour if it follows immediately, although
deferral can be effective if it causes an unpleasant anticipation of
what is likely to happen);

be consistent (students have a strong sense of grievance about

variations in treatment either between individuals or between
occasions);

fit the crime (the scale of punishment used should demonstrate

the seriousness of the offence and the strength of the schools
disapproval);

be followed by reconciliation (Once a punishment is over, attempt

to rebuild a positive relationship with the student).

14

9. Example of a classroom discipline plan:

Rules

Follow teacher directions first time

Keep hands, feet and objects to yourselves

Be polite and friendly

Work hard

Rewards

Praise

Good behaviour

Positive letter home

Corrections

Warning

2 minutes away from the group

10 minutes away from the group

Detention

Interview with Disciplinary Master/ Senior Assistant/Principal

Parents called in

15

CHAPTER 2: THINKING STRATEGIES

Overview
In this Chapter, we shall cover,.

Reflective and meta-cognitive thinking

Types of questions

Thinking tools

Key terms

Reflective thinking

Meta-cognitive thinking

Thinking tools

Further Reading
Buzan, T. (1992). Use your head. London: BBC Books Jacobsen,D., Eggen, P. ,
Kaucahak, D. (1993). Methods for teaching. New York: Macmillan Publishing
Company.
Kottler,J.,Zehm,S. (2000). On being a teacher.California: Corwins Press,Inc.
Moore,K. (1989). Classroom teaching skills.New York: McGraw-Hills,Inc.
Slavin, R. (1997). Educational Psychology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Swartz, R., & Perkins, D.N. (1990) . Teaching thinking: Issues and approaches.
Pacific Grove, CA: Midwest Publications.

Suggested Input
1.

Reflective thinking essentially means a person thinks independently. He

knows how to reason, to think for himself, to combine intuition and logic in the
process of solving problems either within his internal world or the world
around him.

16

2.

Meta-cognitive thinking means knowing how to learn. Thinking skills and

study skills are examples of meta-cogntive skills. For example, we try to
assess our own understanding, choose an effective plan to solve problems.
Hence, meta-cognitive skill enables the students to think about their own
thinking process. For instance, when you ask yourself, How well did I really
handle that decision? , you are asking yourself a meta-cognitive question.
You are setting out to think about your own thinking. When you sit down to
tackle assignment and ask yourself, Now just how am I going to approach
these problems? , you are again asking yourself a meta-cognitive question.
However, if you say to yourself, I dont like the way I ended that short story.
You are not thinking about your own thinking, you are thinking about an
eternal product, that is the short story.

3.

Meta-cognitive thinking is supremely important to the cultivation of good

thinking. Through meta-cognition, people become aware of their usual
thinking practices and gain the perspective they need to fine-tune or even
radically revise those practices. How this works becomes clearer if we
distinguish four degree of meta-cognition, a kind of ladder of meta-cognition
with the most powerful variety at the top (Swartz & Perkins, 1990).

17

The top rung- Reflective use ( thinking about thinking)

The Third rung- Strategic use ( deploy thinking organizers to guide

Their thinking).
The Second rung- Aware use ( categorizing and labeling: eg: Now I am making decision. Now I am
finding evidence. Now I am inventing idea.)

The bottom rung: Tacit use ( use different kind of thinking without any awareness )

The Ladder Of Meta-cognition by Swart & Perkins ,1990

4.

Teaching reflective and meta-cognitive strategies to students can lead to a

marked improvement in their achievement. This is because teaching involves
so much more than giving information, applying technical skills, or managing
a group of children. It is a process by which students are taught to be
reflective.

5.

The use of different types of questions is an effective tool to teach thinking

skills among our students. Questions can be categorized into divergent
questions, convergent questions, Low-Level Questions, and High-Level
Questions or High Order Thinking Level Questions (HOT).

6.

Convergent questions are those that require one correct answer. Generally,
they are questions of fact are recall and often of at low level. Divergent
questions are just the opposite. They require different answers as long as the
answer are appropriate. In other words, questions can be answered in
several ways.

7.

Low-level questions require students to recall facts or information. For

example, How much is 8 + 7 = , What is the Pythagorean theorem? On the
other hand, High- Level Question requires a certain degree of intellectual

18

processing on the part of the student. For example: To what extent cyber
cafs influence our teenager? How is architecture influenced by culture?
8.

We can use different thinking tools to enhance reflective and meta-cognitive

thinking among our students. Mind maps, graphic organizer, CoRT 1 (PMI,
CAF, C & S, AGO, FIP, OPV, and APC) are useful to help students to recall
related information that could be used to assist in incorporating new
information.

9.

Mind mapping is a very useful thinking tool. Mind mapping is a way of notes
taking whereby one should start from the main idea and branch out as
dictated by individual ideas and general form of the central theme. According
to Buzan (1989), the brain works primarily with key concepts in an inter-linked
and integrated manner, our notes and our word relations should in many
instances be structured in this way rather than in traditional lines or notes
that are taking in linear forms. A mind map has a number of advantages over
the linear form of note taking.

The center with the main idea is more clearly defined.

The relative importance of each idea is clearly indicated (more

important ideas will be nearer the center).

The links between the Key concepts will be clearly indicated.

As a result of the above, recall and review will be both more effective
and more rapid.

The nature of the structure allows for the easy addition of new
information or ideas.

19

10.

Mind mapping laws:

Start with a coloured image in the center.

Images throughout your Mind Map.

Word should be printed.

The printed words should be on lines, and each line should be

connected to other lines.

Words should be units, i.e. one word per line.

Use colours throughout the Mind Map to enhance memory., delight

the eye and stimulate the right cortical process.

In creative efforts of this nature the mind should be left as free as

possible.

11.

Graphic representations or organizers are visual illustrations of verbal

statements. Many graphic representations are familiar to most adults: flow
charts, pie charts, and family trees. More sophisticated graphics include
spider maps, fishbone maps, network trees, and compare/ contrast matrices.

12.

Graphic representations or organizers (GO) are important because they:

help the learner to comprehend, summarize, and synthesize complex

ideas.

help students to select important ideas as well as detecting missing

information and unexplained relations.

13.

help students to solve problems and making decisions.

Constructing Graphic Outlines:

Survey: First, the students survey the title, subheadings, illustrations and
their captions, the initial summary or abstracts, and the objective of the
text to determine what the passage discusses and how the discussion is
structured.

20

Represent: The student begins to form a hypothesis about the structure of

the text and mentally searches his or her repertoire of graphic structures
for the best fit. For example, the use of compare or contrast diagram,
predicting consequences of options, spider map or problem solving outline.

14.

Cognitive Research Trust from which the abbreviation, CoRT is derived is a

programme designed by Edward d Bono. The CoRT Programme teaches
thinking skills through the use of thinking tools in a formal, focused, and
deliberate manner. The programme has a multitude of applications.

15.

CoRT 1 is designed to encourage students to broaden their thinking. Often,

we take too narrow a view when we think. We tend to judge rather than
explore. CoRT 1 consists of:

Treatment of ideas (PMI- plus , minus , interesting)

Factors involved (CAF- consider all factors)

Consequences (C & F- consequences and sequel)

Objectives (AGO- aims, goals, objectives)

Priorities (FIP- first, important, priority)

Alternatives (APC- alternatives, possibilities, choices)

Other People Views (OPV)

16. PMI is used to examine an idea for good, bad or interesting point, instead of
immediate acceptance or rejection. For instance:
1.

Teaching of Mathematics and Science in English.

2.

Teaching as a career for graduates.

3.

The employment of foreign workers in the country.

21

Steps involved:
a) List down all the plus points.
b) List down all the minus points.
c) List down all the interesting points
What is your decision after considering all the factors?
17. CAF is used to look as widely as possible all the factors involved in a situation,
instead of only immediate ones. For instance:
1.

What is the best way to improve the level of English among our
graduates?

2.

Extra-mural activities are compulsory for all students.

3.

A credit in Mathematics is a pre-requisite for all candidates applying

for teacher training.

Steps involved:
a). List down all the factors.
b). Consider each factor.
What is the appropriate decision to be made?
18. C &S deals with the consideration of the immediate, short, medium and long term
consequences. For instance,
a). The introduction of abacus in the primary one Mathematics.
b). The introduction of sex education in the primary and secondary school
curriculum.
Steps involved:
a). What are the risks I have to face?
b). What are the long term effects?
c). To what extent the new plan would bring changes?

22

19. AGO is used to pick out and defining objectives so as one is clear about his own
aims and understanding those of others. For instance,
a). What is the AGO by implementing car pool system in the cities?
b). What is the AGO by introducing Moral Education in the school curriculum?
Steps involved:
a). What is the AGO of the plan?
b). Are the implementations out of The AGO?
c). How do I make sure that the AGO is achieved?
20 FIP is used to choose from a number of different possibilities and alternatives,
i.e., putting priorities in order. For instance,
a). What is the FIP for one session school system?
b). What is the best strategy to solve misbehavior problems in the class?

Steps involved:
a). What are the important matters involved?
b). Which is the most important one to be considered?
c). Which one should be given priority?
21. APC deals with generating new alternatives and choices, instead of feeling
confined to the obvious ones. For instance,
a). The PMR examination should be abolished?
b). It is compulsory for all students to have a credit in English in order to be
awarded the SPM certificate.
Steps involved
a). What are the other alternatives to overcome the problem?
b). What are the implications incur if every step is taken?
c). What is the best solution?

23

22. OPV means moving out of ones own viewpoint to consider the points of view of
all others involved in any situation. For instance,
a). All student teachers are required to stay in the hostels provided.
b). All school leavers are required to attend military training for a period of
three months.
Steps involved
a). Will this idea influence others?
b). Others people opinion on this matter?
C). Is your idea relevant before actions are taken?

24

CHAPTER 3: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Overview
In this Chapter, we shall cover,

Concept of communication

Models of communication

Interference and barriers in communication

Key terms

Communication

Interference and barriers

Further Readings
Bleach,K. (2000). The newly qualified secondary teachers handbook. London: David
Fulton Publishers.
Cole, P.G., & Chan, L.K.S. (1987). Teaching principles and practice. Sydney:: Prentice
Hall.
Cooper,P.(1995). Communication for the classroom teacher. Arizona: Gorsuc
Scarisbrick.
Moore,K. (1995). Classroom teaching skills. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Suggested Input
1. The term communication is abstract. In the classroom context, communication
means verbal and nonverbal transactions between teacher and students and
between or among students. In order to communicate, several components are
necessary. For example, we need interactants and a message. We also need
channels ( hearing, sight, and the other senses) through which the message can
be sent and received. The environment in which the communication takes place
is also important. In the educational context, this is termed classroom climate.

25

One of the most popular models of communication is Shannon and Weavers

model.

Shannon and Weaver s Model Of Communication

Information Message Transmitter
Source

Sent

Signal Sent

Sources receiver Message Destination

of noise

received

According to Shannon and Weavers model (as seen above), as message

begins at an information source, which is relayed through a transmitter, and then
sent via a signal towards the receiver. But before it reaches the receiver, the
message must go through noise (sources of interference) . Finally, the receiver must
convey the message to its destination. Suppose you have an idea in your head
(information source) that you want to tell someone about, you must first move the
idea from your brain to your mouth (transmitter). Since you cannot actually share
your gray matter, you must select words for your transmitter to use. Once you speak,
your voice (signal) is carried through the air towards the listener s ear (receiver).
Along the way, your signal is joined by myriad of other sounds and distractions
(noises). The receiver then takes everything he receives and tries to maximum the
message and minimize the noise. Finally, the receiver conveys his message to the
other persons mind (destination).
2. Another popular model is the Shannon Model. This is an informatics model. The
main features are:

the language in which information is carried down the channel is not the
same as the representation of that information at either source or
destination.

distortion may occur at encoding or decoding and along the channel.

26

Source

channel

Destination

Information theory model (Shannon)

Its main consequence is that the message received is not the sama as the
message sent.
3. Schramm (1955) also developed a model of communication. His model consists
of five distinct stages:

formulation of messages

encoding of messages

transmission of messages

decoding and interpretation of messages

feedback and evaluation

27

Formulation
Of
Messages
Sender
Encoding
Of
Messages

Transmission
Of
Messages

Feedback
and
evaluation

Decoding and
Interpretation
Of messages
Receiver

Schramms Model Of Communication

5. There are several barriers / interferences to effective communication. For
example, communication apprehension, sexism, teacher expectancy, student
expectancy, cultural diversity, factual distractions, semantic distractions, mental
and physical distractions, and students with special needs. The student with high
communication apprehension is one who attaches high levels of punishment to
the communication encounter. For example, the student tries to avoid
communication situations, he feels uncomfortable, tense, embarrassed, and shy.
In the other hand, teacher can be high in communication apprehension. Teacher

28

with communication apprehension prefer instructional systems that reduce the

amount of student-teacher and student-student communication. In other words,
teacher dominates classroom discussion, and too much of talking. Hence, the
students feel threatened, shy to voice out their opinions.
6. There are various ways of effective communication in the classroom. Firstly, effective
listening is very important. We acquire knowledge, develop language, increase our
communication ability, and increase our understanding of ourselves and others
through listening. Reflective listening is one of the types of effective listening
because we listen with feeling as well as with cognition.
7. The teacher plays an important role in effective communication. For example,
securing students attention, use of voice, teachers exposition and explanation,
questioning techniques, teachers non-communication skills ( appearance,
eagerness and interest, confidence and caring).

29

CHAPTER 4: INTERACTIONS IN THE CLASSROOM

Overview
In this Chapter, we shall cover,

Concept of interaction in the classroom

Types of interactions

Importance of interaction in teaching-learning

Teaching skills in micro-teaching and evaluation

Ways of creating effective interaction in the classroom

Key terms

Interaction in the classroom

Effective interaction

Teachers leadership

Further Readings
Cooper,P.(1995). Communication for the classroom teacher.Arizona: Gorsuc
Scarisbrick.
Cassel Travers,J.,Elliot,S., Kratochwill,t. (1993). Educational psychology.

Madison: Brown & Benchmark.

Kottler,J.,Zehm,S. (2000). On being a teacher.California: Corwins Press,Inc.
Sotto, E. ( 1994). When teaching becomes learning. New York:

Suggested Input
1. Interaction implies a relationship between two people involving interchanges over
an extended period of time. The interactions are mutual. Besides learning
through interacting with teachers, students learn by collaborating with peers in
pairs and small groups and by interacting with them during class discussion.

30

Interaction is important in the development of interpersonal and intra-personal

communication. Now, with the integration technology into our teaching, especially
with the use of educational software and hardware applications, student-teacher
interaction becomes more complicated.
2.

Types of interaction can be divided into social interaction and group dynamics,
and also computer interaction. Social interaction involves student-student
interaction and student-teacher interaction. Students learn by collaborating with
peers in pairs and small groups. Hence, students behave differently. They tend to
form groups based on the identity and personality of their own. For example, Siti,
Mei Fang, Sarojini, Murni and Salbiah form a clique, and this group dynamics is a
force to be reckoned with because it influences the group behaviours.

3. Social structure and interactions in learning situations There are a number

of forms of interaction between teacher and students and among students
themselves which may be found in school learning situations [ Cohen and
Manion ( 1977) : A Guide to teaching practice, page 189-172 ].
Situation 1: the teacher-centered lesson
The principle of interaction underlying the teacher-centered situation may be illustrated
as in Example 1. Although only five pupils are represented in the diagram, this figure
may vary, with perhaps a notional thirty pupils being a more representative number in
this kind of situation.

P
P

This interaction pattern here is one in which the teacher speaks and the pupils listen. As
Oeser notes, their relationship to him is confined to listening, perceiving and

31

assimilating; and there is no interaction among pupils themselves.

Situation 2: the lecture-discussion
The second situation may be seen as a variant of the first, being one in which the pattern
of instruction is not wholly dominated by the teacher. It is represented diagrammatically
in Example 2. Again, the member of pupils may vary, depending upon the
circumstances.

P
P

Oeser points out that three of the most important aims of the educator are: to turn the
latent leadership of a group in the direction of the educational process, to encourage the
individual development of leadership; and to encourage cooperative striving towards
common goals while discouraging the exercise of authoritarian leadership. The social
structures evolving through situations 2, 3, 4 and 5 provide a framework for the
achievement of these aims.
Situation 3: active learning
Example 3 depicts a social situation in which the teacher allows discussion and mutual
help between pupils.
Practical work in a science lesson would be an occasion for this kind of situation. The
letters TE in the diagram indicate that the teacher now begins to assume the additional
role of expert. As Oeser notes: He, of course, retains his other roles as well; but the
emphasis is the teaching process now: fluctuates between established by the task and

32

the needs of the individual pupils. For this reason, the situation may be described as
task and pupil-centred and as one beginning to have a cooperative structure.

TE
P
P
P
P
P

Situation 4: active learning: independent planning

Scrutiny of Example 4 shows , how this fourth situation evolves logically from the
preceding one. The pupils are now active in small groups, and the teacher acts more or
less exclusively as an expert-consultant ( indicated in the diagram by a wavy line)
As Oscar says: Groups map out their work, adapt to each others pace, discuss their
difficulties and agree on solutions. There is independent exploration, active learning and
a material development of a task- directed leadership on each group. The social
climate is co-operative and the education may be described as pupil and task-centered.

P
P

P
P

P
P

Situation 5: group task-centred

A characteristic situation in which a smallish group of individuals is concerned with a
particular topic, project or problem, is illustrated in Example 5.
Situation 6 : independent working; no interaction

33

This final variation, illustrated in Example 6, arises when pupils are working quite
independently and there is no interaction.

34

Situation 6
This situation will occur when pupils are working at exercises on their own or in a
formal examination session.
In summary, Oeser observes that from situation 1 to 4 there is a progressive
change from teacher-centred through task-centred to pupil-centred activities, from
passive to active learning and from minimal to maximal participation, with a progressive
domination of the coerciveness of the teachers roles. In situation 5, the situation is again
task-centred, but the teachers status as such has disappeared.
The six situations outlined above will help the reader not only to understand
classroom-based social and learning situations, but also patterns of interaction occuring
outside the classroom.
It is great importance that the student teacher be aware of the sort of situation he
wants in a lesson, or at a particular point in it. This will be chiefly determined by his
lesson objective together with the kinds of factors isolated Oeser which will contribute to
defining the overall situation. These include (1) high-low teacher dominance; (2) largesmall number of pupils; (3) high-low academic level of class; (4) active-passive pupil
participation; (5) individual- co- operative effort; (6) contentious-non-contentious
material; (7) strong-weak-needs (8) task and learning oriented examintion oriented; and
(9) directing-helping (councelling)

35

4. With the tremendous growth of electronic networking (the Internet), students can
now interact with their peers and teachers. E-mail is an excellent medium for
students and teacher to use in sharing ideas, materials and resources.
5. Interaction plays an important role in effective classroom management. Firstly,
closely-knitted interaction between student-student or teacher-student helps in
developing positive interpersonal relationship at all times. It helps in promoting
conducive classroom learning atmosphere. Interaction between students who
actively engaged in independent work tasks can help in reducing deviant
behaviour among the students. Further more, instructional planning and
preparation can be carried out accordingly without much interferences.
6. Teachers leadership plays an important role in the classroom interaction. He
should fully committed in his responsibilities, is disciplined and productive. He
has to promote the qualities of respect, love and caring among his students. He
should also involve his students in group activities and cooperative learning. He
is a role model to his students, he shows that he practices what he preaches. He
provides feedback to students through praise, and should uphold moral values
and humanitarian principles in all his actions.

36

CHAPTER 5:

Micro-teaching

Overview
In this Chapter, we shall cover,

Concept and importance of micro-teaching

The micro-teaching process

Teaching skills in micro-teaching and evaluation

Implementation of micro-teaching in teaching-learning

Key terms

Micro-teaching process

Micro- skills

Further Reading
Cohen, L.,Manion,L.(1977). To all student teachers on teaching
practice.London:Methuen.
Jacobsen,D., Eggen, P. , Kaucahak, D. (1993). Mehods for teaching. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Company.
Wragg,E.C.,(1999). An inroduction to classroom observation. London: Routledge.

Suggested Input
1. As we all know, teaching is an extremely complex activity. Microteaching
provides the student teacher with a gradual introduction to the complex activity of
teaching. Microteaching is micro or scaled down in three ways:

class size (the number of pupils may be as few as 5

length of lesson- it may be as short as 5-10 minutes

37

task complexity- usually by focusing on only one teaching

skill at a time

Microteaching is scaled up in one very important respect- the provision of

performance feedback, so that the student teacher knows how successfully he
has performed each time he teaches. Thus, as Professor E C Wragg says in his
book Teaching teaching (David and Charles, 1974),The argument in favour of
the technique is that it enable a teacher to develop his repertoire of professional
skills in an atmosphere congenial to learning, away from the hurly-burly of normal
classroom life, and that, especially for the novice, this relatively safe environment
is essential for effective learning to take place.
2. By mastering microteaching skills, the size of class, the amount of time, the
scope of the lesson etc., the complexities of the classroom are drastically
reduced. This allows the student teacher to focus upon the acquisition of certain
teaching skills, or the accomplishment of certain tasks. Further more, such
focusing is made possible because of the high degree of control that can be
brought into the microteaching situation. Last but not least, microteaching has the
enormous advantage of being able to offer immediate feedback to the student
teacher regarding his performance.
3. The microteaching process consists of : discussion, planning, implementation,
reflective evaluation, replanning and reteaching.
4. The general teaching skills that are practiced in a microteaching programme
consists of :set induction, use of the writing board, stimulus variation,
questioning, reinforcement, explanation and use of resource materials (aids,
examples, illustrations), and closure.

38

5. Set induction introduces a lesson, or a new topic within a lesson in a way which
will interest pupils in what is to follow and also help to establish what they already
know and link this with what is to follow.
6.1 The objectives of set induction are:

To focus student attention on what is to be learnt.

To create a frame of reference before or during a

lesson.

6.2

6.3

To give meaning to a new concept or principle.

To stimulate student interest and involvement.

When to induce a set induction:

At the beginning of a lesson.

When changing topics.

Before a question and answer session.

Before a panel discussion.

Before films, filmstrips, video clips, radio programmes

The components of set induction consist of:

Attention gaining

Motivation stimulation

Cognitive link

Structure provision

39

6.4

Set induction appraisal guide is shown below:

Components Of Set Induction

Yes

No

Attention Gaining
1. Use of voice to focus interest
2. Use of audio-visual aids
3. Use of gestures and eye contact
4. Introducing something unusual
Motivation stimulation
1. To arouse curiosity ( use of analogy)
2. Use of story telling technique
3. Involve students in their tasks
4. Ask provocative questions
Cognitive Link
1. Relate to past experience
2. Relate to new experience
3. Relate to current events
4. Relate to students interest and experience
Structure Provision
1. Stating the limits of the task
2. Using a series of questions
3. Stating ways to accomplish task
4. Stating activity, task or project
Please ( ) at the relevant column .

6. Stimulus variation is concerned with the ability to introduce variety into lesson
so that pupils are attentive and thus learn better. Its components include the
following: teacher movement, teacher gesture, change in speed pattern, change
of sensory focus, pupil talk, and pupil movement.

40

6.1 Stimulus variation appraisal guide is shown below:

30 seconds for each column

1 2 3 4
5 6 7
8 9
10 11 12 13
Components
Teacher movement
Eye contact and movement
Teacher voice
Teacher-group interaction
Teacher-pupil-teacher interaction
Pupil-pupil interaction
Teacher-object interaction
Pupil-object interaction
Pupil verbal and physical activity
Please () at the relevant column based on pupil or teachers observational behaviours.

7. The writing board is the most widely used teaching aid. The correct usage of
writing board , especially writing and drawing can intensify students interest and
attention on the main aspects of a lesson. Its components consist of:

Clarity

Layout

Highlighting or emphasis

Technique in presentation

41

14

7.1 The use of writing board appraisal guide is shown below:

Components

Yes

No

Clarity
1. Writing is large enough
2. Adequate spacing between two letters
3. Adequate spacing two words
4. Diagrams simple or large enough
Layout
1. Use of space is well-balanced
2. The arrangement is neatly done
3. Notes or sentences are arranged systematically
Highlighting or emphasis
1. Coloured chalks are used suitably.
2. Important words are underlined.
3. Labeling done in large dark letters

Presentation technique
1. Concepts are clear and precise
2. Students participation
3. Time allocation is relevant
4. Presentation of ideas simple and neat
Please () at the relevant column.

42

8. Questioning is concerned with the ability to ask low-level and high-level

questions. This skill also includes the ability to ask various kinds of follow-up
question. For example, follow-up prompts (modifying a question that is too
difficult for pupils to answer), follow up probe (asking pupil to clarify or elaborate
an answer which is vague), and follow up redirections ( redirecting a pupil
response to other pupils or the class in general for comment and discussion).
8.1 The basic errors in questioning technique include teachers
tendencies:

to limit their questions to a few pupils only

to give insufficient time for pupils to reflect on answers

to demonstrate impatience when answers are wrong or

inadequate

to talk so much that pupils find little time to express their

own thoughts and knowledge even when asked to do so.

To ask questions which mainly rely on memory or recall of

events and neglect questions that stimulate high order
thinking process.

43

Table 8.1 Questioning technique appraisal guide is shown below:

Questioning techniques

Number of questions
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

10

11

12

13

14

15

Framing of questions:
Clear and coherent
Focus on one idea
Pausing
Prompting
Refocusing
Redirecting
Handling of incorrect responses
Distributing of questions among
the class
Levels Of Cognitive Questions
Recall
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation

Please () at the relevant column based on the characteristics of each question

asked.

9. The skill of explaining and illustrating with examples deals with the using of
relevant and interesting examples to illustrate a point and also whatever teaching
aids may be appropriate. It also deals with suitable organization of content;
recapitulation at appropriate stages; stressing of important points by repetition;
use of voice; gesture, obtaining pupil participation and feedback.

Table 8.2 Skill of explaining and illustrating with examples appraisal

guide is shown below:
Components and criteria

Yes

No

44

Level of initiation

Quality of voice variation in pitch, tone and volume

Emphasizing key points

Suitable gesture and movement

Simple and concise

Use of illustration/ examples/audio-visual aids

Relevant

Clear and interesting

Variety

Sufficient

Arrangement of ideas

Orderly elaboration of ideas

Use of non verbal cues e.g. gestures and verbal

expressions)

Conclusion

Key points are clearly stated (oral/written)

Key points orderly arranged.

Clear and concise

Please ( ) at the relevant column.

10. Skill of reinforcement is used when the teacher reinforces good behaviour with
a smile, when she praises good answer, encourage a slow learner or writes Well
done on a piece of work. This can help in to increase pupil attention and
maintaining motivation. It also helps in promoting self-concept and consequently
help to give them confidence. Components of reinforcement skills are:

Positive verbal reinforcement- use of such words as good, yes,

Thats right.

Positive non verbal reinforcement (smile, nodding of head, clapping

hands)

45

Proximity ( moving nearer or standing next to, sitting near the pupils,
etc).

Contact ( patting the pupils head, shakingf hands)

Negative verbal reinforcement ( No, wrong, Nonsense)

Negative non verbal reinforcement ( shaking head, frown, etc.)

Table 8.3 Skill of Reinforcement appraisal guide is shown below

Components

Yes

No

Positive verbal reinforcement

Positive non verbal reinforcement
Proximity
Contact
Negative verbal reinforcement
Negative non verbal cues

11. Closure is rounding off a lesson or topic so as to reinforce pupil interest in it

and also help to recapitulate what has been learnt; and making connections
between what has been learnt. There are two important types of closure:
cognitive and social. The cognitive closure is directed at consolidating what the
students have learnt and focusing their attention on the major points covered in
the lesson or lesson segment. Whereas the social closure is concerned with
giving the students a sense of achievement so that, despite any difficulties they
encountered within the lesson, they are encouraged to continue striving. Usually,
the social closure is used at the end of a lesson.

46

Table 8.4 The skill of closure appraisal guide is shown below:

Component and criteria

Yes

No

Cognitive link

Make a summary

Repetition of key points

Correcting assignment

Suggestion of further activity

Reinforcement exercise

Social Link

Create a sense of achievement

Positive reinforcement

Please () at the relevant column.

47

12.

The lesson plan format for microteaching is generally similar to that of lesson

plan for classroom teaching and learning, with the exception that microteaching only
focuses one teaching skill. The lesson plan format for microteaching is shown below:

Sample Lesson Plan Format For Microteaching

Class:

Integration:

No. of Students:

Inculcation of Values:

Subject:

Infusion of Thinking Skills:

Topic:

Explicit Objectives:

Date:

1.

Time:

2.

Previous Knowledge:

3.

Resource Materials:

Skill:

Component
Content/skill
Step
Set Induction
( Minutes)

Teaching/
Learning
activity

Resource
Materials/Thinking
skills/values

Notes

Developmental
Steps
( Minutes)
Closure
( Minutes)

(Source: Education Studies Curriculum (2000), Teacher Education Division, Ministry of

Education, Malaysia)
48

CHAPTER 6: Teaching
Overview
In this Chapter, we shall cover,

Concept of teaching

Expository model

Information processing model

Inquiry model

Project model

Teachercentred strategy

Student-centred strategy

Resource-based strategy

Task-based strategy

Integrative approach

Inductive approach

Deductive approach

Eclective approach

Smart school pedagogy: directive

Smart school pedagogy: mediative

Smart school pedagogy: generative

Smart school pedagogy: observational study

Smart school pedagogy: Contextual learning

Smart school pedagogy: metacognition

Smart school pedagogy: external context

Smart school pedagogy: Future study

Smart school pedagogy : Cooperative / Collaborative

49

50

Key Terms

Concept of teaching model

Expository model

Information processing model

Inquiry model

Project model

Teachercentred strategy

Student-centred strategy

Resource-based strategy

Task-based strategy

Integrative approach

Inductive approach

Deductive approach

Ecclective approach

Smart school pedagogy: directive

Smart school pedagogy: mediative

Smart school pedagogy: generative

Smart school pedagogy: observational study

Smart school pedagogy: Contextual learning

Smart school pedagogy: metacognition

Smart school pedagogy: external context

Smart school pedagogy: Future study

Smart school pedagogy : Cooperative / Collaborative

51

Further Reading
Brady, L. (1985). Models and methods of teaching. Sydney: Prentice Hall of
Australia Pty. Ltd.
Burden, D.M. & Burden, P.R. (1999). Methods for effective teaching (2nd Ed.).
Boston: Allyn and Bacon
Brown, S. & Smith B. ed. (1996). Resource-based learning. London: Kogan Page.
Cooper, J. M. et al. (1999). Classroom teaching skills. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Good, T.L. Brophy, J. E. (1997). Looking in classrooms. New York: Longman.
Jacobsen, et al. (1993). Methods for teaching. New York: Macmillan Pub. House.
Joyce, B. et al. (2000). Models of learning tool for teaching. Ballmoor,
Buckingham: Open University Press.
Kyriacou, C. (1991). Essential teaching skills. Hemel Hempstead: Simon &
Schuster.
Martin, R. E. et al. (1988). An introduction to teaching. Boston: Allyn and Bacon
Nicholls, G. (1999). Learning to teach. A handbook for primary and secondary
school teachers. London: Kogan Page.
Slavin, R. E. (1997). Educational psychology (5rd Ed). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
http://www.aber.ac.uk/~mflwww/seclangacq/langteach8.html
http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/m-weeks/technks.html

52

Suggested Input
1. Concept of teaching: The act of teaching can be described as giving
instructions to or sharing ones knowledge with another person. Teaching can be
further described as a means for providing students with the knowledge and skills
they need to function successfully in the world. In a very practical sense,
teaching is diagnosing and prescribing. Teacher diagnose what the specific
learning needs (or deficiencies) are, and then prescribe the particular strategies
and activities to meet them. This is a very important factor in teaching. The
ability to identidy student learning needs and to design explicit lessons is what
distinguished the professional teacher from a volunter, an aide, or any other
person who wants to teach. In short, teaching is:

Committing yourself to lifelong learning and growth

Respecting children and adolescents

Sharing ones knowledge

Guilding, directing, facilitating, nurturing, and planning

Goal setting for yourself and for your students

Meeting personal dan professional challenges

Conveying cultural and national values to others

Creating an awarenes of (and appreciation for) your potential (Evans &

Brueckner, 1992).

2. Teaching model : is a type of blueprint for teaching. A model is a prescriptive

strategy designed to accomplish instructional goals. It is prescriptive in that the
teachers responsibilities during the planning, implementing, and evaluating
stages are clearly defined. There are different models of teaching, each based
on a particular learning theory. For example, there are inductive, deductive, and
inquiry models, and variations among theses models. Various theories focus on
different aspects of the learner, and as a result, their implications for teaching
procedures vary. A model provides structure and direction for the teacher, but it
cannot dictate all the actions taken by the teacher.

53

3. Expository model : actions is predominantly teacher-centred model that

focuses on the expository approaches of narration and explanation, and that
uses practice and revision to consolidate learning.

Steps in the expository teaching of concepts:

Teacher:
a. Define concept and clarify terms.
b. Link to superordinate concepts
c. Present positive and negative examples.
Students:
a. Clarify or explain additional teacher examples as either positive or
negative.
b. Provide additional examples.

Steps in the expository teaching of generalizations:

Teacher:
a. State generalization.
b. Clarify concepts within generalization.
c. Present positive and negative examples.
Students:
d. Clarify or explain additional teacher examples as either positive or
negative.
e. Provide additional examples.
4. Information processing models : emphasize ways of enhancing the human
beings innate drive to make sense of the world by acquiring and organizing data,
sensing problems and generating solutions to them, and developing concepts
and language for conveying them. Some models in this family provide the
learner with information and concepts; some emphasize concept formation and
hypothesis testing by the learner; and still others generate creative thinking. A
few are designed to enhance gereral intellectual ability. Many information
processing models are useful for studying the self and society, and thus for
achieving the personal and social goals of education. Included in this family of
models are:

54

Inductive thinking, developed by Hilda Taba and redeveloped by Bruce Joyce.

Concept attainment, developed by Jerome Bruner, Fred Lighthall and

redeveloped by Bruce Joyce.

Scientific inquiry, developed by Joseph Schwab and many others.

Inquiry training, developed by Richard Suchman

Cognitive growth, developed by Jean Piaget, Irving Sigel, etc.

Advance organizers, developed by David Ausubel and many others.

Mnemonics, developed by Michael Pressley, Joel Levin, etc.

5. Inquiry model : is guided discovery. One of the strengths of this model is that
both the lesson content and the process of investigation are taught at the same
time. The steps of inquiry essentially follow John Deweys model of reflectiing
thinking. The common steps include

Identifying and clarifying a problem

Formulating hypotheses

Collecting data

Analyze and interpret the data to test the hypotheses

Draw conclusions

Using the process of inquiry provides opportunities for students to learn and
practice skills associated with critical thinking. That said, below you will find a
basic outline of what the inquiry process includes.

(i) Formulate problems

Discover problems in real situations and human needs

Discover problems as extensions of current ideas

Construct models of phenomena

Specify variables, categories, & relations among categories

Analyze a model critically and examine its consequences

(ii) Observe

Observe phenomena in the real world

55

Describe phenomena

(iii) Investigate

Select appropriate method of investigation: observation, interview, survey,

experiment, literature survey, search of existing data, mathematical analysis,
etc.

Choose measurement tools & conventions

Design sampling & control procedures (deal with variability)

Apply measurement procedures

Collect & record data

(iv) Analyze

Explore & describe data

Analyze data

Relate models to real data

Interpret relationships in data

Revise a model on the basis of new evidence

Draw conclusions

(v) Communicate

Explain ideas

Formulate arguments for conclusions supported by data

Publish

(vi) Consider

Reflect

Ask new questions

Formulate new lines of thought/inquiry based on conclusions

Several approaches to inquiry may be used:

o

During guided inquiry, the teacher provides the data and the
students are questioned in order to help them inductively arrive at
an answer, conclusion, generalization, or solution.

Unguided or open-ended inquiry approaches have the students

take more responsibility for examining the data, objects, or events;
these investigations are commonly done individually.

Specifically, guided and unguided inquiry approaches may involve

discussion and question sessions, guided or controlled

56

discussions, some study approaches, projects, and research

projects.
6. Project model : refers to a set of teaching strategies which enable teachers to
guide children through in-depth studies of real world topics. The Project model is not
unstructured. There is a complex but flexible framework with features that
characterize the teaching-learning interaction. When teachers implement the Project
model of teaching successfully, children can be highly motivated, feel actively
involved in their own learning, and produce work of a high quality.

A project is defined here as an in-depth investigation of a real world topic

worthy of children's attention and effort. The study may be carried out by a
class or by small groups of children. Projects can be undertaken with children
of any age. They do not usually constitute the whole educational program.
Younger children will play and explore as well as engage in projects. Older
children's project work will complement the systematic instruction in their
program. Projects enrich young children's dramatic play, construction,
painting and drawing by relating these activities to life outside school. Project
work offers older children opportunities to do first hand research in science
and social studies and to represent their findings in a variety of ways.
Children also have many occasions in the course of their project work to
apply basic mathematics and language skills and knowledge.

Criteria for the selection of topic for a project

o

Not all topics are equally promising in terms of their educational

potential. Consider the following (deliberately a very mixed bag!):

Food

Valentine's Day

shopping the senses

trees
rain

fairytales
bears

conflict

dinosaurs

animals
water

going

roads

Some of these topics may seem to offer more opportunities for children's
learning than others. Considering the enormous range of possible topics
for study in school, teachers have to be selective.
Criteria used to discriminate among different possible topics of study in
school depend on how children learn best, the basic social values we

57

expect children to live by, and what we understand the role of the school
to be in educating children. Here is a set of criteria which teachers may
wish to add to for themselves. They are expressed in the form of
questions which can be asked about the value of studying any given
topic.

How can a study of this topic...

o

build on what children already know?

help children to make better sense of the world they live in?

help children to understand one another better?

enable children to understand the value of literacy and numeracy in real

life contexts?

offer children ideas for dramatic play/representation?

encourage children to seek sources of information outside school?

facilitate communication with parents?

Criteria Checklist

Some criteria for choosing a good topic for a project :

o

How interesting is the topic for the children?

Is it a real world topic?

Is there a certain amount of personal experience they already have with

the topic?

How easy will it be for them to have hands on, first hand experience (field
work)?

How dependent will they be on adults or books for information?

Who can come in and tell about their first hand experience with the topic?

Will there be many different questions the children will want to ask about
the topic?

Will there be opportunities for the children to investigate their own

questions actively?

Will there be many different ways the children can be helped to represent
their findings?

Will there be opportunities to take roles in dramatic play?

58

Will there be any large constructions for the children to build and play with
or in?

What will there be to count, measure, and compare?

How are shape, color, texture, or size significant variables in a study of

this topic?

What expertise can I draw on from among the parents of the children?

If the topic is of short-lived interest is there a natural follow on for a new

project?

This list emerges from watching projects and analyzing with teachers what
seems to attract and sustain children's interest for a substantial period of time.
One overriding principle seems to be that children's interest can most easily be
developed and sustained when topics have direct connections to local people,
places and events.

Five structural features of the project approach

Discussion, Fieldwork, Representation, Investigation, and Display

Why are these features of project work described as 'structural features'?
"On the one hand, structure involves constraint as guidelines are established.
Children do not simply do whatever they like. On the other hand, structure
provides children with a framework that helps them understand what is expected
of them. In this way structure can be liberating as well as constraining. For
example, children can approach their work in unique and flexible ways while
working within the general framework. This allows different perspectives to be
recognized in the effort to reach a shared goal: the successful project." The
Project Approach, Bk 2, Scholastic.

59

Features Chart
*Phase 1
Beginning

*Phase 2
Developing

*Phase 3
Concluding

Discussion

-Sharing prior
-Preparing for field work and
experience and current interviews
knowledge of the topic. -Reviewing field work
-Learning from secondary
sources

-Preparing to share the

story of the project.
Review and evaluation of
the project.

Field Work

-Children talking about -Going out of the classroom to -Evaluating the project
their experience with
investigate a field site
through the eyes of an
their parents.
-Interviewing experts in the field outside group
or in the classroom.

Representation -Drawing, writing,

construction, dramatic
play, etc. to share prior
experience and
knowledge.

-Brief field sketches and notes.

-Drawings, painting, writing,
math diagrams, maps, etc. to
represent new learning.

