.

<yQL

ENGLISH

GRAMMAR
AND

HOW

TO.

TEACH

IT,

Designed as a Text-Book for Common Schools, and fob

the Primary, Intermediate, and Grambiar

Departments of Graded Schools,

by

HEKEY

L.

BOLTWOOD,

MASTER OF PRINCETON HIGH SCHOOL.

CHICAGO:
Geo. Sherwood & Co

A. M,

p^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^OI
#
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.!
hag.

.glit

JJo.

UNITED STATES OF AmMiCA.

ENGLISH

-2.

GRAMMAR
AND

HOW TO TEACH

IT;

DESIGNED AS A TEXT-BOOK FOR COMMON SCHOOLS, AND

FOR THE PRIMARY, INTERMEDIATE, AND GRAMMAR
DEPARTMENTS OF GRADED SCHOOLS.

/
BY
.

HENRY

LI

BOLTWOOD,

A.M.,

MASTER OP PRINCETON HIGH SCHOOL.

^CHICAGO:
GEO.

SHERWOOD
e^

/r?

&

CO

f n

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871*

BY GEO. SHERWOOD &

In the

CO.,

Office of the Librarian of Congress, at

printed by

& Brainard,
hartford, conn.

Case, Lockwood

Washington.

PEEFAOE.
The

principal reason for adding another Grammar to the

already in print, is the fact that another is needed.
In no other branch of Common School study does the labor
expended appear to produce so little in the way of results.
It has even been discussed in State Teachers' Associations,
whether the study of Grammar is productive of any good.
And, since the facts pertaining to language are certainly
worth knowing, the fair conclusion is, that the} can be presented in some form better suited to the necessities of teachers and pupils than any which has yet been tried.
This volume presents a method of teaching Grammar
which has been carefully tested iit the school-room. The
book contains a selection of the facts pertaining to language.
In teaching for many years, one learns that certain truths
are to be retained firmly, certain others to be read, or used
as illustrations, and others used as handles by which to grasp
and hold other facts. In attempting to make their school
grammars complete treatises upon the study of language,
grammarians have put so much into them that they have
bewildered and disgusted the pupil.
grammar should be
judged by what it leaves out as much as by what it con-

many

tains.

Instead of commencing with letters, syllables, and words,

the pupil, in this book, is made to commence with the sentence as the basis of grammatical instruction.
In other
words, the idea is that the child shall begin to study language
just as he receives and learns it, embodied in sentences.
It
is more important that the child should put words together

and understand them when combined, than that

he should be able to name properties and attributes by
formal names, or give formal definitions. Any one who has
correctly,

PREFACE.

'

make perfect and concise definitions of

grammatical terms, must feel that children ought not to be
taught terms which are beyond their comprehension, while
the proper use of language is neglected.
So far as possible, throughout the Introductory Grammar,
the fact has been presented and recognized before the name

ever attempted to

Whenever a new fact is presented, the pupil is

expected to fix it in memory by repeated writing, and by

is

given.

from readers or other books

If these exercises are faithfully performed,
the ground passed over will be permanently held otherwise,
By repeated writing after correct models,
it will be lost.
recognizing

it

in sentences taken

familiar to him.

habits of accurate composition are fixed.

It is absurd to say that grammar, as generally taught, is
" the art of speaking and writing the language correctly."

Long after the habits of speech are indelibly fixed, a few

months are generally given to the study of dry details, imperfectly understood, seldom or never applied, and soon forgotten.
Such study makes no more impression on bad habits
than dew does on a rock.
speech
of
In preparing this book, the necessities of teachers have
been kept in mind. Many who teach have had limited advantages, and cannot teach well because they have never
been well taught themselves. Some have no other way of
teaching than to follow the text-book, question by question.
This book is intended to help those who are willing to be
helped, and to present a plan which, even when followed
blindly, will do less mischief and secure more good than the
common methods. Were it likely that none but well-qualified teachers would be required to use this book, it would
But knowing how many will only
have been shortened.
u follow the book/' the design has been to make a book
which County Superintendents, School Directors, or Principals of Graded Schools can safely put into the hands of
young, inexperienced, or imperfectly educated teachers, and
say, " Follow this book exactly."
A Primary, Intermediate, and Common School Grammar
presented in this volume.
It is intended to include all
is preliminary to the High School Course of Graded
Schools, and all which can properly be called Common-School

is

which

PREFACE.

The Primary Grammar is designed as a teachin

guide
developing language by object-lessons, and is
er's
The Intermediate
not intended as a text-book for children.
develops a plan for teaching language to pupils who are able
The Common School Grammar
to use a simple text-book.
reviews the Intermediate, and develops the plan already beLittle space is
gun, with additional facts and principles.
given to the sounds of letters, because all good Readers and
The
Spellers now in use contain all that the pupil needs.
rules of spelling are also referred to the Appendix, not as
unimportant, but as coming after the study of Prefixes and
Grammar.

Suffixes.

The common terms

of school grammars have been re-

tained as far as possible, so that pupils trained in this

may

New

book

understand the common nomenclature of grammarians.

names have never been used simply to give an impres-

sion of originality.

Special attention is invited to the following points in the

presentation of topics
The pupil commences with the sentence.
:

Composition precedes analysis.

of language begins with the primary school, or
just as soon as the child can put ideas and words together.
Letter Writing is introduced in the Intermediate part and
made prominent, instead of being entirely omitted, or put
into Higher Grammar.
Attention is also invited to the following topics
Gender, Case, Transitive Verbs, Conjugation, use of the
Verb to be use of what, the distinction of the verbal term
ending in ing into Gerund, Verbal Adjective, and Participle,
the treatment of Auxiliary Verbs, the rejection of Mode as
a Property of the Verb, and the absence of formal Rules of
Syntax.
The study of Synonyms, and the Derivation of Surnames

The study

Appendix are also commended to attention.

books and authors have been consulted in the preparation of this book.
Goold Brown, Fowler, Bingham,
Marsh, Howland, Greene, Mulligan, and Richard Grant
White have been used besides a large number of othei au*
thors.
Dr. Samuel Willard has rendered special and valua-

in the

Many

ble assistance.

PREFACE.

Though only a single name appears on the title page, the

idea of the book was suggested by Jerome Allen, A.M., of
Monticello, Iowa, who also shared in its preparation through
His other engagements preventing
the Intermediate part.
further co-operation, he is in no way responsible for the third
or Common School part.
Princeton,

III., June, 1869.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

The

necessity for a

new

No

edition gives opportunity for a

change has been made in

the plan of the work, but more exercises have been intro
duced, and some few paragraphs have been changed.
The
revision of the book.

essential

more strongly than ever that a

language lessons, accompanied by constant
practice in sentence writing, is a necessary prerequisite to
the successful study of the language, and is worth far more
to the pupil than any memorizing of rules, or than the common drill in sentence analysis, which does little to make accurate speakers and writers.
author

is

thorough

disposed to insist
drill in

Princeton,

III.,

Nov.

10, 1871.

Peimaet Grammar
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS.
young children a text-book on grammar, expecting them to profit by its study- They must learn
The
to use language by imitation, and by oral teaching.
young pupil should first receive from the teacher correct and
It

is

useless to give

simple forms of speech, and then be trained to such forms

alone.

It

is

not necessary that a single technical term be

used, nor that

the instructions given be called lessons in

grammar.

The

use of language should be taught in every lesson.

It

should be the daily study of the primary teacher to train

every child in correct speaking.

suppose that a grammar class

It
is

is

spell incorrectly.

be a model for

common mistake

A teacher

to speak incorrectly,

than to count, or to

Most

pupils bring to

the school-room bad habits acquired at home.

teacher must break up.

daily

should no

Of course, the teacher's own speech should

his pupils,
The presentation of correct

models, however, will not be enough.

cure this result.

to

the only place where the

proper use of words can be taught.

more permit a pupil

The

home example,

Nothing but patient

evil habits of years,

will not yield to

These the

effort will se-

strengthened by

one suggestion, nor

to

ten.

It is related that the mother of the Wesleys, in answer to

her husband's impatient remonstrance, " Why will you teach

(7)

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS.

8
that dull
replied,

The

boy the same thing twenty times over ?" quietly

" Because, Mr. Wesley, nineteen times will not do."

twentieth time fixed the fact forever.

Had

she stopped

The little
child, whose habits are forming, claims more time, more patience, and more thorough teaching than the older pupil, who
might have

at nineteen, she

is

lost all

her pains.

better qualified to think for himself.

In teaching language, the instructor should follow closely

the order in which the child acquires words, and their uses.
Objects are first learned, then their names, then their properties

and

Therefore the names, properties, and uses of

uses.

common

things are the best lessons for primary scholars.

Examples of simple

how the

object-lessons are here given, to

show

use of language should be taught in connection with

other teaching.

NAMES OP THINGS.
Let the teacher, standing

name all

at the board, ask the

pupils to

the objects which they see in the school-room. These

names, written or printed on the board, or on the

slate, fur-

The proper form and

and the neat arrangement of words, must be

nish the very best of spelling-lessons.

size

of

letters,

In collecting and writing these

attended to by the teacher.

names, the children are profitably employed, their powers

of observation are stimulated, and great emulation can be
excited

by commending those who make the

show the best work.

name
parts.

all

Few

in

To name

correctly

lists,

and

our schools will be likely to

the objects in the rooms

all

longest

at least, to

name

all their

the parts of a pocket-knife, of

a door, or of a window, is beyond the attainment of most

Names should never be given by the teacher, until
pupils.
the pupils have really labored to obtain

them

for themselves.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

To

illustrate

may be

which

exercise, a list

this

derived from a

given of the names

is

common

pocket-knife

handle,

blade,

edge,

point,

back,

notch,

shank,

rivet,

spring,

cap,

plate,

iron,

steel,

wood,

brass.

