Extending criminal liability

Contents
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Joint criminal enterprise..........................................................................................1

Extended joint criminal enterprise..........................................................................3
Accessorial liability.................................................................................................4
Innocent agency.......................................................................................................7
Accessory after the fact...........................................................................................7
Concealing a crime..................................................................................................7
Conspiracy...............................................................................................................8

1 Joint criminal enterprise

Joint criminal enterprise provides that, when two or more people agree to commit a crime,
and at least one person commits the crime, the others are liable for the actus reus. There are
three elements, and one defence (Osland):1
1.
2.
3.
4.

Agreement Two or more people must agree to commit a crime.

Presence The people must be present at the scene.
Commission At least one person must commit the offence.
Withdrawal (defence) The people may withdraw from the enterprise.

1.1 Agreement

The agreement may be implied or unspoken (Tangye;2 Kanaan).3

There must be mutual assistance, not merely common intention (Taufahema).4
There must be encouragement, not merely presence (Chishimba).5

1 Osland (1998) 159 ALR 170, 188-197 (McHugh J) (HCA).

2 Tangye (1997) 92 A Crim R 545, 556-557 (NSWCCA).
3 Kanaan [2006] NSWCCA 109, [226].
4 Taufahema [2006] NSWCCA 152, [28] (Adams J).
5 Chishimba [2010] NSWCCA 228, [148] (Macfarlan JA).

Sexual Assault

4 Innocent agency

1.2 Presence

The participants must be present at the crime scene (Osland).6

Presence does not need to continuous (Franklin).7
Participation may be sufficient (e.g. in supplying drugs) (Prochilo).8

1.3 Withdrawal
There are four elements of withdrawal. The prosecution has the onus of disproving them
beyond a reasonable doubt.
1. The withdrawal must be complete (Tietie).9
2. The withdrawal must be timely (Tietie), before it is too late to stop the crime
(White).10
3. The withdrawal must be communicated to the others (Tietie).
4. The withdrawer must reasonably dissuade the others from continuing (White;
Truong):11
a. What must be done depends on the circumstances of each case (White).12
b. If the accused honestly believed that the others would not continue, then no
further preventative steps will be required (Truong).
It is assumed that the requirements of withdrawal for other types of complicity are the same.13

6 Osland (1998) 159 ALR 170, 188-197 (McHugh J) (HCA).

7 Franklin [2001] 3 VR 9, 55 (Ormiston JA).
8 Prochilo [2003] NSWCCA 265, [46] (Smart JA).
9 Tietie (1988) 34 A Crim R 438 (NSWCCA).
10 White v Ridley (1978) 140 CLR 342.
11 Truong (unreported, NSWCCA, 22 June 1998) (Smart J; Ireland and Dunford JJ agreeing).
12 White v Ridley (1978) 140 CLR 342 (Gibbs J), endorsing Whitehouse [1941] 1 WWR 112,
115 (Sloan JA) (British Columbia CA).
13 White v Ridley (1978) 140 CLR 342.

Sexual Assault

4 Innocent agency

2 Extended joint criminal enterprise

Extended joint criminal enterprise provides that, if a participant commits an additional crime,
the others are liable if they foresee the possibility (McAuliffe)14 of the actus reus and mens
rea of the crime (Barlow;15 Gilbert;16 Gillard;17 Clayton)18.

The method of carrying out the additional crime does not need to be foreseen
(Anderson;19 Duong;20 Keenan).21

There must be a foundational crime (Taufahema;22 cf Miller).23 It is insufficient that

they were up to no good, although the foundational crime does not need to be
identified with complete specificity (Taufahema).24