-Condensing and
summarizing the story of
the study to share the
project with others.

Investigation

-Raising questions on
the basis of current
knowledge.

-Investigating initial questions.

-Field work and library
research.
Raising further questions.

-Speculating about new

questions.

Display

-Sharing
representations of
personal experiences of
the topic.

Sharing representations of new Summary of the learning

experience and knowledge.
throughout the project.
-Ongoing record of the project
work.

*Each of the phases in the life of a project typically offers its own distinctive opportunities
for children to represent their understanding. Throughout the project they can draw,
paint, discuss, dramatize, write, collect data, count, measure, calculate, predict,
construct models, draw diagrams, make graphs, record observations, read for
information and for pleasure, sing songs and play music, and many other things. They
can show their understanding at the beginning of the study, as it develops through
research, and as they look back on the most memorable aspects of the work completed.
Phase 1. The children recall past experience and represent memories of relevant
events, objects and people.
Phase 2. The children have new experiences and investigate, draw from observation,
construct models, observe closely and record findings, explore, predict, experiment and
invent, discuss and dramatize. It is mainly in this phase that longer term, multi-stage
project work is undertaken.

60

Phase 3. The children review the work they have done, summarize, and recreate it in a
new form to represent for another audience what they have achieved as a class. They
also do more imaginative work, representing new information acquired in Phase 2 in
original and personal ways.
7. Teaching strategies :
(i) Teachercentred strategy: places the teacher at the centre of classroom
activity. Teacher-centred strategy is also known as direct instruction. Direct
instruction relies primarily on the teacher to direct the students thinking and
participation and relies heavily on a structured content emphasis.Some examples
include review, drill and practice, brief lectures, and student recitations.

Teacher-centred strategy is also known as explicit teaching. It consists of

presenting material in small, syetematic steps with calculated pauses to
check for student understanding. This approach is particularly useful for
teaching a specialized body of knowledge in which specific facts or welldefined skills exist. For example, teaching science or social studies facts,
map skills, grammar rules and concepts, foreign language vocabulary, math
computations, and distinguishing fact from opinion are some appropriate
examples where explicit teaching approaches may be most useful.

Teacher-centred strategy consists of teaching in small steps with an

emphasis on student practice after each step. The teachers role is to
present materials, guide students through initial practice sessions, and
provide all students with frequent and high levels of practice.

(ii) Studentcentred strategy: may be more suitable when information cannot be

effectively transmitted by teacher-centred strategy and when goals includes creative
as well as critical thinking skills to be developed. Instruction in student-centred
classrooms is usually less explicit.

The purpose of the student-centred strategy is to break away from the

traditional teacher-dominated classroom and to encourage greater student
responsibility and participation.

A teacher who uses student-centred strategy does not turn over control to the
students and let them do what they wish, although student-centred strategy is

61

less direct or explicit. The teacher retains authority and delegates quite a bit
of responsibility to the students. The usual role of authoritarian is
surrendered; instead the teacher is authoritative, choosing to delegate a
portion of the authority to students instead of centreing the power in himself
or herself.

The student-centred strategy has been found to be superior in developing

student abilities in applying concepts and in developing positive attitudes,
fostering motivation, developing personal growth, and in encouraging group
social skills. These student-centred classrooms also show evidence of more
cognitive growth at high levels, yet they are suspected of being inferior in
helping students avhieve at tasks that require lower levels of thinking.

Some examples may include exploration, inquiry and discovery, and some
forms of discussion. Some examples of less explicit lessons include
analyzing trends in history, literature, documents, or practical problems, the
discussion and speculation of solution for social issues, teaching
composition, and writing term papers.

Student-centred strategy aims at helping students learn how to learn. This

includes creating and arranging a classroom atmosphere in which students
can interact with the teacher and other students.

In this kind of strategy, the teacher must be well versed in the subjects they
are teaching; each teacher must examine the structure of the discipline,
identify the important concepts, and select or develop experiences that are
meaningful to the students and that will offer students opportunities to explore
and discover what the teacher wants them to learn.

Differences Between Student-centred and Teacher-centred Methods of

Teaching: (Adapted from Mratin et al.1988:395)

62

Student-centred methods
Much student participation
Student-to-student interaction
Teacher acceptance and use of student
ideas
Student group decides how to proceed
with learning task
Discussion of personal experiences is
encouraged
Tests and grades are not the major
product of learning

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Students share a role and responsibilty

in evaluation
Teacher emphasizes attitude changes
Students are involved in setting class
goals
Attempts are made to establish class
cohesiveness

8
9
10

Teacher-centred methods
Much teacher participation
Interaction is teacher-to-student
Teacher may criticize, correct, or
reject student ideas
Teacher makes decisions and
decides learning activities
Discussion is focused on course
content
Tests and grades are traditionally
used as the major products of
learning
Teacher is solely responsible for
evaluation
Emphasis is on intellectual changes
Goals are determined by the teacher.
No attempts to establish class
cohesiveness

(iii) Resource-based strategy: encompasses a wide range of means by which

students are able to learn in ways that are on a scale from those that are mediated
by teachers to those where the students are learning independently.

Books have been used as a form of resource-based learning long time ago.
In recent years, there has been an increase in use of media in resourcebased learning, it includes an increase in learning materials, study guides,
textbook guides, workbooks, video and tape packages. Other more
sophisticaed materials are computer-based learning packages; computer
conferences; CD-ROM, multimedia; computer-mediated discussion groups;
interactive videa discs; materials on the World Wide Web; teleconferencing,
video-conferencing and telematics.

Resource-based learning is valuable in helping teachers to cope with the

diversity of student need.

Resource-based learning provides ways for students to learn at their own

pace, at all times of the day, often in location convenient to them, and it laso
provides back-up for absentees.

63

In resource-based learning, the roles of the teacher includes:

o

Guiding students about where to turn for information

Helping them to find the right questions to ask

Trouble-shooting when they get into difficulties

Encouraging them when they are failing

Enabling them to interact in group work

(iv) Task-based strategy:

The teacher involves students in activities or assignments that provide them

with opportunities to practice or apply what they are learning (and in the
process, provide them with coaching, task-simplication strategies, or ther
forms of scaffolding that may be needed to enable them to complete the
activities successfully).

Criteria to consider in selecting or developing activities:

o

Begin with a focus on the units major goals and consider the kinds of
activities that would promote progress toward those goals. Ideally,
major goals goals will focus on students understanding of the content
and ability to apply it to their lives outside of school, and thus will
gukde teachers toward activities that are whole-application tasks that
carry students through to the intended outcomes rather than just
providing them with isolated practice of part skills.

Given the instructional goals, different activities might be considered:

a. Essential
b. Directly relevant and useful, even not essential
c. Directly relevant but less useful than other activities that serve
the same functions more effectively
d. Tangentially relevant but not very useful because they do not
promote progress toward major goals
e. Irrelevant or inappropriate to the goals.

In selecting from among other aactivities that do meet these primary

criteria, teachers might consider several secondary criteria:
a. Students are likely to find the activity interesting or enjoyable.

64

b. The activity provides apportunities for interaction and reflective

discourse, not just solitary seatwork.
c. If the activity involve writing, students will compose prose, not
just fill in blanks.
d. The activity focuses on application of important ideas, not
incidental details or interesting but ultimately trivial information
e. As a set, the activities offer variety and in other ways appeal to
student motivation to the extent that this is consistent with
curriculum goals.
f.

As a set, the activities include many ties to current events or

local and family examples or applications.

Besides being well chosen, activities need to be effectively presented,

monitored, and followed up if they are to have their full impact. This means
preparing the students for an activity in advance, providing guidance and
feedback during the activity, and structuring postactivity reflection afterward.

In introducing activities, teachers need to stress their purposes in ways that

will help students to engage in them with clear ideas about the goals they are
trying to accomplish.

Teachers can scaffold by providing any needed information or help

concerning how to go about completing task requirements. If reading is part
of the task, for example, teachers might summarize the main ideas, remind
students about strategies for developing and monitoring their comprehension
as they read (paraphrasing, summarizing, taking notes, questioning
themselves to check understanding), or provide them with advance
organizers that will help to approach the material in the intended ways.

Once students begin working on activities and assignments, teachers should

monitor their progress and provide assistance if necessary.

Most task will not have their full effects unless they are followed by reflection
or debriefing. Here, the teacher reviews the task with the students, provides
general feedback about performance, and reinforces the main ideas as they
relate to the overall goals.

65

(8) Integrative approach:

Is both a method of teaching and a way of organizing the instructional

programme so that the many disparate subjects and skills of the curriculum
can be related to one another. This approach provides unity to the students
school experience.

Is an inductive strategy designed to help students develop a deep

understanding of organized bodies of knowledge, while at the same time
practice higher-order thingking about the information theyre studying. The
intergrative model views learners as actively constructing their own
understanding of the topics they study.

The purpose of the integrative approach is

o

to teach students to become self-reliant, independent problem

solvers, consistent with what is known about the nature of childhood.
Thus, it involves students directly and purposefully in learning.

To help the students to understand and appreciate the extent to which

school learning is interrelated rather than separated into a variety of
discrete subjects and skills, as is the case in the traditional curriculum.
It is designed to create a high level of interest in learning that will
become personalized and individualized. It seeks to construct
situations in which students can learn what they want and need to
know rather than what the curriculum specifies.

To stress the process of learning as opposed to specific subject

matter and skills. It capitalizes on the social values of learning.
Students are encouraged to work with others in cooperative learning
endeavours.

(9) Inductive approach:

1. The teacher provides examples which have the same concept and concept rule
in common. However, the concept rule IS NOT STATED. Students will attempt to
find it through the examples near the end of the lesson.
2. The teacher, through questioning of the students, elicits critical attributes and
non-critical attributes, which are essential and non-essential characteristics of the

66

concept. Through these exercises, students should begin to understand the

common concept which is found in all of the examples.
3. The teacher shows examples and non-examples of the same concept to
students.
4. Students must categorize the examples or non-examples (those which do not
show essential characteristics of the concept rule) by explaining why they do or
do not fit the concept rule they are discovering.
5. The students can either a) state the relationship found (in a guided lesson) or b)
state relationships that they found, being allowed to differ from the rest of the
group as needed (such as an unguided lesson).
Simple Example
1. The teacher shows the students examples of squares, possibly tables or objects
in the classroom which have the desired qualities as well as mathematical props.
2. The students, with guidance from the teacher, identify characteristics that must
be present (CRITICAL ATTRIBUTES) for the object to be a square: a) the object
has four sides and b) the object's four sides are equal (i.e. all have sides which
are 10 inches long, or 5 inches, etc).
3. The teacher then elicits the non-critical attributes of a square. (i.e. shape is noncritical or non-essential as long as it meets other characteristics, meaning it could
be 2 or 3 dimensional; size is also non-essential; weight is non-essential to the
concept rule; etc.)
4. Students should be able to identify the concept rule being demonstrated.
5. The teacher shows more examples of a square, but mixes them in with
rectangles (non-examples). Students must distinguish the difference and
verbalize it.
6. If not already accomplished, the teacher should ask students to state the concept
rule or the relationship(s) they found through the lesson.
(10) Deductive approach:
Teacher starts with the concept rule, or a statement of what the lesson is attempting to
prove.
The teacher provides examples which show proof of the concept rule.

67

The teacher, through questioning of the students, elicits critical attributes and non-critical
attributes, which are essential and non-essential characteristics of the concept.
The teacher shows examples and non-examples of the same concept to students.
Students must categorize the examples or non-examples (those which do not show
essential characteristics of the concept rule) by explaining why they do or do not fit the
concept rule being discussed.
Simple Example
The teacher presents the concept rule of: a square is an object with four congruent
sides.
The teacher defines congruent as equal, then he/she shows the students examples of
squares, possibly tables or objects in the classroom which have the desired qualities as
well as mathematical props.
The students, with guidance from the teacher, identify the following characteristics that
must be present (CRITICAL ATTRIBUTES) for the object to be a square: a) the object
has four sides and b) the object's four sidesre equal (i.e. all have sides which are 10
inches long, or 5 inches, etc).
The teacher then elicits the non-critical attributes of a square. (i.e. shape is non-critical
or non-essential as long as it meets other characteristics, meaning it could be 2 or 3
dimensional; size is also non-essential; weight is non-essential to the concept rule; etc.)
The teacher shows more examples of a square, but mixes them in with rectangles (nonexamples). Students must distinguish the difference and verbalize it.
(http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/m-weeks/technks.html)

(11) Ecclective approach: The eclectic approach, as you might have guessed, is a
combination of any of the other teaching methods, like the combination of inductive and
deductive approaches. In Foreign Language teaching, many teachers use a mixture of
both Indirect and Direct Methods.
Grammar Method - easy for the teacher, but too intellectual an approach for the average
pupil:
- may kill off his enthusiasm for language learning
- gives little chance to master spoken language which would be of greater use to him
- pupil cannot gain true insight into grammatical rule unless he has previously mastered
the spoken aspect

68

Some teachers therefore try to veer away from pure Indirect Method, hoping to reduce
the intellectual content of their lessons and to give pupils some opportunity of speaking
the language.
But Direct Method teaching cannot supply the number of active speaking contacts
required for pupil to begin to 'think' in the language, so that any 'eclectic' method lying
between the two poles will afford even fewer contacts.
It is also true that a second language learner needs to have some knowledge of the
grammatical blocks of language to help speed up the development of his oral
proficiency.
(Source:http://www.aber.ac.uk/~mflwww/seclangacq/langteach8.html)
(12) Teaching and learning strategies for use in the smart school context:
(i) Directive Strategies
Drill, practice, mastery learning, and direct instruction.
(ii) Observation Strategies
Learning by observing others performing a function or task.
(iii) Mediative Strategies
Direct assisting of students in learning how to apply knowledge to solve problems.
A combination of reasoning, coaching, and open-ended discussions.
(iv) Generative Strategies
Help students learn how to behave in appropriate situations and use their different
intelligences.
Includes tools like brainstorming, synectics, lateral thinking, and creativity by design.
(v) Collaborative Strategies
Help students use interpersonal skills to accomplish tasks.
(vi) External Context Learning Strategies
Activity-based learning, hands-on sessions, seminars, workshops, and do-it-yourself
programmes
(vii) Metacognitive Learning Strategies
Students learn through thinking about the learning process and how they did and how
they can improve
(Source: http://www.msc.com.my/mdc/flagships/ss.asp)

69

CHAPTER 7: Methods and Techniques of Teaching

Overview
In this Chapter, we shall cover,

Learning by playing

Role-playing

Brainstorming

Thematic teaching

Integreted Teaching

Story Telling

Facilitating Skills

Discussion Method

Inquiry Method

Problem Solving (Theory of Constrain)

Mastery Learning

Key Terms

Learning by playing

Role-playing

Brainstorming

Thematic teaching

Integreted Teaching

Story Telling

Facilitating Skills

Discussion Method

Inquiry Method

Problem Solving (Theory of Constrain)

Mastery Learning

70

Further Reading
Arends, R.I. (2000). Learning to teach (5th Ed). Boston: McGraw Hill.
Burden, P.R. & Byrd, D.M. (1994). Methods for effective teaching. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
Brady, L. (1985). Models and methods of teaching. Sydney: Prentice Hall of
Australia Pty. Ltd.
Guillaume, A. M. (2000). Classroom teaching. London: Prentice-Hall.
Kyriacou, C. (1991). Essential Teaching Skills. Hemel Hempstead: Simon &
Schuster.
Moore, K. D. (1995). Classroom Teaching Skills (3rd Ed). New York: McGraw Hill.
Suggested Input
1. Learning through play

Educational play may take many forms. The key role of teachers here is in
modifying the natural spontaneous play of children so that it has educational
value while maintaining its qualities as play. There are four kinds of educational
play: manupulative play, physical play, dramatic play and games.

In manupulative play, students handle relatively small pieces of equipment such

as puzzles, counting rods, or peg sets. The actions are relatively self-contained;
that is there is no necessary interaction between the manupulative activiti and
other kinds of activities, nor is there a dramatic element to the play. For example,
students can achieve the goals of manipulative play activities directly by handling
the material. Students may be given a series of wooded cylinders and a case
into which they fit. By comparing cylinders and attempting to fit them into the
case, the students begin to learn to make size comparisons and to arrange items

71

in a series. Manipulative play activities generally have fairly narrowly defined

educational goals.

Physical play involves students large-muscle actions, such as running, jumping,

or riding a tricycle. These activities help students increase their physical skills or
learn to use them in new situations. Physical play can have a dramatic
component, and teachers can elaborate the play either by making the physical
activities more challenging or by providing social content to the play.

Dramatic play requires that the students pretend to act out a role, often in
relationship to other students playing their roles in informal dramatic situations
that may represent true-life situations. The housekeeping area (or doll corner) is
the most readily observable setting for dramatic play. Here students act out the
roles of family members in actions representing home situations. Teachers may
set up other dramatic play situations to enable the children to play many roles.

Games are a different kind of play activity. They are highly structured and
include specific rules to be followed. Students at the four-and five-year-old levels
are beginning to move into a stage in which they can play games. Simple games
or musical activities containing elements of games are quite appropriate.
Students need to be taught the strategies of game playing. Teachers should
guide the games, or the students may not be mature enough to maintain rules or
understand rule-appropriate behaviour.

2. Role-playing

Is the opportunity to explore through spontaneous improvization and

carefully guided discussion, typical group problem situations in which
individuals are helped to become sensitive to the feelings of the people
involved (Shaftel & Shaftel, 1967:84, cited in Brady, 1985). So students act
out their real feelings without risk of reprisals by taking the role of another
person that is thinking, feeling, and acting like another person, and
indicating this through dialogue with someone similarly involved.

Students in assuming the role of another, step outside their accustomed role,
giving up their usual form of behaviour in exchange for the role and behaviour
of another person. Thus, students are forced to be less egocentric. As a
result, they achieve insights into themselves and others.

72

The aims of role-playing used in teaching are:

o

To develop sensitivity to other peoples feelings

To help students clarify their values which assists decision-making

To help students understand that behaviour is caused

To enable students to release tensions and feelings

To teach students problem-solving behaviour

To develop in students the habit of considering the consequences of

behaviour

To assist the teacher in diagnosing student needs

To develop group cohesiveness

To learn social bahviour

To teach the child the feeling-thing-acting

Example: In a unit on the family, students may be given the following

exercise : You have to take your little brother home from sschool each
Monday, and the other boys call you Pak Cik. You think your little brother is
old enough to get home by himself, but your father says he is not. Role-play
a talk between your father and yourself.

Preparation for role-play

Role-play is a method which requires minimal preparation. Its effectiveness is a

function of the skills of teacher direction, and beyond the selection of a role-play
situation, little advance preparation can be done. The following suggestions may
help the teacher in planning:
(i) Select a situation for role-play which is student-centred and which is likely to
be both involving and contentious, for example, solution suggested by students
to moral dilemma stories. If this method is used, teachers should make sure that
the moral dilemma selected:
o

Presents a real conflict for the central character

Includes more than one moral issue for discussion

73

o
(ii)

Produces disagreement among students as to a suitabl solution

Ensure that the fictional moral dilemma or role-play is not too close to
any reality in a students life. The teacher may decide that similar but not
identical situations can be role-played. The teacher may also decide to
change names in the role-play situation, if they have pointed parallels with
those of students in the class.

(iii)

Decide on the manner of briefing the player. Briefing may involve either
questioning the players and class as to the nature of the role, or an
uninterrupted statement by the teacher.

(iv)

Determine whether all role-plays will be conducted in the full-class

context, or whether small groups will be responsible for their own
selection of players and briefing.

3. Brainstorming

Where two or more individuals suggest as many solutions to a problem as they

can think of, no matter how seemingly ridiculous. Only after all idesa are out is
any evaluated as a possible solution. The idea of brainstorming is to avoid
focussing on one solution too early and perhaps ignoring better ways to proceed.

Osborn (1963, cited in Bradly, 1985:201) classified nine types of questions that
can be used in brainstroming for ideas:
Question Types

Examples

New uses:

Could it be used in another way?

Adaptations:

Is this similar to anything else?

o Modifications:

What changes could be made?

o Magnifications:

Could you make it better by adding something?

o Minifications:
o Substitutions:

Could it be pruned or streamlined?

Could we put something in its place?

o Rearrangements: Might it be better if we changed the order?

o Reversals:

Might it be better if we turned it round or started

from the other end?

74

o Combinations:

Might it be better if we used both approaches

together?

4. Thematic Teaching

Instead of being based solely on core ideas related to particular subject matters,
the thematic units are interdisciplinary, with learning activities emanating from the
theme (Guillanume, 2000). Exmples of themes include, for young students,
homes, and for older students, discoveries, or interdependence. Concepts from
different subjects areas are surfaced and linked through the use of the theme.
Also thematic units usually include choices for students, allowing students to
select at least some of the individual and small group discussion can develop a
sense of ownership and community as students learn together and share their
results. The following steps are suggested for planning thematic units:

(i)

Select a theme: The theme needs to be broad enough to encompass

information from many subjects areas but not so broad that
meaningful connections are lost. Keep your larger goals and
students interest in mind.

(ii)

Create a planning web: Brainstorm to create a chart a semantic

map that explores that many instances in which that theme arises.

75

Study
examples
from
favorite
historical
works

Pas
t

Present: Our
community

Throughout
history

People living
together
Information
technology is
affecting
communities

Community

How are they

changing?
Biological
communities

Families are

different
Support
systems are
different

Animal living
together

Sample Planning Web (Modified from Guillaume, 2000: 30)

Notice that the above web does not include mention of traditional subject areas such as
Matematics or social studies; it should break away from traditional compartmentalized
thinking. Webbing with colleague leads to more divergent thinking.

(iii)

Select resources: As you plan, aim to provide a wealth of resources.

Including the arts, litarature, other print sources, tangible materials,
technology and community resources.

(iv)

Plan activities: Choose or create activities that address the theme,

utilize rich resourcesl and encourage students progress toward

76

learning goals. Rember to include opportunities for students to

choose their learning activities.
5. Integrated teaching method:

Integrated teaching method is a way of organizing the instructional program so

that the many disparate subjects and skills of the curriculum can be related to
one another. The conventional subjects and skills are taught and functionally
applied in the context of some selected topic, activity, project, or theme. This
teaching method makes the topic of study the integrating centre of the curriculum
for the purpose of providing unity to the childs school experience. The integrated
curriculum mode is closely similar to unit teaching. This method has a strong
kinship with the inquiry method, is highly individualized, calls for a loosely
structural learning environment, and is problem-solving in its orientation. When
the teacher decides to use the integrated curriculum method, the entire
classroom life will need to be planned in accordance with the philsophy that
undergirds this method of teaching.

The purpose of integrated teaching method:

o

To teach students to become self-reliant, independent problem-solvers

To help students to understand and appreciate the extent to which school

learning is interrelated rather than separated into a variety of discrete
subjects and skills

To stress the process of learning as opposed to specific subject matter

and skills

To capitalize on the social values of learning, students are encouraged to

work with others in cooperative learning endeavors.

The roles of the teacher

o

Setting the stage and providing the environment within which the students
can engage in learning activities in terms of their own interests, needs,
capabilities, personalities, and motivations. The environment should be
stress free and warm.

Structuring and guiding the explorations of the students but should not do
so without stifling their initiative.

77

Providing a carefully selected assortment of learning materials for the

students to handle, to use for construction, to manipulate, to experiment
with, to explore, and to puzzle over.

Be a learner along with the students.

The roles of the students

o

Involve in the learning process

Initial activities and assume responsibilty for their own learning

Be cooperative, work harmoniously with others on the learning activities

and projects

Ask any questions they choose, and consult whatever data sources

Use of instructional resources. A variety of assorted learning materails are used

o

Conventional materials : books, film, pictures, map, etc.

Other materials : electric motors, branding irons, a computer, science

equipment, carpenters tools, historical artifacts, construction kits, art
supplies, music instruments, and audiovisual material.

Anything that allows children to construct, explore, and manipulate might

be godd to use.

(Source: Jarolimek, J.J. & Foster, C.D. (1993). Teaching and learning in the
elementary school (5th Ed.). New York: Macmillan Pub. Co.)
6. Story telling:

Storytelling activities can promote interest in any area of the curriculum.

Students, teachers and guests tell the group about an event, fact or fictionas
opposed to reading it aloud to students. Because of the informal nature of
storytelling, the storyteller is able to add lib and adapt his/her story to the
students as he/she sees it fit. Storytelling develops an appreciation for and
enjoyment of literature, provides with enrichment of language, vicarious
experiences, develops students listening skills and motivates student to read.

Steps in storytelling
o

Students should know parts of the story. Most students will know this
when they start school but they may not know the terminology. The
teacher will decide whether to learn those terminologies or not.

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The origin of storytelling is an interesting introduction to storytelling

activities

Regardless of who the storyteller is, a comfortable atmosphere is

essential. If possible, clear an area so students can sit on the floor in a
circle with the storyteller.

If the teacher is the storyteller, he/she must consider the following:

Make sure that the storyteller is easily heard by all students

Ensure that all the students can see the storyteller, espcially the
face and hands

Speak loudly and clearly with expression in the voice

If the storyteller does not wish to be interrupted, warn students to

save their questions/comments until the story is completed

Make sure the storyteller has the undivided attention of every

student before beginning.

If students are going to be given the opportunity to fill the storytellers role,
they should

Be given information on the parts and sequence of the story

Given a chance to share short stories/amusing anecdotes in an

informal setting as a precursor to a more comprehensive
storytelling experience.

The teacher should consider using props such as the flannel board or
puppets to enrich the story telling experience

Students should be given the opportunity to write down their own stories
and share them with the class

The teacher should read the story many times to himself/herself before
telling it but the story should not be memorized

The storyteller should keep eye contact with the audience and speak
directly to the listeners.

7. Facilitating Skills:

A facilitator can assist students to learn by providing support in term of their study
skills and motivation. He/she can encourage communication among students,

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answer their questions, helping the students with their assignments and
dertermining their progress.
o

In term of study skills, the facilitator can give general advice to the
students on learning, on study and time management skills; plan a study
timetable for students for a particular learning event; develop individual
plans for the students.

In term of motivation, the facilitator can make the students feel at ease
when communicating with him/her; reminding students they are not
studying alone, encourage students to communicate with and support
one another; encourage students fo form study groups find information
outside the learning materials, using Web site, discussion forum, e-mail;
and reminding students of the rewards of completing the learning event.

In term of communication, the facilitator may encourage students to

answer one anothers questions especially during the discussion session
or class forum.

During questioning time, the facilitator should listen to the students; dont
treat any of their comments as superficial. He/she should answer
students questions in a reasonable amount of time and relate the content
of the learning event to the students own experiences.

In term of assignment, the facilitator may assist students with their

assignments; always give constructive comments on their assignments in
order to build students confidence.

The facilitator may record students progress, monitor their learning to

make sure that they progress at an adequate rate. If they dont progress
adequately, he/she should contact the students to find out the reason.
He/she should also adjust individual learning programme or experience
so that the students are able to progress according to their ability. Finally,
the facilitator may help students prepare for any final assessment.

8. Discussion method:

It may be teacher-led, student-led, or leaderless. The class setting may range

from normal to informal, with the teacher having a dominant to a nondominant
role. In this section, some guidelines for discussion s are first presented. Then

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specific consideration is given to whole-class discussions, panels and debates,

and small groups discussions.

81

If used properly, discussions can stimulate critical thinking and encourage

average and less able students to become engaged in the learning process. If
used incorrectly, discussions may result in individual students responding to
teacher-directed lower-order questions or may merely be restating ideas
espoused by the teacher. If used in this manner, discussions can become boring
and not stimulate student thinking.

Discussions can be used to address both cognitive and affective objectives. In

the cognitive domain, discussions can encourage students to analyze ideas and
facts from the lessons and to discover interrelationships between previously
taught content. In the affective domain, discussions encourage students to
examine their opinions, to interact with and evaluate other students ideas, and to
develop good listening skills. Whatever the objective, discussions must be wellplanned and key questions formulated prior to the lesson.

Guides lines for planning and implementing effective discussions

o

Consider the goals of the discussion

Consider the experience and development of the students

Study the issues

Orient the students to the objective of the discussion

Provide a supportive classroom environment

Provide new or more accurate information when it my be necessary

Review, summarize or weave opinions and facts into a meaningful

relationship

Use humour.

The guidelines above apply to each of the group and discussion methods :
whole-class discussion, panels and debates, and small group discussions.
(i)

Whole-class discussion: require mush skill and practice. When

conducting a whole-class discussion, the teacher must be able to
clearly focus the discussion, keep it on track by refocusing the
discussion, and encourage all participants to listen carefully to all
points of view. Teacher always direct whole-class discussions.
Before beginning a whole-class discussion, it is important to make

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sure that students have an adequate knowledge base. If not,

there wont be any discussion going on in the class.
(ii)

Panels and debates: Panels, symposiums, and debates all

involve a group of students becoming informed about a particular
topic, and then the students present this information and interact
in discussion. Panels and debates are designed to help students
understand several points of view related to a topic or issue. They
combine prepared activities and statements with the give-and-take
of discussions. They are useful in large class activities when more
informal whole-class or small group discussions would not be
feasible.

A panel is a fairly informal setting in which four to six participants

with a chairperson discuss a topic among themselves while the
rest of the class listen. Later, there is a give-and-take discussion
with the class. Each participant makes an opening statement. A
round table in an informal version of the panel. A symposium is
very similar to a panel, but it involves a more formal presentation
of information by each panel member. A debate is a formal
discussion approach consisting of set speeches by participants of
two opposing teams and a rebuttal by each participant. Panels
and debates are conducted for the benefit of the whole class
which becomes involved through question and answer sessions
upon the panels completion.

(iii)

Small-group discussion: can meet the goal of increased student

participation by allowing more students to become involved in the
discussion. Groups of four to five students are most appropriate
for small-group work. In addition to promoting the higher-level
thinking skills, small-group discussions include the development of
communication skills, leadership ability, debate, and compromise.
Students involved in small-group discussions often get off-task
easily. Careful organization can help these discussions run more
smoothly. There are at least four things teachers can do to

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effectively conduct small group discussions. First, teachers

should carefully monitor the activity by moving around the room
and checking with each group to make sure it remains focused on
the discussions objectives. Second, teachers should make sure
that students have enough background knowledge to effectively
contribute to the discussions. Thus, small-group discussions
should follow a lesson focusing on content and should build on
topics previously developed. Third, teachers should plan for
relatively short discussions. Fourth, students should be given
precise directions for the activity. At the conclusion of the smallgroup activity, each group should report its results to the class.
This can be done by a written report or having a representative
from the group give an oral report to the class.
9. Inquiry method:

Inquiry, like discovery method, allows students to become involved in the process
of discovery by enabling them to collect data and test hypotheses. As such,
these methods are inductive in nature. Teachers guide students as they discover
new meanings, practice the skills, and undergo the experiences that will shape
their learning. Generally, inquiry method is student-centred and less explicit than
other methods.

The inquiry method is guided discovery. One of the strengths of this method is
that both the lesson content and the process of investigation are taught at the
same time. The steps of inquiry essentially follow John Deweys model of
reflecting thinking. The common steps include (a) identifying and clarifying a
problem, (b) form hypotheses, (c) collect data, (d) analyze and interpret the data
to test the hypotheses, and (e) draw conclusions.

Using the process of inquiry provides opportunities for students to learn and
practice skills associated with critical thinking.

Several approaches of inquiry may be used. (a) During guided inquiry, the
teacher provides the data and the students are questioned in order to help them
inductively arrive at an answer, conclusion, generalization, or solution. (b)
Unguided or open-ended inquiry approaches have the students take more

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responsibilty for examining the data, objects or events; these investigations are
commonly done individually. Specifically, guided and unguided inquiry methods
may involve discussion and question sessions, guided or controlled discussions,
some study approaches, projects and research projects.
10. Demonstration method:

A demonstration is similar to the lecture in its direct communication of information

form teacher to students. It also involves a visual approach to examine
processes, information, and ideas. The demonstration allows for students to
observe real things and how they work. There may be pure demonstrations,
demonstrations with commentary, or participative demonstrations with students.
In many cases, a teacher demonstrates a certain action or activity prior to having
the students perform the activity individually. For many students, this teacher
demonstration provides a model of the actions and established expectations.

Demonstrations can be used to illustrate points or procedures efficiently,

stimulate interest in a particular topic, provide a model for teaching skills, and
provide a change of pace. To carry out effective demonstrations, teachers should
carefully plan the demonstration, practice the demonstration, develop outline to
guide the demonstration, make sure everyone can see the demonstration,
introduce the demonstration to focus attention, ask and encourage questions,
and plan a follow-up to the demonstration.

11. Problem solving method (Theory of Constraint):

Theory of Constraint (TOC) can be used in standalone situations, or together

they form a coherent problem-solving and change management system. Their
generic purpose is to translate intuition to a format that can be discussed
rationally, questioned without offense, and modified to more fully reflect the
understanding of the situation. They are used for the construction of common
sense solutions to problems as well as to facilitate communication, collaboration,
and consensus among those that must be involved in its resolution.

85

The context
To put any set of tools in context, they must generally support one of three
generic objectives that groups are brought together to accomplish. These three
objectives are to determine:

What to change :Situation assessment, description of "current reality," and

identification of the core problem or conflict and assumptions that sustain it
diagnosis

To what to change to : Verbalization of vision/solution and description of strategy

to attain the desired state -- prescription, decision making, and solution
development

How to make the change happen: Development of detailed plans and tactics that
will clarify what needs to happen and synchronize the efforts of the group in the
implementation of the strategy -- planning, team-building

Any time a problem is encountered, its solution usually relates to one or more of
the three purpose above.
Before I get into the specific tools and how they relate to these three purposes, I
should really describe the two overarching "meta-tools" that are at the core of the
tools -- SUFFICIENCY LOGIC and NECESSITY LOGIC.
Sufficiency logic consists of "If...,then...,because..." descriptions of why situations
exist or why we believe actions will result in particular outcomes. Linkages of
sufficiency logic are also frequently expressed as "If..., and if..., and if..., then..."
as in the case when it take three preexisting conditions (the "ifs") to result in the
outcome (the "then").
Necessity logic often takes the form of "In order to..., we must...," describing
requirements or prerequisites associated with desired outcomes. These
requirements may not be sufficient in and of themselves to result in the outcome,
but their existence is seen as necessary for it. Linkages based on necessity logic
can often be augmented with a "because..." factor as well, which is a very
powerful mechanism for surfacing beliefs or assumptions that underlie why we
feel we must have A in order to have B.

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The Thinking Processes, based on these two logical constructs, get their power
from the fact that the human mind seems to be practically "hard-wired" with an
innate understanding of when the "if-thens" or the "in-order-to, we-musts" make
sense or not, lending themselves to an ease of communication, scrutiny, and
revision. They also benefit from graphical formats and presentation, so the mind
can readily take in not only the words of the various entities, but also the spatial
relationships implied by connecting arrows.
The tools serve to communicate or verbalize the intuition of the participants in a
way that lends itself to collaboration and dialogue and results in a description of
the "common sense" of the participants.

The Tool

(i) Tool 1 -- The Evaporating Cloud

The Evaporating Cloud is a construct of necessity logic that takes the form:
B) Requirement <-----

/
/

v
A) Objective

^
\

\
C) Requirement <-----

D) Prerequisite
^
|
|
|/| -- conflict
|
|
v
D') Prerequisite

and is read:
In order to have objective A, we must have requirement B...
In order to have requirement B, we must have prerequisite D...
In order to have objective A, we must have requirement C...
In order to have requirement C, we must have prerequisite D'...
But prerequisites D and D' are in conflict...
One of the tenets of the Theory of Constraints, reflecting its roots in the application of
the techniques associated with scientific method to those "soft sciences" like
management and behavior, is that in any system that is brought together for a
purpose, there is no such thing as real conflict, but only unexamined assumptions.
The cloud allows a clear statement of the perceived dilemma and provides a route
for the surfacing and scrutiny of those assumptions.

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I've written about the Evaporating Cloud a number of times in the past in this discussion
list, but I'll repeat again that under every arrow (including the conflict arrow between D
and D') lie assumptions. Brainstorming those assumptions is a matter of reading the "in
order to, we must" statements, and then adding the word "because..." to it, soliciting
reasons why A requires B or C requires D', or why D and D' are mutually exclusive. Once
the assumptions are sufficiently spelled out, it's a matter of finding one that seems
susceptible to questioning -- a chink in the armor of the conflict.
Also known as a conflict cloud, a dilemma cloud, or a conflict resolution diagram, the
Evaporating Cloud provides a solvable verbalization of a conflicted situation where
solvable is defined as "win-win." Probably the most multi-purpose of the Thinking
Processes, the cloud is appropriate for dealing with tough personal decisions,
interpersonal conflict or negotiation (think of requirements as needs and prerequisites as
wants), and resolution of what I like to call "systemic conflicts" and by extension, a sort
of "root conflict analysis."
(ii) Tool 2 -- The Current Reality Tree (CRT)
The CRT is a sufficiency-based logic (if..., then...) tool that is used to fully describe an
existing situation. Its purpose is to understand (only to the level of detail necessary for
the group to achieve consensus) how the various issues and problems they face are
related to each other, to their policies, measurements, and practices and to the
generic/root/core conflict identified through the process I described in the discussion of
the Evaporating Cloud tool. This understanding provides the guidance for developing a
solution, as understanding why X leads to an undesirable Y provides guidance for
inserting new actions to either replace X or to cause it to result in a favorable Z instead.
The structure of a CRT is hard to draw in the text based format of email, but consists of
connected clusters of statements associated with the situation. The connections are "if...,
then..." or "if...and if...and if..., then..." cause and effect relationships. (Graphically, they
are statements connected by arrows. Note that I have included similar diagrams in the
descriptions of other tools -- FRT and NBR -- below.) These clusters are strung together
as effects become causes of other effects. The CRT usually has at it's base a variant of
a generic cloud, and higher up in the tree, most if not all of the subject matter's stake
holders' symptoms/problems/issues linked in as effects stemming from stuff the root.

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As we are discussing problem solving tools here, it should be mentioned that from a
group participation point of view, the CRT is also thought of as a communication and
clarification tool. Its construction is not really suited for a group activity. It is usually best
if it is built by one person, or a very, very small group, familiar with the subject matter on
their own, and then presented to the group for scrutiny and clarification. An alternative
approach to using it is to have the individual members of the group build pieces of a
CRT related to their area of expertise, and then use the group presentation and scrutiny
to merge the pieces into a whole. Construction of a CRT is best as an individual process,
scrutiny and clarification is most effective with group effort and input.
A well-built CRT will confirm that your suspect generic conflict (or a modification of it) is
indeed at the root of the originally identified problems and it will serve as guidance for
developing a new view of future reality (vision) to replace the current.
The combination of the core/root/generic conflict (the Evaporating Cloud) and the
confirmation of the CRT linking it to the particular range of issues facing the group
answers the first question that groups come together to address...WHAT TO CHANGE?
(iii) Tool 3 -- The Future Reality Tree (FRT)
The FRT is similar to the CRT in structure, but with new proposed actions, policies, and
behaviors injected into it in order to create a new vision of the future reality of the
system.
The power of the logical "if-then" construction is that if any one of the lower-level causes
are removed or mitigated, everything that is above it is subject to change. If you can
develop various "injections" as new causes, then you can, through restatements of the
subsequent logic, predict and direct changes to the resultant effects. The classic
example of how this sufficiency logic works is:

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A CRT:
I have
a fire
^
/|\
/ | \
/ | \
/
|
\
/
|
\
/
|
\
/
|
\
I have
I have
I have
fuel
ignition
oxygen
AN FRT:
I don't have
a fire
^
/|\
/ | \
/ | \
/
|
\
/
|
\
/
|
\
/
|
\
I have
I have
I don't have
fuel
ignition
oxygen in contact
with the fuel
If any one of the three "ifs" of the CRT are removed or modified, the "then" may be
removed from consideration as a problem. We might choose to develop a system in
which fuel and sources of ignition are isolated from one another to prevent fires. Or if the
problem is that a fire exists, we may choose to remove the oxygen by covering the fire
with water, CO2, or a blanket. These are all possible injections. (If only all the "firefighting" we do were so clear cut! But maybe it can be almost so.) Even in more complex
real-life issues, a careful analysis of assumptions, which in this kind of construction
become more "ifs" arrowed into the "then," which become more possible sources for
things to remove by the "injection" of new actions, policies, or behaviors.
If the CRT is based in a generic conflict, then the initial injection comes from the "out-ofthe-5-sided-box" solution of that conflict -- the idea that stems from addressing

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questionable assumptions. (If the CRT was developed simply from linking the various
undesirable effects (as it used to be done in the process before the discovery of the
generic conflict's existence), then the core problem at the base of the CRT might be a
single statement in the tree. The best way to deal with that result is to do a cloud on that
statement.)
The objective of the FRT is to communicate a vision of how to change the undesirable
effects found in the CRT to desirable effects. Again, like a CRT, construction is best done
by individuals or very small groups, while the most effective use of group interaction (and
that gains from experienced facilitation) is in scrutiny, clarification, and completion of the
solution. The FRT is the first step to address the second step in problem solving, figuring
outWhat To Change To
(iv) Tool 4 -- The Negative Branch Reservation (NBR)
When a proposal to solve a problem is offered by a member of a group, whether in the
form of a seemingly complete FRT or in the form of a standalone idea thrown out on the
table, there are frequently concerns or reservations raised on the part of other members
of the group. In the lingo of the Thinking Processes, a RESERVATION exists that if we
act on an injection in the Future Reality TREE, there will result a BRANCH that leads to
an undesirable, NEGATIVE result. Hence, the "Negative Branch Reservation" or NBR.
The key to "trimming the negative branch" again lies in the conversion of internalized
intuition into logical if-then steps that can be rationally discussed while avoiding the
feeling of "constructive criticism" or more blatant "pot-shots" aimed at the proposal.
The "if-thens" must link the proposed action with the suspected negative outcome. Then
we can again apply assumption searches to the arrows, especially those that are
merging arrows, not directly related to the initial proposal, in order to find a new injection
- a new arrow that will change the outcome of concern. In the following example, it is
determined that by instituting a new policy, we will be able to achieve something good for
the organization.