The names, when obtained, should be often repeated, and

made familiar by pointing out the object, while giving its
Thus, taking the knife in hand, the pupil should

name.
say

" This

is

a knife."

and so through the

can go through

list.

" This

Do

is

the point of the knife

not be satisfied

;"

the pupils

till

the names for themselves, fluently and

all

correctly.

Always require

the

names

and

the neatness of every exercise,

Look

be written.

to

closely to

every

to the spelling of

Require daily exercises at the blackboard,* and train

word.

the class to notice, and to correct mistakes.

Similar lessons, designed principally to develop the perceptive faculties,

Names
of iron

house

of birds

in
;

which we eat

wood of leather of ivory

making a house things found
;

of four-footed animals

in the school

of

all

the pupils in school

tools

be given on the following subjects

of things which grow

of

may

and machines

first

in a store

names of

names of carpenter's
;

things

made

things used in a

the girls in the school

of flowers

last

tools

all

names

the boys

names of all
;

of farming-

of trees.

* If the teacher have no blackboard, and the school authorities will

common green curtain paper, pasted on the wall, will
make an excellent substitute, which will bear the crayon for several

not furnish one,

weeks.

PRIMARY COURSE,

10

Name

the parts of the following things

tree,

body,

door,

room,

house,

window,

ship,

chair,

watch,

book,

clock,

hand,

bird,

head,

stove,

house,

wagon,

year,

table.

The
which

teacher

may add

to this list

reaper,

names of any objects with

the pupils are familiar.

ACTIONS OF THINGS.

The child's attention is first attracted

Next to the perception of the thing comes

to living objects.

the perception of

Taking the names of familiar

animals and things, the teacher asks what each does. To
the question, "What does the dog do?" the children may

that which the thing does.

answer,
hunts,

"

The dog

etc.

runs, barks,

bites,

growls, jumps, plays,

All answers should be written in

The dog runs ;

dog hunts.

the

full.

Thus

Insist that every sentence

should begin with a capital letter and end with a period.

In like manner

let the

teacher inquire about the

bird,

mouse,

squirrel,

horse,

cat,

boy,

hen,

sheep.

Or, of things without

the sun do?

life

let

the teacher ask,

What

does

etc.

sun,

ram,

fire,

wind,

saw,

gun,

pm,

knife.

Let the pupils be urged and encouraged

actions as possible.

these actions.

many

Then let them group actions which are

Thus The horse walks, trots, paces,

related to each other.

canters, gallops.

to give as

Let the pupils

tell

the difference between

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

11

Naming the common animals, let the pupils tell ivhat sound
The horse neighs the dog howls the
aach makes thus
etc.
^at mews
:

Name
tell

the different trades and occupations of men, and

what each

does.

Thus the farmer plows ; the merchant

smith hammers ; the carpenter saws.
Tell what things
:

trades

the black-

run,

eat,

sleep,

jump,

grow,

work,

play,

swim.

Such exercises as these may be almost indefinitely extended

and varied. There is little danger of spending too much
time on

this drill.

The

teacher's skill

ing the pupils think for themselves.

profit

secured

is

parrots,

when

is

exhibited in

mak-

Neither interest nor

the pupils are taught to repeat, like

words which they do not comprehend.

PROPERTIES OF THINGS.
Let the teacher show the pupils some familiar object, as
an apple, a rose, a crayon, a pencil, asking them to look at
it

Then, removing

carefully.

tell

something about

The

apple

it,

is large,

it

from

sight,

ask the class to

thus

round, red, nice.

The

pencil

is

long,

round, black, hard, smooth.

Take

in the

same way the following

knife,

coin,

slate,

book,

rubber,

ruler,

glass,

water.

name of the object at the head of a column,

name its properties. Then let sentences be

First write the

and under the

written like the following

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

12

The apple is large.

The pencil is black.
The rose is pretty.
The teacher showed

The
The
The
us a red

clear glass

brittle.

is

rubber is square.
red apple is round and

soft

ripe.

The

apple.

The teacher had a large book.

The teacher had a white cray-

black pencil
smooth.
The white rose

is

long and
soft

is

and

pretty.

on.

The long

ruler

is

black.

Let many sentences be composed and written

models, until the obvious properties of

common

after these

things are

very familiar, and are thoroughly understood.

Require the names that denote color

Require the names that denote shape

Require the names

that denote size

as, red, blue.

as, square,

as,

little,

round.

large.

Let every word be used by the pupil in a sentence.

ask, "

you

Of what

color

is

the rose ?" do not accept red

as an answer, but require the sentence,

you ask the shape of an

apple,

on

The

If

rose is red.

do not accept round as an

The apple

answer, but require the sentence,

sist

If

is

round.

In-

this in every school exercise.

USES OF THINGS.

Taking some familiar

The

its uses.

to

make

thing, as a pencil, the teacher asks

various answers given, to mark, to write with,

letters, etc.,

may be made

into sentences after the fol-

lowing models
1.

2.

3.

The
The
The

pencil

is

used for writing.

pencil

is

used to mark with.

pencil

is

useful for marking.

Inquire the uses of the following things

ink,

paper,

wood,

coal,

water,

knife,

cloth,

leather,

fire,

light,

book,

spade

PRIMARY COURSE.

13

Let each answer be a complete sentence.

Require the names of

Require the names of

things good to eat

things useful in the house ;

things useful in the school
things useful to the farmer.

things useful to wear ;

things used in building

Make a sentence with each

Wheat is good to eat.
Cloth

is

Mortar

of these names, thus

useful to wear.

is

used in building.

This exercise can be indefinitely extended.

OBJECTS AND QUALITIES OF ACTIONS.

After learning the

what

limits

action

performed.

is

these facts

The

name of the

action, the child soon learns

the action, and how, when, where, and

may

The words which he

why

the

uses to express

be developed by question and answer, thus

bird sings a song.

What does the bird sing ?

How

does the bird sing?

When does

the bird sing

Where does the bird sing ?

Why

does the bird sing

The bird sings a song.

The bird sings sweetly.'
The bird sings in the morning.
The bird sings in the meadow.
The bird sings because it is

happy.

In the same manner develop the following

The man
merchant

eats

sells

the cooper makes

Mr. Brown buys

the

(Teach the pupils the difference between whom and what)

Write under the word works words that show how work
is

done.

Write words that show when any thing

is

done.

Write words that show where any thing isjdone.

Write words that show why any thing is done.

Write words that show with what any thing is done.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

14

Put each of these words into some sentence.

Put into one sentence words that show when and where,
thus, He works in his shop in the morning.
Put into one sentence words that show how and why ; thus,

The

bird

An

swiftly because

flies

it is

frightened.

exercise similar to the following should often be re-

quired of

the pupils

all

ILLUSTRATIVE EXERCISE.

What
What

is

name of this
made of? It

the

is it

and

times, in part, of brass

Name
rod,
.

its

What
What

color

its

It is

used

is it

a mark, and

wood and

iron,

some-

silver.

ram-

brown.

surface and shape

slender, and the barrel

What

of

tube, sight, muzzle, breech, butt, etc.

is its

is

made

is

Its parts are the stock, lock, barrel,

parts.

hammer,

a gun.

It is

is

It

for ?

to kill

It

is

smooth, long, and

hollow.

used to shoot game, to

is

men with

fire at

in war.

After such an exercise, the pupil should be required to

describe the thing in his

from the teacher,

This
lead.

is

words, without any suggestions

A child might thus

called a lead-pencil.

It is

Its parts are, the head, the

the point.

shape

own

is

Its color is black.

describe a pencil

made of wood and

wood, the lead, the

Its surface

round, long, and slender.

It is

blacktip

smooth.

is

and
Its

used for marking on

paper.

The above

exercise

is

The power

particularly valuable.

of telling connectedly what one

knows

is

most

desirable.

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES AND SUGGESTIONS.

After every lesson, require the pupils to give
in their

own

words.

its

substance

Question minutely on every part, and

PRIMARY COURSE.
see that every

To vary

word

is

to

understood, and

it

own

in their

be written by each pupil, and

exercise invariably interests,

sion, it

its

spelling learned.

the exercise, read a simple story to your class, and

require them to repeat

it

15

it

calls

Then require

words.

be read aloud.

to

This

out the power of expres-

imparts self-confidence, disciplines the memory, leads

the pupils to notice one another's omissions and mistakes,

and gives the teacher opportunity

to

make

efficient correc

tions.

The

habitual vulgarisms of speech must not be tolerated.

If an incorrect expression

and
do

let

it,

them,

if possible,

is

used, ask the class

correct themselves.

the teacher must give the correct form.

errors of* speech

patient

effort.

maybe

The

be

If they

right,
fail to

The common

entirely banished from the school

Good-humored

overcoming such

if it

ridicule

is

by

often successful in

evil habits.

above are given as hints in regard to the manner of

taking up the study of language along with other things.

The

teacher's success will

patience.

more

depend upon her own

interest

Frequent reviews #re absolutely necessary.

frequent the review, the

more rapid

the progress.

and

The
Such

lessons as the above should be given for years before the

pupil studies a text-book on grammar.

thinking and composing

without formal study.

on.

may be

Correct habits of

acquired unconsciously, and

Writing of sentences must be insisted

Punctuation and the use of capitals are best taught to

young children by making them observe the sentences found

in their books.

It is a profitable exercise to require exact

copies of given sentences, or paragraphs.

in their recitations to write

required to memorize.
of

all kinds,

will

pupils

on the board whatever they are

Rules in arithmetic, and definitions

are good examples for practice.

memory and forms

Accustom

This trains the

the habit of close observation.

copy accurately without considerable practice.

Ko

pupil

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

16

The

meaning of words is also best taught by the

Such common expressions as awful nice,
dreadful pretty, monstrous small, live and thrive, because no
one takes pains to teach the child what these large adjectives
correct

plan here given.

mean.