The others do not have to be present at the scene of the crime (McAuliffe).25

14 McAuliffe and McAuliffe (1995) 130 ALR 26, 27-33 (Brennan CJ, Deane, Dawson,
Toohey and Gummow JJ) (HCA).
15 Barlow (1997) 188 CLR 1.
16 Gilbert (2000) 201 CLR 414.
17 Gillard [2003] HCA 64, [19] (Gleeson CJ and Callinan J; Kirby agreeing).
18 Clayton (2006) 231 ALR 500.
19 Anderson and Morris [1966] 2 QB 110 (EngCA).
20 Duong (1992) 61 A Crim R 140 (NSWCCA).
21 Keenan (2009) 236 CLR 397, [121]-[123] (Kiefel J) (in relation to the Queensland
Criminal Code s 8).
22 Taufahema [2007] HCA 11 (Example of resisting or hindering police executing duty,
leading to murdering police).
23 Miller (1980) 32 ALR 321 (Miller repeatedly drove Worrell to sexually assault and murder
others, while Miller waited in the car. Miller did not agree to a foundational crime, but
foresaw the possibility of murder, and thus was liable).
24 Taufahema [2007] HCA 11, [39] (Gleeson CJ and Callinan J).

Sexual Assault

4 Innocent agency

The others may be liable for a foreseeable crime (e.g. manslaughter) even if the
additional crime was actually more serious (e.g. murder) (Nguyen).26

25 McAuliffe and McAuliffe (1995) 130 ALR 26, approving Johns (TS) (1980) 143 CLR 108
(Street CJ).
26 Nguyen [2010] HCA 38.

Sexual Assault

4 Innocent agency

Arguments for extended joint criminal enterprise:

It discourages enterprises.27
It protects society from gangs.28
Enterprises often escalate.29

Arguments against extended joint criminal enterprises:

Secondary parties do not need the actus reus and mens rea of the additional offence.
The possibility threshold is arguably too low.30
Secondary parties may have lower tests (e.g. foresight) than principals (e.g.

intention).31
Extended liability (foresight) has a lower test than accessorial liability (intention).32
The different tests for different types of complicity confuses judges and juries.33

3 Accessorial liability
Accessories aid, abet, counsel or procure the commission of a crime.

Derivative Accessorial liability depends on the first degrees liability (Osland).34

Principals in the second degree Present at the scene.

Accessories before the fact Not present at the scene.

Aiding and abetting Assisting or encouraging (AGs Ref).35

27 Gillard [2003] HCA 64, [62] (Kirby J).

28 Powell [1997] 4 All ER 545, 559 (Lord Hutton).
29 Powell [1997] 4 All ER 545, 551 (Lord Steyn).
30 Clayton [2006] HCA 58, [97], [108] (Kirby J).
31 Clayton [2006] HCA 58, [100] (Kirby J).
32 Clayton [2006] HCA 58, [63]-[64] (Kirby J).
33 Clayton [2006] HCA 58, [113]-[114] (Kirby J).
34 Osland (1998) 159 ALR 170, 188-197 (McHugh J) (HCA).
35 Attorney-Generals Reference (No 1 of 1975) [1975] QB 773.

Sexual Assault

4 Innocent agency

Counselling and procuring Preparing or planning, not executing (AGs Ref).

Aiding, abetting and counselling Require meeting of the minds (AGs Ref).
Procuring Does not require meeting of the minds (AGs Ref).

Sexual Assault

4 Innocent agency

3.1 Aiding and abetting

Assisting or encouraging

The accessory must assist or encourage the first degree (Phan).36

Mere presence is insufficient, unless it is assists or encourages (Phan; Lam;37 Beck;38

Summer;39 Annakin).40 Presence can be actual (within sight and sound), or

constructive (near enough to help if needed) (McCarthy and Ryan).41
The accessory must be linked in purpose with the first degree (Phan; Lam).
The accessory must know that the crime is being, or will be, committed (Phan).
An accessory may be liable for helping another accessory, if the first has the sufficient
mental elements in relation to the first degree (Lam).

Effect of assisting or encouraging

The first degree does not need to be aware of acts of assistance (Lam).42
The first degree needs to be aware of acts of encouragement (Lam).
The first degree does not need to actually be assisted or encouraged (Lam).