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We don't really
get the good stuff
we expect
^
\

We may get stuff

worse than we have
now
^
/
\
/
Desired good
The policy may
stuff happens
be misinterpreted
^
^^
|
/ |
|
/ |
|
___________/
|
|
/
|
| /
Not everyone
| /
in the organization
We put a new
understands the
policy into
rationale for the
place
policy
In this simple negative branch, it's easy to see that to complete the solution, i.e., to get
not only the desired good stuff, but to avoid the possible negative consequences of our
action we might want to replace the lack of understanding of the policy with another
action involving education and explanation of the purpose of the policy. By doing so, we
avoid the possible misinterpretation and subsequent bad stuff.
As a standalone tool, the NBR ranks right up there with the Evaporating Cloud in
everyday usefulness in basic facilitation of problem avoidance. The cloud deals with
conflicts and dilemmas and the NBR deals with doubts and concerns. They both aid
communication so that the conflict or concern can be effectively and efficiently dealt with.
In terms of group accomplishment, the NBRs brought up by group members serve to
complete the solution developed in an FRT. It also provides a route to buy-in for
participants as their contribution to the solution (in the form of actions required to trim
their NBRs) gives them a sense of ownership of (at least part of) the overall solution.
Actually, even if starting with a single proposal, the identification and solution of NBRs
could result in an FRT built on that proposal as open and unguarded discussion of
concerns builds upon it.

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(Some "system-thinking" aficionados may see similarities to FRTs and NBRs in causal
loops. Indeed, complete CRTs and FRTs for complex systems do frequently contain
loops of causality. In CRTs, these loops most often serve to perpetuate undesirable stuff.
In well-designed FRTs, loops will be consciously looked for and strengthened so that
they will contribute to getting more and more of the desired outcomes.)
The combination of the FRT and NBRs completes the answer to the group objective of
determining TO WHAT TO CHANGE TO.
(v) Tool 5 -- The Prerequisite Tree (PRT)
OK. We have a solution defined in terms of a vision and strategy that should achieve it
(the complete FRT, augmented by the results of adding injections to trim NBRs), but we
also have a whole pile of stuff blocking us from doing this part or that part of the strategy.
Indeed, for some of the things we've identified as injections in the FRT, we may have no
idea whatsoever how to make happen.
People are great at finding excuses why something can't be done. In more politically
correct language, we refer to that skill as identifying obstacles.
The Prerequisite Tree (PRT) takes advantage of people's natural propensity and ability
to point out why something can't get done. The first step in building a PRT (after
identifying the team's ambitious objective) is to collect all the obstacles that the group
can come up with. Then each individual identifies an "intermediate objective" (IO) that
would overcome or make moot the obstacle they raised. (After all, the person who
comes up with an obstacle has the most intuition about what it would take to address it.)
Once all the IOs are identified, the obstacles are used to sequence the IOs into a
network that becomes the plan to achieve the objective. Team effort is focused
appropriately, since the network points the group to start on those IOs that don't depend
on others, and only when they are done, they know they can move on to the next
because they've overcome an obstacle that was blocking them.
A PRT defines what needs to be done (necessity logic) in what order to accomplish the
ultimate ambitious objective.
This is a painless way of identifying which "bites of the elephant" we'll gnaw on first in
our attempt to consume the whole thing. As a group effort, this process benefits (as does
the solicitation of NBRs as reasons we shouldn't take a particular path of action) from the

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diverse and divergent views of the group's members. The more obstacles that are
raised, the more complete the implementation plan of HOW TO MAKE THE CHANGE
HAPPEN will be, resulting in fewer surprises along the way.
(vi) Tool 6 -- The Transition Tree (TRT)
This last tool further supports the need to describe HOW TO MAKE THE CHANGE
HAPPEN. Sometimes a plan is developed by a group for other people to use.
Sometimes getting from one IO in a PRT to another requires a finer level of detail in
terms of action and results. Including the TRT here for completeness of the list of TOC
Thinking Processes, it may be a stretch to think of it as a facilitation tool, as it's really a
communication and empowerment tool, allowing the recipient of it to follow a path of
action with clear understanding of what to expect along the way and why to expect it.
It is a simple repetitive sufficiency logic construct that puts the actions/tasks in context
with the objectives. Based on simple, "if-then" links, the Transition Tree includes the
need for action, the action, the rationale for the action (why we expect the action to
provide the desired result), that desired, expected result (or intermediate objective - IO),
and then reason for the next need in a graphical format:

Result
(IO)
^^^
/ | \
/ | \
Action Need Rationale
^^
| \
| \
Result Reason for
(IO) next need
^^^
/ | \
/ | \
Action Need Rationale
The transition tree includes all the info you need to build a detailed action plan, assess
its ability to deliver results, and includes those results to allow development of alternative
actions...a real "results-oriented" task list that encourages "empowerment" to offer new
solutions. It sure beats a simple "Do this, then do that, then..." list of tasks that we
usually get for instructions.

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Summary -- tools and context

(i) What to change . . . Situation assessment, description of "current reality,"
and identification of the core problem or conflict and assumptions that sustain
it -- diagnosis.
o

Tools: Evaporating Cloud, Generic Cloud Process, and Current Reality

Tree to link undesirable effects to root causes or conflicts that are the
most efficient/effective things to attack.

(ii) What to change to . . . Verbalization of vision/solution and description of

strategy to attain the desired state -- prescription, decision making, and
solution development.
o

Tools: Evaporating Cloud to identify an out-of-the-box starting point,

Future Reality Tree to flesh out the strategy to turn undesirable effects
into desirable outcomes, and the Negative Branch Reservation to
complete that strategy/vision by adding things needed to avoid
unintended negative consequences.

(iii) How to make the change happen . . . Development of detailed plans

and tactics that will clarify what needs to happen and synchronize the efforts
of the group in the implementation of the strategy -- planning, team-building.
o

Tools: Prerequisite Tree to turn obstacles into an implementation plan so

that ambitious outcomes can be achieved. The building of a plan as a
group, based on individual input of foreseen obstacles, allows the team to
become synchronized in its understanding of the task ahead of them and
how their parts fit in to the whole. Transition Tree to (when necessary) get
into deeper levels of detail for paths of action, relating them to expected
outcomes along the way.

In addition to this comprehensive and consistent approach to making the right

change happen, the use of clouds and NBRs as the starting point for assumption
checking, and even the quick-and-dirty building of PRTs for planning become
second nature to those that become familiar with the tools.
( Source: http://www.toceducationalforall.com)

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12. Mastery learning:

Mastery learning is an individualized instructional method that uses a structured

curriculum divided into small sets of knowledge and skills to be learned. It is
designed to make sure all students achieve the lessons objectives and to allow
each student enough time to do so. The mastery model ensures that most
students will reach mastery level because learning time is flexible and each
student receives targeted instruction, needed practice, and feedback. Mastery
learning involves traditional group-based instruction and individualized
remediation and enrichment.

Teachers diagnose the abilities of students and then prescribe appropriate

individualized instructional activities. Mastery learning, originally developed by
Bloom (1976, cited by Burden & Byrd) emphasizes (a) flexible, structured time
with the content, (b) diagnostic / prescriptive teaching , and (c) successful
completion of all objectives by all students. Appropriate instruction and time are
two key parts of mastery learning.

Teachers using mastery learning organize the instruction in a precise manner,

present information and skills according to the pattern, determine regularly how
well each student is progressing, inform the students of the progress, help
students overcome difficulties through guidance and additional instruction or
practice, and provide extra enrichment for those who master the material quickly.

Mastery learning requires extensive and careful teacher planning, organization,

and diagnostic testing. Alternative assignments and activities must be available
or be developed by the teacher to meet individual students needs.

13. Team Teaching:

Defining team teaching can be difficult. Some teachers share only physcial
space; they do not plan together, nor do their class exists ad a single unit. Other
teachers plan together and coordinate activities and curriculum, but are never
together in the same classroom at the same time. So in team teaching, the setups, the approaches, the daily schedules of those teachers can be different.

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(i) Variation 1 : Dividing the students / dividing the teaching time:

In this variation, a few elementary teams divide the room in half with a physical
partition. Each teacher has his or her own 15 students. In such cases, the team
shares the physical space but do not teach together, though issues such
discipline has to be addressed by both teachers.
This arrangement does not necessarily preclude sharing students. One teaching
team divides subjects, as well as, the room. Each member of this team teaches
certain subjects to all the students, but 15 at a time. Each teaches her strong
subjects, for example, Aini teachers Mathematics, while her partner teaches
handwriting.
Some teams divide the teaching time instead of partitioning the room. For
example, teacher A teachers from 7.45 am to 8.15 am and her partner from 8.15
am 8.45 am. Each is in charge of different major curricular area each week,
and whoever is in charge of the current science or social studies unit will teach
from 8.45 am 9.15 am. Structure such as these alleviated the need for team
members to spend a great deal of time planning together.
(ii) Whole group/small groups/centers
In this variation, the teams use a more eclectic approach than simply divide the
room or the teaching in half. Instead they divide the day into different
teaching/learning situations. The day may begin with one teacher teaching a
whole group lesson. Whole-group work usually involved all of the students and
both teachers working on the same thing at the same time. In some cases, one
teacher teaches while the other uses a different method to reinforce the same
material. Others teach simultaneously, playing off each other in front of the
whole group, then breaking the class into small groups.
Small-group work is often followed by students going to various centres
throughout the room. The centres are often staffed by parent helpers as well as
teachers.

97

This kind of flexible approach allows the teachers to teach all subject areas in the
curriculum, but requires more planning time on the part of the teams.
(iii) Team-taught multilevel classrooms
In this variation, classes of two or three grade levels are put in one self-contained
classroom.

For example, Teacher A and Teacher B teach a combined year one

and year two students. They make no speciall allowances for the two age
groups. All their small groups are heterogeneous, and the group do not
necessarily remain the same throughout the year. Language arts is taught using
centres, four groups rotating between seat work, writing workshop, literature
study, and word study in roughly 20 minutes intervals. For other subjects, such
as Mathematics, the whole group work together.
(iv) Teams for special-need students
In this variation, a specialist divides his or her day among several classrooms,
teams with teachers to help students with special needs, such as English as a
Second Language students and remedial readers. In these cases, the teachers
feel that each of them grows from the team experience. The special education
teacher (especially in the inclusive education setting) gains a better knowledge
of the subject matter, and the regular classroom teacher learns how to slow down
and to be more thorough in covering material.

98

CHAPTER 8 : CONCEPTS AND PROCESS OF REFLECTION

Overview
In this Chapter, we shall cover,

Concept and process of reflection

Reflect using various types of tools

Key terms

Reflection

Tools in reflection

Further Reading
Boud, D., Keogh, R. and Walker, D. (1985). The reflective process in context. London:
Kogen Page.
Boud, D., Cohen, R. and Walker, D. (eds,1993). Using experience for learning. Open
University Press.
Cooper, J. (1998). Those who can, teach. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Kottler,J.,Zehm,S. (2000). On being a teacher. London: Corwin Press,Inc.
Schon, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner. New York: Basic Books.
Wiseman, D., Knight,S.,Cooner, D. (2002). Becoming a teacher in a field-based setting.

Stamford: Wadsworth
Suggested Input
1.

Reflection means the process of thinking about your experiences and their
implications on you. Nowadays, we are often so busy experiencing things, or
getting ready to experience them, but we fail to reflect on what we have done
in a manner that will ensure that we get the most from the experience. For
example, many student teachers make sloppy decisions about becoming
teachers. Have they ever asked a series of questions such as Why teach?
and What is a school?

99

2.

It is utmost important that a teacher awares of the importance of reflection in

self- management as a professional teacher. A teacher who reflects always
evaluates the outcome of his planning and strategy in teaching and learning.
He tries to identify his strong and week points. He always cultivates positive
attitudes towards enhancing students performance. The habit of reflection
helps him to grow and develop as an effective, professional teacher.

3.

It is important to remember that reflection is a dynamic process. It is not

about being passive, staying where you are and looking back, ( although time
to be still may be an important part of it) but an active engagement with
knowledge and experience. So, by reflecting, you are able to construct new
and deeper understanding and to articulate knowledge in a more meaningful
way.

4.

The process of reflection will often mean that theoretical learning is

challenged by reality of experience, where such things are diversity, value,
resources constraints and conflicts pose questions and dilemmas. Reflection
may not always give you easy answers, but will help you take those tensions
seriously. This is important for professional practitioners as it enables them to
begin to make sense of practice experience without ignoring the fact that
there are always, beneath the practice, values, assumptions, beliefs and
personal perspectives that influence both the practice itself and the way that
practice is experienced.

5.

One of the most commonly quoted models for understanding the process of
reflection is a model developed by Boud, Keogh and Walker (1985). This
model highlights that experience in learning combine behaviour, ideas and
feelings and all of these aspects need to be examined in the process of
reflection.

100

Experience

Reflection

Outcome

Figure 1: The Process of Reflection

6.

The process has three stages:

returning to experience- a detailed recounting or recollection of the

events

attending to the feelings, both positive and negative, that have been
prompted by the experience

re-evaluating that experience in the light of these stages and the

learners intent, and self knowledge, bringing new knowledge that has
been gained through the process.

7.

There are some possible barriers to reflections:

assumptions about what is/ is not possible

assumptions about how to learn

confidence/ self-confidence

previous (negative) experiences

expectations of others- expectation of self

inadequate preparation

environment

lack of space/ time

tiredness

unclear/ ambivalent intent- do you really want to do this?

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8.

Developing the habits of inquiry and reflection should begin in the teacher
education program. Experiences with schools, teachers, and students will
give the student teacher many opportunities to reflect on what has happened.
The use of journal writing, logs, diaries, reflection grides , simulations,
microteaching, and videotaping can help student teacher examines
teaching, learning, and the contexts in which they occur.

9.

For instance, the use of a learning log can be a valuable tool. Different
courses may provide different formats for learning logs, but the type of
questions you can ask are:

EVENT/ACTIVITY- e.g. what happened?, what was the sequence

of events? What role did I play/, what tasks did I perform?

REFLECTION/ANALYSIS what have I learned from this

experience/activity?, what issues or questions dis it raise for me?,
what positive and negative feeling did it evoke?

UNDERPINNING KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING- what

knowledge/theory helps me to understand this event/activity?, what
source materials are useful to this?

ISSUES FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING- what

else do I need to know to increase my understanding , how can my
knowledge / practice be improved?, are there any unresolved
issues?

102

Chapter 9 : Test, Measurement and Evaluation

Overview :
In this chapter, we shall cover

Basic concepts of test, measurement and evaluation

Purposes of testing and evaluation in education

Characteristics of testing and evaluation

Different types of tests

Test Blueprint

Constructing subjective, objective items and item bank

Awarding marks

Key Terms:

Test

Measurement

Evaluation

Validity

Content validity

Construct validity

Criterion validity

Reliability

Usability

Objectivity

Administration

Assessment
o

Formative assessment

Summative assessment

103

Test
o

Achievement tests

Pencil-and-paper tests

Speed and edurance tests

-

cardio-vascular

muscular

Measurement
o

Norm-referenced measurement

Criterion-referenced measurement

Test blueprint

Constructing subjective and objective test

Awarding marks: Hoslistic and analytic approach

Further Reading
Bloom,B.S. & Madaus,G.J. & Hasting. 1981. J.T. Evaluation to improve learning. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Gronlund, N.E. & Linn, L.R. (1995). Measurement and Assessment in Teaching (7th.
ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hopkins,C.D. & Antes, R.L. 1990. Classroom Measurement and Evaluation. Itacas:
Peacock Publishers.Inc.
Mehrens,W.A. & Lehmann, I.J. 1984. Measurement and Evaluation in Education and
Psychology. Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart & Winsto,Inc.
Woolfolk, A.E. (2000). Educational Psychology (7th. ed.) New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
http://www.edtech.vt.edu/edtech/id/assess/blueprint.html

104

Suggested Input:
1. Definitions of test, measurement and evaluation
1.1 Test
An instrument or systematic procedure for measuring a sample of behaviour. It is a set
of questions to be answered.
1.2 Measurement
The process of obtaining a numerical description of the degree to which an individual
possesses a particular characteristic. Using observation, rating scales, or any other
device that allows us to obtain information in a quantitative form . It is assigning of
numbers to the test results according to a specific rule.
1.3 Evaluation

The systematic process of collecting, analysing, and interpreting information

to determine the extent to which pupils are achieving instructional
objectives

The process of delineating, obtaining and providing useful information for judging
decision alternatives.

1.4 Purposes of testing and evaluation

(i) Instructional Decisions
The first step in both teaching and evaluation is that of determining the learning
outcomes to be expected from the classroom instruction. Only by identifying instructional
objectives and stating them clearly in intended learning outcomes can a teacher
provides direction to the teaching process and set the stage for ready evaluation of
student learning

105

Evaluating students knowledge and skill at the beginning of instruction enables us to

answer such questions. Information is useful in planning remedial work for students who
lack the prerequisite skills, in revising our list of instructional objectives and in modifying
our instructional plans to fit into the needs of the learners.
A means of monitoring learning progress and diagnosing learning difficulties. It provides
feedback corrective procedure that aids in continuously adapting instruction to group
and individual needs
Information from evaluation can be used to improve student learning by (1) clarifying the
nature of the intended learning outcomes; (2) providing short term goals to work
towards;(3) providing feedback concerning learning progress;(4) providing information
for overcoming learning difficulties and for selecting future learning experiences.
It helps increasing the motivation of the students to study and this facilitates learning.
(ii) Guidance Decisions
Students need to be guided in their vocational choice, in their educational program and
in their personal problems. Students should have accurate self-concepts in order to
make sound decisions. Tests on aptitude and achievement, and interest and personality
inventories provide students with data about significant characteristics and help them
develop realistic self concepts. The classroom teacher can provide information
concerning his mastery of subject matter.
(iii) Administrative Decisions
Selection, classification and placement decisions
Selection of students into a particular program or treatment. In classification, one
decides the type of program to enroll while in placement, one decides the level of
treatment such as no-credit English , the regular program or the honors program.
Administrator depends on the teacher to provide the data and to make decisions
selection, classification and placement of students into programs.

106

(iv) Research Decisions

Research decisions cut across the three preceding types of decisions. The above
decisions may all be based on research. Research decisions are being made whenever
information is gathered as a prelude to decision-making. Often research is not directed
towards the making of one specific decision but is intended instead to enlighten a whole
range of possible future decisions.

2. Characteristics of Test
2.1 Validity
a. Definition of validity: it refers to the appropriateness of the interpretations made from
test scores and other evaluation results, with regard to a particular use.
The extent to which certain inferences can be made from test scores or other
measurement.
One always questions Does the test measure what it purports to measure?
b. Nature of validity
o

Refers to the appropriteness of the intepretation of the results of a test or

evaluation instrument for a given group of individuals, not to the instrument
itself.

A matter of degree. It is best considered in terms of categories that specify

degree, such as high validity, moderate validity and low validity

Specific to some particular use or interpretation. No test is valid for all

purposes. For example, the results of an arithmetic test may have a high
degree of validity for indicating computational skill, a low degree of validity
for indicating arithmetical reasoning, a moderate degree of validity for
predicting success in art or music.

Approaches to test validation

(i) Content Validity:
A process of determining the extent to which a set of test tasks provides a relevant and
representative sample of the domain of tasks about which interpretation of test scores

107

are made
In a classroom testing, the domains of achievement tasks are determined by the
instruction, and test development involves (1) clearly specifying the domain of
instructionally relevant tasks to be measured and (2) constructing or selecting a
representative set of test tasks
To obtain a valid measure of learning outcomes, we proceed from the instruction ( what
has been taught) to the achievement domain (what is to be measured) and finally to the
test itself (a representative sample of relevant tasks)
Content validity takes place during test development. It is a matter of preparing detailed
test specifications and then constructing a test that meets these specifications.
(ii) Construct Validity
defined as the process of determining the extent to which test performance can be
interpreted in terms of one or more psychological constructs.
It is the degree to which one can infer certain constructs in a psychological theory from
the test scores. Construct validity is important for tests purportedly measuring such
characteristics(constructs) as intelligence, motivation, assertiveness etc.
If one wishes to construct a paper- pencil-test to measure creativity. Once constructed,
the test would be considered to have construct validity to the degree that the test scores
are related to the judgments made from observing behaviour identified by the
psychological theory as creative.
(iii) Criterion Validity
o

the process of determining the extent to which test performance is related to

some other valued measure of performance.

Pertains to the empirical technique of studying the relationship between the test
scores or other measures and some independent external measures (criteria)

In studying criterion validity, the conceptual and operational aspects of the

criterion must be examined closely. Example, if we wish to determine the degree
to which scores on a certain aptitude test predict success in school. Success in
school is then the criterion. Educators have used grade point average as the
operational definition of the school success. If the test score did not correlate
well with the ratings, we would not know for sure whether the test did not predict
success.

108

It is important to have a good measure of the criterion. This measure must be

relevant, reliable and free from bias.

Factors Influencing Validity

Factors in the test itself:
o

unclear directions on how the students respond to the items

reading vocabulary and sentence structure too difficult for the students taking the
test will result in the test measuring reading comprehension and aspects of
intelligence, which will distort the meaning of the test results

inappropriate level of difficulty of the test items

poorly constructed test items

ambiquity in statements in the test items contribute to misinterpretation and

confusion

test items inappropriate for the outcomes being measured

inadequate time limits

test too short

improper arrangement of items

identifiable pattern of answers

Factors in administration and scoring

o

insufficient time to complete the test

unfair aid to individual students who ask for help

cheating during examination

unreliable scoring of essay answers tend to lower validity

failure to give standard direction and time limit

errors in scoring

Factors in pupils response

o

invalid test interpretations are caused by personal factors influencing the

students response to the test situation

students emotional disturbances that interfere with test performance

109

test anxiety

a consistent tendency to follow a certain pattern in responding to test items

(response set)

2.2 Reliability
Definition:
o

the consistency of measurement- that is how consistent test scores or other

evaluation results are from one measurement to another.
Nature of reliability

reliability refers to the results obtained with an evaluation instrument and not to
the instrument itself. It is appropriate to speak of the reliability of the test scores
or the measurement than of the test or the instrument

an estimate of reliability always refers to a particular consistency. Test scores are

reliable over different periods of time, over different sample of questions, over
different raters etc.

reliability is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for validity. A test that
produces totally inconsistent results cannot possibly valid information about the
performance being measured. On the other hand, highly consistent test results
may be measuring the wrong thing or may be used in inappropriate ways.

Reliability is primarily statistical. The test must be administer, one or more times,
to an appropriate group of persons and the consistency of the results determined

Methods of estimating reliability:

o

test-retest

equivalent forms method

split half method

Kuder-Richardson method

110

Factors influencing reliability

o

length of test. The longer the test the higher the reliability. This id because a
longer test will provide a more adequate sample of the behaviour being
measured, and the scores are apt to be less distorted by chance factors such as
guessing. A longer test tends to lessen the influence of chance factors such as
guessing. In constructing tests, it is important to keep in mind the influence of
test length. If short tests are necessary because of time limit or students age,
then strive for more frequent testing

Spread of scores. The larger the spread of scores, the higher the estimate of
reliability will be.

Difficulty of test. Norm referenced tests that are too easy or too difficult for the
group members taking it will tend to produce scores of low reliability. This is
because both easy and difficult tests result in a restricted spread of scores. For
easy test, the scores are close together at the top end of the scale. For difficult
test, the scores are grouped together at the bottom end of the scale. For both,
the differences among individuals are small and tend to be unreliable. Classroom
tests designed to measure differences among students should be constructed
that the average score is 50% correct and that the scores range from near zero
to near perfect.

Objectivity of test refers to the degree to which equally competent scores obtain
the same results. Test items that are objective type and the resulting scores are
not influenced by the scorers judgement or opinion. For classroom tests
constructed by teachers, however, objectivity plays an important role. In essay
testing, it depends on the scorer and inconsistent scorer will affect the reliability
of the measures.

2.3 Usability
o

Ease of administration. Clear and simple directions, timing of test must be

considered.

Time required for administration. If we want reliable measures in the areas

covered, we need to increase testing time as reliability is directly related to the
test length.

Ease of interpretation. The success or failure of a testing program is determined

by the use made of the test results. If they are interpreted correctly and applied

111

effectively, they will contribute to more intelligent educational decisions. On the

other hand, if the test results are misinterpreted, they will be of little value and
may be harmful to some individual or group.
Cost of testing.

3. Portfolio Assessment
3.1

Definition:
A container of documents that provide evidence of someones knowledge, skills,

and/or dispositions
A purposeful collection of student work describing the student efforts, progress

or achievement in a given areas. This collection must include student

participation in selection of portfolio content, the guidelines for selection, the
criteria for judging merit, and evidence of student self reflection
A means for collecting students effort, progress and achievements in one or

more areas
3.2 Portfolio Assessment:
o

A multi-dimensional system which gives a complete picture on the ability and

development of the students.

It is a multi-dimensional process which enables the collection of evidences to

explain the students development, effort and progress in a period of time. The
collection should contain evidences on the students active participation in the
process of completing th portfolio.

3.3 Purposes of Portfolio Assessment

o

It helps document learning, growth and development over time

It promotes self-analysis and critical reflection in ways that help unpack the
complexities of teaching

It includes evidence related to the themes of learning, teaching, curriculum and

content

It include a baseline of information on student knowledge prior to instruction,

documentation of learning gains and reflections

112

3.4 Characteristics of Portfolio Assessment

o

it is a collection of students work

it is created by a process of selection from the whole body of students work

it includes students self-reflection on their learning

it entails the evaluation of students work by both teachers and students

it communicates something about students, their learning and the context in

which students have worked.

3.5 Key ways to assess with portfolios

o

Have the student build a collection of a variety of types of writing written for
vatious purposes and provide time for student to critique them

Give the student regular opportunities to keep track for the collection and its
relationships to texts read in a comprehensive log

Help the student learn to organize the collection in categories and

subcategories that are meaningful and interesting to him or her

Emphasizes to the student that the primary purpose of the portfolio is to use in
becoming a self assessor who analyses and is aware of his or her development

Assess both product and process to identify student strengths and needs

Look at different dimensions in assessing portfolios: volume, student attitude

and interests and individualistic signs of progress

Developed and perfect ones portfolio assessment abilities by identifying and

understanding an increasingly meaningful set of indicators that show in
portfolio progress, talent and student instructional needs.

4.

Assessment:

Assessment is a general term that includes the full range of procedures used to gain
information about student learning (observations, ratings of performances or projects,
paper-and-pencil tests);
4.1 Formative assessment

113

upgraded testing used before or during instruction to monitor learning progress, to

aid in planning and diagnosis (to help identify areas that need work);

o its purpose is to provide continuous feedback to both the student and teacher
concerning learning successes and failures;
o feedback to students provides reinforcement of successful learning and identifies
the specific learning errors that are in need of correction;
o feedback to the teacher provides information for modifying instruction and for
prescribing group and individual work;
o uses specially prepared tests for each segment of instruction ) e.g. unit, chapter);
o often students are given a formative test prior to instruction, a pretest; this helps
teachers determine what students already know;
o sometimes a test is given to see what areas of weakness remain when instruction
has been partially completed (a diagnostic test);
o tests and other types of assessment used for formative assessment are most
frequently teacher-made, but customized tests made available by publishers of
textbooks and other instructional materials also can serve this function;
o observational techniques are also useful in monitoring student progress and
identifying learning errors.
4.2 Summative assessment
o comes at the end of a course (or unit) of instruction;
o

designed to determine the extent to which the instructional goals have been
achieved and is used primarily for assigning course grades or for certifying
student mastery of intended learning outcomes;

techniques used include teacher-made achievement tests, ratings on various

types of performance (e.g. laboratory, oral report), and assessments of products
(e.g. drawings, research reports);

its main purpose id grading or the certification of student achievement, but it also
provides information for judging the appropriateness of the course objectives and
the effectiveness of the instruction.

114

5. Test
Test is a particular type of assessment that typically consists fo a set of questions
administered during a fixed period of time under reasonably comparable conditions
for all students;
(i) Achievement tests
o

standardized tests measuring how much a student has learned in specific

content areas such as reading, comprehension, number operations, science,
mathematics, and logical reasoning;

Gronlund (1982) lists six basic principles of achievement testing:

- achievement tests should measure clearly defined learning objectives that are
in harmony with instructional objectives;
- achievement tests should measure a representative sample of the learning
tasks included in the instruction;
- achievement tests should include the types of test items that are most
appropriate for measuring the desired learning outcomes;
- achievement tests should fit the particular uses that will be made of the results;
- achievement tests should be as reliable as possible and should be interpreted
with caution;
- achievement tests should improve learning.

(ii) Pencil-and-paper tests

o

students are presented with questions to answer, topics to address, or

problems to solve, and they must write their responses on paper;

several issues should be addressed:

are we tying to assess lower-level or higher-level skills?

Are recognition tasks or recall tasks more appropriate?

Should students have access to reference materials?

115

6. Measurement:
Measurement is evaluation put in quantitative terms the description of an event or
characteristic in numbers; measurement tells how much, how often, or how well by
providing scores, ranks or ratings.
(i) Norm-referenced measurement

the other people who have taken the test provide the norms ( the typical levels of
performance for a particular group) for determining the meaning of a given
individuals score;

by comparing the individuals raw score (the actual number correct) to the norm,
we can determine if the score is above, below, or around the average for that
group;

the test items tend to cover many different abilities rather than assess a limited
number of specific objectives;

norm-referenced tests are especially useful when you are

measuring general ability in certain areas, such as English, algebra, etc;

assessing the range of abilities in a large group;

selecting top candidates where only a few openings are available;

norm-referenced tests has its limitations; the results do not tell you whether
students are ready to move on to more advanced material;

norm-referenced tests are also not particularly appropriate for measuring

affective and psychomotor objectives, e.g. attitudes and values are personal,
therefore, comparisons among individuals are not really appropriate; to
measure psychomotor learning, a clear description of standards id necessary to
judge individuals;

norm-referenced tests tend to encourage competition and comparisons of

scores.

116

(ii) Criterion-referenced measurement

When test scores are compared not to those of others but to a given criterion or
standard of performance;
o

criterion-referenced tests may work best when you are measuring mastery of
basic skills;

determining if students have pre-requisites to start a new unit;

assessing affective and psychomotor objectives;

grouping students for instruction

7. Test Blueprint
A detailed, written plan for a test that typically includes descriptions of the test's purpose
and target audience; the content or performance areas it will cover; the types of items
and number to be written for each content or performance area, their scoring, and other
characteristics; the test administration method; and desired psychometric characteristics
of the items and the test. It is also called test plans.

Steps in formulating test blueprint

The test blueprint should list your goals and objectives in the left-hand columns, and the
outcome behaviors you are using across the top row. In the example below, goal one
and its two objectives represent "knowledge" behaviors or outcomes. The task, then, is
to identify assessment items that help us measure those outcomes. We have selected
supplied response, matching, and true/false questions. Each of these item types is
useful for measuring lower-order student "knowledge." Since goal one seeks lower-order
outcomes, we weight these questions lower than goals three through four which
represent higher-order outcomes. Continuing with the example, goal four represents an
"evaluation" behavior or outcome. We select the interpretive exercise as an appropriate
assessment type to measure these higher-order student abilities.

117

Example of a test blueprint:

Goals

Goal 1:
The
students
will
know...
Goal 2:
The
students
will
use...
Goal 3:
The
students
will
create...
Goal 4:
The
students
will
rate...

Objectives

Objective
1-1:
Name...
Objective
1-2: List...
Objective
2-1:
Translate...
Objective
2-2:
Practice...
Objective
3-1:
Produce...

Items
Selected
to
Assess
Knowledge
Objectives
supplied
response

Items
Selected
to
Assess
Comprehensio
n
Objectives

Items
Selected
to
Assess
Application

Items
Selected
to
Assess
Analysis
Objectives

Items
Selected
to
Assess
Synthesis
Objectives

Items
Selected
to
Assess
Evaluation
Objectives

Objectives

matching,
true/false

1
supplied
response

multiple
choice

2
performanc
e
assessment

Objective
4-1:
Assess...
Objective
4-2:
Choose...

interpretive
exercise

interpretive
exercise

(Source: http://www.edtech.vt.edu/edtech/id/assess/blueprint.html)
8. Constructing subjective, objective items and item bank
8.1 Guidelines for Constructing Subjective Tests

Make questions precise. In other words, say "Explain the differences between
subjective and objective tests" as opposed to "Discuss subjective and objective
testing".

Preferably ask questions requiring reasoning or knowledge application as

opposed to those requiring factual recall. Ask,"What was the practical effect of
the decision to make this a mutual rather than a stock company?" not, "Name
three characteristics of a mutual as contrasted with a stock company."

Weighting

Indicate clearly how fully you want a question answered and its grade value in
relation to the overall test. For example, the following notation might follow a
question, "50 words or less" "10 points."

118

Check questions carefully for clear wording. Do not say, "How would you
determine that your car's engine failure is due to a faulty ignition?" if you really
mean, "What is the recommended way to determine...etc?" The two are not
necessarily the same!

Break questions requiring long answers into several so that each can be
answered briefly.

Before grading papers, write out accurate answers, expressing what an answer
must include in order to gain maximum credit.

Grade one question on each paper rather than the entire paper at once. It is also
advisable that after you have graded all the papers on one question, you look
back at the first three or four you graded. You may end up changing these grades
after comparison.

8.2 Guidelines for Constructing Objective Tests

There are many types of objective tests including multiple-choice and true or false.
Multiple-choice tests tend to be the more popular and will be discussed here.
Content
(i) Do ask questions that require more than knowledge of facts. For example, a question
might require selection of the best answer when all of the options contain elements of
correctness. Such questions tend to be more difficult and discriminating than questions
that merely ask for a fact. Justifying the "bestness" of the keyed option may be as
challenging to the instructor as the item was to the students, but, after all, isn't
challenging students and responding to their challenges a big part of what being a
teacher is all about?
(ii) Don't offer superfluous information as an introduction to a question, for example,
"The presence and association of the male seems to have profound effects on female
physiology in domestic animals. Research has shown that in cattle presence of a bull
has the following effect:" This approach probably represents an unconscious effort to
continue teaching while testing and is not likely to be appreciated by the students, who
would prefer direct questions and less to read. The stem just quoted could be
condensed to "Research has shown that the presence of a bull has which of the
following effects on cows?" (17 words versus 30).

119

Structure
(iii) Don't ask a question that begins, "Which of the following is true [or false]?" followed
by a collection of unrelated options. Each test question should focus on some specific
aspect of the course. Therefore, it's OK to use items that begin, "Which of the following
is true [or false] concerning X?" followed by options all pertaining to X. However, this
construction should be used sparingly if there is a tendency to resort to trivial reasons for
falseness or an opposite tendency to offer options that are too obviously true. A few truefalse questions (in among the multiple-choice questions) may forestall these problems.
The options would be: "1) True 2) False".
(iv) Don't use items like the following"
What is (are) the capital(s) of Bolivia?
A. La Paz
1) A only
2) B only
3) C only
(Research on this item type has consistently shown it to be easier and less
discriminating than items with distinct options. In the example above, one only needs to
remember that Bolivia has two capitals to be assured of answering correctly. This
problem can be alleviated by offering all possible combinations of the three basic
options, namely:
1) A only, 2) B only, 3) C only, 4) A and B, 5) A and
C, 6) B and C, 7) A, B, and C, 8) None of the above.
However, due to its complexity, initial use of this adaptation should be limited. )
Options
(v) Do ask questions with varying numbers of options. There is no psychometric
advantage to having a uniform number, especially if doing so results in options that are
so implausible that no one or almost no one marks them. In fact, some valid and
important questions demand only two or three options, e.g., "If drug X is administered,
body temperature will probably: 1) increase, 2) stay about the same, 3) decrease."
(vi) Don't put negative options following a negative stem. Empirically (or statistically)
such items may appear to perform adequately, but this is probably only because brighter
students who naturally tend to get higher scores are also better able to cope with the
logical complexity of a double negative.

120

(vii) Don't use "all of the above." Recognition of one wrong option eliminates "all of the
above," and recognition of two right options identifies it as the answer, even if the other
options are completely unknown to the student. Probably some instructors use items
with "all of the above" as yet another way of extending their teaching into the test (see 2
above). It just seems so good to have the students affirm, say, all of the major causes of
some phenomenon. With this approach, "all of the above" is the answer to almost every
item containing it, and the students soon figure this out.
(viii) Do ask questions with "none of the above" as the final option, especially if the
answer requires computation. Its use makes the question harder and more
discriminating, because the uncertain student cannot focus on a set of options that must
contain the answer. Of course, "none of the above" cannot be used if the question
requires selection of the best answer and should not be used following a negative stem.
Also, it is important that "none of the above" should be the answer to a reasonable
proportion of the questions containing it.
(ix) Don't include superfluous information in the options. The reasons given for 8 above
apply. In addition, as another manifestation of the desire to teach while testing, the
additional information is likely to appear on the correct answer: "1) W, 2) X, 3) Y,
because ...., 4) Z." Students are very sensitive to this tendency and take advantage of it.
(x) Don't use specific determiners in distractors. Sometimes in a desperate effort to
produce another, often unneeded, distractor (see 5 above), a statement is made
incorrect by the inclusion of words like all or never, e.g., "All humans have 46
chromosomes." Students learn to classify such statements as distractors when
otherwise ignorant.
(xi) Don't repeat wording from the stem in the correct option. Again, an ignorant student
will take advantage of this practice.
Errors To Avoid
Most violations of the recommendations given thus far should not be classified as
outright errors, but, instead, perhaps, as lapses of judgment. And, as almost all rules
have exceptions, there are probably circumstances where some of 1-11 above would not
hold. However, there are three not-too-common item-writing/test-preparation errors that
represent nothing less than negligence. They are now mentioned to encourage careful
preparation and proofreading of tests:

121

Typos. These are more likely to appear in distractors than in the stem and the correct
answer, which get more scrutiny from the test preparer. Students easily become aware
of this tendency if it is present.
Grammatical inconsistency between stem and options. Almost always, the stem and the
correct answer are grammatically consistent, but distractors, often produced as
afterthoughts, may not mesh properly with the stem. Again, students quickly learn to take
advantage of this foible.
Overlapping distractors. For example: "Due to budget cutbacks, the university library
now subscribes to fewer than (?) periodicals. 1) 25,000 2) 20,000 3) 15,000 4) 10,000"
(Perhaps surprisingly, not all students "catch on" to items like this, but many do. Worse
yet, the instructor might indicate option 2 as the correct answer. )
Finally, we consider an item-writing foible reported by Smith (1982). What option would
you select among the following (stem omitted)?
1) Abraham Lincoln 3) Stephen A. Douglas
2) Robert E. Lee
The testwise but ignorant student will select Lincoln because it represents the
intersection of two categories of prominent nineteenth century people, namely,
presidents and men associated with the Civil War. Try this one:
1) before breakfast 3) on a full stomach
2) with meals
Three options have to do with eating, and two with the time of day. Only one relates to
both. Unfortunately, some item writers consciously or unconsciously construct items of
this type with the intersection invariably the correct answer.
(Source: Title: More Multiple-Choice Item Writing Do's and Don'ts. ERIC/AE Digest.)