Many
and

expedients for enlarging the child's stock of words,

for teaching their correct use, will readily suggest

selves to the teacher

who

desires to

them-

wake up mind, and who

dares drop text-books, and talk to children of things which

interest them,

a bird,

may

and are understood by them.

A leaf, a flower,

be a better text-book for the child than a speller

or reader can possibly be.

Be
try to

careful not to

make

a child will
hension.

too

many

make

the exercises too long.

points at once,

Do

not

and do not expect that

compose in language which

is

above his compre-

Intekmediate

Grammar

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS.
The

title

Intermediate

given to this part, because the

is

instruction here indicated should follow a thorough drill

the plan laid

Common

down

upon

the Primary course, and precede the

in

Having

School Course.

attained to a tolerable

readiness in combining words into sentences, the pupil

now

required to separate into parts,

tions,

the

and divide words

preliminary

into classes.

name

parts, notice rela

If pupils have not

required, the teacher should

drill

had

proceed

slowly, giving prominence to the composition of simple sentences, until the pupil forms
It

is

them with ease and accuracy.

impossible to say at what age this course should be

The average

commencedeasily learn

pupil of ten years of age can

any thing given here.

that age should give as

own language

as to

much

And,

certainly, pupils at

time to the acquisition of their

any other study of the common

common forms and

The analysis of the

This part contains the

tions of the language.
is

given, without any attempt to enlarge

alous, or intricate constructions.

grammar

are used as

flection is just

is

as possible.

how and why words

simple sentence
irregular,

anom-

technical terms of

The

mentioned, that the pupil

notice for himself

Case

little

simple construc-

upon

The

school.

principle of in-

may

be led on to

are changed in form.

not developed, except by noticing the Possessive.

Rules of Syntax are not laid down, because they are not

needed by the

child.

The

definitions given are not presented

(17)

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

18
as complete, and

beyond

comprehend and

use.

Practical

Grammar

criticism,

deals only with the sentence, and the

use of a word in a sentence

The common

it.

is

the only

means of

grammar

order of topics in

The

order of nature.

but as such as a child can

classifying

reverses the

child naturally begins with

wo ids

in

groups, or sentences, then gives attention to single words, and

One who knows nothing

learns the elements of words last.

may

of the parts of speech, or of the rules of Syntax,

words accurately.
bly indicates

by

its

There

is

nothing in a word which

yet use
infalli-

This must be determined

part of speech.

use in a sentence.

its

Words and

things are so frequently confounded that special

pains must be taken to

make

their distinction plain. Instead

of teaching the pupil to say, "

say "

The word John,"

the sign of the thing.

John

is

a noun," teach him to

recognizing that the word

Tins

may seem

trivial,

but

it

is

only
im-

is

portant.

Let

pupils,

on commencing

this

part of grammar, write

every sentence required, understand and spell correctly every

word employed,
frequently.

fix

every definition and principle, and review

Teachers will observe that

this

In no other way

the pupils to preserve their written work.

can the reviews, which

Each

plan requires

are absolutely necessary, be secured.

pupil should have a blank-book, containing at least a

quire of letter paper, and the teacher should take great care
that the books be written neatly

and kept

writing accomplishes nothing unless the

An

ill-written

exercise, uncorrected

nothing for the pupil's education.

work

by the

All errors

is

it is

generally correct.

secures good results.

If this

done

well.

teacher, does

made should

be pointed out, and the same exercise repeated,

until

Sentence

clean.

makes slow

if

need

be,

progress,

it

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.
Although the book
not

paragraph

may

19

divided into lessons, the teacher must

affect the assigning of class

let this division

single

is

'

contain a week's work.

work.

The

teacher

can best judge of the proper rate of progress.

Teachers will do their pupils a lasting service, and much

them on in their study of language, by inducing them

to obtain, and by teaching them to use, the bsst dictionary
within their means.
No one can expect to become very acto help

curate in the use of words without daily study of the diction

ary.

It

well to require pupils to put the words which

is

they define nuo sentences, to be .sure that they are understood.

LESSON

I.

THE ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

1. Fire burns.
What is said of fire ? What
About what are we talking?

does

That of which something

fire

is

do

said

What
is

burns ?

called

Subject,

We

have said something about fire ; and, therefore, fire

is

a subject.

John reads.
Of whom is something
is

said ?

What is

thesubject ?

What

said of the subject ?

That

ivliich is

said of the subject is called the

Predicate.
The

subject,

ject, is called

with that which

a Sentence.

is

said of the sub-

2. We tell others our thoughts by Words.

thought put into words becomes a sentence.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

20

The words which we use are called our lanThey are signs of ideas. If one says to
guage.
you, "I have a horse in my barn" the words
horse and bam make you think of some horse
and some barn, even if you do not see them,
and you make a sort of picture of them in your
The words make you think of this picmind.
ture.
Let the teacher
have never seen

something which the pupils

example, a palm-tree, and having described
it carefully, ask them to think exactly how it looks, urging them to
form a definite mental picture. Then explain to them that the word
palm-tree makes them think, not of the real tree, but of their idea or
;

illustrate b.y talking of

as, for

picture of the tree.

The wind blows.

Is this a sentence ?
is its

predicate

Why ? What is

subject

the predicates.

Tell

Name

What

why each

the subject of each.

is

a sentence.

3. Studies boy good the well.

Do these words make sense ? Why not. Put
What is the
together so that they make sense.
the sentence which you have made ?

My

Write ten short sentences.

Name

its

the words
subject of

runs horse.

Torn your

is

book.

Scholars lessons their study should.

Colt sorrel the running was.

Praised good are boys.

Finished large
Squirrel trees

Why do

is

house the.

little

the climbs.

not these groups of words just given

make

sense

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

Make them

into sentences,

21

and name the subjects and the

predicates.

Notice that the order of words has a great deal to do with

their

meaning.

Which comes
predicate

first

in the sentence, the

subject or the

Pupils should not be taught at first that either subject or predicate

The whole subject and the whole predicate
limited to a single word.
Let the children say of the first of the above senare recognized first.
tences, " The subject is The good boy ; the predicate is Studies well.
is

4. Point out the subjects and predicates of

the following sentences
*

The

My

girl

was

in the garden.

horse was trotting.

The boys

are playing base-ball.

General Grant was chosen President.

Good

scholars will be obedient.

Chicago

is

a beautiful city.

Helen's book

The

is

in

her hand.

beautiful house

was burned down.

5. The subject and the predicate are called

the Elements of the" sentence.
Pointing out the elements of the sentence
called

Analysts.

Analyze the sentences given above

model

is

after the

following

That large tree was blown down.

These words are a subject and something said about a subject, and are, therefore, a sentence.
That large tree is that
of which something is said, and is, therefore, the subject.
Was blown down is that which is said of the subject, and,
therefore, was blown down is the predicate.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

22

Notice that either the subject or the predicate

is

often

made up

of several words.

Copy from your Reader ten short sentences.

each sentence begins with a capital

mark

at the

Notice that

Notice also the

Analyze these sentences.

end of each sentence.

LESSON

letter.

II.

CLASSES OF WORDS.

6. Words are divided into different

as the pupils in a school are divided into
Scholars are classified

by

their studies.

classes,
classes.

Words

by their use. The classes of words

are called Fart of 8peee!a.
Names of objects are called Moeiis.

are classified

Point out the nouns, or name-words in the sentences which

you have

Dog
is

is

written, thus

the

name

of something

therefore, the

a noun.

Point out ten nouns in your geography.

is

word dog

Tell

w hy each
7

a noun.

Write ten sentences, each containing two nouns.

Analyze

each sentence.

8. Words lohich are used

to assert

something

of a subject are calledHevhs.

Assert means nearly the same as say or tell.
The predicate of a sentence always contains a

The
Verbs generally express action.
Chinese call verbs live words, and nouns dead
Until a verb is put into a group of
words.

verb.

INTERMEDIATE COURSIt.

23

words, they do not assert any thing.

lessons, tells

but

lessons,

you

if

you nothing about scholars, or

you put the verb study between,

something,

tell

Scholars

or

something of

assert

scholars.
Call attention frequently to the fact that the verb is not always a
single word, but often two or more ; as, was trotting, have been playing.

Name
why

the verbs which you have already written, and

each

Burns
burns

is

a verb, thus

asserts or tells

tell

something about Jire, and, therefore,

a verb.

is

Point out the verbs in your reading-lesson, and

tell

why

they are verbs.

Write verbs

after the following subjects, telling

subject does ; thus

What

what each

The hqrse draws a wagon.

does the horse do ?

subjects

the cat,

the doctor,

the cooper,

the sun,

the rabbit,

the barber,

the blacksmith,

the wind,

the squirrel,

the farmer,

the tailor,

the rain.

Of what
cate

part of speech

is

word

the asserting

in the predi-

Analyze your sentences.

Write

ten-

sentences, with subjects of your

INVERTED SENTENCES

Dark was

own

selection.

the night.

Beautiful was the morning.

Where

Sometimes, as

is

the book

in

the above sentences, the

subject comes after the predicate.

is

then said to be Inverted,

The sentence

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

24

If the pupils have any difficulty in finding the subject in an inverted

Thus, in the above sensentence, it may be developed by a question.
tence, Dark was the night, ask what was dark, and so in other sentences.

Analyze the following sentences

How
was the

sad was the story.

joy.

raged the

Wild swept

the

Fair smiled the mcrn.

Great

wind of the mountain. Fiercely

battle.

Write sentences with the following nouns as subjects

soldiers,

ice,

eagles,

spring,

marbles,

mouse,

books,

knowledge.

Write sentences containing the following predicates

are running,
is

coming,

good,

rolls,

jumps,

plants,

are useful,

falls,

swings,

flashes.

is

Analyze the sentences.

LESSON

III.

MODIFIERS OR LIMITING WORDS.

