- Warrior

- Divine Lover/Cowherd
1.iii) Appeal of characters to whom and why?..............................................................8
- Cowherd/Divine Lover to women and lower classes,
- Warrior to men and upper classes
All taken in relation to the relevant texts
2) Emotional and intellectual bhakti9
2.i) Outline of both forms of bhakti..10
- Emotional bhakti
- Intellectual bhakti
2.ii) Devotees interaction.12
- With emotional bhakti
- With intellectual bhakti
2.iii) Evaluation of their purpose.14
3) The roles and positions of women in bhakti..15
3.i) Male and female appeal of bhakti..15
3.ii) Roles and characters of women in poetry.15
3.iii) Two way relationship nature of bhakti16
- Devotee identification with the female aspect
- Devotee identification with the deity
3.iv) Evidence of Female dominance/shifts in gender dominance within Hindu texts.17
3.v) Significance of Rdh as separate from the other gops..19
Conclusion...20
Image reference...20
Bibliography ...20

Introduction
This discussion aims to compare two forms of Hindu devotion and the characters used to
distinguish them in relation to the specific texts in which they are portrayed. The term bhakti
meaning devotion comes from the Sanskritic root bhaj literally meaning to share or participate
in.1 In essence this describes devotional worship in which both the devotee and deity (in this
case KRSNa) participate equally. Early bhakti was based on meditation and concentration but
was not necessarily focused on a deity, however with the rise of texts that did focus the devotion
thus, the general aim of bhakti reformed. It was eventually established as the third path to
liberation along with the paths of Karma (action) and Jna (knowledge.)2 The main focus of
1 Zaehner 1966, 93
2 Hopkins 1968, 6-7

this work is on the VaiSNava bhakti traditions; the devotional movements attached to the deity
ViSNu and his avatras (incarnations.) Particular reference will be made to bhakti in the
devotional texts of Book X of the Bhagavata PurANa3 and the Bhagvad-Gt.4 Further to
these original texts, others were inspired by the devotional movements which will be referenced
within this discussion where appropriate. One of the first texts to become truly devotional within
the VaiSNava tradition was the Bhagvad-Gt within the epic Mahbhrata.5 Later various
PurANa texts were picked up for their devotional appeal. With reference to KRSNa the most
relevant PurANa is the Bhgavata PurANa, and in particular the Rs Ll section contained
within Book X which discusses the relationships between KRSNa and the cowherd girls (gops).
The great works of Hindu traditions are divided into two categories: ruti and SmRti
loosely defined as that which has been perceived through hearing 6 and that which has been
remembered.7 Traditionally ruti was all that was contained in the Vedas. This information had
been revealed to the sages (Sis) and SmRti was essentially all else.8 SmRti has come to
encompass everything, excluding the Vedas, from the Stras to the Laws of Man, the PurANas
to the Epics.9 As far as devotional texts go, the Bhagvad-Gt had a fairly general popularity
despite not being particularly well known in any sort of detail. It really came to the forefront of
traditions with the rise of British colonialism in India, which set about translating texts and
making them more accessible to the everyday population. 10 The Gt itself is located within the
Mahbhrata, the great epic that outlines the civil war between the PANDavas and Kauravas.
The suggested dates for this text are between the 4 th century BCE and 4th century CE.11 The Gt
within it is thought to be dated alongside the conflict itself, between 1400 and 900 BCE which
hugely predates the Mahbhrata as a whole. The Mahbhrata was constantly amended, and
the Gt it is assumed was one of these amendments added to the text around 200BCE.12

3 Bryant 2003
4 Johnson 1994
5 Van Buitenen 1973
6 Klostermaier 1998, 15
7 Klostermaier 1998, 15
8 Goodall 1996, xx
9 Zaehner 1966, 10
10 Johnson 1994, viii
11 Archer 1957, 17
12 Cross 1994, 78

