4.

Integrated Circuitry Transistors

and Diodes
B. G. LIPTK

2003 by Bla Liptk

IC or
Diode

Flow Sheet Symbol

(1995, 2003)

Applications:

Because of their low accuracy, integrated circuitry sensors are used in heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) type services and to detect hot or cold spots
in piping. IC sensors are most often used in near-ambient temperature measurement;
germanium diodes are often used in extreme cryogenic applications, and silicon
diodes are used from 60 to 300F (51 to 149C).

Ranges:

Integrated circuitry sensors, from 65 to 300F (54 to 149C); silicon diodes, from
60 to 300F (51 to 149C); germanium diodes, from 420 to 110F (251 to 43C).
Some diodes can cover the range of 1.4 to 475F (271.8 to 202C).

Outputs:

Some integrated circuitry sensors generate a linear output with a slope of 1 A/C;
others produce an output of 10 mV/C.

Linearity:

1% of range

Inaccuracy:

For integrated circuitry sensors the error can range from 1 to 9F (0.5 to 5C) with
sensitivities on narrow spans approaching 0.1F (0.06C). For calibrated diodes the error
is 0.2F (0.1C) for temperatures above ambient and 0.2% of range below that. Some
calibrated diodes are accurate within 0.05C (0.1F) between 2 to 305K (271 to 32C).

Costs:

The basic integrated circuitry transistor elements can cost less than $10. Uncalibrated
diode sensor costs range from $75 to $400; calibration can cost an additional $200
to $300. A calibrated diode with packaging and mounting for cryogenic service costs
$600. Indicating monitor readouts for diode elements cost about $800.

Partial List of Suppliers:

Analog Devices Inc. (www.analog.com)

Doric Scientific (www.doric-vas.com)
Dynalco Controls (www.dynalco.com)
Elan Technical Corp. (www.elan.com)
Lake Shore Cryotronics Inc. (www.lakeshore.com)
Motorola Semiconductor Products (www. mot-sps.com)
National Semiconductor (www.national.com)
Omega Engineering Inc. (www.omega.com)
Onicon Inc. (www.onicon.com)
OPTO 22 (www.opto22.com)
Raychem Corp. (www.raychem.com) (multipoint IC tape)
S-Products Inc. (www.s-products.com)
Syscon International Inc. (www.syscon-intl.com)
Wahl Instruments Inc. (www.testandmeasurement.com)
Wilkerson Instrument Co. (www.wici.com)
Yokogawa Corp. of America (www.yca.com)

Diodes are two-terminal electronic (usually semiconductor)

devices that permit current flow predominantly in only one
direction. Transistors are three-terminal, solid state electronic
devices. They are usually made of silicone, gallium-arsenide,
or germanium and used for amplification and switching in
integrated circuits.

620

TE

INTRODUCTION
Diodes and integrated circuitry (IC) transistors have been available as temperature sensors for several decades. The silicon
(and germanium) transistors are small and inexpensive, but
before they can be used as part of an industrial system (such
as an intelligent thermostat), they need to be packaged.

4.7 Integrated Circuitry Transistors and Diodes

One of the first applications of the IC transistor was to

provide cold junction compensation for thermocouple (TC)
circuits. They are also used in multipoint temperature-sensing
cables and in handheld portable temperature monitors. Today
both the diode and the IC transistor sensors are available as
fully packaged, off-the-shelf units; some of them are also
integrated with microprocessors, resulting in a so-called
smart sensor. Diodes and transistors can both provide sensitivities approaching 0.1F (0.06C) on narrow span applications, but in the case of the diodes calibration is needed to
achieve that level of sensitivity.