Words which in any way change, explain,

or complete the meaning of other words, are said
to modify or limit the other words.
9.

Mr. Reed bought a house.

Mr. Reed, the carpenter, bought the house.
In the second sentence, the words Mr. Reed are modified
by the words carpenter, which explain ivhich Mr. Reed is
meant. Bought is modified by the word house which com-*
pletes the meaning, telling what Mr. Reed bought.

Sometimes a whole sentence

He has learned his lesson.
He has not learned his lesson.
The word

not changes the

or modifies the sentence.

is

modified.

meaning of the whole sentence,

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

25

Modify means to vary, or to change; limit

means to shut up, or to confine. When one says,
" Boys study" the assertion is made of all boys,
and is said to be unlimited. But if one says,

"Good boys

study/' the assertion

of good boys, and

Some

is

made only

limited.

teachers prefer the term modify

employed as the teacher

is

Either

others limit.

may

be

prefers.

1. Nouns are most frequently modified or

limited by a class of words called
ADJECTIVES.

That large white house

Analyze.

is

for sale.

Point out the noun in the subject.

House

modified by the words large and white, which limit

ing

its

is

mean-

by naming something by which the house can be known

They

from other houses.

That

qualities.

are said to

limits house

name

its

properties or

by pointing out which one

is

meant.

This book

is

Yonder, tree

mine.

is tall.

This limits booh by pointing out which one

is

meant. Yon-

der limits tree in the same way.

Five vessels were captured.

Five modifies

vessels

by limiting our thoughts

to

an exact

number.

A few
Few

men

assembled.

does not limit our thoughts to a definite number? but

to a small

number.
2

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

26

11. An Adjective is a word which modifies a noun by naming some quality or property,
or by pointing out which, or how

An
cate,

adjective

maybe used

many are meant.

as a part of a predi-

but can never be a subject.

An

known by

adjective can generally be

making good sense when placed

its

directly before

the noun.

IS. The same word may be sometimes of

one class, and sometimes of another. The use
of a word in the sentence

which we

tell its

The silver
The spoon
Jewelers

In the

cord
is

is

property, and

is

the only fact

by

part of speech.

loosed.

made of silver.

silver their

first

is

work.

sentence, silver modifies cord

In the second,

an adjective.

naming a metal.

In the third,

it

by naming a
it is

asserts something,

a noun,

and

is

verb.

The

sailors

man

the boat.

That man bought

He

skates.

sent his ??z<m-servant.

Of what
tences

my

part of speech

is

man

in each of the above sen-

In the following sentences,

of speech the words in
The saw

is

wood.

Chalk

useful.

We

chalk the line.

to

what part

belong.

The fish swims.

broken.

We saw
is

italics

tell

Anglers

The

fish.

sexton rings the bell.

Girls

wear

rings.

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

The

following words

sentences containing

may be

them

27

in both uses

skate,

swing,

ride,

box,

pin,

plant,

cart,

wheel,

spur,

bridle,

whip,

saddle.

The

may be

rule,

either nouns, adjectives, or

Write sentences containing them in each of these

verbs.

uses

following words

Write

either nouns or verbs.

paper,

light,

cross,

stone,

front,

rear,

iron,

square.

This exercise

is

exceedingly valuable and

LESSON

may

be extended.

IV.

NAMES OF QUALITIES OR PROPERTIES.

13, Chalk
Soft, white, brittle,
erties, or qualities

is soft,

and

white, brittle, useful.

useful, are

of the chalk.

words which name prop-

They make

sense

when they

stand directly before the noun, and they can not be used
alone as the subject of a sentence.

Therefore they are ad-

jectives.

A thing

is

described

that there

is

in the desk something round, smooth, melloiv, red,

sweet,

and

ripe,

by naming

you give a

its

properties.

description of

it

If

you say

by these names

of qualities.

Name

the qualities of

rubber,

ivory,

iron,

wood,

paper,

glass,

lead,

snow,

a knife.

Urge pupils

make

ball,

the naming of qualities complete as possible.

or suggested for which the pupils have no
name. They may observe that wood and paper bum, while iron and
lead do not, but they do not know the word combustible.
Do not give
out names hastily. Let the pupils search for them. Particularly encourage them to go home with questions like these, " What word ex" What word can I put with chalk
presses that wood burns easily
to express that it breaks easily
to

A quality may be noticed

V
V

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

28

WORDS WHICH TOINT OUT WHAT OBJECTS ARE MEANT.

is

14, This book

on the table.

What

does this show

one say, " That book

What

table ?"

book is
The book

What
sentence

The
The

is

is

is

my

What

is

in

in

my

That book

hand.

does that show

hand,

book

this

Should

is

on the

the difference between this and that

useful.
is useful.

the difference between the

first

and the second

other tree
latter

is full

of

fruit.

course was taken.

These desks are too high.

Analyze these sentences, and point out the

modifiers.

WORDS THAT DENOTE HOW MANY.

15. Seven days make a week.
Three feet make a yard.
Several roads led to the

city.

Maiiy ships were wrecked.

Three and seven limit the assertion to a definite number
several

and many denote number, but are not

1 There
#

definite.

are three classes of adjectives.

Those which name Qualities or Properties. These are called Descriptive Adjec1.

tives.

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

29

Those which point out which or ivhat obThese are called Specifying'
jects are meant.
2.

Adjectives.

Those which denote how many are meant.

These are called Numeral Adjectives.
17, Sometimes an adjective appears to be
3.

When

the subject of a sentence.

the

this is

the noun which the adjective modifies

case,

is

omitted, thus
Both were mistaken.

(This means, both persons were

mistaken.)

'The wise

A noun
frame.
as

an

is

It

(This means, the wise

say.

often used as an adjective

may

men

say.)

as, stone

wall

iron

then be called an adjective, or a noun used

adjective.

Analyze the following sentences, and point out the nouns,

adjectives,

Tell to what class each ad-

and verbs in each.

jective belongs

The

other horse

is

black,

That

Those large red apples are the

scholars are busy.

The poor

men

Several

are

happy.

old

silvery cloud
best.

man

severe

tive

and

ten,

ten,

is

lame.

battles

rich

were fought.
pupils

containing a De-

each containing a Specifying adjec-

each containing a Numeral adjective.

word which

modifies a subject, can not be

a part of the predicate,

the subject.

Few

attentive

a part of the predicate, and any

is

beautiful.

Those industrious

Twenty brave soldiers were killed, All

will learn.
Every day brings new duties.
Compose and write ten sentences, each
scriptive adjective

is

is

word which

not a modifier of

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

30

LESSON

V.

SENTENCES CONTAINING MODIFIERS.

1 8. The brave soldiers of the Union fought

well in the war.
The principal word in the subject of this sentence is solThe principal thing said of them is fought Soldiers
diers.
is

modified by

the,

a specifying adjective, and brave, a descrip-

tive adjective, limiting the subject.

limit the subject

still

further.

It is

The words of the Union

not said that

all soldiers

Union

fought well, but only that the brave soldiers of the

Fought

fought.

and by in

My dog
Dog

is

is

well, telling how they fought,

when or where they fought.

modified by

war, telling

the

ran through the garden.

modified by the word my, telling to

whom

and ran is modified by the words through

showing where the dog ran.

belongs,

Words
The

the garden,

are divided into eight classes.

subject, words,

of all words.
eight classes,

the dog

is

not limited, for the assertion

Are divided

is

showing how words

is

made

modified by the words into

are. divided.

The pupil's success in grammar depends largely upon the clearness

The principal
with which he comprehends the effect of modifiers.
ideas in a simple sentence are easily understood the difficulties are
generally with the modifiers, not so much in perceiving what they are,
as in telling what they mean. "The above examples show how the effect
of modifiers should be made plain to a class.
;

Analyze the following sentences, name the

tell

how each

modifiers,

and

modifier changes the meaning, or limits the

assertion.

Every man went to his house.

The first Napoleon was banished to St. Helena.
Three wise men of Gotham went to sea in a bowl.

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

31

These large yellow oranges came from Havana.

The

sailor

19.

simple
is

brought home a parrot for his brother.

subject without modifiers

called a

A subject with limiting words

subject.

called a

is

modified

subject.

Predicates, like subjects, are simple or modi-

The simple predicate

fied.

is

always a verb.

Write ten sentences with modified subjects and predicates.

Modifiers of nouns are called adjective modifiers

modifiers of v^erbs are called adverbial or

verbal modifiers.
CLAUSES.

20. Sometimes a group of words is used

as a modifier, which, when used by itself, forms
a sentence, or which contains a subject and a
predicate.

A modifier

containing a subject and a predi-

cate, is called a

Two
for use,

Clause.

more related words, in proper order

not making a sentence or a clause, are

or

called a Flsrase.
In the house,

and

William,

is

is

a phrase.

a phrase.

My

booh, is

Down

a phrase.

Thomas

by the mill-pond,

is

phrase.

Point out the modifiers in the following sentences, and

what they express. Name the clauses

The snow falls steadily. The rain falls

tell

in torrents.

The

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

32
cars

move

swiftly.

were going
miller

fell

trusted.

Boys skate on

He

school.

he would go.

The man who

Do you know who did this ?

order of

Three children

the ice.

said that

into the water.

When
Who
How

to

its

words

is

honest will be

is

a semteiace becomes a

The

clause the

often changed,

as,

was the man ? I cannot tell who the man was.

was it done ? You saw how it was done.

LESSON

VI.

ADVERBS.

21 He

speaks sloivly and

distinctly.

Martha writes neatly and rapidly.

These words in italics belong to a new class.
Their common name is adverbs, meaning that
They never modify
they are added to verbs.
Most of them are formed from
substantives.
adjectives by adding ly to the adjective.
Besides modifying verbs, adverbs often modAn adverb may also modify
ify adjectives.
another adverb, and sometimes, instead of modifying any single word, an adverb modifies a
whole sentence.
Most adverbs modifying verbs express when,
.

how something is done.