The PurANas are a collection of eighteen volumes of smRti text containing 400000
verses, and are the largest body of scriptural writings in Sanskrit.13 Each PurANa details
mythological and legendary stories of kings and deities. One god will always come to the
forefront of these stories; in the earlier PurANas, these were either ViSNu or iva, then later
Dev also became an eminent figure.14 The Bhgavata PurNa details the experiences and life
stories of the incarnations of ViSNu from Matsya the Fish to Kalki who will terminate this
present age.15 The Bhgavata consists of 12 books or skandhas, each with a primary focus on a
different avatara of ViSNu.16 Book X is the largest of the skandhas, disproportionately
containing almost of the entire text. The incarnation of ViSNu as KRSNa dominates Book X
and gives his title of Bhagavan17 (Lord) to the complete episode of PurNa. This text was slow
to be translated into English, since most texts that were translated seemed to the British to cover
Hinduism completely, the PurANas however appeared as more of a fairy tale than religious text
to the Victorians. Dating translations of such texts is relatively easy, however dating the texts
such as the Bhgavata in its original form can become highly questionable, and they have come
under much debate to the extent that the precise dates are still disputed today. Dates suggested
for this particular text; the Bhgavata PurANa for example stretch from 1200 BCE to 1300CE but
based on references to Southern Indian Tamil poetry sung by the lvrs (saints) they are most
commonly attributed to the 9th or 10th century CE.18 No specific dates can be assigned to the text,
as it is a fluid body of literature19 which has continued to be adapted throughout the centuries.20
Within the VaiSNava bhakti traditions concerned with this essay, there are two key roles
portrayed by KRSNa, in the relevant texts. The first is the intellectual image of KRSNa as the
warrior of the Bhagvad-Gt, second is that of the emotional devotion between the cowherd
KRSNa gopala, and the gops in the Bhgavata PurNa. The first chapter of this essay will
investigate the two characters of KRSNa and how they are each portrayed in Hindu art and
literature in order to set the scene as to how they are in turn worshipped within the bhakti
traditions. The discussion will lead to the question of which of these two characters is more
accessible, and to whom they appeal, for instance whether the Divine Lover must appeal only to
women and lower classes, and the Warrior to men and the upper intellectual classes or whether
there may be some transition? All of this investigation will be taken with reference to the
appropriate text of the Bhagvad-Gt and Bhgavata PurNa, and with a view towards looking
13 Bryant 2003, xi
14 Bryant 2003, xi
15 Klostermaier 2000, 34
16 Bryant 2003, xii-xiii
17 Bryant 2003, xiii
18 Goodall 1996, xl
19 Bryant 2003, xiii
20 Bryant 2003, xiii

at the issue of intellectual bhakti verses emotional bhakti which will be looked at in the following
chapter.
Early devotional texts like the Bhagvad-Gt were more intellectual in design as they
came to the forefront at a time when those most able to read and interpret such texts were only
the intellectual elite. Later as lower classes became more devotionally involved, texts with more
simplistic stories became the focus of devotion. For example the Bhgavata PurNa telling
stories of battles with demons and the success of good over evil tied with relationships and
devotion on a humanistic level despite the main characters reality of being a deity. The second
chapter will look at the distinctions between intellectual and emotional bhakti. It will discuss
how the different characters of KRSNa fit into them along with the other characters that
surround him, and how they interact with the deity. How do the devotees interact with these
traditions? Are there gender differences or caste allocations to be kept in mind when studying
such forms of bhakti? These issues will be discussed here. To support these issues, the bhakti
traditions of Caitanya and Rmnuja will be touched upon to highlight the use of emotional and
intellectual approaches. The two formats of bhakti will be evaluated to ascertain for what
purpose they are used.
The final chapter will discuss the role and position of women within bhakti, looking at the
apparent appeal of the Divine lover in particular. The question will be raised as to what role the
female characters in the stories fulfil, by looking at women in poetry and how they are defined;
Svaky women belonging to ones own whereas paraky women belonging to another 21 But
what relevance does this have to the way they are portrayed and the way in which they behave
towards the deity in the Bhgavata PurNa? This links into the nature of the two-way
relationship of bhakti and the emotional experiences that come from such a relationship. Does
the bhakta (devotee) always need to identify with the female characters within the story, or can
they identify with the deity himself? How does this relate to male and female devotees
specifically? Further to support the idea of the Bhgavatas appeal to women in particular,
questions of gender dominance will be raised, and how it has changed through scriptural
traditions. This will be looked at with specific reference to the significance of Rdh as separate
from the other gops.
Main contents:
1) The characters of KRSNa in VaiSNava devotion
1.i) Identification of the characters of KRSNa
The very earliest references to KRSNa in any form of Hindu literature fall within the g
Veda, however here KRSNa is merely given in its adjective form; the word meaning black in
Sanskrit, without any inference to the deity.22 The first plausible mention that might imply
KRSNa as a deity is found in the Chndogya UpaniSad of around the 6th century BCE but this