122

Examples:
Rules for Writing Multiple Choice Items
Complete
thought in
stem

1. The stem should present a single, complete problem. The stem

should be paraphrased as a
unless a phrase
makes for easier reading by avoiding awkward sentence structure.
Don't make the student read the response options to figure out what
the question was asking.
Poor: Bats
A.
B.
C.
D.

are harmful to human beings.

use radar.
are primarily nocturnal animals.
have extra sensitive eyesight.

Better: Why are bats able to avoid hitting objects while flying at
night?
State in the
positive

2. Items should be
positively whenever
possible. If a negative is used, call attention to it by using capital
letters, underline, or bold type. (Note: capital letters create an easier
visual-discrimination task than bold, italics, or underline.)
Which of the following does NOT belong?
Which of these steps is INCORRECT?

Highlight
key words

3.

key words.
Which of the following BEST summarizes the passage?
Describe TWO similarities between the characters.

Put stuff in
the stem

4. Include as much of the item as possible in the stem. But

extraneous information or detail
that is not necessary for answering the item or for setting up the
situation -- unless the skill being measured is the ability to
discriminate between important and extraneous information.
o Repetitive phrases
o

Units of measurement

5. Do not provide clues. State the item stem and response options to
avoid grammatical clues.
Poor:
Better:

The caravan headed in an

Which direction did the caravan travel?

direction.

123

9. Awarding marks
There are two types of rubrics: holistic and analytic (see Figure 1). A holistic rubric
requires the teacher to score the overall process or product as a whole, without judging
the component parts separately (Nitko, 2001). In contrast, with an analytic rubric, the
teacher scores separate, individual parts of the product or performance first, then sums
the individual scores to obtain a total score (Moskal, 2000; Nitko, 2001).
Figure 1:
Types of scoring instruments for performance assessments

Holistic rubrics are customarily utilized when errors in some part of the process can be
tolerated provided the overall quality is high (Chase, 1999). Nitko (2001) further states
that use of holistic rubrics is probably more appropriate when performance tasks require
students to create some sort of response and where there is no definitive correct
answer. The focus of a score reported using a holistic rubric is on the overall quality,
proficiency, or understanding of the specific content and skills-it involves assessment on
a unidimensional level (Mertler, 2001). Use of holistic rubrics can result in a somewhat
quicker scoring process than use of analytic rubrics (Nitko, 2001). This is basically due

124

to the fact that the teacher is required to read through or otherwise examine the student
product or performance only once, in order to get an "overall" sense of what the student
was able to accomplish (Mertler, 2001). Since assessment of the overall performance is
the key, holistic rubrics are also typically, though not exclusively, used when the purpose
of the performance assessment is summative in nature. At most, only limited feedback is
provided to the student as a result of scoring performance tasks in this manner. A
template for holistic scoring rubrics is presented in Table 1.

Table 1:
Template for Holistic Rubrics
Score Description
5

Demonstrates complete understanding of the problem. All

requirements of task are included in response.

Demonstrates considerable understanding of the problem. All

requirements of task are included.

Demonstrates partial understanding of the problem. Most

requirements of task are included.

Demonstrates little understanding of the problem. Many

requirements of task are missing.

Demonstrates no understanding of the problem.

No response/task not attempted.

Analytic rubrics are usually preferred when a fairly focused type of response is required
(Nitko, 2001); that is, for performance tasks in which there may be one or two acceptable
responses and creativity is not an essential feature of the students' responses.
Furthermore, analytic rubrics result initially in several scores, followed by a summed total
score-their use represents assessment on a multidimensional level (Mertler, 2001). As
previously mentioned, the use of analytic rubrics can cause the scoring process to be
substantially slower, mainly because assessing several different skills or characteristics
individually requires a teacher to examine the product several times. Both their
construction and use can be quite time-consuming. A general rule of thumb is that an
individual's work should be examined a separate time for each of the specific
performance tasks or scoring criteria (Mertler, 2001). However, the advantage to the use
of analytic rubrics is quite substantial. The degree of feedback offered to students-and to
teachers-is significant. Students receive specific feedback on their performance with

125

respect to each of the individual scoring criteria-something that does not happen when
using holistic rubrics (Nitko, 2001). It is possible to then create a "profile" of specific
student strengths and weaknesses (Mertler, 2001). A template for analytic scoring
rubrics is presented in Table 2.
Table 2:
Template for analytic rubrics

Beginning
1

Developing
2

Accomplished
3

Exemplary
4

Criteria
#1

Description
reflecting
beginning
level of
performance

Description
reflecting
movement
toward
mastery
level of
performance

Description
reflecting
achievement of
mastery level of
performance

Description
reflecting
highest level
of
performance

Criteria
#2

Description
reflecting
beginning
level of
performance

Description
reflecting
movement
toward
mastery
level of
performance

Description
reflecting
achievement of
mastery level of
performance

Description
reflecting
highest level
of
performance

Criteria
#3

Description
reflecting
beginning
level of
performance

Description
reflecting
movement
toward
mastery
level of
performance

Description
reflecting
achievement of
mastery level of
performance

Description
reflecting
highest level
of
performance

Criteria
#4

Description
reflecting
beginning
level of
performance

Description
reflecting
movement
toward
mastery
level of
performance

Description
reflecting
achievement of
mastery level of
performance

Description
reflecting
highest level
of
performance

Score

126

Prior to designing a specific rubric, a teacher must decide whether the performance or
product will be scored holistically or analytically (Airasian, 2000 & 2001). Regardless of
which type of rubric is selected, specific performance criteria and observable indicators
must be identified as an initial step to development. The decision regarding the use of a
holistic or analytic approach to scoring has several possible implications. The most
important of these is that teachers must consider first how they intend to use the results.
If an overall, summative score is desired, a holistic scoring approach would be more
desirable. In contrast, if formative feedback is the goal, an analytic scoring rubric should
be used. It is important to note that one type of rubric is not inherently better than the
other-you must find a format that works best for your purposes (Montgomery, 2001).
Other implications include the time requirements, the nature of the task itself, and the
specific performance criteria being observed.
As you saw demonstrated in the templates (Tables 1 and 2), the various levels of student
performance can be defined using either quantitative (i.e., numerical) or qualitative (i.e.,
descriptive) labels. In some instances, teachers might want to utilize both quantitative
and qualitative labels. If a rubric contains four levels of proficiency or understanding on a
continuum, quantitative labels would typically range from "1" to "4." When using
qualitative labels, teachers have much more flexibility, and can be more creative. A
common type of qualitative scale might include the following labels: master, expert,
apprentice, and novice. Nearly any type of qualitative scale will suffice, provided it "fits"
with the task.
One potentially frustrating aspect of scoring student work with rubrics is the issue of
somehow converting them to "grades." It is not a good idea to think of rubrics in terms of
percentages (Trice, 2000). For example, if a rubric has six levels (or "points"), a score of
3 should not be equated to 50% (an "F" in most letter grading systems). The process of
converting rubric scores to grades or categories is more a process of logic than it is a
mathematical one. Trice (2000) suggests that in a rubric scoring system, there are
typically more scores at the average and above average categories (i.e., equating to
grades of "C" or better) than there are below average categories. For instance, if a rubric
consisted of nine score categories, the equivalent grades and categories might look like
this:

127

Table 3:
Sample grades and categories
Rubric
Score

Grade

Category

A+

Excellent

Excellent

B+

Good

Good

C+

Fair

Fair

Unsatisfactory

Unsatisfactory

Unsatisfactory

When converting rubric scores to grades (typical at the secondary level) or descriptive
feedback (typical at the elementary level), it is important to remember that there is not
necessarily one correct way to accomplish this. The bottom line for classroom teachers
is that they must find a system of conversion that works for them and fits comfortably
into their individual system of reporting student performance.

Steps in the Design of Scoring Rubrics

A step-by-step process for designing scoring rubrics for classroom use is presented
below. Information for these procedures was compiled from various sources (Airasian,
2000 & 2001; Mertler, 2001; Montgomery, 2001; Nitko, 2001; Tombari & Borich, 1999).
The steps will be summarized and discussed, followed by presentations of two sample
scoring rubrics.

128

129

Step
1:

Re-examine the learning objectives to be addressed by the task. This

allows you to match your scoring guide with your objectives and actual
instruction.
Step
Identify specific observable attributes that you want to see (as well as
2:
those you dont want to see) your students demonstrate in their
product, process, or performance. Specify the characteristics, skills, or
behaviors that you will be looking for, as well as common mistakes you
do not want to see.
Step
Brainstorm characteristics that describe each attribute. Identify ways to
3:
describe above average, average, and below average performance for
each observable attribute identified in Step 2.
Step
For holistic rubrics, write thorough narrative descriptions for excellent
4a:
work and poor work incorporating each attribute into the description.
Describe the highest and lowest levels of performance combining the
descriptors for all attributes.
Step
For analytic rubrics, write thorough narrative descriptions for excellent
4b:
work and poor work for each individual attribute. Describe the highest
and lowest levels of performance using the descriptors for each
attribute separately.
Step
For holistic rubrics, complete the rubric by describing other levels on
5a:
the continuum that ranges from excellent to poor work for the
collective attributes. Write descriptions for all intermediate levels of
performance.
Step
For analytic rubrics, complete the rubric by describing other levels on
5b:
the continuum that ranges from excellent to poor work for each
attribute. Write descriptions for all intermediate levels of performance
for each attribute separately.
Step 6: Collect samples of student work that exemplify each level. These will
help you score in the future by serving as benchmarks.
Step
Revise the rubric, as necessary. Be prepared to reflect on the
7:
effectiveness of the rubric and revise it prior to its next implementation.

130

These steps involved in the design of rubrics have been summarized in Figure 2.
Figure 2:
Designing Scoring Rubrics: Step-by-step procedures

131

Two Examples
Two sample scoring rubrics corresponding to specific performance assessment tasks
are presented next. Brief discussions precede the actual rubrics. For illustrative
purposes, a holistic rubric is presented for the first task and an analytic rubric for the
second. It should be noted that either a holistic or an analytic rubric could have been
designed for either task.
Example 1:
Subject - Mathematics
Grade Level(s) - Upper Elementary
Mr. Harris, a fourth-grade teacher, is planning a unit on the topic of data analysis,
focusing primarily on the skills of estimation and interpretation of graphs. Specifically, at
the end of this unit, he wants to be able to assess his students' mastery of the following
instructional objectives:

Students will properly interpret a bar graph.

Students will accurately estimate values from within a bar graph. (step 1)

Since the purpose of his performance task is summative in nature - the results will be
incorporated into the students' grades, he decides to develop a holistic rubric. He
identifies the following four attributes on which to focus his rubric: estimation,
mathematical computation, conclusions, and communication of explanations (steps 2 &
3). Finally, he begins drafting descriptions of the various levels of performance for the
observable attributes (steps 4 & 5). The final rubric for his task appears in Table 4.

132

Table 4:
Math Performance Task Scoring Rubric
Data Analysis
Name _____________________________
Date ___________
Score
Description
Makes accurate estimations. Uses appropriate mathematical
4
operations with no mistakes. Draws logical conclusions
supported by graph. Sound explanations of thinking.
Makes good estimations. Uses appropriate mathematical
3
operations with few mistakes. Draws logical conclusions
supported by graph. Good explanations of thinking.
Attempts estimations, although many inaccurate. Uses
inappropriate mathematical operations, but with no mistakes.
2
Draws conclusions not supported by graph. Offers little
explanation.
Makes inaccurate estimations. Uses inappropriate mathematical
1
operations. Draws no conclusions related to graph. Offers no
explanations of thinking.
0
No response/task not attempted.
Example 2:
Subjects - Social Studies; Probability & Statistics
Grade Level(s) - 9 - 12
Mrs. Wolfe is a high school American government teacher. She is beginning a unit on the
electoral process and knows from past years that her students sometimes have difficulty
with the concepts of sampling and election polling. She decides to give her students a
performance assessment so they can demonstrate their levels of understanding of these
concepts. The main idea that she wants to focus on is that samples (surveys) can
accurately predict the viewpoints of an entire population. Specifically, she wants to be
able to assess her students on the following instructional objectives:

Students will collect data using appropriate methods.

Students will accurately analyze and summarize their data.

Students will effectively communicate their results. (step 1)

Since the purpose of this performance task is formative in nature, she decides to
develop an analytic rubric focusing on the following attributes: sampling technique, data

133

collection, statistical analyses, and communication of results (steps 2 & 3). She drafts
descriptions of the various levels of performance for the observable attributes (steps 4 &
5). The final rubric for this task appears in Table 5.

Table 5:
Performance Task Scoring Rubric
Population Sampling
Name ____________________________

Date ________________

Beginning
1

Developing
2

Accomplished
3

Exemplary
4

Sampling
Technique

Inappropriate
sampling
technique used

Appropriate
technique used
to select
sample; major
errors in
execution

Appropriate
technique used
to select
sample; minor
errors in
execution

Appropriate
technique used
to select
sample; no
errors in
procedures

Survey/
Interview
Questions

Inappropriate
questions
asked to gather
needed
information

Few pertinent
questions
asked; data on
sample is
inadequate

Most pertinent
questions
asked; data on
sample is
adequate

All pertinent
questions
asked; data on
sample is
complete

Statistical
Analyses

No attempt at
summarizing
collected data

Attempts
analysis of
data, but
inappropriate
procedures

Proper
analytical
procedures
used, but
analysis
incomplete

All proper
analytical
procedures
used to
summarize data

Communication
of results is
incomplete,
unorganized,
and difficult to
follow

Communicates
some
important
information;
not organized
well enough to
support
decision

Communicates
most of
important
information;
shows support
for decision

Communication
of results is
very thorough;
shows insight
into how data
predicted
outcome

Communication
of Results

Score

134

Total Score = ____

(Source: Mertler, Craig A. (2001). Designing scoring rubrics for your classroom. Practical
Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 7(25). Available online: http://ericae.net/pare/getvn.asp?
v=7&n=25.)

CHAPTER 10 : SCHOOL- BASED EVALUATION (PENILAIAN KENDALIAN

SEKOLAH)
Overview
In this Chapter, we shall cover,.

Concept of School-based Evaluation

Characteristics of School-based Evaluation

Aspects of evaluation

Implementation of School-based Evaluation

Key terms

School-based evaluation

methodology

planning of School-based evaluation

implementation

135

Further readings
Ebel, Robert L. & Fribie David A. (1991). Essentials of educational measurement.
London: Prentice Hall.
Grolund, Norman E. (1971). Measuremat and evaluation in teaching. New York:
Macmillan Company.
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (2001). Penilaian kendalian sekolah. Kuala
Lumpur: Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum , Kementerian Pendidikan
Malaysia.
Suggested Input
1.

Evaluation which is planned by the teacher at the school level is

referred to as School-based Evaluation/ Penilaian Kendalian Sekolah
(PKS). Teacher plays an important role in diagnosing the students growth
and development, abilities, their academic progress and achievement.
Teacher can decide the students learning outcome that he
intends to evaluate, implement the procedure of his evaluation, record the
result of his evaluation, analyze the students performance based on the
collected data, writing of his report and taking further actions. Through the
school-based evaluation, the teacher can identify the overall and
integrated potential of his students from the intellectual, moral, emotion
and physical aspects in line with the National Philosophy Of Education.
Hence, to achieve this goal, school-based evaluation should emphasize
the concept of continuos evaluation in the development of all the aspects.
School-based Evaluation is more in the form of formative evaluation
which emphasizes the progress of a student from one level to another.
The teacher can diagnose and identify the students progress from time to
time. Thus the teacher has the opportunity to correct the students
mistakes and weaknesses to avoid the accumulation of their learning
problems since the early stage. Further more the students strengths and
potential can be enhanced.

2.

There are two types of evaluation in school:

Formative evaluation

136


3.

Summative evaluation

School based evaluation is a continuous process in teaching and

learning which is planned and implemented by the teacher. Feedbacks
from the evaluation enable the teacher to monitor the students progress
so that further action can be taken if necessary. School-based evaluation
can also assess the students performance in other aspects not found in
the centralized evaluation such as UPSR, PMR and SPM. In fact, schoolbased and centralized evaluation work hand in hand in our system of
evaluation.

4.

The aim of School-based evaluation is to:

5.

identify the overall growth and development of students

identify the students strengths and weaknesses at an early
stage from time to time
know the effectiveness of teachers teaching
plane and adapt the teachers teaching
take immediate and appropriate further actions

The main characteristics of School-based evaluation are as follow:

Run by the teacher

Assess his/ her own students

Based on Criteria-Reference
Assess students based on the
stated outcome

Formative
Carried out continuously
Diagnose the progress and
achievement of students
Diagnose students overall

Varied methods
Observation
Oral
Writing
Emphasize on individual

learning progress

development

Intellect
Moral
Emotion
Physical

Based on individual ability and

not by comparison

Encourage self-evaluation
Train student to assess his
progress continuously

137

Systematic

Plane
To fix the Instrument
Implement
Analyze
Report
Further action

Teacher receives extra feedback

Enable further action

Overcome weaknesses in
learning
Enhance strengths in learning

(Source: Penilaian Kendalian Sekolah (2001), Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum, pg.6)

6.
Through School-based evaluation, students are assessed in various
aspects, inclusive of multiple intelligence, emotion and personality
development.

Knowledge

Thinking skills

Language skills

Arithmetic skills

Learning skills

Practical skills

Manipulative skills

Socialization skills

Creativity

Science process skills

Behaviour and practicing of moral values

Attitudes

Health and fitness

Kinesthetic skills

Aptitude

138

139

7.

Implementation of school-based evaluation is based on the following

steps:
Planning
Define learning outcome
and instrument of evaluation

Constructing instrument
Prepare Test Specification Table
Construct items/instrument

Implementing Evaluation
observation/oral/writing

Recording

Analysis of data

Reporting
(if necessary )

yes
Further action
-reinforcement
-enrichment

Mastery of matters that

have been taught

no
Further action
-remedial

yes

Proceed to the new lesson

(Source: Penilaian Kendalian Sekolah (2001), Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum, pg.9)

140

Learning outcomes which have been identified can be assessed by using

the following methods:

Observation
Oral
Writing

The choice of each method depends on:

10.

the learning outcome to be assessed.

the relevance of the matters to be assessed.

Observation method is used to assess the aspects which are difficult to

be identified through oral or writing method. For instance:

11.

Aspects which are assessed through oral method are as follow:

12.

attitude
behaviour/ performance
practical
manipulative skills
socialization skills
learning skills
kinesthetic skills
computer literacy skills
innovative skills

undestanding of concepts
factual knowledge
listening competency
correct language usage
fluency in reciting
pronunciation in conversation
arithmetic competency
styles in presentation
conversation and attitude

Aspects of writing assessment can be identified through:

essays
project reports/ course work / assignment / folio
exercises and written tests
elaboration or map interpretation, table, graph or chart

141

CHAPTER 11: BASIC STATISTICS

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover the

graph, ogive, histogram, frequency polygon

mean, mode, median

standard deviation

z score and t score

interpretation and description of data

Key Terms

distribution
frequency distribution curve
frequency polygon
histogram
measures of central tendency

mean
median
mode
standard deviation
z score
t score

Further Reading
Gay, L. R. (1985). Educational Evaluation and Measurement: Competencies for
analysis and Application ( 2nd. ed.). Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill
Publishing Co. a Bell and Howell Company.
Sprinthall, R. C. (1994). Basic Statiscal Analysis (4th. ed.). Needham Heights,
Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon
Wiersma, W. & Jurs, S. G. (1990). Educational Measurement and Testing
( 2nd. ed.). Needham Heights, Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon.

142

Suggested Input
1.

Graph
a.

Histogram

A rectangular bar is drawn above each raw score.

The height of the rectangle indicates the frequency of occurance for

that score.

b.

2.

Frequency polygon

A single point is used to designate the frequency of each score.

Adjacent points are then connected by a series of straight lines.

Measures of central tendency

A convenient way of describing a set of data with a single number.

The three most frequently encountered indices of central tendencies are the
mode, the median, and the mean

a.

Mode

The score attain by more people than any other score

Determined by looking at a set of scores or a graph of scores to see

which occurs most frequently

b.

Median

The point in a distribution above and below which are an equal number
of scores (the mid point)

c.

Mean

The arithmetic average of the scores

Culcalated by adding up all the scores and dividing that total by the
number of scores

3.

Standard deviation

A measure of variability that indicates by how much all of the scores in a

distribution typically deviate or vary from the mean

143

4.

z score

Expresses how far a score is from the mean in terms of standard deviation
units

5.

t score

6.

a score obtained by multiplying the z score by 10 and adding 50

Interpretation and description of score

a.

Normal curve

Bell-shaped curve when the scores are normally distributed

The area under the curve represents all (100%) of the scores and 50%
of the scores are above the mean and 50% of the scores are below the
mean

The mean, the median, and the mode are the same

Most scores are near the mean and the farther from the mean a score
is the fewer the number of persons who attain that score

b.

Positively Skewed Distribution

The order of the three measures of the central tendency from left to
right is first the mode, the lowest value; then the median, the mid point;
and finally the mean, the highest value.

c.

Negatively Skewed Distribution

The order of the three measures of the central tendency from left to
right is first the mean, the lowest value; then the median, the mid point;
and finally the mode, the highest value.

144

CHAPTER 12: REMEDIAL EDUCATION

Overview
In this Chapter, we shall cover,

Concepts, rationales and objectives of remedial education

Mastery learning problems

Ways to detect learning difficulties

Role of the classroom teacher in implementing remedial education

Key terms

Rationales of remedial education

Types of learning problems

Learning difficulties

Further Reading
Bond, G., Tinker,M.,Wason,B., & Wasaon, J., (1989). Reading difficulties their
diagnosis and correction. Englewood Cliff: Prentice Hall.
Edwards, P. (1981). Reading problems. Melbourne: Primary Education Pty Ltd.
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (1982). Buku panduan khas: Program
Pemulihan. Kula Lumpur: Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum
Suggested Input
1. Remedial education is one of the important features of the KBSR curriculum.
KSR emphasizes on the learning of the basics, hence the pupils who do not
master the basic skills on 3R, are required to undergo remedial education. At the
beginning stage, the pupils who are identified with learning difficulties undergo
the remedial education in the main stream classes. If they failed to do so, they
will attend the special remedial class conducted by a remedial education teacher.

145

2. Remedial education has its rationales. Individual differences among the students
exist in a normal class of 35-40 students. Hence some students who are slow in
learning tend to drag behind. If remedial actions are not taken at the very
beginning, learning difficulties , especially 3R mastery problems may become
serious.
3. Students facing learning difficulties are slow learner who need special attention
from the teacher. They have negative self-concept and always tend to lose
confidence when facing problems in their study. Remedial education can help in
overcome their 3R mastery problems , thus enhance their confidence in learning.
4. Students with learning difficulties have a high tendency to play truant. Their peers
look down at them and they have problems in interacting with their friends. If they
do not undergo remedial education, they will become school drop- out at an early
age.
5. The objectives of remedial education are as follows:

Mastery of 3 R skills through various instructional methods or learning

materials based on their abilities and interest.

To overcome the learning problems faced by a certain group of students.

To enhance the students potentialities and talents.

To inculcate positive self-concept and confidence among the students.

To improve interaction among the students through organized activities in

the classroom or outside the classroom.

To ensure every student receives individual attention and help him to

perform based on his abilities.

6. Factors causing learning difficulties among students can be identified as follow:

Improper implementation of Instructional strategies

General health impairment

Mental problems

Visual impairment

Auditory impairment

Speech impairment

146

7. Teacher-centered classroom teaching always causes slow students to drag

behind. Slow students should be allowed to learn at their own pace. In this
context, mastery learning plays an important role. General health impairment
related to malnutrition and physical deficiencies are contributing factor that
cause learning problems. Hence the students concerned could not focus their
attention while learning and teaching take place. Further more, students who
always miss their lessons because of sick leaves will hamper their academic
progress.
8. Emotional, environmental and educational factors can contribute to learning
problems among the students. Students with problems in personal and social
adjustment can seriously limit their ability to concentrate, and cause a range of
behavior from anger and aggression. That is why they appear shy or listless and
lack of self-confidence.
9. Speech impairment will affect the language development of the students. The
students inability to speak well because of the defects in their articulators (for
example, lips, tooth, tongue, vocal cord). Thus, they face problems in reading
and communication.
10. Health impairment related to premature birth, anoxia and hypoxia (lack of
oxygen) hinder the academic performance of a student. Brain damage caused by
accidents or a bad fall also jeopardize the students learning abilities.
11. In the Malaysian school context, reading difficulties can be classified as follows:

Fail to differentiate the alphabets which are quite similar in shape :

h-n, c-e, f-t, g-q

Fail to differentiate the alphabets which are upside down: w-m, hy, u-n

Fail to differentiate alphabets which are inverted: p-q, b-d

Fail to differentiate the phonic of the alphabets which are quite

similar: b-p, d-t, m-n

147

Fail to differentiate suku kata : lari is pronounced as lali,

mari is pronounced as mali

Fail to pronounce correctly alphabets which are quite similar in

shape: n-h, m-n, I-j, c-e

Pronounce the alphabet with the accent of the mother tongue:

o is pronounced as wo, r is pronounced as l

Fail to pronounce the pronounce the suku kata which carries e

pepet and e taling. For example: sepak- sepak, perang-perang

Fail to pronounce the kosonan berganding awal such as sy,

ng dan ny. For example: syarahan is pronounced as
sakrahan, nyata is pronounced as nata, nyatuk is
pronounced as natuk.

Fail to pronounce words which are quite similar: kepala is

pronounced as kelapa, rambut is pronounced as rumput or
hikmat is pronounced as hemat

Unable to read sentences with the correct intonation.

Unable to answer factual questions based on the material read.

Unable to find main idea of a passage.

Hand written words are not aligned.

The spacing of words are not uniform.

Words written are overlapped.

12. There are many ways to detect learning problems. For instance:

Constructing inventories

Making observations

Interpreting performance records

Constructing paper and pencil tests

Planning daily exercises

Constructing question-and-answer sessions/quizzes

148

13. A well-constructed inventory can help the teacher to identify the learning
problems among the student in mastering the basic of reading, writing or
arithmetic. For example, reading inventories allow the teacher to make a
qualitative evaluation of a students word-recognition and comprehension
strengths and weaknesses.
14. Through observations, the teacher can identify student learning difficulties.
Students with learning difficulties always show signs of disability. For example,
making phonic erros with words which should be known by sight- banyak is
pronounced as manyak , khas is pronounced as kas. Other signs of learning
difficulties that can be observed are: hyperactive , fail to follow instructions, fail to
draw simple shapes, and fail to follow simple instructions.
15. Performance records such as Rekod Prestasi and Rekod Profil can give
information on a students learning problems in the basic 3 R. A performance
record (Rekod Prestasi) shows clearly students mastery of basic skills in
Mathematics, Bahasa Malaysia and Inggeris. Whereas a profile record show s
the overall performance of the students.
16. Paper and pencil test which consists of objective and subjective tests are
useful in giving information on the students performance in Bahasa Malaysia,
English, Mathematics and other subjects. Low scores indicate that the students
need remedial education to overcome their learning difficulties.
17. The teacher can also get information based on students daily exercises.
Mistakes made by students in the exercises help teacher to identify their
weaknesses.
Thus, instructional materials can be constructed to help the students to
overcome their weaknesses.
18. By constructing question-answer session or quizzes, the teacher can get
feedback on the students performance, hence variety of activities can be
planned to overcome the students weaknesses.

149

19. Classroom teacher plays an important role in implementing remedial education.

The important steps involve:

Identification of students

Analysis of problems

Planning

Teaching

Evaluation

Follow-up

20. The implementation of remedial teaching in a normal class consists of four

sections.

The statement of teaching objectives

The planning of steps and strategies in teaching

The implementation of remedial activities, and

Evaluation

150

CHAPTER 13 : ENRICHMENT EDUCATION

Overview
In this Chapter, we shall cover,

Concepts, rationale and objectives of enrichment education

Types of enrichment activities

Key terms

Enrichment

Objectives

Types of enrichment

Principles in enrichment

Strategies in enrichment education

Further Readings
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (1982). Buku panduan khas: Program Pengayaan
Kuala Lumpur: Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum.
McCallum, George,P. (1980). 101 word games. New York: Oxford University Press.
Suggested Input
a. In the implementation of KBSR and KBSM, enrichment programmes
cater for all the students in a class, regardless whether they are bright,
average or slow learners. An enrichment programme consists of
additional activities to reciprocate the basic learning activities. Through
enrichment activities, the students have the opportunities to take part in
the value-added activities so as to widen their learning experience, to
enhance their interest, creativity, and also to inculcate self-discipline, and
leadership qualities among the students. Students performance in the
class is determined by individual differences. Students who have
achieved a certain level of mastery will be given enrichment activities.

151

b. Objectives of enrichment programmes are to enable students to:

take part in more challenging learning activities in accordance

with their abilities

enhance their interest , talent and self-development

utilize their leisure time in accordance with their interest and

talent

develop leadership values

widen their scope in reading from various sources

enhance their creativity and thinking skills

promote self-learning

c. Principles in conducting enrichment activities:

In the form of self-learning activity and clearly defined

instructions

Interesting, challenging and diversified according to students

ability, interest and talent.

In the form of daily programme or project with require one to

two weeks.

Consist of activities which are related to students learning

skills

Consist of a variety of materials either self-made or from the

market

d. Enrichment activities can be carried out according to the schedule as

follow:

within a chosen time slot which can be carried out daily- The
teacher can choose a suitable time slot using his/her discretion
to implement enrichment activities for subjects such as
Bahasa Malaysia or English.

after undergoing basic learning activities for certain skills- for

example, Mathematics:

152

after mastering a set of skills.

after mastering all the skills from a certain learning unit

e. In preparing instructional materials for the enrichment activities, the

following characteristics should be taken into consideration:

In the form of self-directed learning, instruction and

explanation are clearly stated.

Related to the skills which the students have mastered.

Reinforce the skill the student has mastered.

Expand the students knowledge and experience

Interesting, challenging and in accordance with the students

differing interests and talents.

Consist of a variety of materials in accordance with the

students abilities.

f.

9.

Activities suggested for enrichment are as follows:

Extra reading/ additional exercises

Project work

Games and recreation

Strategies in implementing enrichment activities:

For all the students based on group activities compatible with

their abilities

Enrichment and remedial activities carried out concurrently

For all students based on mixed group activities

153

h.

The first strategy is carried out by dividing the students into three
groups compatible with their abilities, i.e. smart, average and slow.
Each group carried out the same activities but with varied cognitive
level . These are referred to as horizontal enrichment activities.
Whereas vertical enrichment activities deal with high cognitive level
And are more challenging, especially for students who are high
achievers. This will help students to widen and enhance their
experience.

154

An example of enrichment activity for English Language

Name of activity: Animal Squares

Language level: all

Objective: To practice the vocabulary of the names of animals.

Equipment and material: prepared squares, pencils and erasers

______________________________________________________________________
Hidden in the square below are the names of twenty- five different animals. Draw
a circle around each name, and you may work both vertically or horizontally.
L
O
I
R
B
Z
W
N
H
O
B
X

I
M
P
A
L
A
R
F
O
B
A
L

O
X
M
O
H
D
E
E
R
U
B
E

N
I
D
Z
I
O
K
E
S
F
O
I

X
B
E
A
R
G
N
U
E
F
O
U

E
L
E
P
H
A
N
T
Z
A
N
T

S
O
T
A
P
E
P
I
G
L
W
M

F
R
U
N
O
T
T
E
R
O
S
O

K
D
R
T
I
G
E
R
M
W
H
O

C
K
K
H
F
O
X
A
L
O
E
S

A
Y
E
E
G
A
Y
A
K
L
E
E

T
O
Y
R
A
T
H
I
E
F
P
N

Answers
ape

deer

goat

otter

sheep

baboon

dog

gnu

ox

tiger

bear

elephant

horse

panther

turkey

buffalo

fox

impala

pig

wolf

cat

lion

moose

rat

yak

CHAPTER 14: INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Overview

155

In this Chapter, we shall cover,

Concept of inclusive education

Difference between inclusive education and special education

Types of special children

Key terms

Inclusive education

Types of special children

Special needs

Further Readings
Halvorson, A., Neary,T. (2001). Building inclusive schools. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
Kirk, S.A.,& Gallagher, J. J.(1979).Educating exceptional children. Boston:
Hougton Mifflin.
Kennedy, E. (1997). Lessons and activities for the inclusive primary classroom.
New York: The Centre For Applied Research In Education.
Lewis, R., Doorlag, D. (1995). Teaching special students in the main stream.
Englewood: Prentice Hall.
Smith, J. ( 1985). New directions in remedial education. London: The Falmer
Press.

156

Suggested Input
1.

Inclusive education means the inclusion of special children in the general

education classroom. Students with physical impairment such as hearing and
visual are integrated with their peers from the regular classroom. The
particular class is guided by a resource teacher who collaborates with a class
teacher. Individualized instructional materials and general class activities are
prepared to help students with physical impairment. The Malaysian pilot
project for inclusive education was started in 1994 where 14 schools are
involved.

2.

Inclusive education emphasizes:

Cooperative learning among the special children and children from

the regular class.

Inculcation of moral values among students.

Enhancement of interaction between special children and their

peers.

Self-confidence and positive self-concept among the special

children.

Collaboration between the special education and general

education teacher.

3.

Multiple intelligences across the curriculum.

Multilevel instruction.

Outcome orientation and authentic assessment.

Technology integration and problem based learning.

Special education is specially designed instruction to meet the individual

needs of special students. According to Kirk and Gallagher (1979), special
education is those additional services, over and above the regular school
program, that are provided for exceptional children to assist in the
development of their potentialities and/ or amelioration of their disabilities.
(p.22). Special educators serve students identified as having disabilities:

157

students with learning disabilities, behavioral disorder and emotional

disturbances, mental retardation, speech and language disorders, autism,
physical and health disorders, traumatic brain injury, and vision and hearing
disorders. However, special education services are also provided for gifted
and talented students.
4.

The difference between inclusive education and special education are as

follow:

Inclusive education
1.provide special education to special
children while attending regular

Special education
2. cater for individual needs of
special children.

class and schools.

2. special /resource teacher and
classroom teacher collaborate

2. special/resource teachers serve

children with learning disabilities.

in teaching and learning.

3. students follow core curriculum
and general class activities.

3. students follow special curriculum

and specially designed instructional
activities.

5.

Children with special needs:

Mentally retarded

Learning disabilities

Behavioral disorders

Auditory and communication problems

Visual problems

Spastics

158


6.

Giftedness

Characteristics of children with special needs:

a)

mentally retarded

general aptitude for learning is impaired

intellectual performance is significantly sub-average compare to their

peers

display more problem behaviors than their peers

may not be socially accepted by their peers because lacking social skills

deficient in motor skills

b)

learning disabilities

have difficulty receiving information because of attention or perception

problems

have difficulty in communication because of expressive language

problems

c)

performance in school is far below average

have difficulty in paying attention

have motor coordination problems

auditory and communication problems

have difficulty in learning and pronouncing words

have difficulty in communication because of hearing impairment

show an overall delay in language development

always seen stressful in interpersonal communication

159

d)

visual problems

have difficulty in reading writing or illustration from the blackboard

need to be taught basic orientation and mobility skill so as to move

about in school

e)

f)

need encouragement to interact with sighted peers

tend to read from a very closed distance.

spastics

have difficulty in motor coordination

physical activities are restricted

instructional materials are adapted for their needs

Giftedness

above average performance on measures of intellectual

performance

have special talents in art or music or academic achievement

have creative ability

have excellent social skill

7. Resource and classroom teacher play an important role in inclusive education.

They work hand in hand through collaborative and cooperative teaching. For
instance, the planning of strategies and preparation of instructional materials.
The evaluation has to be carried out by resource teacher in line with the needs of
special children.

160

8. Factors that influence the effectiveness of inclusive education in the normal

classroom can be classified as below:

The commitment of classroom and resource teacher.

The allocation of experienced classroom and resource teacher.

Cooperation from the parents and teachers in school.

Full support from the school principal.

The availability of instructional materials and facilities in school.

Enrolment in each class should not more than 30.

Incentives should be given to classroom and resource teachers who are

involved in the programme.

Counseling service is provided for special children.

161

CHAPTER 15: INTRODUCTION TO GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover the

concept

principles

goals

fields

types of services

approaches of Guidance and Counselling

Key Terms

Guidance

Counselling

Further Reading
Jones, A. (1984). Counselling Adolescents: School and After. Tiptree, Essex:
Anchor Brendor Ltd.
Peterson, J. V. & Nisenholz, B. (1991). Orientation to Counseling. Needham Heights,
Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon.
Zuraidah Abdul Rahman. (1997). Perkembangan Bimbingan & Kaunseling:
Pendekatan yang Praktis. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka.

162

Suggested Input
1.

2.

Goals

Facilitating behavioral change

Enhancing coping skills

Promoting decision making

Improving relationships

Facilitating client potentials

Fields

Personal guidance

psychological problems

welfare services

Social guidance

3.

social problems

Educational guidance

maintenance of students attainment and development records

guidance of subjects choices

Career guidance

motivate school children to want to study

provide opportunities for decision making

Types of services

Individual counselling

Group counselling

Inventory and record

Family conference

163

4.

Approaches

Developmental

Preventive

develop awareness

Remedial

develop human potentials

increase coping skills, attitudes and behavior change

Crisis

develop self-responsibility and commitment

164

CHAPTER 16: ROLE OF THE TEACHER AS A COUNSELLOR

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover the

role of the teacher as a counsellor

Key Terms

Role

Counsellor

Further Reading
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. (1993). Panduan Pelaksanaan Perkhidmatan
Bimbingan dan Kaunseling di Sekolah Menengah. Kementerian Pendidikan
Malaysia: Unit Bimbingan dan Kaunseling Bahagian Sekolah.
Suggested Input
1.

Role of the teacher as a counsellor

Collect Information of students profile

Identify students with problems for counselling intervention

Refer students to counsellor

Give information on career, drugs prevention education and current

information

Identify obstructive factors in implementing the above task

165

CHAPTER 17:

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover the

interpersonal relationship

Key Terms

Attraction

Caring

Further Reading
Beebe, S. A., Beebe, S. J. & Redmond, M. V. (1996). Interpersonal Communication:
Relating to Others. Needham Heights, Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon.
Suggested Input
1.

Relationship Building

Adopt an other-oriented perspective

Observe and act upon approachability cues

Identify and use conversation starters

Follow initiation norms

Provide information about self

Present self in a positive manner

Ask questions

Dont put too much into the initial interaction

166

2.

Power of attraction in relationship

Physical attraction

Credibility, competence and charisma

Proximity

Similarity

Complementary needs

Relationship potential: reciprocal of liking

3.

Caring in relationship

4.

Conflict in relationship

Types of conflict

Pseudo conflict

Simple conflict

Ego conflict

Conflict management styles

Non-confrontational style

Controlling style

Cooperative style

Conflict management skills

Manage your emotions

Manage information

Manage goals

Manage the problem

167

CHAPTER 18:

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover the

communication skills

obstacles in communication

Key Terms

Active listening

Attending skills

Further Reading
Beebe, S. A., Beebe, S. J. & Redmond, M. V. (1996). Interpersonal Communication:
Relating to Others. Needham Heights, Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon.
Dettmer, P., Dyck, N. & Thurston, L. P. (1999). Consultation, Collaboration and
Teamwork for the Students with Special Needs. Needham Heights,
Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon.
Suggested Input
1.

Communication skills

Relationship building

Attending skills

Active listening

Use of suitable language

Understanding body language

Use of suitable responses

168

2.