36 Phan [2001] NSWCCA 29 (Wood CJ at CL).

37 Lam [2008] VSCA 109.
38 Beck (1989) 43 A Crim R 135, 142-143 (Macrossan CJ), endorsed in Lam.
39 Summer and Summer [2007] SASC 376, [55].
40 Annakin (1988) 37 A Crim R 131 (NSWCCA).
41 McCarthy and Ryan (1993) 71 A Crim R 395 (NSWCCA).
42 Lam [2005] VSC, [36] (Redlich J), endorsed in Lam [2008] VSCA 109, [89].

Sexual Assault

4 Innocent agency

Mental elements
There are two mental elements:
1. The accessory must intend to encourage or assist the crime (Giorgianni;43 Golding).44
The accessory only needs to intend to aid or abet the kind of crime (Ancuta).45
The accessory need not intend to assist the precise way in which the principal

commits the crime (Bainbridge).46

The accessory need not intend the principal to commit the crime (Golding).

The accessory need not want the crime to be committed (Gamble).47

2. The accessory must know the essential facts of the crime (Giorgianni).
The essential facts are the actus reus and mens rea of the crime (Stokes).48
The accessory need only contemplate some crime, not the precise crime. But a

general criminal purpose is insufficient (Giorgianni).

Wilful blindness is insufficient, but may indicate knowledge (Giorgianni).

Accessorial victims

A victim cannot be an accessory for an offence that is for the victims benefit

(Tyrell).49
However, victims may be liable for policy reasons (Keane).50
The Crimes (Domestic and Personal Violence) Act 2007 (NSW) s 14(7) provides that
a beneficiary of an AVO cannot be an accessory for its breach.

43 Giorgianni (1985) 156 CLR 473, 501-509 (Wilson, Deane and Dawson JJ) (HCA).
44 Golding and Edwards [2008] SASC 68 (SACCA).
45 Ancuta (1990) 49 A Crim R 307 (QCCA).
46 Bainbridge [1960] 1 QB 129, 133 (Lord Parker CJ).
47 National Coal Board v Gamble [1959] 1 QB 11 (EngCA).
48 Stokes and Difford (1990) 51 A Crim R 25 (NSWCCA).
49 Tyrell [1894] 1 QB 710.
50 Keane (1997) 95 A Crim R 593 (SASC) (police resources should not be wasted on people
seeking orders but then condoning its breach).

Sexual Assault

4 Innocent agency

Sexual Assault

4 Innocent agency

4 Innocent agency

A person who acts through an innocent instrument may still be liable (Cogan;51

Pinkstone).52
This person is a principal offender, not an accessory (Hewitt).53
The instrument must be innocent (Franklin).54
Thus, undercover police cannot be innocent agents (Pinkstone).55

5 Accessory after the fact

Being an accessory after the fact is an offence in itself (not derived from the
principal).
They must know all the facts and acts of the precise crime (Stone).56
Being an accessory includes (Barlow):57
o Hindering being apprehended, tried or suffering sentences;
o Receiving and disguising unlawfully-acquired goods;
o Assisting with escape from arrest or punishment;
o Having the principal in custody, but intentionally and voluntarily letting the
principal to escape;
Merely enjoying the proceeds of crime is insufficient (Barlow; Young).58
The maximum penalty is usually 5 years (Crimes Act ss 348-351), except murder (25
years) and armed robbery (14 years) (s 349).

51 Cogan and Leak [1975] 2 All ER 1059 (EngCA).

52 Pinkstone [2004] HCA 23 [59]-[60] (McHugh and Gummow JJ).
53 Hewitt [1977] 1 VR 301 (VCA).
54 Franklin [2001] 3 VR 9, 22 (Brooking JA).
55 Pinkstone [2004] HCA 23.
56 Stone [1981] VR 737, 740 (Crockett J).
57 Barlow (1962) 79 WN (NSW) 756, 757 (Cross DCJ) (Court of Quarter Sessions).
58 Young and Phipps (unreported, NSWCCA, 31 October 1995).

10

Sexual Assault

4 Innocent agency

6 Concealing a crime
The Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 316 provides that:
(1) It is an offence to fail (without reasonable excuse) to inform authorities if you know
or believe that a serious indictable offence has been committed, and you have
information that might materially assist apprehension, prosecution or conviction (2
years).
(2) It is offence to solicit, accept, or agree to accept a benefit for not informing (5 years).