21 Dimock 1968, 55
22 Bryant 2003, xvii

portrayal still remains inconclusive.23 Various fragmentary references are made thereafter, but
nothing truly conclusive is mentioned of KRSNa as deity or avatra until the Mahbhrata.
There are at around this time also some passing comments within Greek literature that have been
taken with reference to KRSNa. An Indian tribe is mentioned as a branch of the Yadu dynasty to
which KRSNa belonged. Heracles is seen as a specific character among these people, and is
thought to be synonymous with KRSNa as Hari.24 The first true mention of KRSNa in the
Mahbhrata describes him as a human warrior with some supernatural powers that make him
stand out from the crowd. He has frequently battled and defeated numerous demons, and thus his
fame has spread. Little is mentioned of his youth or childhood in this text, and it is not until his
later appearances within Purnic texts that any details of these elements are given at all, however
mention is made for the first time of KRSNa in his full divine form.
Various PurANas offer descriptions of the young KRSNa, but the most explicitly
devoted to glorifying KRSNa25 of these has to be the Bhgavata PurANa that even takes its
name from KRSNa as avatra.26 The Bhgavata describes the birth of KRSNa, and how he was
already threatened with death, and then through an exchange with another child he was saved.
Living amongst the cowherds, the young KRSNa is described as a mischievous playful boy who
steals butter to feed to the monkeys.27 He battles with demons again although in this character the
demons are made part of KRSNas fun, and appear in a dreamlike fashion as oversized animals
or friends in disguise. Later as a young adult the nature of his play or ll with the gops around
him in the Vrndvana forest is elaborated upon, and turns more towards an erotic love play with
the gops.28 For the purposes of this essay, the characters of KRSNa as warrior in the Gt, and
divine lover in the later episodes of Rs Ll in the Bhgavata will be focused upon.
1.ii) The portrayal of each in art and literature
In Hindu poetic tradition, the most common form used is that of courtly poetry, and this is
often tied in with aspects of religious and folk traditions. The literary tradition of Sanskritic court
poetry was designed to be impersonal, learned, artificial and conventional, 29 a design that
can easily be equated with the Bhagvad-Gt. It contained mostly aspects describing secular
23 Bryant 2003, xvii
24 Bryant 2003, xvii
25 Klostermaier 2000, 33
26 Bryant 2003, xiii
27 Bryant 2003, xxii
28 Dimock 1968, 49
29 Siegel 1978, 31

worldly activity30 rather than the divine, although this said, they often dealt with gods as well.
Just because it had a secular outlook did not necessarily imply a similarly secular theme as can
be seen in more PurNic literature that follows this courtly tradition. Profane manifestations of
the sacred31 were often used in courtly poetry, especially depictions of the gods sex lives. This
secular outlook on the behaviour of the divine is one of the main appeals of the Bhgavata
PurANa. Indian love poetry was academically written about love by scholars never written by a
lover about his own feelings. Siegel claims that Sanskrit love-poetry generally is ornamental
and sensual rather than discursive or philosophical.32 This suggests that although a divine
character is represented, and any action relating to them must be seen as divine also, it is
depicted in a truly secular fashion. Any philosophical or moral instruction that may be found
within it is bound up within the simple depiction of the couple in love.
The love that might otherwise be seen as profane is made sacred not simply by the fact
that a deity is participating, but also through the religious phraseology that is used. Love in
separation (vipralambha) and love in enjoyment (sambhoga) that is love in union with the
godhead in Ll aided by My, are both discussed. Passionate love and sexual relationships
become sacred as an expression of bhakti: the loving-womans longing [for her partner] became
devotion and love-making became worship.33 Literature surrounding KRSNa gopala of the
Bhgavata originated initially from folk traditions describing the sexually heightened
relationships of KRSNa and the gops. These were composed in vernacular languages, and
although this tradition did not hold for the PurNic literature, many aspects of their formation
did, including aspects such as the repetitive refrain (dhruva-padam) rhythmic measure (tla) and
signature lines (bhanita) that are often repeated
In the Bhagvad-Gt KRSNa is portrayed as the charioteer, friend and adviser to Arjuna,
one of the sons of PANDu in their fight to rule what is now Delhi. 34 In the Gt Arjuna is seen
as a warrior who is suddenly overtaken by apparently disabling moral scruples 35 when faced
with an army of friends, relatives and tutors,
and in despair he said:
Krishna, when I see these my own people eager to fight
my limbs grow heavy
my body trembles and my hair bristles
my mind is reeling.36
30 Siegel 1978, 32
31 Siegel 1978, 32
32 Siegel 1978, 33
33 Siegel 1978, 37
34 Cross 1994, 78
35 Johnson 1994, xviii
36 Johnson 1994, 5 (Bhagvad-Gt 1:28-30)

At this point, time apparently stops while KRSNa tackles the dispassionate Arjuna and
explains to him why it is his dharmic duty to fight.
The Gt holds to the theme of battle, be it the physical battle between enemies or the
internal battle faced by Arjuna over his scruples. With each battle, KRSNa is seen to lend the
moral guiding hand, counselling Arjuna through. KRSNa is portrayed as a character of secure
moral conduct. As a human he is a prince of a neighbouring land, and a good friend and relative
to the PANDus. He is a dedicated warrior, courteous and gracious who works without attachment
to his goals as he tries to teach Arjuna to do likewise. Within this text as the final push in
convincing Arjuna of his duty to fight, KRSNa reveals himself in his multiform capacity:
Although I am unborn and have a self that is eternal,
although I am lord of all beings,
by controlling my own material nature I come into being
age after age, to protect the virtuous and to destroy evil-doers.37
In art the warrior KRSNa is portrayed as a solemn yet kind faced man of blue skin to define his
status as deity compared to the other characters around him. He is often bedecked with gold and
jewels to display his wealth

37 Johnson 1994, 19 (Bhagvad-Gt 4:6-8)