Obstacles to communication

physical

body

health

speech: stammering, stuttering, lisping

hearing

psychological

personality

belief system

perception

environmental

noise

territorial space

climate/temperature

location

other disturbances

social

culture

religion

status

race

language

169

CHAPTER 19:

COUNSELLING AS A PROCESS

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover the

structure of the counselling process

Key Terms

Limitations of counseling

Further Reading
Jones, A.. (1984). Counselling Adolescents :School and After. London: Kogan
Page Limited.
Suggested Input
1.

Functions of the counsellor in the counselling process

2.

Characteristics of the counselling relationship

3.

Respect for the individuals

Acceptance

Unconditional positive regard

Empathy

Trust

Confidentiality

Congruency

Genuineness

Concern

Limitations of counselling

170

CHAPTER 20 :
(i)

COUNSELLING

INDIVIDUAL COUNSELLING

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover the

stages in the counselling process

stages in the development the group counselling process

Key Terms

Exploration

Termination

Conflict

Confrontation

Cohesiveness

Further Reading
George, R. L. & Dustin, D. (1988). Group Counselling: Theory and Practice.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Munro, A., Manthel, B. & Small, J. (1989). Counselling: The Skills of ProblemSolving. Auckland: Longman Paul Limited.
Peterson, J. V. & Nisenholz, B. (1991). Orientation to Counseling. Needham Heights,
Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon.

171

Suggested Input
1.

Stages in the counselling process

Relationship-building

Process of becoming acquainted

Social amenities

Exploration

Strategies and techniques needed to bring about a fuller exploration of

the nature of the clients basic concern

Identification of the problem

Focuses on using insights and awareness in order to personalise their

contributions to the problems they are facing

Client has clearly defined the problem

Selection of strategies

Help client to plan exactly how, when and where the change process
will start in earnest.

Client should be made aware of the many factors that contribute to

sucess

Taking action

Counsellor help clients to examine the array of potential solutions and

make a commitment to action based on evaluating solutions and their
possible consequences

Termination

Summarising and wrapping up any unfinished business and saying

goodbye

Follow-up

Negotiations are made for follow-up sessions if mutually desirable

172

(ii)

GROUP COUNSELLING

Suggested Input
1.

Introduction

2.

Conflict and confrontation

3.

4.

Judgemental

Resistence

Open mindedness

Attempt to dominate

Cohesiveness

Mutual trust

Morale

Self-disclosure

Outcome

Behaviour change

Self exploration

Productivity

Responsibility

Termination

Face reality of termination

Reinforce learning concerning self-disclosure

Encourage group members to put into words what they have learned from
the group experience and how they intend to apply their increased selfunderstanding and behaviour change to their lives outside the counselling
experience

173

CHAPTER 21: INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP COUNSELLING SKILLS

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover the

stages in the counselling process

Key Terms

Paraphrasing

Summarising

Silence

Evaluating

Further Reading
Baruth, L. G. & Huber, C. H. (1985). Counseling and Psychotherapy: Theoretical
Analyses and Skills Applications. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill
Publishing Co. a Bell and Howell Company.
Beebe, S. A., Beebe, S. J. & Redmond, M. V. (1996). Interpersonal Communication:
Relating to Others. Needham Heights, Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon
Munro, A., Manthel, B. & Small, J. (1989). Counselling: The Skills of ProblemSolving. Auckland: Longman Paul Limited.

174

Suggested Input
1.

Individual Counselling

Relationship-building

Questioning

Paraphrasing

Silence

Client needs opportunity to pause and internally explore their thoughts,

feelings and behavior

Confrontation

Let clients know that they have a responsibility for providing

independent input into the session involves finding and pointing out
mixed messages, conflicts and incongruities that clients express or
that exist in their lives

Clarification

Interpretation

Help clients recognise the deeper, more implicit aspects of their

communications

Call attention to deficiencies in clients functioning that inhibit goal

setting

Summarising

used at the beginning of a new session to prevent repetition of

previous interchanges and provide initial focus and directions

used during a session when a client is rambling and needs direction

when a client has exhausted a certain topic and is unable to proceed

with more focus and direction

2.

Group Counselling

Attending and communication skills

Facilitating

Guiding

Controlling

Relating

175

Evaluating
o

Assessing results

Summarising

Generalising

Referral

Terminating

Reality testing

termination

176

PSYCHOLOGY
COMPONENT

177

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover

Concepts of Psychology and Educational Psychology

- Definitions
- Importance
- Basic concepts : Instincts, Needs, Drives, Motivation

Motivation
- Types
- Factors (Maslows Theory)
- Motivating pupils : environment, co-operative and collaborative learning

Key Terms

Psychology

Educational Psychology

Instincts

Needs

Drives

Motivation
- Intrinsic
- Extrinsic

Maslow s Theory

- Deficiency needs
- Growth needs

Cooperative learning

Collaborative learning

178

Further Reading
Child, D. (1993). Psychology And The Teacher. NY : Cassell.
Cloninger, S.C. (1993). Theories of Personality. New Jersey : Prentice Hall.
Slavin, R.E. (1997). Educational Psychology. Boston : Allyn and Bacon.
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/regsys/maslow..html
Suggested Input
1. Psychology
The systematic study of animal and human behaviour (observable and mental
processes) and cover all kinds of pursuits. The term behaviour includes all
those aspects of human activity which we can observe.
2. Educational Psychology
The systematic study of learners, learning, and teaching. Educational
psychology applies the findings of general, social and child psychology to assist
in a better understanding of learning processes.
3. Instincts
The actions of humans, as well as those of animals, are the outcome of
inborn instincts innate, unlearned tendencies which are essential for all
thought and action. It is an automatic, predetermined set of responses
to a specific stimuli.

Instincts have survival value for both the individual and the race.
4. Drives
Drives are seen as the source of motivation resulting from homeostatic
disequilibrium. The body is driven into action to correct any imbalance between
the internal and external environment.

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5. Needs
Also motivated by homeostatic disequilibrium. Needs can be motivated
by internal or external stimuli. There are two broad groups of needs primary
(physiological) and secondary (psychological).
6. Motivation
Motivation consists of internal processes which spur us on to satisfy some need.
It is an internal process that activates, guides and maintain behaviour over time.
Motivation is what gets you going, keeps you going and determines where you
are going.
Intrinsic motivation
This is an internal drive the push from within, which is self-generated . Intrinsic
motivation is from the content itself/ inherent interest
Extrinsic motivation
This is made up of incentives, - objects external to ourselves which act as a
pull from without ; the use of praise, grades, recognitions of progress is crucial
and used to encourage learning.
7. Maslows Hierarchy of needs
In this theory, needs that are lower must be at least partially satisfied before a
person will try to satisfy higher needs. For example, a hungry person will be less
concerned about maintaining a positive self-image than about obtaining food;
but once that person is no longer hungry, self-esteem needs may become
paramount.
Maslow identified two needs:
Defiency needs
- physiological, safety, love and esteem critical to physical and psychological
well-being and must be satisfied but they diminish thereafter.

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Growth needs
- the need to know and understand, to appreciate beauty, or to grow and develop
an appreciation of others can never be satisfied completely.
The more those needs are met the greater the motivation to learn more.
According to Maslow, people begin development with basic motives, but as they
mature, and their lower needs are satisfied, their motivation progress upward
through a hierarchy of needs.
The first four levels of the need hierarchy are :
a) Physiological needs the lowest level food, water, sleep and sex.
These needs are essential for human survival.
b) Safety needs such as familiarity, peace, rules and regulations, the
safety of an ordered society.
c) Love and belongingness love and friendship.
d) Esteem needs need for self-respect and the esteem of others.
e) Self-actualization the need to fulfill his/her potential.
8. Cooperative learning
Is a teaching strategy involving childrens participation in small group learning
activities that promote positive integration. Here, students work together in small
groups to help each other learn.
The class is organized into small groups after receiving instruction from the
teacher. They then work through the assignment until all group members
successfully understand and complete it.
9. Collaborative learning
Is a teaching strategy where teachers and students interact (using their collective
knowledge and thinking) to accomplish meaningful learning and solve problems. The
teacher acts as facilitator, model, coach and mediator.
The students are active participants.

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CHAPTER 2 THE NATURE OF MAN

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover

The dual concepts of the nature of man and human potentials

Human Needs - concepts

- types
- related theories

Human potentials Multiple Intelligence (Gardners Theory)

- Emotional Quotient (Goldmans Theory)

Key Terms

Nature of man

Human potentials

Human needs (Maslows Theory refer Chapter 1)

Multiple Intelligence (Gardners Theory refer to Chapter 16)

Emotional Intelligence (Goldmans Theory)

Further Reading
Papalia & Olds (1985). Psychology. New York : McGraw-Hill Co,
Woolfolk, A.(2001). Educational Psychology. Boston : Allyn and Bacon.
http://www.ihhp.com/
http://www.fathom.com/fks/catalog/feature.jhtml?
http://www.nswagtc.org.au/info/identification/characteristics.html
Suggested Input
1. Nature of man
It is the inborn characteristics of man, all that is good, - abilities, capabilities, plus
hidden talents and potentials. Human nature is a gift from God, and man is born
pure and unpolluted.

182

Human Potentials
Human potential is part of human nature. It normally includes all dormant talents,
abilities and capabilities of man. Mans potentials whether physical, intellectual,
social or emotional need to be identified, recognized and developed to their
maximum or optimum capacity.
3. Maslows theory ( refer to Chapter 1)
2. Multiple Intelligence (Gardners theory refer to Chapter 16)
4. Emotional Intelligence - EQ (Goldmans theory)
A set of skills involving the ability to understand our own feelings
and the feelings of others and to use this information to guide ones
thinking and actions.
The definition of EQ has not yet stabilized, but most psychologists agree
that the following traits and abilities are included :

Empathy

Understanding ones feelings

Expressing feelings

Controlling ones temper

Independence of thought

Independence of action

Persistence

Friendliness

Respect of others

Adaptability

Ability to get along with others

Sensitivity to the feelings of other

Optimistic and smiling demeanour

Kindness

Self-awareness and desire to improve

Ability to understand other peoples feelings.

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CHAPTER 3 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover

The meaning of Individual differences

-

physical

cognitive

emotional

social

spiritual

Factors of Individual differences

-

genetic (nature)

environment (nurture)

Key Terms

Individual differences

Genetic (nature)

Environment (nurture)

Nature-nurture controversy

Further Reading
Hjelle & Ziegler (1992). Personality Theories. New York : McGraw-Hill.
Lingren, H.C. (1980) . Educational Psychology in the Classroom. New York : Oxford
University Press.
Mischel, W. (1986).Introduction to Personality. Chicago : Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Suggested Input
1. Individual differences
All theorists agree that individual differences develop as heredity interacts with
experience. We are all born with individual predispositions, and are influenced by
different familial and cultural backgrounds.

184

185

2. Genetic (Nature)
Certain aspects of individual differences (especially physical) that are inherited
from our parents, grandparents, and great-grandparents, e.g. the colour of ones hair,
size and height.
3. Environment (Nurture)
Those aspects of individual differences usually influenced by the environment,
(culture, the family, the media) are normally social, spiritual and emotional in
nature. E.g. An individual who is more confident than another.
4. Nature-Nurture Controversy
There is the belief that genes set limits on development while environments
determine what actually develops. Genes help to determine the actual level of
development, but the environment either enhances or hinders the development of a
particular characteristic or behaviour.
Just how much is due to genetic factors (nature) and how much is due to
environmental factors (nurture) is still a matter of controversy.

186

CHAPTER 4 PERSONALITY AND SELF CONCEPT

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover

The definition of Personality

Types of personality
-

introvert

extrovert

ambivert

Coping with different personalities

The meaning of Self-Concept

-

negative

positive

Moulding positive self-concept

Freud

Id

Ego

Superegp

Self-defence mechanisms

Key Terms

Personality
o

temperament

character

Introvert

Extrovert

Ambivert

Self-Concept

Positive Self-Concept

Negative Self-Concept

187

Freud
-

Id

Ego

Superego

Self-defence mechanisms

Further Reading
Child, D. (1993). Psychology and the Teacher. London : Cassell.
Hamachek, D.(1990). Psychology in Teaching, Learning and Growth. Boston : Allyn
& Bacon.
Hjelle & Ziegler (1992). Personality Theories. New York : McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Mischel, W. (1986). Introduction to Personality. Chicago : Holt, Rinehart & Winston,
Inc.
http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/8425/95144

Suggested Input
1. Personality
The more or less stable and enduring organization of a persons character,
temperament, intellect and physique which determines his unique adjustment to the
environment. It refers to the distinctive patterns of behaviour (including thoughts and
emotions) that characterize each individuals adaptation to the situations of his/her
life.
2. Temperament
An inherent disposition, closely allied to emotional dispositions. It is inherited yet vary
enormously in response to different environmental settings; e.g. an indiviiduals
excitability or placidity.
3. Character
An evaluative term referring to such traits as honesty, self-control, persistence and
sense of justice. It relates to qualities which we can define as socially acceptable or

188

objectionable and incorporates the development of attitudes, and values.

4. Extrovert
The extrovert is interested in the outer world of people and things. He/she is likely to
be outgoing, talkative, friendly, relatively uninhibited, and fond of activities which
bring him/her into contact with other people, crave excitement, aggressive,
unreliable, easy going and optimistic.
5. Introvert
The introvert is interested in the internal world of ones own thoughts, feelings and
experiences. He/she is more likely to be contemplative, aloof, reserved and focused
on the self, fond of solitary pursuits, persistent, rigid, shy and has a pessimistic
outlook of life.
6. Ambivert
Extroverts and Introverts are extreme cases. Most individuals are ambiverts in their
behaviour, that is possessing both sets of qualities.
7. Self-concept
The self-concept denotes the persons conception of the kind of person he/she is.
It reflects those characteristics that the person perceives as being part of himself or
herself .
8. Negative self-concepts
Where the individual has difficulty in accepting themselves and often make poor
personal and social adjustments.
9. Positive self-concepts
Where the individual is well adjusted, personally and socially .

189

10. Freuds Theory

According to Freud (1933) personality has a three part structure : id, ego and
superego. Although the three parts interact, each has its own characteristics.
10.1

Id
The id functions entirely in the unconscious and is closely tied to instinctive
biological urges that energize our behaviour.
Any increase in energy from internal or external stimulus produces tension
and discomfort that the id cannot tolerate. The id seeks to reduce this tension
through the pleasure principle, that is, seeking immediate satisfaction of
these wishes and impulses regardless of reason or logic.

10.2 Ego
The ego is the decision-making component, whose function is governed by
the reality principle, which requires it to test reality and to delay discharge of
tension until the appropriate object and environment are found. The ego thus
operates through realistic, logical thinking and planning appropriate.
10.3 Superego
The superego represents the morals and standards of society that has
become the internal world of the individual. The superego is the conscience,
the judge of right or wrong, of good and bad. It represents the ideal, whereas
the id seeks pleasure, the superego seeks perfection.

11.Self-defence mechanisms
Freud defined an ego defence mechanism as a mental strategy used by the
individual to defend against open expressions of id impulses and opposing superego
pressures. The ego reacts to the threatened break-through of id impulses in two
ways :
a) blocking the impulse from expression in conscious behaviour
b) distorting it to such a degree that the original intensity is markedly reduced or
deflected.

190

It should be noted that people rarely rely upon a single defence mechanism.
Instead people employ several defence mechanisms to resolve conflict and
relieve tension and anxiety. (Examples of defence mechanisms : repression,
projection, displacement, rationalization, regression and sublimation).

191

CHAPTER 5 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover

Basic concepts of growth and development

Principles of growth and development

Stages of development based on related theories (Gesell, Havighurst, Piaget,

Freud, Ausubel, Erikson)

Key Terms

Growth

Development

Principles

Gesell

Havighurst

Piaget

Freud

Erikson

Kohlberg

Further Reading
Hamachek, D.(1990). Psychology in Teaching, Learning and Growth. Boston : Allyn
& Bacon.
Hjelle & Ziegler (1992). Personality Theories. New York : McGraw-Hill Inc.
Hurlock, E.B. (1978). Child Development. London : Mc Graw-Hill Book Company.
Mischel, W. (1986). Introduction to Personality. Chicago : Holt, Rinehart & Winston,
Inc.

192

Suggested Input
1. Growth
refers to quantitative changes increases in size and structure. Not only does the
child become larger physically, but the size and the structure of the internal organs
and the brain increases
.
2. Development
refers to qualitative and quantitative changes. It may be defined as a progressive
series of orderly , coherent changes.
Progressive signifies that the changes are directional, that they lead forward than
backward.
Orderly and coherent suggest that there is a definite relationship between the
changes taking place and those that preceded or will follow them.
4. Stages of Growth and Development
4.1 Gesell
Developmentalists who propose maturational theories, like Gesell believe that
development is directed from within, according to a biological timetable. Gesell
believed that capabilities appeared when children reached the appropriate stage
of maturity. No matter how many opportunities a child had to learn some skill,
until muscles, nerves, brain and bones were ready, all attempts to teach the child
would be futile. Some children walked, talked, and developed self-control early,
and some were much slower, but each capability appeared when the child was
ready to acquire it.
Gesells theory marks the development of children from birth to age 16
Birth to age 4

smooth period of development

Age 5 to 6

period of transition need to adjust to school, peers, rules

Age 7 to 10

smooth period of consolidation and adapatation to school life

Age 11 14

period of transition, conflict puberscence adolescence

Age 15 to 16 -

period of consolidation, getting ready to face new life as an

Adult

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4.2 Havighurst : The Developmental Tasks Model

Each stage of development ushers in new tasks skills, attitudes,
understandings, accomplishments that must be met before a person can move
on to a higher level of development. If the person does not accomplish the task
at a certain level, then it is likely that he/she will encounter developmental
problems in subsequent stages.
Havighurst divided the life span into six periods:
4.2.1

Infancy and early childhood (birth to 6 years)

4.2.2

Middle childhood (6 to 12 years)

4.2.3

Preadolescence and adolescence ( 12 to 18 years)

4.2.4

Early adulthood ( 18 to 35 years)

4.2.5

Middle age ( 35-60 years)

4.2.6

Later life ( 60 years + )

4.3 Piaget : Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget identified 4 stages of cognitive development

4.3.1 Sensorimotor period ( 0 to 2 years) involves adapting to reality through
sensing and movement.
4.3.2

Preoperational period ( 2 to 7 years) involves processes related to

conceptualization prior to using logic.

4.3.3

Concrete Operations period (7 to 11 years) involves using applied

reasoning.

4.3.4

Formal Operations period (11 to 15 years and up) involves using

systematic reasoning.

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4.4 Freud
Freud believed that every person normally progresses through five psychosexual
stages.
During the first 5 years of life, pleasure is successively focused on three zones of the
body as the oral, anal, and phallic stages unfold.
Then comes a quiet latency period of about 5 or 6 years.
Finally, if progress through each stage has been successful, the person reaches
the mature or genital stage after puberty.
4.4.1 The oral stage ( birth to year 1 )
Occurs during the first year of life, when the baby is completely dependent
on others for the satisfaction of all needs. In this stage body pleasure is
focused on the mouth and on the satisfaction of sucking, eating, and biting
in the course of feeding.

4.4.2

The anal stage ( age 2 years )

The second years of life is marked by a shift in body pleasure to the anus
and by a concern with the retention and expulsion of feces.

4.4.3 The phallic stage ( age 5 years )

This is the period in which the child observes the difference between the
male and female and experiences what Freud called the Oedipus complex.
This myth symbolizes every childs unconscious desire to possess the
opposite-sexed parent and simultaneously dispose of the same-sexed
parent. Freud thought that initially both boys and girls love their mother as
the satisfier of their basic needs.
4.4.4

Latency ( ages 6 & 7 and the onset of early teens)

The child passes through a period of comparative sexual quiescence. Now
the childs libido (sexual instincts) is channeled into non-sexual activities.
Latency can be viewed as a period of preparation for the important growth
that will take place in the final stage.

195

4.4.5 The genital stage (adolescence until death)

With the onset of puberty comes an increased awareness of and interest in
the opposite sex. The reproductive organs mature, and the endocrine
system secretes hormones that result in secondary sex characteristics
(e.g. beards in males, breast development in females).
4.6 Erikson : The Psychosocial Stages Model

4.6.1

Stage 1 : Trust versus Mistrust ( Birth to 18 months)

4.6.2

Stage 2 : Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt ( 18 months to 3 years)

4.6.3

Stage 3 : Initiative versus Guilt (3 to 6 years)

4.6.4

Stage 4 : Industry versus Inferiority ( 6 to 12 years)

4.6.5

Stage 5 : Identity versus Identity Confusion (12 to 18 years)

4.6.6

Stage 6 : Intimacy versus Isolation ( 18 to 35 years)

4.6.7

Stage 7 : Generativity versus Self Absorption ( 35 years to Retirement)

4.6.8

Stage 8 : Integrity versus Despair (Retirement years).

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4.7 Kohlbergs Theory of Moral Development

Morals develop in three levels consisting of two stages each. These levels represent
different perspectives individuals can take as they wrestle with moral dilemmas or
problems
LEVEL AND STAGE
Level I Preconventional
Reasoning
Stage 1 : Punishment-Obedience

DESCRIPTION
The ethics of egocentricity (up to age 10) does not
understand the rules set down by others
The consequences of the act determines if it is
good or bad

Stage 2 : Market Exchange

Level II Conventional Ethics

The ethics of whats in it for me? Obeying rules

and exchanging favours.
The ethics of others (10 to 20 years olds). starts to
conform to rules and conventions of society.
Likes to be called Nice girl/good boy. Decisions

Stage 3 : Interpersonal Harmony

based on what pleases, or is approved by others.

The ethics of order. Right is doing ones duty, and

Stage 4 : Law and Order

Level III Postconventional
Ethics

obeying the law.

The ethics of principle. Rarely reached before 20
years, and only by a few. Focuses on the principles
underlying societys rules.
Rules are based on principles of justice and common

Stage 5 : Social Contract

good and are mutually agreed upon by members of

society.

Stage 6 : Universal Principles

Rarely encountered in life. Ethics determined by

individuals conscience guided by the abstract
principles of justice and equality.

CHAPTER 6 ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

197

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover

Stages of development ( PIES)

Implications on student behaviour

Key Terms

Adolescence
- preadolescence / pubescence

Physical development

Intellectual development

Emotional development

Spiritual development

Further Reading
Eggen & Kauchek (1994). Educational Psychology. New York : Merrill
Hamachek, D. (1990). Psychology in Teaching, Learning and Growth. Boston : Allyn
& Bacon.
Horrocks, J.E. (1976). The Psychology of Adolescents. Boston : Houghton Mifflin Co.
McInerney & McInerney (1994). Educational Psychology. Sydney : Prentice Hall.
Suggested Input
1. Adolescence
Pubescence ( Girls 10-12 years old; Boys 12-14 years old)
The prolonged stage during which reproductive functions mature, begins with an
adolescent growth spurt and terminates with puberty, which marks the onset of full
reproductive functions.
For boys, the physical changes includes an increase in height and weight, increased
musculature in the upper body, the growth of facial and pubic hair and deepening
voice.

198

Girls also experience an increase in height and weight, the growth of breasts and
pubic hair and an increase in body fat, which results in a more rounded appearance.
2. Physical Development
( Refer to Pubescence above)
3. Intellectual Development
The most dramatic change is the transition from concrete to formal operational
thinking. It is not a mere accumulation of knowledge, but a change in the way
they think. They can now play with abstract ideas and deal with the hypothetical.
4. Emotional Development
Erickson(1968) describes this period as a tension between identity definition and
identity confusion. Defining themselves is especially difficult because they are
attempting to answer not only the question Who am I? but also What will I
become?
5. Social Development
Peers assume an increasingly important role in the developing social life of
adolescents. Peers strongly influence early adolescent misbehaviour, manners of
dressing and grooming, but this influence decreases with age.

199

CHAPTER 7 BEHAVIOURAL PROBLEMS

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover

The meaning of behavioural problems

Types of behavioural problems

-

negative behavioural problems

positive behavioural problems

Coping with behavioural problems

Identification of behavioural problems

Key Terms

Behavioural problems

Negative behavioural problems

destructive

disruptive

dependent

hyperactive

anxiety

depression

self-withdrawal

self-alienation

Positive behavioural problems

-

learners with a high sense of curiousity

fast learners

giftedness

proactive learner

Identification of behavioural problems

-

tests

non formal tests

studies

200

Further Reading
Coleman, M.C. (1986). Behavior Disorders. Boston :Allyn & Bacon.
Connell & Connell (2001). Choice and Change. New Jersey : Prentice Hall.
Horrocks J.E. (1976). The Psychology of Adolescence. Boston : Houghton
Mifflin Co.
Shea, T. M. (1978). Teaching Children and Youth with Behavior Problems.
Saint Louis : The C.V. Mosby Company.
Suggested Input
1. Behavioural Problems
Defined as abnormal behaviour, outside the social norms of society. They
indicate the individuals inability to adapt or accommodate any changes to
his/her environment.
2. Negative Behavioural Problems
2.1 Destructive
Destructive or antisocial behaviour is one of the most dangerous personality
disorders. There is the disregard of the rights of others and the norms of
society. Antisocial behaviours may range from vandalism, to harassment of
others, to employing tactics to cheat people out of their money, to actual
illegal acts such as stealing, physical aggression against others, stalking,
rape and even homicide.
2.2 Disruptive
Disruptive behaviours are actions that interfere with the activities of an
individual or group. In the classroom setting, disruptive behaviours include
inappropriate talking, laughing, clapping, stamping, shouting, singing,
whistling, and other behaviours that interrupt ongoing activities.

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2.3 Dependent
Passive-dependent behaviours reflect a lack of self-confidence, an inability
to make ones own decisions, or to be alone. Such individuals have such
low self-esteem that they feel helpless without a dominant life mate, friends
who protect them, or relatives who act as protective guardians. They are
overly sensitive to criticism and go to great lengths to make themselves
likable.
2.4 Hyperactive
Hyperactive behaviours include behaviours in which children act impulsively
without thinking, and have difficulty focusing on a single task for more than a
few minutes. In the classroom they leave their seats frequently and fidget
restlessly. Thus they are usually inattentive, have learning problems and
misbehave more than the other students in the class.
2.5 Anxiety
Anxiety may be defined as apprehension without apparent cause. The
overanxious child is one who experiences excessive or unrealistic anxiety. In
addition to appearing nervous or tense, the child may complain of physical
discomfort such as headaches, stomachaches, dizziness, and nausea. Sleep
problems are common.
2.6 Depression
Depression may be defined as a syndrome of abnormally dejected mood
persistent over time that interferes with daily functioning, Both children and
adolescents experience depression. low self-esteem, decreased energy
level, apathy, loss of interest in their usual activities and routines, including
schoolwork.
2.5 Self-withdrawal
Withdrawal is the act of emotionally leaving or escaping from a life situation
that, in the perception of the individual, may cause personal conflict or
discomfort. When confronted with a problem, a person may act aggressively
or he may withdraw and refuse to attempt to cope with or to overcome the

202

problem. Psychologically, withdrawing behaviour is much more serious than

aggressive behaviour. Students who withdraw, tend to admit defeat
Isolation, preoccupation, daydreaming, anxiety or depression are examples
of withdrawal.
2.6 Self-alienation
These students feel estranged from society, cut off, alone, unwanted,
unloved and unvalued. They have low self-esteem, low social interest, and
high self-centrality. They are worried , moody, and depressed over studies,
and feel they are misunderstood by parents, friends and teachers.
Positive Behavioural Problems
2.7 Learners with a high level of curiousity
These students are bright and eager to know, How does this work?, What is
this?, What happens when I pull/push this?. Such students often ask so
many questions, that they tend to disrupt lessons or dominate Question &
Answer sessions.
2.8 Fast learners
Students with a high capacity to absorb what is being taught, with high
reasoning, and analytical abilities. They can grasp concepts quickly and are
able to see the relationships between variables/components as they are
being explained.
2.9 Giftedness
Giftedness, has traditionally been defined in terms of the altitude of an IQ
received as a result of performance on a standard test of intelligence. In the
studies of genius conducted by Terman and his associates (1925) individuals
who had attained an IQ of 130 or above represented the gifted group. Gifted
students represent a group who are intellectually able in academic and other
kinds of learning.

203

2.10

Proactive learners

These students take the initiative to study topics before they are taught by
the teacher, as well do extra work or help with routines in the classroom
without being asked. As a result, they may sometimes disrupt a class by
giving unsolicited answers or comments.
3.

Identification of behavioural problems

3.1 Tests
3.1.1

Psychological
A psychological test is a measurement instrument that has three defining
characteristics : a) A psychological test is a sample of behaviour.
b) The sample is obtained under standardized conditions
c) There are established rules for scoring or for obtaining
quantitative information from the behaviour sample.

3.1.2

Diagnostic
A Diagnostic test helps a psychologist to make a clinical assessment of
the examinee. No individual test provides a complete picture of the
individual, but only a specific piece of information about that person.

3.2 Non formal tests

3.2.1

Observation
One way to learn about behaviour is to observe and record it as it occurs,.
Such observations do not explain behaviour, but they are a rich source of
information about what people do in their natural environments. However
observation has its limitations.
a) Observers are at the mercy of unpredictable events
over which they have little or no control.
b)

There are the problems of observer bias and

expectations influencing which aspects of the
events are attended to and remembered.

c)

critics of this approach question the generalization

of observations based on a few people or
situations.

204

3.2.2

Interview
The interview is one of the oldest and most widely used method of
collecting information about people. In the interview, the interviewer
obtains information from the person being evaluated by asking relevant
questions and listening to answers. The interviewer and the respondent
engage in a face-to-face dialogue for the purpose of achieving a specific
goal.
Interview assessment, when used by a highly skilled interviewer, can
produce extremely valuable information. However, the interpretation
of such data is highly subjective and may reflect theorectical biases
of the interviewer.

3.3 Studies
3.3.1

Case Study
It is an example of qualitative research, a study conducted under
conditions that are not controlled. It is a systematic and extensive
observation of a single individual, or a single group of individuals as a
unit, over an extended period of time.
Most case studies involves only observation and description.

3.3.2

Longitudinal Study
Here the same child or children are observed or tested repeatedly at
different points in their lives, and stability or change in their characteristics
or behaviour is noted over time. This type of study is therefore the most
obvious and direct way to see actual growth or development. Although
longitudinal studies are favoured for studying developmental
characteristics, they are expensive to keep up over time.

3.3.3

Cross-sectional study
Here there is usually only one observation for each child, but
developmental changes are identified by including children of different
ages in the plan of the study. Development is charted, not by observing
the change in individuals over time, as in the longitudinal method, but
rather by noting the differences between children of different ages at the
same point in calendar time.

205

CHAPTER 8 BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover

Meaning of behaviour modification

3.3.4

Internal/self adjustment (adaptation)

3.3.5

external adjustment (modeling)

Techniques of behaviour modification

3.3.6

Reinforcement

3.3.7

Punishment

3.3.8

Shaping

3.3.9

Token economy

3.3.10 Contract
3.3.11 Time out
3.3.12 Modelling
3.3.13 Self-control
3.3.14 Self-management
Key Terms

Behaviour modification

Reinforcement
3.3.15 Positive reinforcers
3.3.16 Negative reinforcers

Punishment

Shaping

Token economy

Contract

Time out

Modelling

Self-control

206

Self-management
-

self-recording

self-instruction

self-reinforcement

self-punishment.

Further Reading
Alberto & Troutman (1986). Applied Behaviour Analysis for Teachers. Toronto :Merrill
Child, D.(1993). Psychology and the Teacher. London : Cassell.
Zirpoli, T.J. & Melloy, K.J. (1993). Behaviour Management. New York : Maxwell
Macmillan International.
Suggested Input
1. Behaviour modification
Involves the systematic application of learning theories to bring about a desired
change in patterns of behaviour.
2. Techniques
2.1 Reinforcement
2.1.1

Positive reinforcers
are intended to maintain or increase the observed behaviour e.g.
encouraging comments, rewards of various kinds.

2.1.2

Negative reinforcers are intended to reduce and even eliminate observed

behaviour e.g. scolding, punishments.

2.2 Punishment
Punishment is an effective procedure for modifying behaviour that has been
acquired through reinforcement. Punishment makes it clear what behaviour is
not wanted, but it does not establish appropriate behaviour. Thus when
punishment is used, it should be used in conjunction with reinforcement for
appropriate behaviour. (In fact, punishment should be used as a last resort, after

207

all other methods have failed).

2.3 Shaping
Shaping is used to teach new behaviours and skills behaviours that are not
already part of the childs repertoire.
The process of shaping :
2.3.1

Determine the terminal behaviour or behavioural goal

2.3.2

Determine the successive steps necessary to complete the terminal

behaviour.

2.3.3

Identify a starting point.

2.3.4

Reinforce each step until the terminal behaviour has been learned.

2.4 Token economy

It is the systematic use of a reinforcement schedule of tokens. Children receive
tokens for specific appropriate behaviours, which they may exchange for objects
or activities that have been identified as reinforcing. After the children have
learned to associate the tokens with the purchase of reinforcers, the tokens
become valuable and desirable.
2.5 Contract
Contracting is placing the contingency for reinforcement into a written document.
As with any contract, the classroom contract should be the product of
reasonable negotiations between the teacher and the student. The exact
wording will contain some form of the basic :
a)

I will do _____________ if you do _______________

b)

If I do _______________ then _________________

Time out
The removal of a child from an apparently reinforcing setting, to a presumably
nonreinforcing setting for a specified and limited period of time. E.g. a child is
withdrawn from a reinforcing situation by :
a) placing him or her on the outer perimeter of the activity, where the child can
see and hear the activity, but not participate.

208

b) The child may also be totally excluded from the activity by placing a screen
around him or put into an isolated room, called the time-out room.
2.6 Modelling
Refers to the observation and learning of new behaviours from others. This
technique calls for the use of one person setting a pattern of behaviour which is
copied by another. Children frequently try to imitate adults or the peer group.
Parents, teachers, friends, famous people are all models.
2.7 Self control
A person is said to show self control whenever he/she rises above the
immediate pressures of the situation or avoids succumbing to an immediate
impulse. Two related aspects of self control that begin to emerge in childhood is,
a) the ability to resist temptation
b) to delay gratification.
2.8 Self-management
All students, typical and handicapped, can be taught to monitor and alter their
own behaviour. These students must be trained in procedures of selfmanagement - self-data recording, self-evaluation, self-reinforcement and
self-punishment. Students can also learn to manipulate their own behaviours
through self-instruction.
2.8.1

Self-recording of data
Here, the student is taught to record the occurrence or nonoccurrence of
the target behaviour, e.g. the student is asked to note each time she raises
her hand before speaking in class or, conversely, each time she calls out
without raising her hand.

2.9.2 Self-instruction
Most of us practise self-instruction by providing ourselves with verbal
prompts. We talk to ourselves as we do complex of unfamiliar tasks. Many
children use such self-instruction naturally.

209

2.9.3

Self-reinforcement or self-punishment
In the classrooms, teachers arrange contingencies. They specify what
behaviours are expected and the consequences for performing those
bahaviours. Contingencies are stated in the form of if.then..
statements: If you complete your compositions, then your will earn one
token. Students may also be allowed to choose behaviours to be modified,
so as to encourage them to manage their own behaviour.

210

CHAPTER 10 : LEARNING

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover

The basic concept of learning

The principles of learning

Types of learning

Key Terms

Learning

Formal learning

Informal learning

Non-formal learning

Further Reading
Biggs, J. & Watkins, D. (ed.)(1995). Classroom Learning: Educational Psychology
for the Asian Teacher. Singapore: Prentice Hall.
Capel, S., Leask, M and Turner, T. (1999). Learning to Teach in the Secondary
School: A Companion to School Experience (2nd. ed.). London: Routledge.
Davis, S.F. & Palladino, J.J. (2000). Psychology (3rd. ed.). New Jersey:Prentice-Hall.
Eggen, P. & Kauchak, D. (1994). Educational Psychology; Classroom Connections
(2nd. ed.) New York: MacMillan College Publishing Co.
Gage, N.L. & Berliner, D.C. (1998). Educational Psychology (6th. ed.).
Boston:Houghton Mifflin.
Klein, S.B. (1991). Learning: Principles and Application (2nd. ed.). Singapore:
McGraw-Hill.

Suggested Input

211

1.

Learning
-

An experiential process resulting in a relatively permanent change in

knowledge or behaviour that cannot be explained by temporary states,
maturation, or innate response tendencies; the change may be deliberate
or unintentional, for better or for worse;

to qualify as learning,

this change must also be brought about by

experience by the interaction of a person with his or her environment;

changes caused by maturation,

such as growing taller and temporary

changes resulting from illness,

injury,

fatigue, emotional distress

or

hunger are also excluded from a general definition of learning;

-

the above definition of learning has three components:

(i)

learning reflects a change in the potentials for a behaviour; it does not

automatically lead to a change in behaviour;

We nust be sufficiently

motivated to translate learning into behaviour, e.g. although you may know
the location of the campus cafeteria, you will not be motivated to go unless
you are hungry;
(ii)

behaviour changes caused by learning are not always permanent. As a

result of new experiences,

previously learned behaviour is no longer

exhibited, e.g. forgetting the story line of a movie is one instance of the
transcient aspect of learning;
(iii)

changes in behaviour can be due to processes other than learning, e.g. our
behaviour can change as the result of motivation rather than learning; you
have learned to study to prevent failure, and your fear motivated studying
behaviour. This behaviour change is temporary: when the motivational
state changes again, the behaviour will also change. Therefore, you will
quit studying when you no longer fear failing the examination. Stopping
studying is another instance where a temporary state rather than learning
leads to a change in behaviour.

2.

Formal Learning
-

refers to a system of education that has been gazetted and arranged

systematically in accordance to the age of the school-growing child;

all the students follow the same curriculum and syllabus whether

212

academic or co-curriculum which is taught by trained individuals;

-

aims to develop the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of the

student; therefore, it encompasses education from the primary to the
secondary level;

evaluation is given emphasis whereby tests and examinations are

administered monthly, at the end of the semester or year.

3.

Informal Learning
-

learning which is acquired through exposure with the environment e.g.

the mass-media ( radio, television, newspapers), educational visits or
tours; interaction with peers etc.;

informal learning takes place unconsciously and is not normally

preplanned.

4.

Non-formal Learning
-

learning which is acquired through short courses, seminars, lectures,

workshops and forums;

non-formal learning is a planned and systematic educational activity and

administered outside of the formal school system;

-

evaluation in the form of tests and examination is not given emphasis.

213

CHAPTER 11 : THE LEARNING PROCESS

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover

various aspects related with the teaching-learning process

Key Terms

Readiness

Motivation

extrinsic motivation

social motivation

achievement motivation

intrinsic motivation

Pattern Recognition
-

Template matching

Prototype

Feature Analysis

Perception
-

Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organisation

Memory
-

Sensory Register

Short-term Memory

Long-term Memory

Forgetting

Transfer of Learning
-

positive versus negative transfer

specific versus general transfer

214

Further Reading
Adams, J. (1967). Human Memory. New York: Mc-Graw-Hill.
Ames, C. & Ames, R. (1989). Research in Motivation in Education. Vol. 3. San Diego:
Academic Press.
Biggs, J. & Watkins, D. (ed.)(1995). Classroom Learning: Educational Psychology
for the Asian Teacher. Singapore: Prentice Hall.
Capel, S., Leask, M and Turner, T. (1999). Learning to Teach in the Secondary
School: A Companion to School Experience (2nd. ed.). London: Routledge.
Cormier, S. & Hagman, J. (1987). Transfer of Learning. San Diego, CA: Academic
Press.
Davis, S.F. & Palladino, J.J. (2000). Psychology (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Eysenck, M. (1977). Human Memory: Theory, Research and Individual
Differences. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Grose, R. & Birney, R. (1963). Transfer of Learning. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.
Hamachek, D. (1990). Psychology in Teaching, Learning and Growth (4th. ed.)
Massachusettes; Allyn & Bacon.
Keller, J. (1983). Motivational design of instruction. In C. Riegeluth (ed.). Instructional
Design Theories and Models. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Malone, T. (1981). Towards a theory of instrinsically motivating instruction. Cognitive
Science. 4. 333-369.
Omrod, J.E. (2000). Educational Psychology: Developing Learners (3rd. ed.). New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Travers, J.F., Elliot, S.N. & Kratachwill, T.R. (1993). Educational Psychology. Brown &
USA: Benchmark.
Wakefield, J.F. (1996). Educational Psychology: Learning to be a Problem Solver.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Weiner, B. (1986). Human Motivation. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
http://ivs.uidaho.edu./mod/models/gardner/index.html.