The work was done yesterday.

where, or

My

brother lives

You have

here.

learned well.

(Where.)

(How.)

(When.)

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

^S, Adverbs modifying

His house
sour.

is too

is

very large.

was over

colonel

is

The

apple

The

beautiful enough.

is

This movement was more suc-

confident.

The weather

cessful.

adjectives.

rather pretty.

It is

Our school-room

33

excessively hot.

am

somewhat

weary..

ADVERBS MODIFYING OTHER ADVERBS.

Henry

The

writes very well.

horses ran too

You ought

should not read so rapidly.

You

fast.

to study

more

dil-

igently.
t

ADVERBS MODIFYING WHOLE SENTENCES.

The boy
was

has not learned his lesson.

Indeed you are mistaken.

sent.

Perhaps I

Certainly the

money

Verily I say unto

you

shall see him.

23. Examples for analysis.

Point out the adverbial modifiers in the following sentences,

The

and

upon the

He

day.

tell

what each expresses

lightning

was bright

shore..

The storm

The

The waves dashed

rages fiercely.

He comes

every

remained in Europe three years.

cut with an ax.

sings,

last evening.

because she

The wood was

The poor man died of hunger. Mary
is happy.
The hunter killed two bears.

teacher likes attentive pupils.

Verbal modifiers express when, where, why,

how, how long, whom, what, with what, by what
Compose twenty sentences, containing verbal modifiers of
different kinds, and give the meaning of each modifier.
2*

34

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
CLAUSES AS MODIFIERS.

24. The man whom you saw

The boy who

He

with

dares to speak the truth

me was my
is

uncle.

respected.

me what he had seen.

Samuel showed me how the example was
told

Clauses, like other modifiers,

worked.

may be

adjective

modifiers, or adverbial modifiers.

Adjective

clauses

usually begin

ivhose, ivhom, which, or that,

with who,

and stand directly

which they modify.

Adverbial modifying clauses often begin with
some word answering the questions, when?
where ? how ? or why f

after the substantive

EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS.

ADJECTIVE MODIFYING CLAUSES.

The man whom 1 met was a German.

I have sold the horse that

This

is

the

I used to

drive.

boy whose arm was broken.

The storm which was raging is over.

The pupil who is diligent will improve.
ADVERBIAL MODIFYING CLAUSES.
Helen said that
He went where

The oak

Man
Our

she

would go.

his country called.

when tempests rage.

learns by pain how frail he is.
stands firm

nation

is

prosperous, because

Write ten sentences containing

it is free.

adjective modifying clauses.

Write ten containing adverbial modifying

clauses.

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

LESSON

35

YIT.

PRONOUNS,

25. The farmer and the farmer's son sold

the grain which the farmer and the farmer's
son had raised*

Notice that this sentence

may be

shortened

The farmer and Ms son sold the grain

The sense is not
which they had raised."
changed, but instead of some of the nouns,

into, "

shorter words have been used which are easier

These
and pleasanter to the ear.
words are Ms and they ; his standing for the
farmer's, and they standing for the farmer and
to speak,

the farmer's son.

Mary goes

to school,

What word can be

Mary without changing

A
his

person

who

own name

put in

well.

place of the second

word

the sense ?

is

the

and Mary learns

speaking puts in place of

word L

Thus, Joseph would

Joseph saw," but u i"saw."

one person speaks to another, he often

not say of himself u

When
calls

him by name

in the sentence

first,

which

to get his attention,

follows,

he uses you

but
in-

stead of the person's name.

The teacher does
not say, " Charles, Charles must study/* but,
" Charles, you must study."

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

36

36. Words used instead of nouns are called

Pronouns.
Instead of the names of those persons
are speaking, the pronouns,

who

my, mine, me, we,

I,

our, ours, us, are used.

whom we

Instead of the names of persons to

we

speak,
thee, ye,

we

use the pronouns, thou, thy, thine,

you, your, yours.

In

common

use only you, your, yours.

and

thee are

used mostly

in

speech

Thou, thy; thine,

poetry and in ad-

dressing God.

Instead of the names of those

which we speak, we use three

objects of

classes of pro-

nouns.
1.

In speaking of a single male being,

use the pronouns,

2.

him.

In speaking of a single female being,

use the pronouns,

3.

he, his,

we

she, her, hers.

In speaking of a single thing, neither ma^e

nor female, or of a thing whose sex

tant, we use the pronouns, it, its.

is

unimpor-

In speaking of things more than one,

the pronouns, they,
tell

we

use

their, theirs, them.

Analyze the following sentences.

and

we

Name

the pronouns,

whether they stand for the name of the speaker, the

person spoken

to,

my

or something spoken of.

book and your pencil.

James has his ball and my bat.
I have

INTERMEDIATE COUiiSE.

Your

37

pupils have learned their lessons.

She has received a present from him.

I have my book, you have yours, she has
This is my book. This book is mine.
I found

You

He

them

The
The

in their garden.

praise us, because

found

my

hers.

knife,

bird feeds

its

child has cut

we do our

and

duty.

lost it again.

young and cares

for them.

its finger.

27. The pronoun which a speaker puts' in

place of his own name, is said to # be of the first
person.

The name of

pronoun standing
the second person.

a person spoken

for his

name,

is

to,

or a

said to be of

All other nouns and pro-

nouns are said to be of the third person.

That for which a pronoun stands is called

its

Antecedent.
28.

Pronouns which are used only

person, are called

Personal

in

one

pronouns.

All the pronouns given above are personal.

EELATIVE PRONOUNS.

29. The words, who, whose, whom, which,

and that, standing at the beginning of adjective clauses

( 24), are called

nouns.
The Antecedent
to

Relative Pro-

of a relative pronoun

is

be found in the same sentence, and usually

stands<directly before

it.

ENGLISH GltAMMAlt.

38

The king who was then reigning was called Alfred.

They that persevere conquer difficulties.
The fire which was kindled consumed the whole city.

Who and whom,

whose and

refer only to persons, which to things,

that, to either

persons or things.

Write ten sentences with clauses containing

relative 'pro-

nouns.
Select from your reader ten sentences containing relative

Analyze them, and name the antecedents of the

pronouns.

pronouns.

The pronoims, my,

thy, him, her,

word

your, have sometimes the

The pronoun them adds

them.

it,

self

and
added to
our,

selves, in

the

same way.
Those pronouns with the word thus added,
are called

They
noun

Compound personal

are used
is

when

pronouns.

the antecedent of the pro-

the subject of the sentence, and also to

modify a noun, making

it

emphatic.

James has cut himself. Isabella

Those boys will kill themselves.

I have hurt myself.

made herself sick.

The king himself could do no more.
I myself

am

to blame.

descriptive

adjective

standing before

noun often means the same as an adjective

which might stand after it.
The
The

wise man.

shining star.

clause

The man who is wise.

The star which shines.

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

39

30. Insert adjective clauses after the

jects of the following sentences, thus:
has not arrived.
The train
The train which was due at eight o'clock has not
is lost.
The book
The book which I was reading is lost.

My friend

sub-

arrived.

has come.

has been sold.

The farm
has bought a
* The merchant

Washington

house.

is called a patriot.

Insert adjective clauses in the predicates of the following

sentences, thus

Father has sold the farm

Father has sold the farm which he bought

They

We

are chasing a horse

found a guide

book

I should like to read the

The country honors

last fall.

the

man

I received two dollars for the wheat

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

31. Who

Whom

What

did it?

did you see

did you

say?

Which way have they

gone?
It has already

been noticed that the sentence

is

sometimes

inverted ( 8) so that the predicate, or part of the predicate,

comes before the

tions.
ject,

In the sentence,
do do how

is

This

subject.

"

How

is

usually the case in ques-

do you do

?"

you

is

the sub-

the predicate.

Analyze the questions given above.

Write and analyze

ten sentences, each in the form of a question.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

40
f

sentence which puts the assertion in the

form of a question

is

called an

Interrogative

sentence.

The pronouns who, ivliose, whom, ivhich and

what, when used in asking questions, are called
Interrogative pronouns.
The word for which an interrogative pronoun
stands

thus

is
.

Who
In

found in the answer of the question,

broke the window

this question,

who stands

James broke

it.

for James.

Write ten sentences containing interrogative pronouns.

Analyze them.
Select from

some one of your books ten sentences which

contain interrogative pronouns.

Pupils very commonly give the interrogative pronoun when asked to
The distinction to be emphasized is that the latter
give the relative.
is

used only in adjective

clauses.

LESSON

VIII.

PREPOSITIONS.

33.

My dog
Charles

the table.

is

sits

The book

lies

Father stood

the table.

the table.
the table.

Put a word into each of the above sentences

that will complete the sense.
Notice that thesewords show something about the position or
place of the subject compared with the table.

INTERMEDIATE COURSE,

Under,

at,

on, by,

show how the

41

table

placed,

is

what way it is related to each subject.

There are about forty common words which

or in

are used

to

connect substantives with other

words, and, at the same time, to show how the

some preceding word.

These words are called Prepositions, The name preposition means placed beThe following substantive whose relation
fore,
following substantive

is

expressed,

preposition.

usually

is

related to

called the

subsequent

The preposition and

make an

IIS,

is

LIST

its

of the

subsequent

adverbial phrase.

OF COMMON PREPOSITIONS.

about,

before,

for,

through.

above,

behind,

from,

till,

across,

below,

in,

to,

after,

beneath.

into,

toward,

along,

beside,

of,

under,

amid,

between,

off,

until,

among,

beyond,

on,

up,

around,

by,

over,

with,

at,

down,

since,

without.

Prepositions are very closely related to adverbs,

and

Of

the only preposition which

is

are. used

mostly in adverbial phrases.

is

often em-

ployed in an adjective phrase.