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT TEMPERATURE SENSORS

Transistors are sensitive to temperature variations. It has been
found that if two identical transistors are operated at a constant ratio of collector current densities, then the difference
in their base-emitter voltages will be directly proportional to
absolute temperature. Therefore, as temperature decreases the
base bias must be increased to maintain the collector current
constant. The base bias voltage is usually converted to a
current by a low-temperature coefficient thin film resistor.
The temperature-proportional characteristic is what
allows IC transistors to produce output signals that are proportional to absolute temperature (Figure 4.7a). The IC temperature sensors are available in both voltage and current
output configurations. The current output units are usually
set for a 1-A output change per degree Kelvin (Celsius),
while the voltage output configuration generates 10 mV per
degree Kelvin.
If a digital voltmeter is used as the readout, the current
output is detected as the voltage drop through a 10,000-
resistor (Figure 4.7b). The temperature-proportional characteristics of IC sensors are highly linear and in the range of
67 to 302F (55 to 150C). It is superior to all electronic
sensors, including resistance temperature detectors.

Output (A)

500

Because they produce an analog voltage that is proportional to temperature, IC transistors have been used for some
time for cold junction compensation in TC circuits. IC sensor
modules have also been packaged in flat cables, where they
are attached to the cable at regular (several feet) intervals.
The cables can be as long as 10,000 ft (3,050 m) and can
have as many as 1,000 sensing modules.
These cables are an economical way of detecting pipe
surface temperatures or cold or hot spots. IC sensors are also
being used in the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
(HVAC) industry and in other applications where their low
cost and strong linear output outweighs their low accuracy
and limited range. Other disadvantages of IC sensors include
that they require an external power source (4 to 30 V) and
that they are fragile and subject to errors due to self heating.

DIODE-TYPE TEMPERATURE SENSORS

Diodes are highly sensitive and linear temperature sensors.
Silicone and germanium diode temperature elements are
available from 458 to 395F (272 to 202C). They are
accurate to 0.2F (0.1C) for temperatures that are above ambient and to 0.2% of their full scale range below that.
Figure 4.7c depicts the diode-based thermometer circuits of
a silicone diode with a 1 mA constant current source, and
Figure 4.7d shows the circuits of a germanium diode with a
6-V power supply.

+
i = 1A/K

10mv/
K

10K To DVM

Current Sensor

Voltage Sensor

FIG. 4.7b
Current and voltage output type IC transistors.

400

300

200
200
(73)

300
400
(27)
(127)
Temperature K(C)

500
(227)

FIG. 4.7a
The temperature-proportional characteristics of the silicone transistor. (Courtesy of Analog Devices Inc.)

2003 by Bla Liptk

621

M
1 mA Constant
Current Source
+

50 A
Meter

FIG. 4.7c
Simple silicon diode thermometer circuit.

To DVM

622

Temperature Measurement

12K

the disadvantages is that the variations between diodes

require a calibration procedure for absolute accuracy, which
also increases their costs.

0-50 A
Span
Meter

Reference

6V
1.

FIG. 4.7d
Germanium diode thermometer circuit.

Courts, S.S. et al., Cryogenic Thermometry: An Overview, in Applications of Cryogenic Technology, Vol. 10, Kelley, J.P., Ed., New York:
Plenum Press, 1991.

Bibliography

Diode Forward Voltage [V]

5
4
3
GaAIAs Diode
2
1
Silicon Diode
0
0

50

100

150
200
Temperature [K]

250

300

350

FIG. 4.7e
1
Characteristics of silicone and gallium-aluminum-arsenide diodes.

The current through the silicon diode thermometer readout could be anywhere from 10 A to 10 mA, but because
higher currents result in higher errors due to self-heating, the
currents are usually kept between 100 and 500 A. The
meters used with germanium diodes usually have a range of
0 to 50 A. Because of the low source impedances, a simple
microampere indicating meter can be used.
This sensor can also be used to detect small temperature
differences. The main advantages of the diode-type sensors
are their high accuracy, particularly at cryogenic temperatures; small size; low cost; and good linearity (Figure 4.7e).
The diodes are small enough for most applications, but where
sensor size is a problem, microdiodes can be used. One of

2003 by Bla Liptk

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Courts, S.S. et al., Cryogenic Thermometry: An Overview, American
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