215

Suggested Input
1.

Readiness
-

a set of conditions within both an individual and his or her environment that
make a task appropriate to master;

readiness is a level of preparedness to learn more complex skills, e.g.

hopping must be mastered before a child can play hop-scotch.

2. Motivation
-

something that is acted on an individual to produce a certain kind of

behaviour, which was maintained at a certain level of intensity, and which
was directed at a definite goal. Thus motivation arouses, sustains, directs
and integrates an individuals behaviour;

behavioral theories tend to focus on extrinsic motivation (i.e. rewards) while

cognitive theories deal with intrinsic motivation (i.e. goals);

Intrinsically motivating activities provide learners with a broad range of

challenge, concrete feedback, and clear-cut criteria for performance;

there are four categories of motivation:

(i)

extrinsic motivation
students learn because of the consequences: to obtain a reward, or avoid
punishment for not doing it;

(ii)

social motivation
students learn in order to please people who are important to them, e.g.
their families;

(iii)

achievement motivation
students learn in order to compete against other students: winning makes
them feel good;

(iv)

intrinsic motivation
students learn because they are interested in the task or activity itself, and
performing it gives them pleasure.

216

3.

Pattern Recognition
-

a process whereby environmental stimuli are recognized as exemplars

of concepts and principles already in memory;

consists of simply matching the incoming information to the appropriate

template in memory (template matching) , comparing the incoming
information with the prototype (prototype), and analyzing incoming
information for the presence of distinctive features (feature analysis) e.g.
variations of the letter A:

Aa

In order for us to recognize all of those figures as representations of the letter A,

we would have to have templates in memory to match each one; all of the letters
are similar enough to the assumed prototype to be recognized as As; and all
stimulus letters would be analysed for defining features and, if found, would be
identified as As.
4.

Perception
-

the process of organising and giving meaning to the discrete, meaningless

stimuli that initially aroused awareness through our sensory receptors;

if the receptors do not receive stimulation from the environment or are

unable to process the information they receive,

no information is

transmitted to the brain, and perception does not occur, e.g. people who
are colour blind cannot tell from their perception of colour when a traffic
light is red or when it is green;

because they cannot sense colour

information, they depend on brightness and position cues to determine the

colour of the signal;
-

we do not perceive everything in our environment; our motives greatly

influence our perceptions; similarly, certain stimuli are more likely than
others to attract our attention
Gestalt Principles of perceptual organisation

217

we organise our perceptual world by sorting stimuli into figure and

background (ground);

for example, while driving have you ever stopped next to a large truck at a
traffic light? Suddenly, you feel yourself moving backward. Your foot is on
the brake, and you push harder; Nothing happens the backward motion
continues. Unconsciously, you perceived your car as the figure and the
larger truck as the ground. Because figures normally move across a
background, you perceived yourself, rather than the truck, as the moving
object;

we also organise our perceptions by grouping elements; think of how much

trouble you would have if you had to deal with every perceptual element
independently; the letters you are reading fall into groups we call words;
(i)

proximity perceptual elements that are close together are seen as a

group, e.g. XXX

(ii)

XXX;

similarity - items that are alike are grouped together: XXXOOO,

perceived as three Xs and three Os;

(iii)

good continuation and direction - we perceive continuous, flowing

lines more easily than choppy or broken lines;

(iv)

inclusiveness - a smaller figures identity may be lost within a larger,

more complex figure;

(v)

closure organizing perceptions into whole objects is easier than

perceiving separate parts independently.

5.

Memory
-

learners ability to save things (mentally) that they have previously

learned;

the storage and retrieval of information. Three levels, based on period of

retention, are postulated: ultra-short (sensory register), short (working
memory), and long (long term memory);

218

Sensory Register
-

provides temporary storage for incoming in-coming information;

all sensory impressions or information are held and scanned (pre-coding)

for a period lasting up to one second, depending on the strength of the
stimulus;

Short-term Memory
-

consists of whatever is in our immediate consciousness at any given time

(working memory);

what we are thinking about in short-term memory lasts about twenty

seconds or so, after which it is either permanently lost or stored in longterm memory;

the key to short-term memory function is rehearsal , which refers to data

that is processed and then transformed into meaningful information so that
it can be encoded into long-term memory;

Long-term Memory
-

where we store everything we know information of which we are not

immediately conscious;

6.

can handle unlimited amounts of information and retain it indefinitely.

Forgetting
-

does not refer to an abnormal loss of memory occasioned by aging, shock

or brain injury; it refers to the idea that new information interferes with
remembering old information;

psychologists have several explanations for why people seem to forget:

(i)

failure to encode means that the information sought during

retrieval was never learned in the first place (e.g. learners with
ineffective learning strategies);

(ii)

failure to retrieve refers to the inability to access previously

learned

information

that

is

stored

in

long-term

memory;

sometimes we stumble on the information at a later time and

sometimes we never do retrieve the information at all (e.g. things
learned at a rote level or because of insufficient retrieval cues);

219

(iii)

interference which means that other events or information got in

the way of effective retrieval; things were getting mixed up;

(iv)

decay where

information may weaken over time and perhaps

disappear altogether , especially if it is not used on a regular

basis;
(v)

failure to store: where the information never reached the longterm memory to begin with.

7.

Transfer of Learning
-

the ability to apply something learned in one situation to another setting;

improved performance on one task as a result of something acquired on a
previous task;

how learning one topic influences later learning; may be positive (as when
learning one topic helps an individual to learn another knowing how to
add and subtract helped him to master long division); or negative (as when
learning one topic hinders the learning of another knowing one word
processing programme may interfere with the learning of a new,

more

powerful programme);
-

when transfer occurs because the original learning task and the transfer
task overlap in content, we have specific transfer;

when learning in one

situation affects learning and performance in a somewhat dissimilar

situation, we have general transfer;
-

behavioural theories discuss transfer in terms of stimulus/response

generalisations or interference;

cognitive theories discuss transfer in terms of restructuring of knowledge

and the concepts of schema or mental models;

social learning theories deal with transfer through modeling or imitation;

education should foster transfer i.e. the things learned in schools are
intended to prepare students for life outside the schools. However, this
does not happen nearly as often as educators hope.

This is because

learning is situated, people have trouble applying the knowledge learned in

one setting, and in one group, to another setting, or in another group;

220

CHAPTER 12 : LEARNING STYLES

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover

Basic concepts of learning styles

Types of learning styles

Implications for teachers

Key Terms

Learning Styles
-

Activist

Reflective

Theorist

Pragmatist

Further Reading
Cotton, J. (1995). The Theory of Learning Strategies: An Introduction. London:
Kogan Page.
Entwistle, N. (1988). Styles of Learning and Teaching: An Integrated Outline of
Educational Psychology for Students, Teachers, and Lecturers. Great
Britain: David Fulton.
Suggested Input
1. Learning Styles
-

the different ways of learning, each valid for a particular student, to enable the
teacher to explore various ways of teaching in order to accommodate the vast
array of learner differences.

221

Activist
-

the student takes an active part in the process of learning and thus will not have
micro-sleeps when attention wanders;

the student takes a personal stake in learning and a sense of personal

ownership of new knowledge;

the student is usually a willing partner in the learning process and so the teacher
does not have to drag reluctant students through education or training
processes;

active students will only work if the teacher organises a session so that each
person can take part in the learning process and individual needs are taken into
account;

Reflective
-

the student thinks and reviews new information and knowledge and observations
to be fitted into existing knowledge; analyses and deliberates before answering;

the reflective student is thus able to add more information to his long-term
memory and may engage in a meaningless and possibly damaging, process of
introspection in which no learning takes place at all.

Theorist
the student searches for proof in order to make generalization in laws and theory
(mathematics, physical sciences, fine arts, religion, philosophy and so on.);
Pragmatist
-

the student just wants to know if something works; he does not worry about proof.

222

CHAPTER 13 : THEORIES OF LEARNING

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover

The various theories of learning

Key Terms

Behaviourist Theory
-

Conditioning

Classical Conditioning: neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus,

unconditioned response, conditioned response, conditioned stimulus

- Operant Conditioning
reinforcers primary, secondary, positive, negative, punishment, extinction

Cognitive-Developmental Theory

Constructivist Theory

Further Reading
Biggs, J. & Watkins, D. (ed.)(1995). Classroom Learning: Educational Psychology
for the Asian Teacher. Singapore: Prentice Hall.
Crowl, T.K., Kaminsky, S. & Podell, D.M. (1997). Educational Psychology: Windows
on Teaching. USA : Brown & Benchmark.
Davis, S.F. & Palladins, J.J. (2000). Psychology (3rd.ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Eggen, P. & Kauchak, D. (1994). Educational Psychology; Classroom Connections
(2nd. ed.) New York: MacMillan College Publishing Co.
Woolfolk, A. (2001). Educational Psychology ( 8th. ed.). USA : Allyn & Bacon.
http://tip.psychology.org./bruner.html

223

Suggested Input
1.

Behaviourist Theory
-

behaviourists emphasise the role of experience in governing behaviour;

the important processes governing behaviour are learned where both the
drives that initiate behaviour and the specific behaviour motivated by those
drives are learned through our interaction with the environment;

behaviourists also use the concept of conditioning to explain how learning

occurs.

1.1

Conditioning
-

the process by which an organisms behaviour becomes associated with

some stimulus in the environment, so that when the stimulus is presented,
the behaviour occurs;

behaviourists proposes two kinds of conditioning to account for learning:

classical conditioning and operant conditioning;

1.2

Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning)

-

Ivan Pavlov discovered the process of classical conditioning while carrying

out his well-known studies of the salivation response of dogs;

a form of learning that occurs when two stimuli a neutral stimulus

(reaction that is automatically produced when an unconditioned stimulus is
presented) and an unconditioned stimulus (event that automatically
produces a response without any previous training) that are paired
(presented together) become associated with each other;

the response is either called the unconditioned response (reaction that is

automatically produced when an unconditioned stimulus is presented) or
the conditioned response (response elicited by a conditioned stimulus that
has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus; is similar to the
unconditioned response);

in terms of Pavlovs study, salivation (the unconditioned response) at first

occurred in the presence of food (the unconditioned stimulus), but after the
food was paired with the bell, salivation (now the conditioned response)

224

occurred in the presence of the bell (the conditioned stimulus neutral

stimulus that acquires the ability to elicit a conditioned response after being
paired with an unconditioned stimulus).
1.3

Operant Conditioning (instrumental conditioning)

-

learning that occurs when the participant must make a response to produce
a change in the environment;

If you respond in a particular way to a particular stimulus and the

consequences are pleasant, you are likely to respond the same way the
next time you encounter the stimulus;

Reinforcers
refers to stimuli that makes the behaviour it follows more likely to occur

again;
(i)

Primary reinforcer
Stimulus that has innate reinforcing properties; for a hungry person, food
is a primary reinforcer;

(ii)

Secondary reinforcer
Stimulus that acquires reinforcing properties by being associated with a
primary reinforcer; money is a good example by itself, money has no
intrinsic value; children learn that money can be exchanged for primary
reinforcers such as toys;

(iii)

Positive reinforcers is the presentation of a pleasant stimulus (food,

water, praise) that are presented after the target response occurs e.g. when
a student spontaneously offers help to another student, a teacher may
reinforce the student with a compliment;

(iv) Negative reinforcers refers to a method of increasing behaviour

through the removal of an unpleasant stimulus following a response, e.g. a
student with a speech difficulty may not speak in class because the speech
difficulty causes other students to laugh. If the teacher explains the
inhibiting effect of their laughter and persuades them to stop, the student
may speak in class. The removal of the unpleasant stimulus will increase
the frequency of the students response;

225

Punishment
the presentation of a stimulus that produces a decrease in responding; may
take the form of presentation of a stimulus (positive punisher) or removal
of a stimulus (negative punisher); if a student is scolded for playing in
class, that behaviour is likely to occur less often (positive punisher),
suspending a basketball player for violating training rules (negative
punisher);
Extinction
removing a pleasant stimulus that previously followed a response thus
decreasing the frequency of the response, e.g. a teacher may have been
inadvertently rewarding students for calling out by allowi them to speak in
the class discussion. However, after realising this, the teacher may
ignore calling out and recognise only students who raise their hand. As a
result, the calling-out behaviour can be expected to decrease;
Extinction and negative reinforcers involve removing stimuli to change
behaviour. Positive reinforcers and punishment involve introducing
stimuli to change behaviour.
2.

Cognitive- Developmental Theory

-

focuses on changes that occur in how people think as they progress from
infancy through childhood and adolescence and ultimately into adulthood;

Jean Piaget viewed children as active learners who behave like little
scientists who develop their own theories about how the world works and
set out to confirm these hunches. Such a view contrasts with the view of
behaviourists, who see the child as a passive learner who merely react to
environmental stimuli;

Piagets main concern was to discover how people acquire knowledge,

which is often called the epistemological question;

Piaget proposes that throughout the lifespan,

people go through a

sequence of four qualitatively different stages of thinking:

(i) Infants acquire knowledge based on the sensory experiences of sight,
hearing, touch, taste, and smell;

226

(ii)

Preschoolers progress to the stage of acquiring knowledge of the world

through their perceptions of their own experiences in the world;

(iii) Older children begin to apply the rules of logic to understand how the world
works;
(iv) Adolescents and adults progress to the stage where they can apply logic to
hypothetical as well as to real situations.
-

Piaget believed that people are constantly trying to make sense of the world
by comparing their internal understanding of how the world works with
external environment;

Learning occurs when people, even young students, periodically alter their
internal understanding of the world as they encounter external evidence
that conflicts with their previous understanding;

Given Piagets theory, therefore, an important role of the teacher is to

provide students with experiences that will help them develop a more
accurate understanding of how the world works.

3.

Constructivist Theory
- According to constructivists, people construct knowledge on the basis of
their experiences; knowledge may be received, accumulated, and stored,
but the strongest or deepest ways of knowing come form an individuals
active construction of meaning through his or her interactions with physical
and social environments;
-

People need opportunities to explore and experiment, just as the child

continually dropping the toy is actually experimenting with the predictability
of gravity;

Constructivist teachers want to enable their students to test new ideas,

elaborate on information, solve the puzzles of daily life, create new
responses to situations in short, to construct the knowledge they need to
function in their world;

The goal of constructivist teachers are for learning to take place in rich and
meaningful contexts that promote thoughtfulness, reflection, and critical
thinking, and incorporate authentic activities and assessments into
instruction;

227

To achieve this, these teachers choose particular kinds of classroom

activities that help students learn to negotiate among themselves for
meaning, e.g. a teacher may use projects of depth, complexity, and
sustained duration to enhance motivation and critical thinking.

228

CHAPTER 14 : IMPLICATIONS OF THE LEARNING PROCESS AND ITS THEORIES

IN THE CLASSROOM*
In this chapter, we shall cover

Classroom management

Methods of teaching

Lesson Planning

* Kindly refer to the PEDAGOGY COMPONENT

229

CHAPTER 15 : THINKING SKILLS

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover

Basic concept of thinking skills

Importance of thinking skills

Left-brain and right-brain learning

Types of intelligences

Importance of mastering thinking skills

Key Terms

Thinking skills
-

cognitive resources

cognitive strategies

Left-brain and right-brain learning

Intelligence
-

Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligence

Epistemology (Knowledge)
Types of knowledge
-

domain-specific knowledge

general knowledge

declarative knowledge

procedural knowledge

Further Reading
Biggs, J. & Watkins, D. (ed.)(1995). Classroom Learning: Educational Psychology
for the Asian Teacher. Singapore: Prentice Hall.
Blagg, N., Ballinger, M. & Gardner, R. (1988). Somerset Thinking Skills Course
Handbook. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Borich, G.D. & Tombari, M.L. (1997). Educational Psychology: A Contemporary

230

Approach (2nd. ed.). New York:Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

Crowl, T.K., Kaminsky, S. & Podell, D.M. (1997). Educational Psychology: Windows
on Teaching. USA : Brown & Benchmark.
Hergenhahn, B.R. (1988). An Introducion to Theories of Learning (3rd. ed.).
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Omrod, J.E. (2000). Educational Psychology (3rd.ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Suggested Input
1.

Thinking skills
-

cognitive strategies that help individuals efficiently and accurately process

information;

focuses on two broad groups, namely, cognitive resources and cognitive

strategies:
Cognitive resources
-

include concepts, knowledge and tricks of the trade as well as verbal tools
necessary to name and understand the things we observe, experience and

feel.
Cognitive strategies
-

refer to higher-level general control processes concerned with the selection

and co-ordination of specific cognitive resources for particular purposes;

the explicit emphasis on teaching thinking is because students in general

seem to fare poorly on achievement measure; hence thinking skills as a
vehicle may help to reverse the pattern to a certain extent;

2.

Left brain, Right brain Learning (hemispheric functioning)

anatomatically, the cerebral cortex is bilaterally symmetrical, i.e. one

hemisphere appears to be physically the same as the other; control over
the bodys movement and sensation is divided evenly but in a crossed

231

fashion between the two hemispheres; however the two hemispheres are
not functionally symmetrical;
Left hemisphere (left brain)

concerned with verbal, logical, analytical, rational and objective

processes;

Right hemisphere (right brain)

3.

concerned with non-verbal, synthetic, intuitive and subjective processes.

Intelligence
-

an assumption concerning the general ability of a person which can be

seen as the quality of the persons thinking in terms of abstract thinking,
learning and the ability to solve problems;

the ability to excel at a variety of tasks,

especially those related to

academic success
3.1

Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligence

-

In Gardners theory of intelligence, a person possesses eight separate

abilities:
logical-mathematical, verbal, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist;

(i)

Logical-mathematical: sensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logical or

numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning;

(ii)

Linguistic:

sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of

words;
sensitivity to the different functions of language;
(iii)

Musical:

abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and

timbre;
appreciation of the forms of musical expressiveness;
(iv)

Spatial:

capacities to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and

to
perform transformations on ones initial perceptions;
(v)

Bodily-kinesthetic:

abilities to control ones body movements and to

handle objects skillfully;

232

(vi)

Interpersonal:

capacities to discern and respond appropriately to the

moods, temperaments, motivators, and desires of other people;

(vii)

Intrapersonal:

access to ones own feelings and the ability to

discriminate among them and draw on them to guide behavior; knowledge

of ones own strengths, weaknesses, desires and intelligence;
(viii)

Naturalist: abilities to recognize plants and animals, to make distinctions

in the natural world, to understand systems and define categories.

5.

Epistemology (Knowledge)
the branch of philosophy concerned with the origin, nature , and limits of
knowledge;

5.1

Types of knowledge
Cognitive psychologists have classified knowledge in a variety of ways:
-

domain-specific knowledge, or knowledge of facts, concepts, and

principles pertaining to a specific area or topic, e.g. how an engine works;

general knowledge, which is knowledge useful for learning across a variety

of school tasks, e.g. how to use a dictionary;

declarative knowledge is another name for verbal information; the facts,

concepts, principles, and theories that we learn from lectures, or studying
textbooks,(where we store the gist of the message more frequently than
we store the words themselves); knowledge that relates to the nature of
how things are;

procedural knowledge is know-how: we learn how to do things; knowledge

of the action sequences involved in booting a floppy disk, tying your shoes,
writing an outline, etc;

233

CHAPTER 16 : THINKING PROCESS

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover the

Various steps of thinking

Key Terms

Compare and contrast

Inference

Generalisations

Decision-making

Problem-solving

Well-defined problems
Ill-defined problems

Problem-solving stages
Further Reading
Eggen, P. & Kauchak, D. (1994). Educational Psychology; Classroom Connections
(2nd. ed.) New York: MacMillan College Publishing Co.
Klein, S.B. (1991). Learning: Principles and Application (2nd. ed.). Singapore:
McGraw-Hill.
Omrod, J.E.(2000). Educational Psychology: Developing Learners (3rd. ed.). New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Polya, G. (1957). How to solve it. (2nd. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/6/cu11.html

234

Suggested Input
1.

Compare and contrast

the ability to identify similarities and differences between two or more

objects, events, organisms, ideas, systems or institutions;

a prerequisite for more complex skills such as classifying, defining and

making analogies;

the teacher is encouraged to use graphic organisers which requires

students to answer the following questions:

2.

(i)

what needs to be compared and contrasted?

(ii)

what are their similarities ?

(iii)

what are their differences?

(iv)

what are the patterns of similarities and differences?

(v)

what conclusions can you draw?

Inferences
-

the act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or

assumed to be true;

the act of reasoning from factual knowledge or evidence;

an inference is literally that which is brought in; and hence, a deduction or

induction from premises, - something which follows as certainly or
probably true; a conclusion is stronger than an inference; it shuts us up to
the result, and terminates inquiry. We infer what is particular or probable;
we conclude what is certain;

in a chain of reasoning, we have many inferences, which lead to the

ultimate conclusion;

3.

Generalisations
-

exploring ways in which objects, events, problems and experiences can

be inter-related considering whether:

(i)

the problem-solving approach applies to other context;

(ii)

there are any lessons that can be learned from the activities;

(iii)

any rules and principles can be derived from the activity;

235

(iv)

the rules and principles derived from the task can be applied to other
problems/tasks ;

making a general statement about a certain object, event , problem or

experience based on evidence obtained from data collected;

4.

consideration should be given to the following aspects:

(i)

what is the generalization to be made?

(ii)

what sample is needed to support the generalization?

(iii)

is the sample size big enough/

(iv)

is the generalization supported by a good sample?

(v)

if not, what additional sample is required

Decision making
-

the use of thinking processes to choose one or several options after

consideration of facts or ideas, possible alternatives and their advantages
and disadvantages, probable consequences, and personal values;

decision making may include six steps:

(i)

define the goal or problem (e.g. What do you have to decide?);

(ii)

identify alternatives (What things could you do?);

(iii)

analyse the alternatives( What might happen if you decide to do this?);

(v)

rank the alternatives (Which of these choices do you think is the most
desirable?, Why?, Next desirable?, Why?);

(v)

judge the highest-ranked alternatives (How good is the decision?) and

(vi)

choose the best alternative (Remembering all the things we have said,
what do you think is the best choice? Why?)

decision steps can be taught directly and practiced in class discussions,

with questions being asked to guide students through the steps;

students can be encouraged to use decision-making steps through informal

as well as academic interactions;

236

5.

Problem Solving
-

an activity that brings both domain-specific knowledge and cognitive

strategies to bear on a situation in which the goal is specified, but the
means for getting there is not; problem-solving involves using all available
resources to reach that goal;
problem-solving skills can be learned with the help of explicit instruction in

the form of coaching as students work on problems, e.g. as students are

working in small groups to solve problems, the teacher can ask questions
such as, What (exactly) are you doing?, Why are you doing it? How
does it help you?;
virtually all problems can be considered to be either well-defined or ill-

defined (or perhaps somewhere in between;

Well-defined problems
-

one in which the goal id clearly stated, all information needed to solve the
problem is present, and only one correct answer exists;

Ill-defined problems
one in which the desired goal is unclear, information needed to solve the

problem is missing, or several possible solutions to the problem exist.

5.1

Problem- Solving Stages

Polya (1957) outlined the following four steps:
(i)

Understanding the Problem

-

defining the problem in such a way that a solution is possible;

background or domain-specific knowledge is essential; if this

knowledge is missing, the teacher must supply learning activities that
provide it;

(ii)

Devising a Plan
-

once the problem is framed and understood, a plan needs to be

prepared;

some strategies to expand the search for a viable plan are as follows:
restate the problem; reason by analogy or find a related problem;
break into subparts; work backward from proposed solution;

237

(iii)

Implementing the Plan

- involves selecting and executing the most promising idea;
-

students should be encouraged to gather data that will help them

evaluate whether or not the plan was effective;

(iv)

Evaluating the Results

-

it encourages students to look back not only on the immediate results

but also on the process in general;

teachers should ask questions such as, Did our plan achieve its
intended goal? Should we have altered any component? What did
we learn from the process?

238

CHAPTER 17 : TYPES OF THINKING

Overview
In this chapter, we shall cover the

Various types of thinking

Key Terms

Convergent Thinking

Divergent Thinking

Reflective Thinking

Lateral Thinking

Vertical Thinking

Critical Thinking

verbal reasoning

arguement analysis

hypothesis testing

decision making

Creative Thinking

Further Reading
Biggs, J. & Watkins, D. (ed.)(1995). Classroom Learning: Educational Psychology
for the Asian Teacher. Singapore: Prentice Hall.
Carreio, P. (1988). Tales of Thinking: Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom. New
York: Stenhouse.
Kneedler, P. (1985). California Assesses Critical Thinking. In Costa, A. (ed.).
Developing Minds: A Resource Book for Thinking. pg. 277.
Omrod, J.E. (2000). Educational Psychology: Developing Learners (3rd. ed.). New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Wakefield, J.F. (1996). Educational Psychology: Learning to be a Problem Solver.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

239

Wilson, J. & Lesley Wing Jan. (1993). Thinking for Themselves: Developing
Strategies for Reflective Learning. Australia: Eleanor Curtain.
Suggested Input
1.

Convergent Thinking

the ability to identify only one answer; narrowing possibilities to a single

answer; finding the right answer to a well-defined problem;

For example, consider this question, Why do people commonly read a

newspaper? This is a convergent question because there are only a few
reasons people commonly read a newspaper for news, ads, opinions,
or entertainment. Thought converges on these few answers, ruling out
alternatives;

2.

Divergent Thinking
-

the ability to propose many different ideas or alternative solutions to an

open-ended problem, e.g. What are some possible uses of a newspaper,
other than reading it?; this question is open-ended because there are
many possible uses newspaper is used to pack material, catch drops,
start fires, clean windows, wrap fish, insulate against the cold, and to
generate cash as a recycleable, to mention just a few uses;

3.

Reflective Thinking

the ability to link ideas to previous/current and predicted experiences,

question and self-question, assess self and the situation;

mulling over experiences, deliberating over possible alternative actions and

setting agendas in the light of expected events and actions;

sometimes leads to creative thinking and vice versa; linked to critical

thinking because questioning and assessing involves organizing,
reasoning, hypothesizing and predicting;

240

4.

Lateral Thinking
-

the ability to generate divergent ideas from the various solutions of a

problem;

5.

6.

is likened to ploughing a piece of land horizontally to cover a wide area;

trains the mind towards creative thinking as new ideas are generated.

Vertical Thinking
-

the ability to generate one idea or solution to a problem;

is likened to digging a hole vertically in order to attain depth;

Critical Thinking
-

the ability to evaluate conclusions by logically and systematically examining

the problem, the evidence, and the solution;

examples of critical thinking skills include:

(i)

(ii)

defining and clarifying the problem

-

identify central issues;

compare similarities and differences;

determine which information is relevant;

formulate appropriate questions

judging information related to the problem

-

distinguish among fact, opinion, and reasoned judgement;

check consistency;

identify unstated assumptions;

recognize stereotypes and clichs;

recognize bias, emotional factors, propangada, and semantic

slanting;

(iii)

recognize different value systems and ideologists

solving problems/ drawing conclusions

-

recognize the adequacy of data

predict probable consequences.

critical thinking may take a variety of forms, depending on the context:

(i)

verbal reasoning: understanding and evaluating the persuasive

techniques to be found in oral and written language;

241

(ii)

arguement analysis: discriminating between reasons that do and do

not support a particular conclusion;

(iii)

hypothesis testing: evaluating the value of data and research results

in terms of the methods used to obtain them and their potential
relevance to particular conclusions;

(iv)

decision making: identifying several alternatives and selecting the

best alternative.

7.

Creative Thinking

an imaginative, original thinking or problem-solving;

the ability to generate new ideas, find and consider alternatives, explore
available options and challenge options

242

TEACHER
PROFESSIONALISM

243

CHAPTER 1: PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover

Philosophy of Education
-

Basic Concepts of philosophy and education

Western Philosophy of Education

-

traditional

modern

Islamic Philosophy of Education

-

Concepts of Islamic philosophy

The National Philosophy of Education

-

Factors influencing the formulation of the National Philosophy of Education

Elements in the National Philosophy of Education

The Philosophy of Teacher Education

-

Goals

Conceptual Model of Teacher Education

Teaching Values

Implications of the national philosophy of education and the philosophy of teacher

education on the role of the teacher as an educator

Key Terms

Philosophy

Education

Realism

Idealism

Pragmatism

Existentialism

Metaphysics

Axiology

Epistemology

Logic

244

Perennialism

Essensialism

Progressivism

Reconstructionism

National Philosophy of Education

Philosophy of teacher education

Islamic Philosophy of Education

Further Reading
Armstrong,D.G., Henson, K.T. & Savage,T.V. (1995). Education : An Introduction. New
York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Ozmon,H.A. & Craver, S.M. (1995). Philosophical Foundations of Education.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Teacher Education Division. 1982. The Philosophy of Education (Report of the National
Workshop and Survey), Ministry of Education.
http://www.moe.gov.my
http://cw.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/armstrong3/chapter3/chapter12/deluxe.html
http://www.siu.edueyctr/cdromsup.html
http://www.soe.purdue.edu/fac/georgeoff/phil am ed/essentialism.html
http://www.morehead-st.edu/people/w.willis/fourtheories.html

245

Suggested Input
1. Philosophy
Philosophy literally means love for wisdom and has traditionally implied the pursuit
of wisdom.
It is a comprehensive, holistic and logical investigation on human thoughts in the
field of religion, arts, science and education.
2. Metaphysics
Metaphysics is concerned with the nature of reality. It is defined as beyond the
physical

or the material. It deals with questions that go beyond what can be

answered by reference to scientific investigation. It is speculative and focus on

issues as the nature of cause-effect relationships. It relates to teaching in terms of
thoughts about educational goals, the selection of appropriate content and
educational goals, and attitudes towards the general nature of learners.
Metaphysics asks such questions as the following: Is there a body of universal
knowledge to be learned? Who should decide what is to be learned? Are learners
basically good and trustworthy?
3. Epistemology
3.1 Epistemology is concerned with the nature of knowledge.

Answers to

epistemological questions provide a rationale for selecting material that is

worth teaching and learning and suggest how information should be taught.
Two basic epistemological questions are:
What constitutes knowledge?
Is knowledge fixed or changing?
3.2 Another basic epistemological question centers on what might be described as
ways of knowing and the reliability of methods of knowing. Basically the issue
is one of whether knowledge comes from revelation, from authority, from
intuition, from the senses or from reason or experimentation.

246

3.3 Teachers approaches to teaching content to learners says a good deal about
their own answers to basic epistemological questions. For example, a teacher
who insists that learners master specific facts and principles that others have
discovered operates on the assumption that there is such a thing as true
knowledge. Other teachers who are more interested in teaching the processes
of problem-solving, imply that there is no ultimate truth and that it makes
better sense for youngsters to learn some skills that will be useful to them in
arriving at answers that are situational specific.

4. Axiology
4.1 Axiology focuses on questions about what ought to be. It deals with the nature
of values and relates to the teaching of moral values and character
development. The topics of morality, ethics and aesthetics fall into this
philosophical category. Some questions associated with axiology are :
How should life be lived?
What is the nature of existence?
Does life have any meaning?
What is moral and immoral?
What is beauty?
4.2 Another important axiological question of a different kind concerns the nature of
right conduct. How should a person behave? What is moral behaviour? How
do individuals know when they are doing the right thing? Some argue that there
are universal principles or guidelines that can be followed. Some reject the idea
but contend that appropriateness of behaviour is situation-specific.
5. Logic
5.1 Logic is the science of exact thought and it deals with the relationships among
ideas and with the procedures used to differentiate between valid and fallacious
thinking. Logic can help you to communicate more effectively by encouraging a
careful, systematic arrangement of the thoughts. It can assist you as you work to

247

evaluate the consistency of learners reasoning. It also contributes to your ability

to assess the reliability of the new information you encounter.
5.2 There are two basic types of logic- deductive and inductive logic. Deductive logic
begins with a a general conclusion and then elucidates this conclusion by citing
examples and particulars that logically flow from it. Inductive logic begins with
particulars then reasoning focuses on these particulars and proceeds to a
general conclusion that explains them.

6. Realism
6.1 Realism stresses on objective knowledge and values. The essential doctrines of
realism hold that (1) there is a world of real existence that human beings have
not made or constructed; (2)this real existence can be known by the human
mind; and (3) such knowledge is the only reliable guide to human conduct both
individual and social.
6.2 Reality is objective and is composed of matter and form. It is fixed based on
natural law. Knowing consists of sensation and abstraction. Values are absolute
and eternal, based on natures laws.
6.3 The realist stresses a curricular consisting of organized, separate subject
matter, content and knowledge that classifies objects. The most general and
abstract subjects are at the top of the curricular hierarchy and gives particular
and transitory subjects at a lower order of priority. Logic and lessons that
exercise the mind and that cultivate rational thought are stressed. Concepts and
systems that can be organized into subjects such as ethical, political and
economic thought are included in the curriculum. The three Rs are also
necessary in a persons basic education.
6.4 Realist views subject matter experts as the source of authority and reality and
truth emanate from both science and art.

248

7. Idealism
7.1 Reality is spiritual or mental and unchanging. Knowing is the rethinking of latent
ideas and values are absolute, eternal and universal.
7.2 Idealists stressed on the importance of mind over matter. Ideas are the only true
reality.

They do not reject matter, but hold that the material world is

characterized by change,

instability and uncertainty while ideas are enduring.

7.3 Idealists conceive of people as thinking beings, having minds capable of seeking
truth through reasoning and of obtaining truth by revelation.
7.4 It is concerned with the student as one who has enormous potential for growth,
both morally and cognitively.
7.5 Curriculum is hierarchical and it constitutes the cultural heritage of mankind; it is
based on learned disciplines, illustrated by the liberal arts curriculum. The most
general subjects are philosophy and theology; mathematics is important with
history and literature being sources of moral and cultural models. Natural and
physical sciences are lower down the hierarchy while language is an important
subject for communication and facilitates conception of thought.
8. Pragmatism
8.1 Reality is the interaction of an individual with the environment or experience
and it is also changing. Knowing results from experiencing and the use of
scientific method. Values are situational or relative.
8.2 It is based on change, process and relativity. It construes knowledge as a
process in which reality is constantly changing. Learning occurs as the
person engages in problem solving.
8.3 Pragmatists believe that nothing can be viewed intelligently except in relation
to a pattern. The whole affects the parts and the parts and the whole are all
relative. Teaching is more exploratory and what is needed is a method for
dealing with change and scientific investigation in a intelligent manner.
8.4 Dewey viewed education as a process for improving the human condition.
The curriculum is for based on the childs experiences and interests and
prepares him or her lifes affairs and for the future.

The subject is

interdisplinary ; the stress is on problem-solving.

249

8.5 Pragmatists consider teaching and learning to be a process of reconstructing

experience according to the scientific method. Learning takes place in an
active way as learners solve problems.
9. Existentialism
9.1 Reality is subjective, with existence preceding essence. Knowing to make
personal choices and should be freely chosen.
9.2 Existentialists prefer to free learners to choose what to study and also to
determine what is true and by what criteria to determine these truths. Learners
are free to choose from the many available learning situations. Learners are
free to choose the knowledge they wish to possess.
9.3 Existentialist curriculum would consist of experiences and subjects that lend
themselves to philosophical dialogue and acts of choice making. Subjects that
are emotional, esthetic and philosophical are appropriate. Literature, drama ,
film making and art are important because they portray human condition and
choice-making conditions. The

curriculum

would

stress self-expressive

activities, experimentation and methods and media that illustrate emotions,

feelings and insights.
10. Perennialism
10.1 Perennialism is rooted in realism. It aims to educate the rational person and to
cultivate the intellect. Focus on past and permanent studies; mastery of facts
and timeless knowledge.
10.2 Teacher helps students think rationally; based on Socratic method, oral
exposition; explicit teaching of traditional values.
10.3 The curriculum is a common one and subject-centered. Emphasis on
language, literature and mathematics, arts and sciences.
10.4 The teacher is viewed as an authority in the field whose knowledge and
expertise are unquestionable. The teacher is the master of the subject and
must be able to guide discussion.

250

11. Essentialism
11.1 Essensialism is rooted in both realism and idealism. It aims promote the
intellectual growth of the individual and to educate the competent person.
Focus on essential skills and academic subjects; mastery of concepts and
principles of subject matter
11.2 Teacher is authority in his or her subject field; explicit teaching of traditional
values.
11.3

Essential skills are 3 Rs and essential subjects (English, Science, history,

mathematics and foreign languages).

11.4

It is concerned with facts and knowledge and also interested in conceptual

thought, principles and theories of subject matter.

11.5

The teacher is considered a master of a particular subject and a model worthy

of emulation. The teacher is , in authority and controls the classroom, decides
on the curriculum with minimal student input.

12. Progressivism
12.1 Progressivism is based on pragmatism. It aims to promote democratic and
social living. Emphasizes change as the essence of reality. It views
knowledge as something tentative that may explain present reality .
Knowledge leads to growth and development and it focus on active and
relevant learning.
12.2 Teacher is a guide for problem solving and scientific inquiry
12.3 Curriculum is based on students interests and it involves the application of
human problems ; interdisciplinary subject matter, activities and projects.

251

13. Reconstructionism
13.1 Reconstructionism is based on pragmatism. It proposes to improve and
reconstruct society. They believe that schools serve as an important catalyst
to improve the human condition through educational and social reform.
13.2 Skills and subjects need to identify and ameliorate problems of society.
Learning is active and concerned with contemporary and future society
13.3 Teacher serves as an agent of change and reform. He helps students become
aware of problems confronting mankind
13.4 Curriculum emphasizes on social sciences and social research methods; focus
on present and future trends as well as on the national and international issues
14. ISLAMIC PHILOSPHY OF EDUCATION
14.1 Definition of Philosophy
Love for wisdom
-

Need to obtain the truth and to internalize them

Make every effort to solve human and humanity problems prevailing in

society

14.2 Islamic Philosophy

-

Philosophy which is based on the teaching of Islam as obtained from

revealed knowledge

The role of Islamic Philosophy is to explain the relationship between man and
his Creator (Allah), between man and man, and between man and his
environment.

14.3 Islamic Education

-

Islamic education is a process to educate and train the mind, body, soul and
emotion of man based on revealed knowledge (al-Quran and As-Sunnah),
experiences of salaf al-Salih and prominent educators in the hope to produce
human being who is pious, able to carry out his responsibilities as caliph as
specified by Allah onto mankind to develop this world in order to achieve
happiness in this world and the world after. Islamic education is a process to

252

consciously guide

educators mould students based on the teachings of

Islam
14.4 Goals and Aims of Islamic Education
-

The goal of Islamic Education, based on al-Quran and As-Sunnah, is to

mould and develop human being as a Muslim who is knowledgeable,
believes in God, performs good deeds, and has good personality in an effort
to equip himself and be responsible as a servant to God and be a pious
leader.

The aims of Islamic Education is to educate students:

to be of good behaviour

to achieve perfection in their soul

to do good and noble deeds

to practise refined culture

to get use to cleanliness, sincerity and good practices

14.5 Islamic Philosophy of Education

-

Philosophy of education is based on the teaching of Islam or revealed

knowledge.

Islamic Philosophy of Education , Malaysian Ministry of Education states that

Islamic education is a continuous effort to deliver knowledge, skills and
practices of Islam based on al-Quran and as-Sunnah in developing attitude,
skills, personality, and views of life as a servant of God who is responsible to
develop oneself, society, environment, and country to achieve happiness in
this world and the world after.

It aims to prepare man with sufficient experiences and knowledge so that he

knows who he is, his roles and responsibilities as a servant to God and a
leader so as to be devoted human being.