7 Conspiracy
The offence of conspiracy occurs when two or more people:
1. Agree to commit an unlawful act (LK);59 and
2. Intend to commit the unlawful act (Siracusa;60 LK;61 Ansari).62; and
3. Know the physical elements of the unlawful act (LK;63 Ansari).64

7.1 Agreement

What is agreed to is important (not what is actually done) (Bolton;65 Kalajzich).66

They do not need to agree to the precise manner (Doughas).67

59 LK and RK (2010) 266 ALR 399, 420 (French CJ).

60 Siracusa (1990) 90 Cr App R 340, 350 (OConnor LJ).
61 LK and RK (2010) 266 ALR 399, 444 and [77] (French CJ).
62 Ansari (2010) 266 ALR 446.
63 LK and RK (2010) 266 ALR 399, 444 and [77] (French CJ).
64 Ansari (2010) 266 ALR 446.
65 Bolton (1992) 94 Cr App R 74, 80 (Woolf LJ).
66 Kalajzich and Orrock (1989) 39 A Crim R 415, 458 (Yeldham, Carruthers and Wood JJ)
(NSWCCA).
67 Doughas (1991) 63 CCC (3d) 29 (Canadian SC).

11

Sexual Assault

4 Innocent agency

At common law, the agreement does not need to be put into action (Rogerson).68
However, overt acts may indicate what was agreed (Bijkerk).69
The Criminal Code (Cth) s 11.5(2)(c) provides that there must be an overt act.
You can conspire with unknown people, but it is difficult to prove (OBrien).70
Conspiracy is a continuing crime. People can join or leave, as long as there are at least
two people (Masters).71

68 Rogerson (1992) 174 CLR 268.

69 Bijkerk (2000) 111 A Crim R 443, 449 (Grove J).
70 OBrien (1974) 59 Cr App R 22, 223-226 (Lord Widgery LCJ) (EngCA).
71 Masters (1992) 26 NSWLR 450, 458.

12

Sexual Assault

4 Innocent agency

7.2 Intent to agree

Intention is required, even if the substantive offence does not require intention

(Siracusa;72 LK;73 Ansari).74

Intention to agree in the future is insufficient.

7.3 Large conspiracies

Large conspiracies must be proved individually. They cannot be established my

proving individual conspiracies (Gerakiteys;75 Griffiths;76 Lee).77

You can conspire with people you havent seen or spoken to, if you know about them,

and know that your activities extend beyond your own dealings with the person at the
centre of the conspiracy (Chrastny).78
Large conspiracies may be proved if individual conspiracies are part of a wider
network, and have a common purpose in the network. They do not necessarily have to
assist each other (Lee).79

7.4 Impossible conspiracies

Conspirers can be liable even they cannot successfully commit the crime (Onuorah).80

72 Siracusa (1990) 90 Cr App R 340, 350 (OConnor LJ).

73 LK and RK (2010) 266 ALR 399, 444 and [77] (French CJ).
74 Ansari (2010) 266 ALR 446.
75 Gerakiteys (1984) 58 ALJR 182, 188-191 (Deane J) (HCA).
76 Griffiths [1966] 1 QB 589, 599 (Paull J).
77 Lee (1994) 76 A Crim R 271, 279-282 (Gleeson CJ) (NSWCCA).
78 Chrastny (No 1) [1992] 1 All ER 189, 192 (Glidewell LJ) (EngCA).
79 Lee (1994) 76 A Crim R 271, 279-282 (Gleeson CJ) (NSWCCA).
80 Onuorah (209) 260 ALR 126, [25] (NSWCCA), endorsing Barbouttis (1995) 37 NSWLR
256 (Gleeson CJs dissent).

13

Sexual Assault

4 Innocent agency

However, conspirers cannot be liable if they agree to do a lawful act (e.g. receiving
goods believed to be, but not actually, stolen) (Barbouttis).81

81 Barbouttis (1995) 37 NSWLR 256 (Dunford and Smart JJ; Gleeson CJ dissenting)

14