When

the subsequent of the preposition

omitted, the
adverb.

preposition

usually

is

becomes an

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

42

Notice that

many

of these prepositions have

exact opposites in meaning, and

may be arranged

in pairs, thus

Name

before,

behind,

over,

under,

above,

below.

other prepositions which have opposites.

Write sentences containing each of the above prepositions.

(Two or more can be used in the same sentence). Analyze;
and tell what relation the preposition and its subsequent
show.

WORDS THAT CONNECT SENTENCES AND WORDS

34. In order that words may make sense,
The
they must be joined together properly.
words,

make

stick, a,

with, boy, dog,

the, struck,

do not

sense because they are not in proper order

any thing.
The same words make sense when placed

to express

thus

The boy

struck the dog with a stick.

Generally the sense

is

shown by the order in

which words stand.

Men

plant corn.

Men

hoe corn.

In these two sentences the subjects are the

same.

The word corn

cates.

Generally

we

is

found

in

both predi-

shorten such sentences by

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

two predicates by the

joining the verbs of the

word
Men

and,

and express the

rest

but once, thus

plant and hoe corn.

The predicate is then called

that is, it is made up of parts.
The

43

robins are singing.

The

Compound;

blue-birds are singing.

Here we have two sentences with the same

The
predicate, but the subjects are different.
subjects are generally connected by and, and
the sentence shortened, thus

The

robins and blue-birds are singing.

The subject

is

then said to be compound.

Shorten the following sentences in the same

way as

in the

examples above

The
The

The
The

lion is fierce.

soldiers fought.

Apples are

soldiers conquered.

Peaches are

ripe.

The merchant buys

lion is strong.

goods.

ripe.

The merchant

sells goods.

35. Words whose chief use is to connect

words, sentences, or parts of sentences, are called

Conjunctions,

And,

or Mnd-words.

font, if, lest, or,

nor, though, yet,

and because, are the most common conjunctions.

Write four sentences with compound

subjects.

Write four

with compound predicates.

Write four with both subjects and predicates compound,

thus

Charles and William read and

Sometimes a sentence

spell.

is

joined to another

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

44

sentence, or a clause to a sentence,

by a con-

junction, thus

The company

will come, if

it

does not rain.

His courage was neyer doubted, but bis judgment was not
trustworthy.

Write two sentences connected by and.

Write two sentences connected by

but.

Write two sentences connected by

or.

Write two sentences connected by

because.

A clause

introduced by a relative or an

inter-

rogative pronoun, has generally no connecting

word before

it.

Sometimes an adverb connects

a sentence with a clause.

The general asked what they saw.

They will hear us when we call.
Who knows why the army failed ?

EXCLAMATIONS.
3. Certain words are used to express feeling which the speaker can not well express by
sentences.

examples.

Pshaw ! Fudge 1 Bah

Oh !
There are not many of them in
/

are

the

They form no part of the sentence.

There are eight elaes of words, or parts
of speech, the Noam, the Verb, the Adjective, the Pronoun, the Adverb, the Preposition, the Conjunction, and the Exclamation.
Nouns and Pronouns are also called. Substanlanguage.

tives.

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

Any

45

word, phrase, or sentence, which

as the subject of a sentence

is

used

becomes a substan-

tive in that sentence.

For example,

in the sentence,

word

are talking of the

the sentence, and

lest

we

it is

for.

"

For

is

Therefore,

a preposition,"
it is

we

the subject of

called a substantive rather than a noun,

should appear to say that

it is

both a preposition and

a noun.

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS.
Before going further, the parts of speech are to be thoroughly

re-

sentences should be required which involve several points

Do not advance further unless your class can write promptly

viewed, and
at once.

and accurately such sentences as the following

Write a sentence with a simple subject and a modified predicate.
Write a sentence with a subject modified by a numeral adjective, and
a predicate modified by an adverb.
Write a sentence containing a clause modifying the subject, and a
:

clause modifying the predicate.

Write a sentence containing a pronoun in the second person, a preposition and an exclamation.
Write a sentence containing the eight classes of words.

good exercise upon modifiers is to start with a simple sentence of

two words, and require modifiers to be added to any required extent
as, " Boys play/'
Require a desc. adj. modifying the subject, a noun
mod. the pred., a phrase with a preposition in it mod. the pred., a numeral
adj. mod. the subj.,

The

sentence, "

&c, varying

Many good

the sentence in a great

boys play ball in the yard "

many

ways.

would con-

tain the modifiers required.

This sentence-writing will take time both to write and to correct.

Considerable of
cise

and

learn.

it

should be done at the board that the class

The

may criti-

teacher will save time by designating the points

required in the sentence in some such

way as

this.

Write a sentence containing a pronoun of the third person, a

pronoun, ancUa preposition.

relative

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

46

Write a sentence containing a clause introduced by a

relative pro-

noun, an adverb and a specifying adjective.

The

pupil writes his sentences thus

The boy who gave me

the apple

was riding

in a carriage with his

father.
4

The

you gave us was too long.

Teachers will save time by requiring exercise papers, or blank books,
to be of uniform size, and, if pencils are used, to employ printing-paper,
which is much cheaper for the pupil, and will save the eye-sight of the
lesson which

Corrections are best

teacher.

made with a

blue pencil.

At

first

the

corrections should be explained, but after practice the pupils should

detect

ten

and

till

correct their

own

errors.

Faulty exercises should be rewrit-

they are amended.

LESSON

IX.

CHANGES IN THE FORM OF WORDS.

37. The farmer binds the sheaf with a band.

They bound the thief with bonds.
Notice that

all

the four words in italics con-

though they do not mean

The letters 6, n, d, are found

tain the idea of tying,

exactly the same.

in each
cipal

word, and these letters contain the prin-

meaning.

word.

They

The changes

changing the other

When

one word

are called the root of the

in

meaning are made by

letters of the

word.

formed from another by

changing some of its letters, or by adding letters
to the beginning, or to the end of the word, we
say that a new word is derived from the first.
is

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

38. Words are

47

derived from other words in

four ways:
1.

By changing

letters

within the word

as,

bind, band, bond, bound.

2.

By

placing letters before the word;

as,

bind, zm-bind; use, mis-use, a&-use.

3.

By adding

letters to the

word;

as, care,

careful, careless, car(e)ing, cares.

4.

By joining one word

to another

as,

watch-

factory.

These changes modify the meaning of the

root, but as we have used modifiers to express
words which modify other words, we call these
changes which are made in the word, or in its
ending,

changes in form.

39. When the same changes are made in

the form of a class of words, to denote the

same change
Inflection.

in

meaning, the change

is

called

Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and

a few

adverbs

are inflected.

4. Pencil,

book,

house.

books,

houses.

Pencils,

Notice that under each of the nouns given in the

noun derived from

first

by adding s.
Each noun in the upper line denotes one thing ; the noun
in the lower line derived from it denotes more than one
line,

there stands another

thing.

it

ENGLISH GRAMMAR,

48

That form of a substantive which denotes one

thing is called the Singular number.
That form of the substantive which denotes

more than one thing is called the Plural number.

To

annex, in speaking of changes in form,

means

to

place after

To prefix means

to

41. Most nouns,

place before.
like those

given above, are

changed frofri the singular form to the plural

form by annexing s to the singular.
When s annexed can not be easily sounded, es
is added to form the plural, as
box,

glass,

match,

bush,

boxes,

glasses,

matches,

bushes, churches.

church,

few nouns form the plural by changing

letters within

the

word

man, men; mouse, mice;

as,

foot, feet; tooth, teeth.

Can you give any other words of either of these classes ?

Are there any other ways of forming the plural ? Pronouns
do not form their plural in any regular way.
singular and plural forms are given.

and which are

lar,

In

27 both

Tell which are singu-

plural.

DIFFERENCE OF SEX.
4S.

A few nouns

change their endings to

show whether the persons named by them

are

male or female.
Actor, actress; count, countess;
ine

widower, widow

hero, hero-

Francis, Frances.

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

Names

49

of males are said to be of the

mascu-

line gender, names of females are of the

feminine gender.
POSSESSION.

43. This is the nest of an eagle.

The house of my father is large.

How

can these sentences be shortened ?

What

does the

my father show ?

phrase of

Which sounds
or, " This

my

is

the better, " This

is

the ring of

Do

mother's ring ?"

my mother/'

the sentences differ

in

meaning

or

The phrase of my mother shows to whom the ring belongs

who possesses or owns the ring. The same relation is ex-

?
;

pressed in the shorter sentence by changing the ending of

the

noun mother, and by bringing the noun into another place

in the sentence.

When

the preposition

of,

and

its

subsequent

modify a noun, the same relation is sometimes

expressed by changing- the ending of the subsequent noun, and placing

it

before the noun

modified.
Change the phrases

in italics to shorter forms

The flash of the lightning was bright.

The poems of Milton are admired.
The flight of the swallow is rapid.

Of audits subsequent

generally express posses-

and nouns with the ending which expresses

this relation are said to be in the Possessive,
44. Nouns in the singular express the re-

sion,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

50

by adding

preceded by an
apostrophe. The apostrophe shows the omission
of i which was once written in the ending.

lation of possession

Mary's,

Nouns

teacher's,

s,

pupil's,

the plural, ending in

in

bird's.
s,

add the

apostrophe to make the possessive form.

Turkeys',

soldiers

eagles',

Nouns whose

7
,

babies'.

plural form does not

form the possessive by adding

end in s
preceded by an

apostrophe; as

men,

oxen,

men's,

oxen's.

Write sentences containing the plurals of the following

'

nouns

monkey,

hero,

king,

queen,

fox.

Write sentences containing the possessive singular of the

following nouns
servant,

soldier,

officer,

teacher,

doctor.

Find ten sentences in jour reader containing nouns

in the

possessive.