253

15. National Philosophy of Education

Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards further developing the
potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner, so as to produce
individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced
and harmonious, based on firm belief in God. Our efforts are focused towards
creating Malaysian citizen who are knowledgeable and competent, who possess
high moral standards, and who are responsible and capable of achieving a high
level of personal well-being and able to contribute to the harmony and prosperity
of the family, the society and the nation at large.
16. The Philosophy of Teacher Education
The teacher, who is noble in character,progressive and scientific in outlook,
committed to uphold the aspirations of the nation, and cherishes the national
cultural heritage, ensures the development of the individual and the preservation
of a united,democratic,progressive and disciplined society
Teacher Education Conceptual Model ( refer to syllabus)

254

CHAPTER 2: CURRICULUM
Overview
In this Chapter, we shall cover

Concept and types of curriculum

Factors influencing the formulation and changes in the curriculum

The school curriculum: The New Primary Curriculum (KBSR)

The Integrated Secondary school Curriculum (KBSM)

The role of the teacher in implementing the curriculum

Futuristic curriculum

Key Terms

Curriculum

Hidden Curriculum

Recommended Curriculum

Written Curriculum

Supported Curriculum

Taught Curriculum

Tested Curriculum

Learned Curriculum

Futuristic curriculum

Models of Curriculum Design

Further Reading
Barrow,R. (1984). Giving Teaching back to teachers. A critical introduction to curriculum
theory. Brighton: Wheatsheaf Books.
Duke, D.L. (1990). Teaching: An Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.
Eisner,E.W. (1994). The Educational Imagination. New York: Macmillan College Pub.
Glatthorn, A.A. (1987). Curriculum Leadership. Glenview: Scott, Foreman.

255

Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum.(1994). Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah (KBSR)

secara menyeluruh. Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia
Stenhouse. (1975). An Introduction to curriculum Research and Development. London:
Heinemann.
Taba,H. (1962). Curriculum Development: Theory and practice. New York: Harcourt
Brace and World.
Tyler, R.W. ( 1969). Basic Principles of curriculum and Instruction. Chicago: The
University of the Chicago Press
http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm.
http://pages.nyu.edu/~asr209/curriculum.doc
http://www.cast.org/udl/EnvisioningFutureCurriculum189.cfm
Suggested Input
1.

Curriculum:
1.1 The planned and guided learning experiences and intended learning
outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge
and experiences, under the auspices of the school, for the learners
continous and willful growth in personal social competence.
1.2 The curriculum of a school can be conceived as a series of planned events
that are intended to have educational consequences for one or more
students
1.3 Curriculum is all the learning experiences planned and directed by the
school to attain its educational goals
1.4 Curriculum is the plan made for guiding learning in the school usually
represented in retrievable documents of several levels of generality, and the
actualization of those plans in the classroom, as experienced by the learners

256

and as recorded by the observer; those experiences take place in a learning

environment which also influences what is learned.
2.

Hidden Curriculum
2.1 It lies outside the official organizational context of teaching. It is taught
implicitly rather than explicitely, by the school experience.
2.2 It consists of the unwritten rules, conventions, folkways and values of the
culture known as school. It is shaped by factors like socioeconomic status
and background experiences of the teachers and students

3.

Recommended Curriculum
The curriculum recommended by scholars, professional associations, reform
commissions and policy makers

4.

Written Curriculum
The curriculum embodied in approved state and district curriculum guides

5.

Supported Curriculum
The curriculum reflected in and shaped by resources allocated to support or
deliver it

6.

Taught Curriculum
The curriculum that an observer would see in action as the teacher taught

7.

Tested Curriculum
The set of learnings assessed in teacher-made tests, district developed tests and
standardized tests

8.

Learned Curriculum
All the changes in values, perceptions and behaviour that occur as a result of
school experience.

9.

Futuristic Curriculum
The futuristic curriculum embodies a learner-centered approach to education in
which students come to understand their strengths and weaknesses as learners

257

and in which students are able to be empowered to become life-long learners.

Learning experiences are designed to assist students to integrate

new

knowledge and to refine this new knowledge towards new insights by

comparing, constrasting, inducing, deducing and analyzing. In addition, learning
experiences provide opportunities for students to use knowledge meaningfully for
informed decision-making and for critical, creative and futuristic thinking and
problem-solving. The three approaches to implement this vision are:
-

content will be provided through multiple representations with multiple

strategies for acting upon it

curriculum will be constructed as modules and accessed via networks

materials, experiences and supports will be drawn from a wide range of

sources and integrated into the core structure of the curriculum

10. Curriculum Models

Based on a body of theory about teaching and learning. It is targeted to needs and
characteristics

of a particular group of learners

It has outline approaches,

methods and procedures for implementation. Curriculum models like Tylerian

model, model Taba and Stenhouse model of process
11. Tylers model of curriculum design
11.1 Tylers theory was based on four fundamental questions:
(i)

What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

(ii)

What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain

these purposes?

(iii)

How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?

(iv)

How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

11.2 He placed an emphasis on the formulation of

behavioural objectives.

According to him, since the real purpose of education is not to have the
instructor perform certain activities but to bring about significant changes in
the students pattern of behaviour, it becomes important to recognize that any
statements of objectives of the school should be a statement of changes to
take place in the students.

258

11.3 The attraction of this way of approaching curriculum theory and practice is that it
is systematic and has considerable organizing power. Central to this approach is
the formulation of behavioural objectives- providing a clear notion of outcome so
that content and method may be organized and the results evaluated.
12. Model Taba
12.1 Curriculum as a plan for action and it is a bottom-up approach to curriculum
where the teacher has a major role to perform.
12.2 According to Taba, there is a definite order in creating a curriculum and held
that teachers should help in tha development process. There are seven
steps in the development of a curriculum that is:
-

diagnosis of needs

formulation of objectives

selection of content

organization of content

selection of learning experiences

organization of learning activities

evaluation

13. Curriculum as a process (Stenhouse)

Another way of looking at curriculum theory and practice is via a process. In this
sense, curriculum is not a physical thing, but rather the interaction of teachers,
students and knowledge. In other words, curriculum is what actually happens in
the classroom and what people do to prepare and evaluate. It is an active
process and links with the practical form of reasoning set out by Aristotle.
Stenhouse defined curriculum as an attempt to communicate the essential
principles and features of an educational proposal in such a form that it is open to
critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice

259

A curriculum should provide a basis for planning a course, studying it empirically

and considering the grounds of its justification. It should offer:
Planning:
-

principle for the selection of content- what is to be learned and taught

principles for the development of a teaching strategy- how it is to be

learned and taught

principles for the making of decisions about sequence teachers

guidance as to the feasibility of implementing the curriculum in varying

school contexts, pupil contexts, environments and peer-group situations

information about the variability of effects in differing contexts and on

different pupils and understanding of the causes of the variation

In relation to justification:
-

a formulation of the intention or aim of the curriculum which is accessible

to critical scrutiny.

This process model looks into curriculum as a form of specification about the
practice of teaching. It is a way of translating any educational idea into a
hypothesis testable in practice. It invites critical testing rather than acceptance.
Given the uniqueness of each classroom setting, it means that any proposal,
even at school level, needs to be tested, and verifed by each teacher in his/her
classroom. It is not like a curriculum package which is designed to be delivered
almost anywhere.
Outcomes are no longer the central and defining feature. Rather than tightly
specifying behavioural objectives and methods in advance, what happens in
this model of curriculum theory and practice is that content and means develop
as teachers and students work together.
The learners in this model are not objects to be acted upon. They have a clear
voice in the way that the sessions evolve. The focus is on interactions. This can
mean that attention shifts from teaching to learning. A process approach to
curriculum theory and practice tends towards making the process of learning
the central concern of the teacher.

260

14. Factors influencing the formulation and changes in the curriculum

14.1

Government
when a government adopts a policy to implement a curriculum like the

teaching of science and mathematics in schools ; this will bring out new
emphasis in these fields in the nations school.
14.2 Goals and their priorities
- Aims, goals and objectives,values holds for an educational program. This
is to help the students learn to participate effectively. A community or a
school faculty recognize these goals in this particular context is not
possible.
14.3 Content of the Curriculum
-

Attention on the selection of content is an important curriculum

consideration.

14.4 Individual Needs

- A curriculum is formulated based on the needs of the individual such as
interest, basic skills (3R) and wholesome development of the child
-

Individual needs are fulfilled to enable the student to acquire social skills,
able to understand oneself, develop interest and potentials and
character development.

14.5 Need of the society and nation

-

society wants its members to acquire basic skills; basic concepts and
techniques in life from the political, social and economical point of view.

to fulfill the aspiration of society, ambition and ideology of the nation

261

14.6 Universal Needs

-

curriculum to disseminate knowledge and training to students

to enable students to inculcate universal understanding and cooperation

improve the way of life of the population

emphasizes on values, sentiment, knowledge and skills to ensure

societal stability, individual motivation and behaviour controls.

15. The Integrated Primary School curriculum

15.1 Primary education is divided into two levels. At level one, that is from Year 1 to
3, the emphasis is on acquiring strong reading, writing, and arithmetical skills.
At level two, that is from Year Four to Six, the mastery of these skills are
reinforced and emphasis is given to building a strong foundation in content and
basic sciences. An assessment examination at Year Six is used to evaluate
student performance. Besides this, continous school-based assessments are
carried out at all levels.
15.2

Objectives of the Integrated Primary School curriculum:

-

to master Bahasa Melayu

to master the basic language skills

to develop and improve intellectual capacities which include rational,

critical and creative thinking

to master arithmetic skills and use them in their daily lives

to master learning and thinking skills

to master English as second language

to develop leadership qualities and self confidence

to be sensitive towards man and the environment

to master scientific and technical skills

to understand and appreciate culture and participate in recreational

activities

to look after ones health and physical fitness

to master the basics of entrepreneurship and productivity

to acquire the skills of reading, reciting and understanding the meaning of

verses in Al-Quran

262

to strengthen the fundamentals of aqidah(belief in God) and practice of

moral values
-

to inculcate patriotism

to develop talent and creativity

to develop positive attitudes

15.3 The list of subjects for the primary school:

Core:
-

Bahasa Melayu,

English Language

Chinese Language*

Tamil Language*

Mathematics

Science

Local Studies

Islamic Education(Muslim Students)

Moral Studies ( Non-Muslim students)

* for national-type schools only

Compulsory:
-

Health Education

Physical Education

Living skills

Art Education

Music Education

Additional
-

Chinese Language

Tamil Language

Arabic Language (Communication)

263

16. The Integrated Secondary School Curriculum

16.1

Secondary school offers a comprehensive education programme. The

curriculum includes a wide range of subjects from the arts and sciences
as well as vocational and technical subjects that provide a practical bias
and a hands-on approach to learning. With the emphasis placed on
technological literacy, the smart school concept was introduced in 1996.

16.2

The Lower Secondary level coves a period of three years (Form 1 to

Form 3). Students from rhe national primary schools enter Form 1
whereas students from

the Chinese and Tamil schools proceed to a

transition year (Remove Class) before entering Form 1. This Remove

class is for students to acquire sufficient proficiency in Bahasa Melayu
which is the medium of instruction in secondary schools. However,
students who have performed well in the Primary School Achievement
Test are allowed to proceed directly to Form 1.
16.3

Students moved into the more specialized fields of study at the upper
secondary after the Lower Secondary Assessment. Based on choice and
aptitude, students enter either the arts or the science strems in the
academic schools or religious schools. Several technical and vocational
schools provide technically based academic education and preemployment skills. All schools whether academic, technical, vocational,
religious or special education prepare students for the Malaysian
Certificate of Education Open Certification examination at the end of two
years of upper secondary education.

264

CHAPTER 3: TEACHING AS A PROFESSION

Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover

Concepts of a professional and non-professional

Code of Ethics

Accountability towards school, profession, nation and self

Key Terms

Profession

Professional

Non-professional

Qualities of teaching-behaviour,mentor,model,leader

Code of Ethics

Accountability

Further Reading
Darling-Hammond,L.(1991) Teachers and Teaching:Signs of a changing profession.
In The Handbook of research on teacher education. Houston(ed.) New York:
Macmillan
Day,C. (1999). Developing Teachers: The Challenges of Lifelong Learning. London:
Falmer Press.
Hoyle,E. & John,P. (1995). Professional Knowledge and professional practice.
London: Cassel
Lieberman, M. (1995). Education as a profession. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall
http://www.mpls.k12.mm.us/departments/CIT2/ethics.htm

265

Ryan,K. & Cooper, J.M.(1998). Those who can,Teach. Boston: Houghton Miflin Co.
Suggested Input
1.

Profession
A profession is an occupation which performs a crucial social function. To
accomplish this function it requires a considerable degree of skill requires a
body of systematic knowledge grounded in theory. This acquisition of this body
of knowledge and the development of specific skill entails a lengthly period of
higher education. The period of education and training involves the process of
socialization into professional values. These professional values tends to center
on the pre-eminence of essential for the professional to have the freedom or
autonomy to make his/her own judgements with regard to appropriate practice.

2.

Professional
2.1 Professional is one who has (i) a specialized knowledge base(technical
culture);(ii) commitment to meeting client needs(service ethic) ;(iii) strong
collective identity-professional commitment( professional commitment); dan
(iv) collegial as against bureaucratic control over practice and professional
standards (professional autonomy).
2.2 Characteristics of professionals:
-

possess a specialized skill enabling them to offer a specialized service

undergo intellectual and practical training in a well-defined area of study

maintain detachment and integrity in exercising personal judgement on

behalf of a client

establish direct, personal relations with a client, based on confidence,faith

and trust

collectively have a sense of responsibility for maintaining the competence

and integrity of the professional as a whole

tend or required to avoid certain manners of attracting business

266

are organized in bodies which, with or without state intervention, are

concerned to provide the machinery for testing competence and
regulating standards of competence and conduct

3.

Non Professional
The profession is not a unique service. Training is not rigorous that is a short
period of training. And entrance to the occupation is not especially competitive,
particularly on intellectual grounds. There is little decision-making power

as

most important decisions that affects the person s daily lives, even those directly
on the standards of their own profession are made by administrator. There is
little accountability and little involvement in activities professional organization
4. Qualities of a teacher
4.1 Leader who can inspire and influence students through expert and
referent power but never coercive power. This teacher knows his students
well and is kind and respectful towards his students. He has high standards
and expectations coexisting with encouragement, support and flexibility. The
teacher empower students and get them to do things of which they did not
think they were capable.
4.2 Coach/guide who helps students to improve on their skills and insights
4.3 Disseminator of knowledge and skills
4.4 Role model to the student; practises what he/she preaches. He/She
upholds moral values and humanitarian principles in all his actions. Teachers
conduct their day by-day doing in such a way that their behaviour can be
cherished by the learners. Teachers should be a human model for learners
therefore, they must uphold all codes of ethical conduct that are necessary
and essential in human modeling and moral education.
4.5 Innovator, creative, resourceful and encourages diversity and
individuality in his students.

267

5. Code of Ethics
5.1 Ethical responsibilites to students
-

Teachers will educate students to high standards of achievement. The

teacher shall use best professional practices and materials and the
teacher is knowledgeable of and delivers the standards-based
curriculum

Teacher shall engage in practices and select materials that include all
students, celebrate diversity and never exclude them from opportunities
on the basis of their race, gender, ethnicity, religion, national origin,
language, ability or the status, behaviour or beliefs of their parents

The teacher is committed to developing the skill sets needed to best

accelerate the learning of the students currently in their classrooms

The teacher creates a classroom environment that is respectful,

emotionally secure and physically safe for students

5.2 Ethical Responsibilities to Family/Community

The teacher shall inform families of program philosophy, policies and

personnel qualifications and explain why we teach as we do, which
should be in accordance with our ethical responsibilities to students

The teacher shall involve families in significant decisions affecting their

student and regularly communicate student progress with families

The teacher shall inform the family of accidents involving their student, of
risks such as exposures to contagious disease that may result in
infection and of occurrences that might result in emotional stress

The teacher shall maintain confidentialilty and shall respect the familys
right to privacy, refraining from disclosure of confidential information and
intrusion into family life, except when a students welfare is at risk

The teacher shall be objective and accurate in reporting the knowledge

upon which we base our programs, assessments and professional
practices

268

The teacher shall cooperate and team with other professionals who work
with students and families

The teacher shall exercise care in expressing views regarding students.

Statements shall be respectful and based on firsthand knowledge

5.3 Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues

- The teacher shall show respect for personal dignity and for the diversity
found among staff members, and to resolve matters collegially
-

The teacher shall exercise care in expressing views regarding the professional
behaviour or conduct of co-workers and/or students.

The teacher agrees to carry out the program at the site to which we are
assigned. When we do not agree with the program policies, we shall first attempt
to effect change through constructive action within the organization

Teachers who do not meet program standards shall be informed of areas of

concern and, when possible, assisted in improving their performance

In making assessments and recommendations, the teacher shall make

judgements based on fact and relevant to the interests of students and

programs
6. Accountability
6.1 Teacher accountability refers to the responsibility towards ones teaching
profession
6.2 Job accountability
o

Performs curriculum and co-curriculum activities

Follow job procedures

Internalize ones work ethics

Responsible and perform job with dedication and commitment

6.3 Accountability towards nation

o

knowledge practitioner and educate citizens of Malaysia

inculcate moral values, develop and preserve our culture

realization of the national philosophy of education and vision of the

country

269

instill national integration

develop a progressive generation

6.4 Accountability towards students and parents

o

disseminate knowledge and skills to students

educate and inculcate moral values

inculcate good behaviours

develop students potentials intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and

physically

6.5 Accountability towards self

o

as a model for students

maintain good behaviours

update oneself on current knowledge and skills

perform ones job sincerely

270

271

CHAPTER 4: THE TEACHER AND THE WORLD OF EDUCATION

Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover

Roles and responsibilities of the teacher as an effective knowledge, skill and

value disseminator in the classroom

Role as an educator in the teaching profession

Key Terms

Knowledge practitioner

Skills practitioner

Educare

Educere

Social agent

Agent of Change

Consultant

Mentor

Manager

Researcher

Patriot

Further Reading
Brooks,V. & Sikes, P. (1997). The Good Mentor Guide: Initial Teacher Education in
Secondary Schools. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Cairney,T. (1987).Teachers as researchers. In Barbara Comper & Hancock, J.
Developing Teachers. Melbourne: Thomas Nelson

272

Fletcher,S.( 2000). Mentoring in schools; A handbook of good practice. London:

Kogan Press
Kinchheloe, J. L. (1991). Teachers as researchers: Qualitative Inquiry as a path to
empowerment. London: The Falmer Press
Tomlinson,P. (1995). Understanding Mentoring.Buckingham: Open University Press.
Suggested Input
1.0 Knowledge and skill practitioner
1.1 The teacher is a professional is an educator and a practitioner in knowledge
and skills. He/she is an effective practitioner and analyst who, through
teacher education, is competent in applying his/her theoretical knowledge in
various pedagogic contexts. He/she provides education for discipline, for
knowledge, for character, for life, for growth, for personal fulfillment and
aesthetic refinement.
1.2 The practitioner understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and
structures of the discipline he or she teaches and creates learning
experiences that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for
students.
1.3 He/She understands how children learn and develop and can provide learning
opportunities that support their intellectual, social and personal development.
He/she also understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to
encourage students development of critical thinking, problem solving and
performance skills.
1.4 He/She is eclectic in the sense of being able to synthesise rather than merely
select what is available. The teacher should possess the ability to
harmonically arrange what has been selected to be offered to the students.
1.5 The practitioner has to adopt technology as a means for becoming more
effective in producing his/her own materials, accessing the Internet to gain
information, ideas and core materials which will provide the basis for
presentation to the students.

273

2.0 Educare and Educere

2.1 Education arises from two Latin terms that is educare and educere. Educare is
to lead, draw or bring out; to unsheathe. The etymology emphasizes the
militaristic aspect of the word; the word involved leading or bringing out the
troops or unsheathing ones sword- the notion of preparing for battle.
2.2 Questions pertaining to the effects that emerge when one thinks of education in
this way:
-

What or where are we trying to lead students to?

What are we trying to bring out of them?

Can we truly draw out some pre-determined intellectual and personal

qualities?

Do we really think that children are all really alike, the same inside, and
that if we locate the best method, then we can teach them all and they will
learn the same thing?

2.3 Educere is to rear or bring up; allow to emerge as needed. If educere is the
act of emerging ,then as teachers, we must begin to ask ourselves: What
will emerge? ; Can we control what emerges? and Should we try and
control what learning emerges or what the students response to your
teaching will be?
2.4 Educere is very parental, almost feminine approach to education because it
focuses on the nurturing and caring or what emerges when a student is
engaged in the learning process. Educere emphasizes what has become
understood in Western civilization as the feminine principle. Educere is
indeed the act of nurturing the young, being creative, compassionate, giving.
These are perceived as positive qualities. However, at the same time there
is the potential for nurturing to turn into the act of controlling and oppressing,
as in the mother who hovers over too much and does not allow enough
freedom for growth.

274

2.5 Educere emphasizes the main principle of leading the young forth for some
grand, great purpose; the act of instilling discipline, decisiveness,
willingness to die for a cause. As a teacher, this type wants to marshal the
students towards something beyond him or her self, which can be a
wonderful moments of growth intellectual and emotional. As a teacher
one has to discover which principle he or she embodies and reflect on the
positive and negatives of each.
3.0 Social Agent
3.1 The teaching/learning process is basically and essentially an interaction between
humans. This interaction is carried within a social context. There are, generally,
clearly defined teacher and student roles in these learning environments. The
student tends to expect that the teacher will influence the learning environments.
The student tends to expect that the teacher will influence the learning process to
some significant extent.
3.2 The role of the teacher as a social agent is an important part of the learning
process. This is very clear as different individuals interact with a teacher and other
students to widely varying degrees.
3.3 The teachers role may be include the management of the social interaction that is
conducted as part of the learning process. In the primary school, the teacher has
a large role in guiding the behaviour of the young pupils. Often the teacher is
required to set boundaries as to where pupils may be at a particular time, whether
they may talk or need to be quiet and listening and what activities they should be
performing.
3.4 The teacher plays a number of other social roles in the teaching/learning process.
The teacher is often a motivator for pupils, encouraging or reproving them as
appropriate. The approval of the teacher can be a strong motivating factor,
particularly for younger pupils. The teacher is also an arbiter of success;
measuring and quantifying pupils efforts. The teacher may also pass on cultural
and social values.

275

3.5 The role of the teacher as social agent is an important part of the learning
process, it is also clear that different individuals interact with a teacher and other
students to widely varying degrees. These individuals are self-motivated, do not
require any third party encouragement to learn, and can seek out and assimilate
the required body of knowledge.

4.0 Agent of Change

4.1 A change agent is an individual who influences clients innovation decisions in
a direction deemed desirable by a change agency. As a change agent, one
has to directly work with the teachers to adopt an innovation and encourage
them to become opinion leaders in their own interpersonal network.
4.2 One has to teach the teachers to use the various pieces of technology and it
goes further by assisting the teachers to learn to be constructivist teachers that
can incorporate technology into their curriculum. It is this balance of bringing
the technology into the curriculum through constructivist methods that is the
innovation.
4.3 Agent of change develops his/her own professional learning which has
encompassed strategies and interpersonal skills essential for managing
change within the school. Through significant steps, one has to update and
improve the culture of the school, to influence the staff to become more
collaborative and reflective in their practice, to be flexible and more responsive
to the positive outcomes of change and the development of their own
professional learning, creating a learning community.

276

5.0 Researcher
5.1 Teacher as a researcher involves the commitment to systematic questioning of
ones own teaching as a basis for development. The commitment and skills to study
ones own teaching and concern to questioning and testing theory in practice by
using skills
and readiness to allow other teachers to observe your work directly or through
recordings and to discuss it with them on an honest basis.
5.2 Teacher plays a role in investigating pedagogical problems through inquiry.
According to Dewey (1929) teachers investigations not only lead to knowledge
about the school but also led to good teaching.
5.3 The benefits for teachers who attempt to become researchers in their own
classrooms are:
-

the development of clearer theory of language and learning

increased knowledge and understanding of classroom practice, and

increased teaching skills

easier collaboration with pupils and the potential to develop a shared

commitment to the desired improvements

6.0 Mentor
6.1

A mentor is one who guides and supports trainees to ease them through
difficult transitions; it is about smoothing the way, enabling, reassuring as well
as directing, managing and instructing. He/She should be able to unblock the
ways to change by building self confidence, self esteem and a readiness to act
as well as to engage in ongoing constructive interpersonal relationships.

6.2

Individual engaged in a one-to-one teaching/learning relationship in which the

mentor serves as a fundamentally important model with respect to values,
beliefs, philosophies and attitudes as well as a source of more specific
information.

6.3

Mentoring implies a close relationship within which the model may be a role
model, consultant, advisor, source of wisdom even a sort of protector.

277

6.4

Mentoring is defined as a nurturing process in which a more skilled or more

experienced person, serving as a role model, teachers, sponsors, encourages,
counsels and befriends a less skilled or less experienced person for the
purpose of promoting the latters professional and/or personal development.
Mentoring functions are carried out within the context of an ongoing, caring
relationship between the mentor and the protg

6.5

Mentoring is used to describe a combination of coaching, counseling and

assessment where a classroom teacher in a school is delegated responsibility
for assisting newly qualified teachers in their professional development

6.6

A mentor tries to develop individuals strengths to maximize their professional

and personal potential and also that of students who come under their care
within a classroom situation.

7.0 Manager
7.1 The teacher structure the learning environment. In this role, all decisions and
actions required to maintain order in the classroom, such as laying down rules
and procedures for learning activities.
7.2 Teacher must manage a classroom environment. Teachers are environmental
engineers who organize the classroom space to fit their goals and to maximize
learning. The way the physical space of the classroom is organized can either
help or hinder learning.
7.3 It involves modeling a positive attitude towards the curriculum and towards
school and learning in general. Teachers who reveal a caring attitude towards
learning and the learning environment help to instill and reinforce similar
attitudes in their students.
7.4 Teachers are required to manage and process great amounts of clerical work.
There are papers to be read and graded, tests to be scored, marks to be
entered, attendance records and files to be maintained, notes and letters to be
written etc.

278

CHAPTER 5 : THE TEACHER AND PROFESSIONAL SKILLS

Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover

The mastery of professional skills by teachers in the school

Key Terms

Learning skill

Thinking skill

Planning

Facilitation

Communication

Management

Further Reading
Cullingford,C. (1995). The Effective teacher. London: Cassel
Dean, J. (1991).Professional Development in school. Milton Keynes: Open University
Press.
Ghaye,K. & Ghaye,A. 1998. Teaching and Learning through Critical Reflective
Practice. London: David Fulton Publishers.
Schon,D.A. 1987. Educating the reflective practitioner. San Franscisco: Jossey-B.
Travers,J.F., Elliot,S.N. & Kratochwill,T.R. (1993). Effective Teaching,Effective
Learning. Iowa: Brown & Benchmark Pub.

279

Suggested Input
1.0 Learning Skill
1.1

Learning skills refer to the skill that teachers have to attain when collecting,
processing and summarizing data with the aim of developing oneself towards
life long learning. It is also the ability to obtain knowledge in the field of
cognition, affection and psychomotor through observation, reading, writing,
imitation, memorization, understanding, analysis, synthesis, evaluation and
memory.

1.2

It refers to the ability to receive accurate signals, process information, and

store in the memory and to apply it in problem solving. There is the need to
acquire

learning

skills such as

observing, making assumptions,

understanding, remembering, thinking and interpreting to produce effective

learning.
1.3

Importance of learning skills:

-

enable a teacher to obtain knowledge systematically and meaningfully.

inculcate interest and liking for learning and always increase their knowledge
and life long intellectual skill

apply learning skills in all types of situation

inculcate self discipline

train individual to read with speed and aptly

train individual to obtain data efficiently

train individual to process data effectively

increase ones memory

promote and sharpen ones interest and potential

help individual to attain referencing skills in the library

train individual to encounter learning challenges

motivate individual to life long education

train individual to manage time effectively

280

1.4

The three processes in learning skills are collection of data, processing data

and making report. The collection of data consists of:

-

active listening

note taking

make reference

interview

questioning for information

speed reading

critical reading

1.5

Active listening:

listen with purpose

listen to obtain direction

listen to identify elements in a text

listen to be able to repeat

1.6

Note-taking:
Note-taking while reading, listening or viewing is a strategy for recording and
organizing information in order to understand and remember it. As such, it is a
way of using writing as a tool learning. There are different strategies for notetaking but regardless of the type used, a key to successful note-taking is
regular review and revision of notes, which is emphasized here.
-

Note-taking enhances ones comprehension of instructional material. It

helps he/she use ones notes as learning/study aids and shows he/she
how to use note-taking independently.

Cornell system of note-taking- 5 Rs : record, reduce, recite, reflect and

review.

Record: draw a vertical line down your paper. The left side of your paper ,
should be 1/3 the width of the paper, the right side 2/3. Jot down notes
on the right side of the line.

Reduce: Use the column on the left side of the line to reduce your notes
to key words and phrases that describe the most important information
you need to remember.

281

Recite: Fold back or cover the note taking column with only the key words
showing, read each one in turn and recite anything that you understand or
remember about the concept.

Reflect: Take a break. Think about the information in your notes without
looking back at them. State what you do and dont understand about the
topic. Decide how you are going to clear up any misunderstandings and
do it.

Review: Review your notes at regular intervals so that you stay familiar
with the information that they contain.

1.7

Make notes:
-

Making notes is an activity done after note-taking. It consists of the

process of arranging, completing and refining notes taken. Process in
making notes are: check

notes taken; arranging the notes in order;

arranging information according to categories or specific order; taking

notes with reference to the original information.
1.8

Notes as graphics
-

Teachers can keep notes in the form of graphic organizers, arranging

ideas in the page in ways that make relationships clear.

Graphic

organizer is a scheme for arranging information on a page so that the

relationships among the concepts are made clear visually. For instance, a
causal relationship might be shown with an arrow pointing from the cause
to the effect, or subordinate details might be shown radiating from a main
idea like spokes from the center of a wheel. For some learners,
information is easier to process if the ideas are arranged graphically
instead of in a linear fashion as is the case with traditional outlines, lists
or pages of notes. For most learners, such visual displays can be aided
to comprehension and retention of information.
-

Graphic organizers help teacher understand relationship among ideas,

refines and extends comprehension of information, helps teachers see
learned information from new perspectives and encourages teachers to
try them as an independent study strategy.

282

1.9 Make References:

-

It refers to usage of books from the library. Teachers should be able to

make references on books from public libraries, school libraries, libraries
in higher institute of learning, teacher activity centers.

1.10 Questioning skills

-

Teachers are able motivate student learning and thinking. Teachers

should be able to use questions of higher-order so that students think
critically such as able to explain, expound and voice their own opinions.

1.11 Speed Reading:

-

There are two types of speed reading that is: skimming and scanning

Skimming means speed reading with the aim of obtaining facts generally
while scanning refers to speed reading with the aim of obtaining specific
information from any resource.

1.12 Critical Reading:

-

Critical reading

helps teachers to understand content

of the subject

matter faster and will remain longer in the memory. There are two
techniques of critical reading, that is: SQ3R and KWL.
-

SQ3R refers to survey, question, read recite and review

Survey: Get a good idea of the chapters content . Survey the title, the
introduction, the summary, pictures and maps, chapter questions,
heading, subheadings and words in special print (boldface, italics, capital
letters)

Question: After carefully surveyed the material change all the headings
into questions. Questions help you learn because to find the answers, you
need to read actively. Questions challenge you and give you a purpose
for trying to master material. Write a list of all your questions and keep
them in the same order that the headings appear in the book. Leave
enough space after each questions for answers.

Read: Read the question you wrote for the heading.Then read the text
that follows the heading to find the answer. Do the same thing to find the
answers to other questions written.

283

Recite: Once you read a section, stop and describe in your own words the
major ideas that were presented. Since text books are divided into
sections with headings and subheading, recite whenever you reach one
of these convenient stopping places.

Review: you are ready to go back over the material and review it. Survey
again what you have read. Skim over the headings of the chapter- and
ask yourself what they mean and what information they contain. Recite
important ides under each heading.

KWL (developed by Donna Ogle) prepares you to learn by helping you

tap into your present knowledge, identify what you need to find out and
sort through the information youve learned. K stands for what you know;
W stands for what you WANT to learn; L stands for what youve learned.
The KWL process allows you to zero in on your study topic and use your
time most effectively. Each step keeps you focused on your study goals.

2.0 Thinking Skills

2.1 Thinking skill is a cognitive process broken down into a set of explicit steps
which are then used to guide thinking. Thinking skills allow ones cognitve
system to function more efficiently.
2.2 Teachers need thinking skills and strategies that will enable them adapt to
constant change. Critical thinkers are self-correcting and they discover their
weaknesses and act to remove obstacles and faults.
2.3 Critical thinking is reasonable reflective thinking that is focused on deciding
what to believe or do.It has become an activity both practical and reflective that
has reasonable belief or action as its goal.
2.4 It comprises the mental processes, strategies and representations people use
to solve problems, make decisions, and learn new concepts. It has to do with
organizing, analyzing, evaluating or describing what is already there. Among
the critical thinking skills are inferring, comparing, compare and contrast ,
analyze, supporting a statement, decision making, ordering, evaluation,
creating groups, investigation and experimenting.

284

2.5 Teachers have to internalize the reflective thinking until reflective questions
and analysis become like the inner speech or self talk which occurs
frequently and spontaneously for the experienced teacher.
2.6 Dewey contends that teachers should be trained in analyzing and defining
principles behind the reflective techniques. Reflecting involves active,
persistent and careful consideration of behaviour or practice. It is the means
for meeting and responding to the problems. The more reflectivity that occurs,
the better the quality of teaching.
2.7 The teacher as a reflective practitioner is seen as thoughtful persons
intrinsically motivated to analyze a situation, set goals, plan and monitor
actions, evaluate results and reflect on their own professional thinking. The
reflective practitioner is one who can think while acting and thus can respond
to the uncertainty, uniqueness and conflict involved in the situations in which
professionals practice.
2.8 There are five components of reflective thinking: (1) recognizing an
educational dilemma;(2) responding to a dilemma by recognizing both the
similarities to other situations and the special qualities of the particular
situation; (3) framing and reframing the dilemma,(4) experimenting with the
dilemma to discover the consequences and implications of various solutions;
(5) examining the intended and unintended consequences of an implemented
solution and evaluating the solution by determining whether the consequences
are desirable or not.
3.0 Planning
3.1 Effective planning is essential to good time management. It can be broken down
into long-term,medium term and short-term planning. Teachers have to plan
what they want to achieve for the year.
3.2 A useful technique for planning in the long-term is to list all the tasks that have to
be accomplished to achieve the long-term goal. Write them on a grid so that you
can see the deadline for each aspect.

285

3.3 Having set the long term plan , the teacher need to transfer the tasks to a
medium term plan. In transferring the tasks from the long term plan to the
medium term, one is aware of the times of term which are busy enough without
adding in extra work.
3.4 Short term planning amount to listing out all the tasks for the week. The
effectiveness as a planner will depend to an extent on whether one can do the
tasks without interruption in the times that have been allocated.
3.5 In short, a teacher as a planner performs the following tasks:
-

teaching strategies that are congruent with purpose;

plans that reflect the diversity of the classroom;

shows an ability to speak and write about the significance of acquired

knowledge and cumulative experience

understands theoretical and practical aspects of curriculum development

and implementation;

demonstrates a thorough understanding of one or more teaching models;

makes conscious, creative decisions about the components of lesson

design;

develops on a continuing basis a repertoire of effective and positive

classroom management techniques

presents materials in a variety of ways to accommodate different

dominant learning styles;

exhibits high standards of professional ethics regarding colleagues

4.0 Communication Skills

4.1 Communication refer s to social interaction performed through messages.
Messages are formally coded events, symbols or signals or representational
events which are of shared significance in a culture and which are produced for
the purpose of evoking responses.
4.2 The ability to communicate is not just a matter of being able to articulate or
demonstrate great wit. It is a two way process, of listening as much as talking,
of encouraging others to talk as much as talking oneself.

286

4.3 Skills in communication also include interpersonal skills. Teachers need to

effectively interact with his students and colleagues. The types of interpersonal
skills are:
-

Attending behaviour: teacher shares students feelings and he wishes to

help

identifies and accepts the different emotions or objectives underlying each

students answer, through eye contact, facial expressions and verbal
encouragement

Reflection : teacher states an opinion, a wish, a belief or preference to the

class or when he asks a question which reflects his personal view. The
teacher provides direction, suggest alternatives or redirect thinking
among students towards the real issues.

Inventory questioning : Teacher uses a set of questions to help students

describe more clearly or to become more forthright in thought feeling or
action. He rephrases questions and uses different words which seek to
assist students.

Encouraging alternatives : teacher acts to get student to clarify further

what he is saying,for example, a teacher will provide an answer or a
suggestion as an alternative, then seek two or more alternatives from
students.

5.0 Management Skills

5.1 Management means making things work or creating opportunities for the
organization,which means enabling it to function efficiently and effectively.
5.2 Management skills are as follows:
-

ability to articulate and implement aims and policies. Teacher must be

able to lead their colleagues in thinking about the aims of the school and
how to turn them into action.

Articulation of the curriculum philosophy. Teacher should be able to lead

thinking about curriculum, including continuity and progression, so that
coherence is ensured for the individual student

Management of care and discipline

287

Management of people : managers need to deal with people not only

within the school,but also outside it, such as parents, governors. They
need skill in eliciting ideas from colleagues and drawing them together;
such skills as counseling, discussion leadership, presentation skills,
negotiating skills and communication.

Management of resources

Evaluation is an important part of management, whether individuals or of

the school as a whole.

6.0 Facilitation
6.1 Facilitator of learning means that the teachers role is to provide the type of the
environment conducive to the kind of learning the teacher wishes to encourage.
Frank Smith(1983) identifies three aspects of the learning process, which he
refers to as demonstration, engagement and sensitivity. For learning to take
place, the environment
must provide demonstrations of what is to be learnt.
6.2 The quality of any learning experience will depend on the nature and clarity of
the demonstrations, the degree of sensitivity that learners display towards them,
and the opportunities afforded for using and experimenting with new knowledge.
Although teachers may not have a great deal of control over the sensitivity of
learners, there is much they can do to create demonstrations which increase, or
focus,the

learners sensitivity, and to provide opportunities for learners to

experiment with and use new knowledge.

6.3 Facilitator assesses the needs of their learners before initiating classroom
strategies to meet these needs. Teachers who facilitate learning do not set up
demonstrations that are unnecessarily repetitious and boring for children. They
provide only what the children need, even if this means that some of the best
prepared demonstrations go unused because the children already know what
they show.

288

CHAPTER 6 : THE TEACHER AND SELF DEVELOPMENT

Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover

The sources of motivation, knowledge and skill enhancement

The teacher as a learner in self development programme

Key Terms

Action research

Reflection-on action

Reflection-in action

Reflection about action

E-learning

In-service courses

Collaboration

Further Reading
Elliot,J. (1991). Action research for Educational Change. Open University Press
Jolliffe,A.,Ritter,J. & Stevens, D.(2001). The online learning handbook: Developing and
using Web-Based learning. London: Kogan Page Ltd.
Kember,D. (2000). Action Learning and Action Research. London: Kogan Page Ltd
Kemmis,S. & McTaggart, R. (1988). The Action Research Planner. Victoria: Deakin
University Press.
Moon, J.A. (2000). Reflection in learning & Professional Development: Theory &
Practice. London: Kogan Page Ltd.
http://www.learnativity.com
http:// www.stanford.edu/dept/SUSE/csm/features/collaboration

289

http://www.etc.sccoe.k12.ca.us/2002/01_currint/02 currsumm3.html
Suggested Input
1.0

Action Research
1.1 The study of a social situation with a view to improving the quality of action
within it
1.2 The study of a social situation, involving the participants themselves as
researchers, with a view to improving the quality of action within it.
1.3 Action research is concerned with social practice; aimed towards
improvement ;a cyclical process; pursued by systematic inquiry; a reflective
process; participative and determined by the practitioners.
1.4 Objectives of action research
-

develop and improve practice through research based on the interest of

concerned parties

develop knowledge and practical understanding of the research process

develop professional knowledge of teachers

develop and improve education as a discipline

1.5 Characteristics of action research

-

carried out by teachers directly involved with the social situation studied

carried out in groups and collaboratively with the commitment to increase

their practical understanding

begin with practical questions arising from daily teacher routine with the
aim of developing practical situation and knowledge on teaching practice

continuous process: ascertain focus, clarifying situation, develop

strategies and present findings

journal writing to record reflections and progress on the research

reflective process by teachers

290

2.0

Reflection-on- action
2.1

Reflection-on-action is the form of reflection that occurs after action and

relates, via verbalized or non-verbalized thought, to the action that the
person has taken-in other words, it is a relatively narrow concept that is
retrospective and has a role in learning, in informing action and in theory
building.

