Topic 11: Quantum Physics

I. The photoelectric Effect

This is the phenomenon that when certain (clean) metal surfaces are illuminated by
electromagnetic radiation (e.g. ultraviolet), electrons are emitted from the surfaces.

Electrons emitted this way are called photoelectrons.

lf an electromagnetic radiation illuminates a metalsurface:

Predictions of the classical wave Observations which are not in accordance with the
theory p.gdictions of the classicalwave theory

Kinetic energy of the electron lncreas'ng the intensity of the radiation (by increasing the
should depend on the intensity of rate of incidence of photons) increases the rate at which
electrons are emitted, but has no effect on the maximum
energy of the electrons.

Above the threshold frequencv. the maximum energy of the

emitted electrons increases with the frequency of the
radiation, even with low-inten\ity radiatron.

[lectrons will be emitted at any No electron is emitted if the frequency of the radiation is
frequency, provided the intensity below a certajn threshold frequencv. even with very intense
of the radiation is high enough. radiation.

Electrons will require some time to Electrons are emitted as soon as the radiation is incident on
absort) incident radiation before the surface.
they acquire enough kinetic energy
1o escape from the metal.

Note 1: ln its interaction with matter to release an electron, an electromagnetic radiation behaves
like a stream of particleiike photons, each with energy proportionalto the frequency of radiation-
This energy can be absorbed by an electron immediatelv_

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Note 2: The intensity of the radiation depends on the rate at which the photons arrive. IRate of
arrival of photons is proportional to rate of emission of photoelectrons. i.e. the greater the intensity
of incident radiation (provided the frequency is above threshold), the Sreater the magnitude of the
photocurrent!l

tntensity ot radiation, -';::: 4 -

no*'*Ahr lt ,*[l)
=
[? ),,- [T]
Photocurrent,i= =(?),,",*,-""', where e = r.6xr'''c
l. r /,,.,"",".^,,

Note 3: Work function 0 is required to freethe electron from the surface of metal. tf,jfis less than
0, no electron is ejected.

lncreasing the intensity {by increasing the rate of incidence of photons) means more photons per
second, but each photon is still unable to eject an electron.

Note 4: lf /rjtis greater than {}, the remainder is available to the electron as kinetic energy.

(This is where the idea of stopping potential 4 comes in -the greater the KE of the photoelectron,
the greater the Illpllldg of 4 needed to prevent electrons from reaching the collector
electrode.)

Decreasingthe intensity (by decreasing the rate of incidence of photons) means fewer photons per
second, but each photon is still able to ejed an electron.

Note 5; The value ofd, for any metal is a constant. The reason why photoelectrons which are
emitted have different KE or velocities is because ofthe different depth that the electrons were
initially situated within the metal. This leads to varying amount of ofenergy losses within the metal
layers.

Commonly asked questions include asking on the effect of a given change on the stopping potential
value, Vs, KEmax and/or saturatlon current. ln summary,

To increase KEm." (or to increase V,) To increase saturation current

tE(by1for.l.i") 1 the intensity ofthe EM radiarion by a the

rate of incidence of photons
(ptovided E > 6)
JO(by.l,foortro)

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 saturation
current

-v,
lncreasing frequenry of radiation; rate of incidence of photons constant

Einstein's Equation for Photoelectric Emission

Energy of Work Function Remaining

Photon of Metal energy of
emitted Photon

0 KE-".
or .qr + =
y, m v^u"'

hf hf.
at
or or
hc hc EPE

I i
This is a very useful equatton, for many calculation questions require you to make use of it. you
have to use the relevant alternate forms ior the terms jn the equation, depending on the quantities
you are given.

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2, Wave - Particle Duality

Matter exhibiting its wave or particulate nature in different situation is known as wave-particle
duality.

Particle behave as wave Wave behave as particle

Experiment Electron Diffraction Experiment
demonstrating Electrons passingthrough diffraction
wave-particle grating Bive rise to a diffraction
duality pattern similar to that of a light
diffraction pattern.
Photoelectric experiment
Light behave as particle like photons,
leading to immediate emission of
electrons when it is incident on clean
metalsurfaces.

Specific Electrons demonstrate wave nature Light demonstrates particulate nature in

conclusion when undergoing diff raction. a photoelectric experiment.

6eneral All particles can possiblv Allwaves can possibly demonstrate

demonstrate wave nature- particulate nature,

Note: lnterference ond dilftdction phenomeno ore evidences of wave noture of electromoanetic
rodiotion.

De Broglie's Equation

wherep = momentum of photon lRecallthat momentum = mass x velocity]

Note: This equation also applies to other particles or bodies which have a momentum. However,
the wavelengths of more massive bodies are usually very short compared to their dimensions and
so interference effects are usually not evident.

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3. Energy tevels in Atoms

A typical energy level diagram in a single atom looks like this:

Er

E3 n=3

Et n=2

E1

. An atom is said to be in its ground state if none of its electrons has an unoccupied energy level
beneath it.

. lt is said to be in an excited state if one or more of its electrons have transited to a higher
energy level, and so there are unoccupied energy levels beneath them.

. lt to be in an ionized state if one or more of its electrons have transited to above the
is said
highest energy level (n = infinity). i.e. the electrons have escaped_

A photon is emitted when an electron transits.from a higher energy level to a lower energy level.
Ener8y of thjs photon is equal to the energy driJerence AI between the 2 energy levels.

hc
hf =LE-8:, Ez or =aE=h Ez

The same energy must be absorbed for the electron to transit from the lower energy level to the
fiigher energy level.

Note: Commonly asked questions include the difference between exdtation of ground state
eledrons by photons and incident electrons. Difference: incoming photon must have the exact
amount of energy that corresponds to At (a photon cannot be sub-divided; it is a "packet of
energy'' and is wholly absorbed) whereas incident electron can have any amoltnt of energy that is
greaterthan A'' in order to bring about this transition-

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Une Spectra

The existence of line spectra demonstrates the existence of discrete energv levels within atems.

Emission Spectrum Absorption Spectrum

Description
Lines of certain colours on a
dark background-
Source Hot Bas.
Explanation of The number of possible energy
spectra differences is finite, so the
number of possible frequencies
of emitted photons is also finite.
The frequency of each photon
emitted coraesponds to a line.
Dark lines across a continuous band of colours.
White light passed through a coolgas.
When white light passes through a cool gas,
the atoms ofthe coolgas can only absorb
photons of a finite number of frequencies.
While these photons are eventually re-emitted
when the excited electrons de excite, the
radiat'on is in all directlons and so the intensity
of the original direction ;s reduced.

Noter The direction of increasing frequency can be deduced by inspecting the line spacing. The lines
get increasingly closer together as frequency increases {vice versa for wavelengths).

e.g

lncreasing frequency

lncaeasing wavelength

questions to Try

YJCi t1 :. ,:::. 28,29!.30 ' l:

P2 lr.:ri .,3r',::-:i:rli;

SRJC
P''
P2
P1

:,.-:8. ''r'
P1 27,28,29,30
cJc
P2
P1
MJc
F

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