43. Nouns, then, change their form to denote three relations.

The relation of number,

2. The relation of sex.
3. The relation of possession.
The change of the form of the noun which
denotes number and possession is called Ueclen1.

slon.
Teachers will find that errors in writing possessive forms are very
'common, and will need to spend considerable time upon this subject.
The possessive plural is most frequently mistaken.

51

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

LESSON

X.

CONJUGATION.
I
I turote yesterday.
46. I twite to-day.
John ivrites. The letter
shall write to-morrow.
is written.

Father ivas writing.

In these six sentences the same action

is

The letters
spoken of; the action of writing.
w-r-t are the root of the verb, and contain the
principal meaning.
The verb

is

varied in the following ways

By changing
wrde, wrote.
By annexing

letters

ivithin the

word;

as,

letters; as, write, writes, writ(e)-

ing.

By
tion,

their

prefixing words which

make some

and take some form of write to complete

meaning as, shall write, ivas writing.
;

Write sentences containing some variation of each

following verbs
give,

asser-

of the

know,

throw,

hear,

see,

feel.

47. Some of these changes show the time'

of the action some show whether the action is
;

finished or unfinished

some show4 the person of the subject ( 28) some show whether
the subject is the doer of the action some show
whether the subject is singular or plural.
;

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

52

EXAMPLES.
Soldiers fought.

Soldiers fVght.

The change
I

in the

am writing

The

action

form shows a change in

a letter.
the

in

have written a letter.

sentence

first

time.

is

in the

unfinished,

second, finished.

Thou God

God

sees all things.

The change
is

shows that the person of the

In the first sentence God is spoken to,

changed.

second

seest me.

He

is

in ending

spoken

subject

in the

of.

The man plows the field.

The field is plowed.
In the
affirmed
subject

did

sentence the subject does the action which

first
;

is

in the second, the

same action

is

is

affirmed, but the

not the doer, and the sentence does not

tell

who

it.

The man

is here.

The change

of

The men

are here.

are shows a change in the

is to

number

of the subject.

48. Time

may be Present, Past,

or

Fu-

ture.
Actions

may be spoken

of as finished or un-

finished, in either present, past or future time.

Present unfinished, I

Present finished,

We

Past unfinished,
r
Past finished,
-n

-i

He

(
<

am

writing a

has written a

letter.

letter.

were writing a

letter.

They
had toritten a letter.
J
They tvrote a letter.
:

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

Future unfinished,

53

I shall write.

Future finished, She will have written.

Tell the number of

Analyze the followiDg sentences.

Tell the time of each verb.

each subject.
the action
ject

is

Tell whether the sub-

finished, or unfinished.

the doer of the action.

is

Change the verb

tence so as to express a different time

The

river rose.

The

Tell whether

in each sen-

as,

river is rising.

The wheat has been harvested. The laws had been

The book will be printed. My friends were travbroken.
The deed will have been done. The ship is coming
eling.
into the harbor.

Do

the same with the sentences in 18.

49. The changes which are made in the

forms of verbs to express these different facts
in

regard to the action are called Conjugation.

The forms by which we know the time of the

action, and whether it is finished or unfinished,
Tense comes from a
are called Tense-forms.
word meaning time. When a verb has the form
which denotes present time, it is said to be in
the present tense ;
time,

it is

when

its

form denotes past

in the past tense.

The forms which show

that the subject

is

the

doer of the action are called the forms of the

Active Voice.
the verb

is

If these forms are not used,

said to be in the

Passive Voice.

You go, she goes.

50. I read, he reads.
The endings s and es show that the subject is
of the third person and singular number.

ENGLISH GRAMMAk.

54
Write

unfinished action

Write
action

The boys were

as,

five sentences in
as,

Write

Mother

which there

five sentences, in

The

Write

which the verbs express finished

with a verb in the 'present tense

my

mending
five

mentioned some

time has come.

five sentences

is

is

skating.

as,

kite,

sentences with the verb in past time, either

finished, or unfinished ; as, I sold

my

She was

knife.

sing-

ing a hymn.

Write

five sentences

with the verb in future time, either

finished, or unfinished;

as,

The boy

will

The mail

fall.

have been opened.

will

THE PARTICIPLE.
ffA. Verbs have adjective forms, or forms
which are used to modify nouns. These forms

commonly

are

Adjectives.

There are two of these verbal

adjectives for each verb.

or in n,

This laboring

He was
In the

first

man

as,

seen.

earns his wages.

sentence laboring asserts nothing, and

In the second sentence

adjective, but

assertion,

as,

i,

in

laboring with great earnestness.

bal adjective.

an

One always ends

other ends in d or

ing, as, seeing; the

haterf, feli,

Verbal

called Participles, or

it

is

it

may

still

a part of the predicate,

and the phrase was laboring

is

is

a ver-

be called
or,

called a

of the

form of

the verb labor.

52. The verbal adjective in ing

the

Imperfect

is

called

(or unfinished) Participle;

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

the other endings belong to the

55

Perfect

(or

finished) Participle*

The

between the verbal

principal difference

adjective and other adjectives

adjective

The

may have

all

that the verbal

the modifiers of the verb.

participle having joined with the perfect

participle of a verb,

Compound

is,

makes what

participle, as,

having

is

called a

seen.

( 20) is sometimes shortened by

leaving out the subject, and by using the parti-

Clause

some form of the verb which

The participle is then said
expresses assertion.
to refer to the word which would be the subject of the sentence, if nothing was omitted.
When I had finished my lesson, I had an hour left for
ciple instead of

reading.

Having finished my lesson, I had an hour left for reading.

The compound participle, having finished, refers to the
Having finished is modified by my lesson, showsubject I.
Hour is modified by left, a verbal ading what is finished.
jective, derived

from the verb

leave.

53. This verbal adjective form in ing is

also used as a noun, while it still retains the
modifiers of the verb.
Writing rapidly

is

very tiresome.

In this sentence writing

ject of the

rapidly.

But

sentence.

Therefore

it

is

it

differs

admits a verbal modifier.

a noun, because
is

it is

the sub-

modified by the adverb

from other nouns, because

it

56

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Talcing his gun, the farmer

The

went

out.

finished garment lay beside her.

neatly-written letter indicates a careful scholar.

Having read the

The
by the

battle,

letter,

he put

it

in his pocket.

hotly contested for three hours, was at last

won

rebels.

Point out the participles in the above sentences. Tell

whether they denote finished or unfinished action. Point
out their modifiers.

THE INFINITIVE.
54. Verbs have another substantive form
besides that in ing.
This form is usually pre-

ceded by the preposition

Infinitive of the verb.

to,

and

is

called the

She tried to sing the song.

To sing well is a valuable accomplishment.
To write neatly requires

We

have learned

pains.

to spell correctly.

This substantive form, or verbal noun,

nouns in having adverbial modifiers.

is

The

differs
to

from other

before the verb

often omitted.

Verbs ar conjugated to express Tense,

Voice, Person and Number.

LESSON XL
COMPARISON.

55. Some descriptive Adjectives, and a

few Adverbs admit a change of form called

Comparison.

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

When
it

an adjective simply names a quality,

be in the Positive degree

said to

is

57

as,

wise, brave, kind.

But when, besides naming the quality, a comparison is expressed by the adjective, the adjective is said to be in the Comparative degree.
The comparative form annexes r or er
to the positive

form

as wiser, braver, kinder.

When, besides naming a

quality, the adjective

expresses the highest degree of the quality named,

it

The

Superlative degree.

said to be in the

is

superlative form annexes st, or est to the

positive form
This

is

is

Thomas is
Never use

Do

might as well

Some
meaning

as wisest, bravest, kindest.

a large boy.

This boy

ing two.

larger than his elder brother.

the largest boy in school.

the ending

not say,
say,

He

adjectives
;

is

the oldest of the two.

woolen, triangular.

Such adjectives

Others are called variable.

adjectives of one

and a few of more than one

mit the inflection of comparison.

Dear, dearer, dearest.
Tall, taller, tallest.

Lovely, lovelier, loveliest.

Compare

You

than his brother.

oldest

Variable descriptive
lable,

when compar-

cannot be compared because of their

as, square,

are called invariable.

He
is

with an adjective

est

small, tvise, old, near, fine, sweet

syl-

syllable, ad-

58

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
i

few adverbs are compared like adjectives

as, soon,

sooner, soonest.

Instead of expressing comparison, by endings, the same idea

may

be expressed by the adverbs more and most prefixed to

the adjective

as, beautiful,

All adjectives

may

more

beautiful, most beautiful.

be compared in

this

way, and adjectives

of more than one syllable are generally thus compared.

Compare

useful, agreeable, fickle, rapid, weary.

DIMINUTIVES.

5.

From nouns

sometimes formed

are

nouns which denote a small thing of the same

kind.
Such nouns are called Diminutives.
The word from which another word is formed
is

called a

Primitive word.

From stream we form stream^ ; meaning a little stream.

From river we form Yiswlet ; meaning a little river.
From goose we form gosling ; meaning a little, or a young,
goose.

From lamb we form lambHra ; from

from

cat

Form

we form

hill

we form

hillock ;

hit.

diminutives from the following

lance,

flower,

wave,

lake,

bull,

brook,

leaf,

isle,

eye,

bird,

top,

duck.

ABSTRACT NOUNS.
57. Besides those names of qualities which
modify nouns, we have names which can be used
as subjects of sentences.

good,

or,

We

say,

The goodness of God

Nfoun names
nouns*

is

God

is

very

very great.

of qualities are called

Abstract

59

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

They

are derived from adjectives

by annexing

ity 9 th, ce, cy, and a few have other

Thus, from good we form goodness ;
endings.
iie-ss,

from kind, kindness ; from able we form ability ;

from true, truth; from long, length; from eloquent, eloquence

Form

from

fluent, fluency.

nouns from the following

abstract

wide,

strong,

deep,

high,

broad,

active,

agile,

acid,

plural,

docile,

neat,

useful,

idle,

happy,

weary,

elegant,

affluent,

competent,

different,

truant.