2.2

It is a systematic, considered process of deliberation enabling analysis,

reconstruction and reframing in order to plan for further teaching and
learning.

2.3
3.0

It opens up possibilities for talking with others about teaching

Reflection-in-action
3.1

Reflection-in-action occurs in association with action and guides the

process of action via knowledge in use, which is derived from theory in
use, and makes limited contact with espoused theory and according to
Schon, reflection-in-action only occurs in situations where the action yields
unexpected consequences and is not part of actions that go according to
plan. A conscious process and the knowing-in action that led up to it,
asking ourselves What is this?, and at the same time,How have I been
thinking about it? Our thoughts turn back on the surprising phenomenon
and at the same time, back on itself. It is thinking while in the thick of
things or thinking on ones feet

3.2

Reflection-in-action has a critical function, questioning the assumptional

structure of the knowing-in-action. We think critically about the thinking
that got us into this opportunity and in the process, restructure strategies
of action, understandings of phenomena, or ways of framing problems

3.3

It gives rise to on-the-spot experiment. We think and try out new actions
intended to explore the newly observed phenomena, test our tentative
understandings of them, or affirm the moves we have invented to change
things for the better.

291

4.0

Reflection- about-action
4.1

This represents a broader, critical stance which involves inquiry into the
moral,ethical,political and instrumental issues embedded in teachers
everyday thinking and practice.

4.2

Professionals exercise both responsibility and accountability for decisions

that they make in their teaching and maintain broader understandings of
the interrelationships between teaching purposes and practices.

5.0

Characteristics of Reflective Practice

5.1

Reflective practice involves the mental process of reflecting, which may or

may not be characterized by what we have called being reflective

5.2

The subject matter may be refer to reflection on the everyday events of

practice, paying more or less attention to the setting of the practice

5.3

Reflective practice may refer to reflection on the everyday events of

practice or

the conditions

that shape reflection, such as political

influences
5.4

Reflection may be ongoing or a reaction to a specific event or an

unexpected occurrence or observation of a problem; it is characterized by
states of uncertainity ; it may have an ethical or moral content

5.5

The end point of reflection in reflective practice may not be resolution of

an issue, but attainment of a better understanding of it.

5.6

Reflection will have involved the process of thinking, but it may be aid by
the process of articulation of the thinking orally or in written form

5.7

Review

and reconstruction of the ideas surrounding reflection will be

aimed at understanding or resolving the issue in the context of a general

aim of improving practice, specifically or generally.
5.8

Reflective practice is usually enhanced when there is some sharing of the

reflection with others

292

6.0

E-learning
6.1

A unifying term to describe on-line learning, web-based training and

technology-based training

6.2

The convergence of the Internet and learning or internet-enabled learning.

It is the use of network technologies to create, foster, deliver and facilitate
learning, anytime and anywhere

6.3

The delivery of individualized, comprehensive, dynamic learning content in

real time, aiding the development of communities of knowledge ,linking
learners and practitioners with experts

6.4

A phenomenon delivering accountability, accessibility and opportunity to

allow people and organizations to keep up with the rapid changes that
define the Internet world

6.5

A force that gives people and organizations the competitive edge to allow
them to keep ahead of the rapidly changing global economy

6.6

Web-based learning involves a diverse collection of methods and

technologies and most programs include: learning materials made up of
text, graphics and multimedia elements, video conferencing, chat rooms or
discussion forums and the use of a Web browser.

6.7

Advantages of the Web-based learning are:

can be used to deliver learning at any time to virtually any place;

uses many of the elements of CD-ROM-based learning

learning materials are relatively easy to update

can increase the number of interactions between the learners and the
event facilitator

allows learners to form both informal and formal Web-based learning

components

allows the use of problem-and/or assignment-based learning

can make use of resources already on the Internet

can present real-time content using video conferencing, video streaming

or discussion rooms

has the ability to include multiple media such as text, graphics, audio,
video and animation into the learning materials

293

7.0

In-service Courses
7.1

In-service education is education inbtended to support and assists the

professional development that teachers ought to experience through their
working lives.

7.2

Courses are designed to provide avenues for teachers to refresh their

knowledge, to improve their competencies and to bring about paradigm
shift in their outlook towards educational issues.

7.3

The basic principles which have guided the design of in-service courses
are:

A teacher needs to have subject knowledge. A teacher with a sound

foundation in his/her subject matter will

be better able to plan for

students learning based on content outcomes and to keep abreast of

current developments in that specific field of knowledge.
-

Pedagogic knowledge is essential for managing learning. Knowledge

about classroom management, teaching preparation, teaching and testing
skills and the use of teaching aids are needed. Pedagogical skills such as
techniques, methods , material and overall management are essential to
every teacher.

Every teacher has a practical theory that is practical knowledge which is

directly related to teachers actions in and experience of the classroom.
Practical theory

of teachers refers to private, integrated but ever-

changing system of knowledge, experience and values which is relevant

to teaching practice at any particular time.
-

The need for process knowledge which will enable teachers to become
more aware of their practical theory and its implications on their
classroom action. It is about ways other knowledge is developed and
understood in the context of a persons experience. This knowledge is
derived from the teachers awareness of himself/herself as a person,
his/her own beliefs, values and attitudes towards his/her actions and
relationships with other people. The content of process knowledge are

294

reflection, self awareness, facilitation skills, effective communication, critical

and thinking skills. Teachers need these skills to understand themselves as
educators and to inculcate good values amongst their students.
7.4

In-service training is concerned with the need to upgrade teacher

education to give teaching a professional status and to promote the
development of quality teaching . It also provide opportunities for teachers
to grow. Teachers are able to further themselves either for professional
enrichment or professional upgrading.

7.5

The objectives of courses that are provided to in-service teachers varied

from year to year depending on the focus of the courses provided. They
are as follows:

to acquaint teachers to recent teaching learning approaches;

to enhance quality of instruction in classrooms;

to equip teachers with competencies to create

effective learning

environment;
-

to inculcate in teachers that learning as a life long process in upgrading

their expertise;

to enable teachers to face and overcome challenges face in the education

field

7.6

The training components of in-service courses are hands-on activities,

usage of modules, practicum or field experience and assessment and
examination

7.7

The above components reflect the emphasis on experiential learning as a

form of ensuring teachers attain relevant competencies.

Field

experiences enable teachers to put theory into practice with the hope that
such learning experiences will further enrich teachers schemata relating
to the course content and activities undertaken. Examinations and
assignments are designed to assess the quality of teaching and learning.
7.8

Training mechanisms in providing courses for in-service teachers are

centralized training in teacher training

institute, private premises;

centralized training with cooperation from various agencies using State

education departments and centralized training in collaboration with local
and foreign universities.

295

8.0

Collaboration
8.1

Collaboration is to work with another or others on a joint project

8.2

Research shows that teachers frequently discuss their teaching strategies

with other teachers; have extensive interactions with teachers; participate
in leadership activities such as mentoring and presenting at conferences
and workshops.

8.3

Collaborative planning and on-going professional development supports

both more thoughtful and effective teaching within the classroom and
greater coherence across courses and grade levels.

8.4

Expertise in teaching comes from a process of sharing, attempting new

ideas ,reflecting on practice and developing new approaches

8.5

High quality teaching is developed by creating a deliberate repertoire of

strategies and a well-sequenced plan for content that connects to
students prior learning, and doing so in collaboration with others so that
knowledge is shared

8.6

A framework for collaboration requires: a working relationship that is

allowed to evolve and is sustained through the trust of the teacher; the
belief that working together is not through compulsion but voluntary ;the
development of skills and initiatives is seen as an on-going process
whereby change can be implemented and supported; working together is
seen as a scheduled activity which gives status to what is been developed
but does not stifle the individuals own development; an open appreciation
of the needs of those involved

8.7

Collaboration is seen as promoting professional growth

296

CHAPTER 7: CHALLENGES OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION

Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover

The role and challenges of the teacher in the new millennium

The characteristics of the teacher in the new millennium

Forecast and plan for changes in education

Key Terms

Innovator

Nation-builder

Knowledge disseminator

Interpersonal relationship agent

Management of change

Globalization of education

Further Reading
Arnold,R. et.al. 1991. Educating for a Change. Toronto: Doris Marshall Institute for
Education and Action.
Burbules,N.C. & Torres,C. (2000). Globalization and Education: critical Perpectives.
London: Routledge.
Beck,U. 1999. What is Globalization? Cambridge: Polity Press.
Scholte,J.A. (2000). Globalization: A critical introduction. London: Palgrave.
http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/scholte.htm
http://www.unesco.org/webworld/infoethics_2/eng/papers/paper_23.htm
http://www.canr.msu.edu/aee/extension/oct96.htm

297

Suggested Input
1.0 Innovator
1.1 Teacher as an innovator demonstrates evidence of keeping current with recent
research and significant literature. He/She is involved in organizations and
projects, particularly leadership roles.
1.2 He/She also implement an integrated curriculum, restructuring the learning
environment through the transparent and informational use of information and
communication technology. The teacher consistently works with colleagues in the
school, ensuring ICT programs are integrated across the curriculum areas and
year levels.

The teacher critically reflects upon ICT skills and functional

knowledge and actively addresses social, legal and ethical issue in relation to
learning technologies. The teacher is actively involved in school planning and
utilizes the school community to actively design ICT learning environments.
1.3 The innovator also make references and recommendations indicating excellent
performance and potential for success. He/she will develop and continue to refine
a well-reasoned educational philosophy that includes receptivity to new ideas.
He/she also expresses strong commitment to one or more educational values.
1.4 A innovator also instigate change in small ways, collaborating with other staff,
working on joint projects. He/She changes strategies, techniques, texts and
materials when better ones are found and/or when existing ones no longer
provide a substantive learning experience for her students. This teacher also
employs a combination of lecture-discussion, simulation, service learning,
cooperative learning, visual media, role-playing, guest speakers and debates and
whatever is age and grade appropriate in order to accommodate diverse learning
styles and to present the subject from different angles to facilitate insights and
connections. This teacher values and uses students ideas about how to enhance
their own learning.

1.5 An innovator continues to develop, to seek evidence of best practice, to take on

board innovation, and to keep up-to-date all the time. For the teacher this means
updating their subject knowledge as well as their skills and knowledge of new
approaches to teaching, managing and planning.

298

2.0 Nation-Builder
2.1 A teacher is a marvelous entity and no tool has been able to replace it as yet.
The teacher has been rightly called nation-builder because he holds the
remedy for problems like illiteracy, population explosion, poverty, employment,
erosion of values etc. Society in general and parents in particular continue to
have a blind faith in the teacher.
3.0 Knowledge Disseminator
3.1 The teacher is a knowledge and skill disseminator and he/she disseminates
concepts, principles,guidelines dan rules of the thumb, essential facts and
essential skills. There are several tasks that the teacher undertakes as a
knowledge and skills disseminator.
He/She :
-

exudes enthusiasm in the way he gets attention of his student all the time
and this facilitates learning.

Focuses attention to important areas of the subject and areas that are
likely to be problematic to comprehend;

Set objectives for learning task

Checks prior learning

Tries to make learning meaningful and memorable

Facilitates encoding/recall of information so that the student is able to

retrieve when this is needed

Assesses learning

3.2 The teacher facilitates encoding/recall of information so that the student is able
to retrieve it when this is needed. One way is through the use of mnemonics.
The idea behind mnemonics is

to

inject sense into apparently senseless

material.
3.3 Another way of helping the student learn is to get the students to go beyond
what is it? to think about how and why to relate the new information to his
existing knowledge and to use the new information as often as possible.

299

4.0 Interpersonal relationship agent

4.1 The teacher fosters relationships with school colleagues, parents, and
agencies in the larger community to support students learning and wellbeing.
4.2 The teacher uses knowledge of effective verbal, nonverbal, and media
communication techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration and
supportive interaction in the classroom.
4.3 The teacher possesses communication skills such as:
-

builds and maintain rapport

uses active listening skills

possess an awareness of individuals needs and anxieties

handles confrontation

offers constructive criticism and suggestions

accepts varying teaching styles, value systems and levels of autonomy.

4.4

The most effective interpersonal relationship agent should possess the

following characteristics:
-

empathy

respect

warmth

genuineness

concreteness

self-disclosure

immediacy

congruency

spontaneity

non-judgmental

300

5.0 Management of Change

5.1 Change is inevitable in education and it is a process that involves learning.
As an educator/teacher, one has to be able to understand the social,
organizational and political identities and interests of those involved;
focusing on what really matters instead of getting caught up in peripheral
issues; assessing the agendas of all concerned
5.2 In managing change, the following suggestions may guide the process:
-

Pay attention to the context. Whether acting as a change agent in an

organizational or with individual students, understanding the context is
critical to success. Both organizations and individuals are shaped by
factors that it is important to address the process of change. Individual
learners have norms and values that will influence the direction of
change.

Be prepared to be proactive. Underlying the managing aspect, one has to

be able to initiate the change process even though fulfilling this role may
raise questions about the ethics of facilitating change including use of
power in giving students tools they can use in their lives.

Attend to learning. Since learning and change are interconnected, the

teacher can assist those who are undergoing the change process in
understanding the different kinds of learning as well as the learning cycle
of the change process. In managing change, the teacher should allow for
periods of reflection to incorporate and/or practise new ways of thinking.

Build in action. Any change will not be complete unless it involves action.
Taking action related to a new mental concept or to organizational change
will increase flow of information surrounding it and allow those involved to
test it out, receive reaction to it, and involve others in learning about it.
Action will provide the proof that the change has occurred.

301

6.0 Globalization and Education

6.1 The process whereby political, social, economic and cultural relations
increasingly take on a global scale, and which has profound consequences
for individuals local experiences and everyday lives.
6.2 It refers to a process of removing government- imposed restrictions on
movements between countries in order to create an open, borderless world
economy. Globalization is also being defined as a process which embodies
a transformation in the spatial organization of social relations and
transactions- assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity and
impact-generating transcontinental or inter-regional flows and networks of
activity.
6.3 Globalization has impacted upon the nature of the agencies that school
children, and students. At a glance, it would seem that national governments
still have considerable freedom to intervene in the education systems.
6.4 Globalization has found expression in some direct ways such as the delocalization of schooling. Since the 1980s, there has been a degree of
parental choice within state schooling. It has been possible to choose which
schools to apply to both primary and secondary levels.
6.5 To these developments must be added changes in educational technologyespecially the use of the internet and other computer forms and the growth
of distance learning. These involved highly individualized forms of learning
and may not lead to any additional interaction with neighbours or with
agencies. They allow people from different parts of the world to engage in
the same programme and student contact can be across great physical
distance.

6.6 As the educational systems becomes more marketized, colleges, schools

and non-formal education agencies seeks to build relationships based more
on viewing learners as customers rather than participants. The main role of
the teacher-turned-classroom manager is to legitimate through mandated
subject matter and educational practices a market-based conception of the
learner as simply a consumer of information.

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CHAPTER 8: DEVELOPMENT OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN MALAYSIA

Overview:
In this chapter, we shall

The characteristics of the early education system in Malaysia

-

before British

during British Colonial rule

The implications and effects of the various educational reports on the development
of the national education

Razak Report 1956

Rahman Talib Report 1960

Education Ordinance 1967

Cabinet Committee Report 1979

Education Act 1995 and 1996

The characteristics of the current education programme

-

smart school

information and communication technology

distance learning

Key Terms

Pre- Independence

Early Independence

Razak Report

Rahman Talib report

Education Ordinance

Cabinet Committee Report

Education Act

Smart school

Distance learning/Open university

303

Information and Communication Technology

Further Reading
Ministry of Education Malaysia.(2001). Education in Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
Majdalany,G. & Guiney, S. 1999. Implementing distance learning in urban schools. No.
150.
Rowntree,D. (1998). Exploring Open and Distance Learning. London: Kogan Press Ltd.
Schlosser, C.A. & Anderson, M.L. 1997. Distance education: review of the literature.
Washington : Association for educational Communications and
Sherry,L. 1996. Issues in distance learning. International Journal of Educational
Telecommunications, 1(4): 337 365.
http://www.unesco.org/webworld/infoethics_2/eng/papers/paper_23.htm.
http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/courses/ed253a/dk/GLOBPM.htm

Suggested Input

1.0 Pre-Independence

1.1 Prior to attaining independence from the British colonial rule in 1957, there was
an absence of uniformity in the provision of formal education in Malaysia. There
was separate schools with different media of instruction, curricula, methods and
standards for children of the various ethnic groups, that is Malays, Chinese and
Indians.
1.2 Two types of schools emerged : the English medium and the vernacular schools.
English medium schools, established by the then British government, individuals
and missionary societies, provided a western education for a mixed urban
population. Education was not free..

304

1.3 Chinese and Tamil vernacular schools were set up by their respective
communities. Free education was provided in the Malay vernacular schools
which were established by the government
1.4 Secondary education was only available in English government and mission
schools as well as in independent Chinese schools. Malay medium and Tamil
medium education were limited to the primary level.
1.5 Under British colonial rule, higher education in Malaya was dictated by the
British policy of producing the necessary personnel for the Malayan Civil
Service with senior posts reserved for and filled by the Europeans. The first
institution of higher education was not established until 1905 when King Edward
Vll College of Medicine was founded in Singapore. The second institution was
the Raffles College which was established in 1928. These two colleges
developed side by side until 1949 when they were amalgamated to constitute
the former University of Malaya in Singapore.
1.6 The upsurge of nationalism and desire for self-government resulted in the setting
up of two Committees, popularly known as the Barnes (1950) and Fenn-Wu
(1951) to look into the problems of and recommend improvements to Malay and
Chinese education. As an outcome of these two Committees, the Education
Ordinance of 1952 was passed but it did not produce the desired changes in the
system. As a result, a special committee was set up in 1956 to work out a policy
based upon the decision to make Malay the national language whilst preserving
the languages and cultures of the other domiciled races of the Federation of
Malaya. The recommendations of the Committee contained in the Report of the
Education Committee 1956, commonly referred to as the Razak Report, formed
the basis of the Education Ordinance of 1957, which laid the foundation for the
national education policy.
2.0 Post Independence 1957-1960
2.1 The post independence era is the period during which the foundation of the of
the national education system was laid. The early years was a period of post
war reconstruction and the nation had to contend with the communist insurgence
until 1960s.

305

2.2 The ultimate objective of the education policy as stipulated in the Razak report
was to bring together all races by progressively and gradually making the Malay
language the main medium of instruction. Chinese and Tamil would continue to
be the media of instruction as the primary level in the vernacular schools.
2.3 In 1960, a Review Committee looked into the implementation of the
recommendations made by the Razak Report of 1957. The findings of this
Committee, commonly referred to as the Rahman Talib Report, confirmed the
soundness of educational policy as laid down by the Razak Report and its
general acceptance by the public. The recommendations of these two reports
became the integral components of the Education Act 1961. In January 1976,
the Act was extended to the states of Sabah and Sarawak, which had been
incorporated into the formation of Malaysia in 1963.
2.4 The two most important tasks facing the new nation since independence were
education for unity and universal education. The process of consolidating the
diverse school system into a cohesive national educational system, with the
National Language as the main medium of instruction, was initiated during this
period.
2.5 In 1957, all existing primary schools were converted to national and national
type-schools. Malay medium primary schools were renamed national nationaltype primary schools. Whilst Malay was the medium of instruction in nationalschools, the medium of instruction in national type schools were English and the
vernacular languages. The national language was made a compulsory subject in
these national-type schools.
2.6 English and Chinese secondary schools were converted to national-type
secondary schools. Such schools became fully assisted schools. In 1968, the
process of conversion of English medium national type schools into national
schools began in stages with the teaching of five subjects in Bahasa Melayu in
Standards 1-3.
2.7 1958 marked the beginning of Malay medium secondary education. Malay
medium secondary classes were started as an annex in English secondary
schools. These classes eventually developed into national secondary schools.
2.8 The Language Institute was established in 1958 to train Malay Language
specialist teachers. The Dewan Bahasa and Pustaka was founded in 1956 to
produce textbooks and reference books in the National Language.

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2.9 The entrance examination into secondary school, the Malayan Secondary
Schools Examination, was abolished in 1964 and universal education was
extended from six to nine years in Peninsular Malaysia. This examination was
abolished in Sarawak in 1974 and in Sabah in 1977.
2.10 Curricular reforms focused on reviewing the existing syllabuses and designing
a common content curriculum with a Malaysian outlook. Common content
examinations were implemented in all schools.
2.11A comprehensive education system of the lower secondary education was
introduced in 1965. Technical and vocational education was given an impetus
with the establishment of the Technical and Vocational Education Division in
1964.
3.0 Educational Development 1970-1980
3.1 Social and economic issues shaped the development of education from the
seventies to the 1990. Racial harmony and eradicating economic imbalances in
the society were crucial to sustained development, stability and progress. This
is the period of the New Economic Policy, which is a socio-economic policy to
achieve national unity and development by focusing on eradicating poverty and
restructuring the Malaysian society to eliminate the identification of race with
economic function and geographical location.
3.2 The medium of instruction of instruction was converted in stages beginning in
1970 and by 1983 it became the medium of instruction at the tertiary level.
Today Bahasa Melayu is the medium of instruction in all national schools and it
is compulsory subject in Chinese and Tamil Schools. English is taught as a
second language.
3.3 In 1980, the Malaysian Certificate of Education examination was conducted in
Bahasa Malaysia only. In 1970, English ceased to be the medium of instruction
in primary teacher education programmes.
3.4 The administrative machinery of the education system was expanded and
improved to enable the government to implement the two pronged strategies of
the New Economic Policy using education as a vehicle. The Curriculum
Development Centre was established in 1973 to evaluate, review and develop
the school curriculum in line with national goals.

307

3.5 In 1979, Cabinet Committee Report recommended new approaches and

strategies to further consolidate, strengthen and expand the national system of
education. In 1980s several recommendations of this Review Committee were
implemented to bring about greater democratization in educational opportunities
and reduce the imbalances between the rural and urban areas.
3.6 A major reform was in the introduction of the New Primary School Curriculum in
1983 and by 1989 the Integrated Secondary School Curriculum was
implemented. The national philosophy of education was formulated of
education1988 which further reinforced the direction and goals of education in
Malaysia.
4.0 Educational Development 1990-2000
4.1 The last decade of the twentieth century witnessed unprecedent and
accelerated change at a pace that has never been experienced before.
Advances in information communication technology(ICT) have hastened the
pace of globalization and the trend is irreversible.
4.2 Vision 2020 initiated in the early 1990s may be perceived as Malaysia s first
step into the Information Age and a globalized world. To enable Malaysia make
the quantum leap towards an industrialized nation status and eventually into a
knowledge economy, the country needs to build a world class education
system.
4.3 1996 saw the change when the Education Act 1961 replaced by the Education
Act 1996 to regulate the expansion of education. Of paramount importance was
the enactment of the Private Higher Education Institutions Act 1996 which made
provision for the establishment of privately run tertiary institutions.
4.4 The last decade of the twenthieth century has witnessed concerted quantitative
and qualitative developments in primary, secondary and tertiary education. re is
an increased access to tertiary education with the setting up of public and
private universities, university colleges, matriculation colleges, community
colleges, private colleges as well as foreign university branch campuses.
4.5 To ensure greater access to education and basic education for all, children were
assured eleven years of school after 1997 when most students were promoted
to the upper secondary after sitting for the lower secondary assessment

308

examination. The curriculum was continuously reviewed and updated to

incorporate thinking skills with greater emphasis on science and technology. It
was during this stage that saw the emergence of the smart school concept and
the introduction of computer literacy in the schools and in teacher training.
4.6 The launching of a training programme for school heads and the setting up of a
university for teachers, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris in 1997. The diploma
level pre-service teacher training programme was introduced. Another
development is the introduction of the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) and Sijil
Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia(STPM) Open Certification examinations.
5.0 Education Ordinance 1952
5.1 Features of this policy:
-

to promote a National School system by the gradual introduction of the

English Language into Malay vernacular schools and Malay Language
and English Language into Chinese and Tamil Vernacular schools.

To maintain the existing English medium National type schools

To develop vocational secondary schools

6.0 The Report of the Education Committee 1956 (Razak Report)

6.1 Major Recommendations:
-

orientation to a Malayan outlook by the introduction of common content

syllabuses and time tables for all schools.

The national language (Malay Language) to be the main medium of

instruction in all schools

The national language and the English Language to be compulsory

subjects for all primary and secondary schools

Conversion of existing primary schools to National schools (Malay

medium) and National-type schools (English, Chinese or Tamil medium)

The establishment of one types of National Secondary school open to all

races using common content syllabuses, with a flexible curriculum

7.0 Rahman Talib Report (1960) and Education Act 1961

309

7.1 Major recommendations:

-

universal free primary education

automatic promotion up to Form III

enhancement of Technical and Vocational education

setting up of the Federal Inspectorate of schools

introduction of Bahasa Malaysia, the National language as the main

medium of instruction

An examination system which uses only two main languages that is,
Bahasa Malaysia and English Language

Expansion of teacher training programme

Provision of Religious and Moral Education

8.0 Report of Cabinet Committee 1979

8.1 Major recommendations:
-

emphasis is given to the basic education of 3Rs- reading, writing and

arithmetic

emphasis is given to spiritual education and required disciplinary

elements

emphasis is given to a curriculum tailored to Malaysia

two mainstreams of secondary level of education, academic and

vocational

the opportunity to extend schooling from 9 years to 11 years

well managed plan for educational management to enhance the overall

quality of education

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9.0 Education Act 1995

9.1 Main recommendations:
-

the national education system is designed to produce world class quality

education to achieve the countrys aspirations

the National Philosophy of Education is the basis for the National

Principles of Education

the duration for primary education is 5 7 years

pre-education education is part of the national education system

improved technical and polytechnic education

provisions are made for the monitoring of private education

10.0 Open and Distance Learning

10.1 An open learning system is one which the restrictions placed on students are
under constant review and removed wherever possible. It incorporates the
widest range of teaching strategies, in particular those using independent and
individualized learning
10.2 Open learning: arrangements to enable people to learn at the time,place and
pace which satisfies their circumstances and requirements. The emphasis is
on opening up opportunities by overcoming barriers that result from
geographical isolation, personal or work commitments or conventional
courses structures which have often prevented people from gaining access to
the training they need.
10.3 Distance learning can be defined as an instruction and learning practice
utilizing technology and involving students and teachers who are separated
by time and space. It can occur between schools, between schools and
colleges and universities and even within school buildings and districts.
10.4 Distance learning first emerged as a concept in the nineteenth century, when
it was characterized as a correspondence course. It reappeared as the open
universities of the 1970s and then as the video tape, broadcast, satellite and
cable productions of the 1980s. Today, distance education refers to the use of
audio, video and computer video conferencing technologies as delivery
modes.

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10.5 Distance learning is learning while at a distance from ones teacher-usually

with the help of pre-recorded, packaged learning materials. The learners are
separated from their teachers in time and space but are still being guided by
them.
10.6 Distance learning encourages students to be creative, to participate actively in
their own learning, to experience others and to prepare for the kind of world
that they will enter as adults. Further, computer learning activities that employ
multiple interactive media encourage active listening, focused attention, and
the ability to work independently.
11.0 Information Communication and Technology
11.1 ICT is defined as any computer-based resources, networked and stand alone,
including both hardware and software, currently available as teaching and
learning resources.
11.2 Examples include tailored multimedia teaching packages; information sources
such as the internet ; data management tools such as word-processing ,
software or spreadsheets.
11.3 The ability to use ICT effectively and appropriately is now seen as essential to
allow learners to acquire and exploit information within every sphere of human
activity. The school curriculum already reflects the perceived value and
importance of developing ICT literacy and information literacy in all students.. IT
is integrated into the curriculum.
11.4 Changes in the perception of what constitutes a learning environment have
been highlighted in a number of recent developments which seek to exploit the
potential of ICT. Today libraries in higher education have developed and
exploited a networked environment.
11.5 Successful integration into the curriculum depends on teachers being convinced
of the relevance of ICT as a means of providing access to a richer range of
resources for themselves and students. This emphasis must be on using
appropriate technologies to enhance and support effective learning. Teachers
need to be able to exploit modern information sources for themselves as
continuing learners even when they are teachers.

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CHAPTER 9: EDUCATIONAL OUTCOME

Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover

The inequality in educational opportunities and outcomes

-

concepts and issues

Home and environmental factors affecting educational achievement

Characteristics of schools which affect academic achievement

Key Terms

Restrictive culture

Compensatory education

Social status

Socialization

Urban and rural location

School culture

Teachers expectation

Effective schools

Suggested Activities
Further Reading
Banks, O. 1976. Sociology of Education. London: Batsford Ltd.
Calfee,R. 1986. Curriculum and Instruction: Reading. In B.I. Williams,P.A. Richmond, &
Mason (Ed). Designs for compensatory education: Conference proceedings and
papers. Washington,D.C. : Research Evaluation Associates, Inc.
Cheng, Y.C. 1993. Profiles of organizational culture and effective schools. In School
effectiveness and school improvement 4, 2 : 85 110.
Deal,T.E.1993. The culture of schools In Educational Leadership and school culture

313

edited by Marshall Sashkin and Walberg,H.J. Berkeley: McCutchan Publishing.

Doyle, W. 1986. Vision and reality: A reaction to issues in curriculum and instruction for
compensatory education. In B. I. Williams, P.A. Richmond & Mason (Ed)
Designs for compensatory education. Conference proceedings and papers.
Washington, D.C.: Research Evaluation Associates, Inc.
Fraser,E. 1973. Home Environment and the school. London: University of London
Press.
http://www2.moe.gov/~bpgEng.html
http://www2.moe.gov-my/~bpghlbestari_htm.
Suggested Input
1.0 Compensatory Education
1.1 Compensatory education programs has traditionally been informed by the belief
that

disadvantaged students can benefit most from a less challenging

curriculum and limited achievement goals.

1.2

The purpose

of compensatory education is to help the child make the

progress that she or he would have made if an appropriate program had been
available. The specific services provided must be tailored to the childs needs.
Compensatory education can mean

extra instruction or related services

provided during the school year.

1.3 It provides for learning opportunities in both cognitive and affective areas, in
skills of learning how-to-learn and learning how to be a student. It emphasizes
mastery learning techniques that may improve scores, but fail to help students
learn how to work independently and develop coherent mental representations
for school work in general.

314

1.4 Peterson (1986) concluded that low achieving students can successfully be
taught a variety of cognitive strategies such as memory, elaboration, selfquestioning, rehearsal, planning and goal setting, comprehension, problemsolving, hypothesis generating and study skills; and that compensatory
education should give greater emphasis to their development.
2.0 Factors Affecting the Development of Educational Inequalities
2.1 Social Class
-

Social class is a product of the distribution of valuable resources in

society and not of a particular ethnic groups historical experience. It is
measured by the indexes of socioeconomic status (SES) These indexes
are based on weighted combinations of parental education, occupational
prestige and income.

Students from more advantaged homes and neighbourhoods are more

likely to enter school with a base of knowledge and values that encourage
school success; be surrounded by an atmosphere of parental support for
and active involvement in schooling; have economic resources to
purchase instructional materials and educational services that are
available to students whose parents have less money.

2.2 Race and Ethnicity

-

In countries like America, racial and ethical differences are always the
most important basis of inequality. Why do race and ethnicity sometimes
matter so much and sometimes so little in a groups ability to take
advantage of school opportunities?

Sociologist argued that ethnic

groups migrating voluntarily to a new land have strong incentives to

assimilate

to the culture of the new country. In the long run, the new

group will be integrated into the host country.

-

In contrast, racial and ethnic groups conquered by a technological

superior power are unlikely to be assimilated as easily, both because the
majority group

is unlikely to fully accept those it has conquered and

because the colonized rarely accept their conquerors.

315

An important reason that ethnicity is properly characterized as the varying

divider is that some immigrant groups become assimilated and move up
the socioeconomic ladder faster than others. The success of fast-rising
minorities is often attributed to their superior drive or intelligence.
However, some minorities typically come to their new country with a host
of advantages, not enjoyed by other groups, quite apart from their drive
and intelligence.

2.3 Gender
-

Countries with higher per capita incomes were more likely to have greater
gender equality in schooling. Economic progress is strongly associated
with conditions that make womens lives less restricted. Countries with
many ethnic groups generally had less gender equality, perhaps because
it is politically difficult to extend educational opportunity when many ethnic
groups are competing for preeminence.

In the industrialized world, a great deal more equality exists between men
and women. In secondary school and higher education enrolments,
women are either equal to men or actually over represented compared
with men.

Although women now experience fewer disadvantages in educational

access and educational attainments, they continue to experience many
disadvantages in how they are treated in schools. Classroom interaction
is one area of continuing unequal treatment.

There are good reasons to believe that gender will become a less
significant factor in the future, even in the area of jobs and salaries. One
is that as women gain ground, mens sensibilities change, however slowly
and unevenly. Moreover, as the pool of career-oriented women increases,
men have more difficulty hiring and promoting men on grounds other
than demonstrated competence. Womens organizations and womens
support networks contribute to equalization of opportunity by continuing
to challenge discrimination in an active way.

316

3.0 Factors Affecting Educational Achievement

3.1 Home Factors
-

The first five or six years are crucial foundation years, and even after
starting at school the child continues to live with his parents and to be
deeply influenced by their behaviour and attitudes. The family shares in
the socialization process alongside the school.and the family environment
is likely to encourage a favourable response to school. The school has
become the focal socializing agency

The family background, for example working class children to perform

less well in school. There is the relation ship between social class
background and educational achievement.

The tendency of the working classes to under-achieve is consistent.

Parental interest may affect one kind of school system than in another
whilst achievement motivation may count for more in one kind of
teaching situation than in another.

Relationship between social-class background and educational

achievement. The influence of different social class milieu of the school
affecting the level of educational and occupational aspirations and
academic achievement of children from different social backgrounds have
been found.

Home conditions pride, confidence, affection and interest of parents in

their children, as shown in instances in which parents read to their
children, play with them or attend school functions with them appear to
affect the achievement of the children. On the part of plus achievers,
there is a general tendency to respect their parents, to take them into
their confidence, and to return the love their parents show. Minus
achievers do not appear to be so much exchange of affection or mutual
respect, or desire to measure up to expectations. The climate of affection
within the home for a particular child and its various manifestations
appear to be related definitely to school achievement.

317

Motivational aspect of the home environment whereby parents who are

well educated and provide the child with favourable environment are likely
to motivate him to study well. They will take an interest on their childrens
school work.

Emotional aspects such as emotional stress, insecurity and anxiety are

factors which will affect the childs achievement. Thus a child from a well
to do home with good cultural background may have high innate ability
and high intelligence test scores but because of an unsettling home
environment may do relatively poorly in school.

3.2

Material Environment
-

The effect on school performance of extreme poverty. Malnutrition and

poor living conditions are bound to have an influence on the health of the
child, and so directly or indirectly on his ability to learn.

Pre-natal damage may occur to the child as a result of inadequate prenatal care. Poverty can also influence indirectly, by limiting the familys
ability to forego adolescent earnings.

Poor housing and overcrowding can impede the childs homework and his
opportunity for reading or constructive play. Poverty, poor housing,
overcrowding and other slum conditions affect a large number of children
in ways which are likely to depress their educational performances.

There is a close relationship between material deprivation and the whole

way of life of the family. Poverty can make a parent less willing to keep a
child at school; can make it difficult for him to afford books and toys, or
expeditions which help a child to learn; can enforce housing conditions
which make the whole family strained and unhappy or deprive the parentchild play or talk together. Thus school achievement should be related not
so to isolated factors in the environment but to family life as a whole.

318

4.0 Characteristics of school that affect educational achievement

4.1 The Social milieu of School
-

School factors in terms of the quality of teaching, grouping and differential

prestige and status attached to the schools have exerted great influence
on the aspirations, expectations and achievement of students.

A variety of school conditions in terms of physical facilities, school size,

quality of teachers,geographical isolation, medium of instruction, financial
resources and social class milieu affect the achievement of students.

4.2 School Culture

-

It is defined as the historically transmitted patterns of meaning that

include the norms, values, beliefs, ceremonies, rituals, traditions and
myths understood, maybe in varying degrees, by members of the school
community.

It has been found that healthy and sound school cultures correlate
strongly with increased student achievement and motivation and with
teacher productivity and satisfaction.

Recent studies found support that students are more motivated to learn in
schools with strong cultures. Implementation of a clear mission statement,
shared vision and school wide goals promote increased student
achievement.

School culture also correlates with teachers attitudes towards their work.
It was found that strong school cultures had better motivated teachers. In
an environment with strong organizational ideology, shared participation,
charismatic leadership and intimacy. Teachers experienced higher job
satisfaction and increased productivity.

319

4.3 Teachers expectation

-

Teachers expectation of the students ability had a significant influence on

their performance. The teachers who had high expectations for certain
students, somehow communicated this message to them in the
classroom. The expectations of the higher intellectual performance could
have been communicated to the group by the teacher in the classroom by
giving them more attention, encouraging them more, demanding more of
them and treating them more pleasantly. The students whom the teachers
expected to do well, performed better, although their ability was similar to
that of the unselected group.

The Drop-out Study (1973) found that if the students perceived that their
teachers academic expectations of them are high, then a higher
percentage of the students were enrolled in school compared with those
who perceived the teachers expectations to be low.

5.0 Effective Schools

5.1 Effective schools are distinguished from inefficient ones by the frequency and
extent to which teachers learn together, plan together, test ideas

together,

discuss practices together, reflect together, grapple together with the

fundamental vision and focus of developing students to fullest capacity.
5.2 Effective schools are a learning community, a place where teachers and
administrators study, work and learn together with the mission of improving
student achievement.
5.3 All efficient school has a culture and it is the information

one gets from a

culture that sends a message to the student that they will be productive and
successful. The effective teacher thinks, reflects and implements. The efficient
teacher models what is expected from the students- the ability to think and
solve problems on their own. Effective teachers use their cumulative knowledge
to solve problems.

320

5.4 All effective classrooms start on time. Students know

the classroom

procedures. Teachers understand how to teach for mastery. Teachers have high
expectations for

student success. All effective classroom are managed by

effective teachers.

6.0 Smart School

6.1 Apart from the role of education to fulfill national development

goals and

aspirations, the project also meant to address various educational needs :

-

to prepare school leavers from the information Age

to bring about a systemic change in education, from an exam-dominated

culture to a thinking and creative knowledge culture

to re-emphasize science and technology education with a

focus on

creativity and innovation

-

to equip students with IT competence

to inculcate Malaysia values among the students and produce a

generation of caring, peace-loving and environmentally concerned
citizens

6.2 The smart school uses technology to support and enhance teaching-learning.
With the aid of multi-media technology, self-accessed, self-paced and selfdirected learning can be practiced. This will allow students to develop their
strengths to a level of excellence and breed a generation of inventors and
innovators.
6.3 Curriculum for smart school emphases through

4 subject areas, that is

science, Mathematics, Bahasa Malaysia and English Language.

emphases

The

are knowledge acquisition, analytical creative thinking and the

ability to make decisions and solve problems, IT competency proficiency in an

international language, inculcation of values towards the development of the
good person.

321

RESOURCE BOOK COMPILING PANEL 2002

Co-ordinator

: Dr. Maznah Abd. Samad (Teacher Education Division)

Chairman

: Mr. Fun Foo Ying (Maktab Perguruan Perempuan Melayu)

Members :
Ms. Chan Meng Choo

(Maktab Perguruan Temenggong Ibrahim,)

Dr. Boon Pong Ying

( Institut Perguruan Bahasa-Bahasa Antarabangsa)

Dr. Choong Lean Keow (Maktab Perguruan Ipoh, Hulu Kinta)

Mr. Kam Tin Leong

(Maktab Perguruan Temenggong Ibrahim)

Ms. Aziza Bte. Mahbob

(Maktab Perguruan Ilmu Khas)

Mr. Dhanapalan a/l Govindan (Maktab Perguruan Batu Pahat)

322

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The compilers would like to extend their thanks and appreciation to the following:
(a) Director of the Teacher Education Division
(b) Chief Assistant Director, Curriculum Unit, Teacher Education Division
(c) Principal, Specialist Teacher Training College, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur
(d) Principal, International Languages Teacher Training Institute, Kuala Lumpur
(e) Dr. Maznah Abd Samad, Curriculum Officer, Teacher Education Division
(f) All the officers in the libraries and Technology Department of both the colleges
above
(g) Those who have in one way or other helped in making this project a success.

323