LESSON

XII.

KINDS OF SENTENCES.
DECLARATIVE SENTENCES.

58, The

turn.

king has governed well.

Your plan may not

succeed.

My father will reWe should study

diligently.

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

Can your

Why

Do you intend to remain?

What did you say ?
lesson ?

story be true?

did you not learn this

IMPERATIVE
Let seven sentences be
turn immediately.

SENTENCES.

Go home now, but

Do not be rude.

written.

Lend me a

knife.

re-

EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES.

What

a beautiful sunset

strange story

How

How

very ridiculous

he does talk

A very

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

60

Declarative sentence asserts a

The thing asserted may not
a fact.

59.
thing as

be

true,

but the speaker gives

it

as a fact.

An Interrogative sentence asks a question.

An Imperative sentence expresses the will
of the speaker, as a command, entreaty, or request.

The

subject of an imperative sentence

ally of the second person,

and

is

An Exclamatory sentence

A sentence of this

feeling.

is

gener-

usually omitted.

expresses strong

class is often incom-

plete.

A Simple

6.
ject

sentence contains one sub-

and one predicate.

A Complex sentence contains a clause (21)

modifying either the subject, predicate, or whole
assertion.

The horse which ran away has been

This

is

a complex sentence, because

it

caught.

contains a clause

modifying the subject.

We

will

answer when you

call.

This sentence contains a clause modifying the predicate,

showing the time of answering

and

it is,

therefore, a complex

sentence.

If

you do

this,

you

will

be

sorry.

The principal thing asserted here is, " You will be sorry."
But this is not said as a thing which will certainly happen.
The clause " If you do this," modifies the whole assertion.
The sentence is, therefore, complex.

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

Compound
more simple
tions

made up of two or
connected by conjunc-

sentences are

sentences,

by position without any

or connected

61

connecting word.
and Emily is reading.
came, he saw, he conquered.
went to Chicago, but he did not stay.

Sarah

He
He

is

writing,

A complex sentence may

you

go,

you

You who

may

bought

A sentence
predicate

it,

as,

be both Complex and Compound

and you who sold

may have

If

it,

as,

are both to blame.

a compound subject and a simple

William and Robert are bringing him home.

as,

A sentence may have

predicate

something which will please you.

will see

A sentence

contain several clauses

He

as,

is

a simple subject and a compound

singing and playing.

Both subject and predicate may be compound as, The

boys and girls are running and shouting.
A sentence which contains a clause is called a princi;

pal

Icadipg'

or

subject,

and

tence, "

its

sentence,

told

them what

the leading subject, and told

61.

subject

verb the leading verb.

The king

its

is

is

called the leading

In the complex sen-

the miller said/

king

is

the leading verb.

INCOMPLETE SENTENCES.
sentence

is

often left

incomplete

by the speaker, either to save words, or because

his meaning is plainly .understood without words.
Leaving out words which the hearer easily
supplies

is

called Ellipsis,

and a sentence from

which something is omitted, is called an

elliptical

ENGLISH GIlAMMAi:.

62

Sometimes the subject is omitted

sometimes the predicate sometimes both.
Go home.
sentence.

The

subject you

How

is

omitted.

strange

This sentence in

would be "

full

How

strange

it is

!"

most common in Imperative and

It may be used in
Exclamatory sentences.
Ellipsis is

speaking

much more than

in 'writing, because

the speaker's looks and motions

meaning

Go

me

his

plain.

Supply the

Give

may make

ellipsis in

the following sentences

a book.

to that

Why ?

chamber.

Whither are you going ?

Why did he come back ?

Because you are bidden.

To the city.
For his boohs,

SJ. The name of the person addressed forms

no part of the sentence. It is used simply to
call his attention to

the sentence following

Harry, what have you there

Jane, is this

your book ?

Exclamations

generally

stand

neither modify, nor are modified.

kind of

alone,

They

and
are a

elliptical sentence.

Yes, no, certainly, and* some other

words used
in answering questions, do not modify the senThey
tence with which they stand connected.

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

63

modify either an omitted verb, or the sentence

containing the question.
No, you are mistaken.
Certainly, with pleasure.

you may have

Yes,

Supply sentences
if

there

any

is

it.

to

ellipsis,

which the above

supply

may

be answers, and

it.

Analysis of sentences.

63.

An analysis of several sentences is now presented, that a plan for

general use may be made plain. It is not so important to name the
exact form as to name the use of the word in a sentence. The analysis
offered is designed to show what a pupil ought to know of a sentence
when he has finished the book up to this point.

On

1.

a pleasant morning in the early autumn,

a traveler
This

is

was riding

leisurely along the valley.

a simple sentence, containing but one subject and

one predicate.

It asserts

fore declarative.

made, and

is,

something as a

traveler is that of

therefore, the subject.

fact,

and

is

there-

which the assertion

Was riding

is

leisurely

along the valley, on a pleasant morning in the early autumn,

is

Traveler

the predicate.

therefore, a noun.
a.

Was riding

It

is

by

leisurely,

morning and in

the

On,

name

of an object, and

in,

Its

past and unfinished.

telling

how ; by

is

form shows
It is

modi-

the phrase along

and along are prepositions.

spective subsequents are morning, autumn, and

ing

is,

; and by the phrases, on a pleasant

early autumn, telling when the traveler

where

riding.

is

an adverb

the valley, telling

was

the

the verb of the predicate.

that the action spoken of

fied

is

modified by the specifying adjective

is

Their re-

valley.

Morn-

modified by the descriptive adjective pleasant, and the

specifying adjective a.

Autumn

is

modified by the descript-

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

64

ive adjective early, and the specifying adjective

modiiied by the specifying adjective

is

the.

The tree which stood by the roadwas struck by lightning last night.

4.
side

2.

A declarative sentence;

complex, because the subject con-

The

tains an adjective clause.

stood by the roadside

The noun

cate.

subject

clause

is

The

is,

the rest of the sentence

modified by

tree is

the,

and by the clause which stood by

ive,

a specifying adjective clause

is

Which

meant.

ject of the clause.

roadside

is

is

asserts something of which.

ished.

It is modified

Was

where.
fore,

Its

that the subject

be

is

form shows past

it

is,

time, finished,

It

is

It

action

there-

and also

is

said to

modified by the
;

also

by

the

was done.

your work when

saw you walking in the garden ?
65.

Had you

time, fin-

and

phrase by lightning, telling what did the action

when the

the

the roadside, telling

not the doer of the action.

the passive voice, past tense.

phrase, last night, telling

a verb

is

form shows past

struck asserts something of tree,

a verb.

in

Its

which

Stood by

Stood

by the phrase by

it

It is the sub-

tree.

the predicate of the clause.

tells

it

a relative pronoun.

This

because

adjective,

Its antecedent is

which

the predi-

is

roadside.

the

tree

a specifying adject-

modifies a substantive, and specifying, because

tree

Valley

the.

3.

finished

A complex interrogative sentence, containing

You

clause.

name

is

It is

Had

finished

form shows that the action

is
is

is,

therefore, of the

the verb of the predicate.

past and complete.

by your work, telling what was

clause when I saw you, expressing time.

modified

an adverbial

a pronoun standing for the

of some person addressed, and

second person.
Its

the subject.

finished,

The

It

is

and by the

subject of the

65

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.
clause

is I,

a pronoun standing for the

name

of the speaker,

and therefore of the first person. Saw

Its form shows that the action is past and finished.
clause.
Its present form is see. It is modified by you, telling whom I
the verb of the

is

You

saw.

ing

is

When

is

modified by walking, a verbal adjective.

modified by
is

Walk-

in the garden, a phrase denoting place.

an adverb of time, modifying saw, and also connect-

ing the clause to the principal sentence.

66.

modern

4.

All ancient art was religious, but

all

art is profane.

A compound declarative

sentence, consisting of

two simple

(The subjects and modifiers are plainly seen).

This
The sentences are connected by the conjunction hut.
conjunction shows that the sentences are compared with each
sentences.

other,

and that the speaker wishes us

67a

5.

to notice a difference.

Three kings had once met to form

a treaty of peace.

ANALYSIS BY WORDS.

A simple declarative
Three

is

sentence.

a numeral adjective modifying

kings.

noun, in the plural, subject of the sentence.

Kings

Had

met

is
is

a
a

verb, predicate of the sentence, past tense, active voice, de-

Once is an adverb, denotes time, and

To form is an infinitive phrase, modifies
shows for what purpose they had met. A is a speci-

notes complete action.

modifies

had

met,

had

met.

fying adjective, modifies treaty.

Treaty

is

a noun, modifies

C/*is a preposito form, shows what they had met to form.

Peace is
tion, shows the relation between treaty and peace.
a noun, subsequent of of, and with of forms a phrase modify-

ing treaty, showing what kind of treaty.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

66

Sentences for analysis.

So
The

following sentences are selected from the Third Readers of sevseries, as presenting the kind of sentences with which
children are expected to be familiar.
Teachers must remember that
pupils at this stage are not expected to analyze very complex sentences.
eral

common

came

Just then her father

in

from the

Uncle William, may I go over

your store

to

One evening, soon after his father's

Edwin took his seat beside him.

How

long have you had that box

During the night the

stroyed every thing in

Never give up

Out of

the

is

little

field.

this

morning?

return from the city,

and de-

cattle got into the garden,

it.

a good motto.

twigs these

tall trees

were made.

His garments are red with the blood of the grape.

Tell me,

if

you know, who he

The

frost

And

whispered,

looked forth one

"

Now

is,

and what

still,

is

his

name.

clear night,

I shall be out of sight."

Ben Adam had a golden coin one day

Which he put at interest with a Jew.
" Will

you give

my

kite a

lift

?" said

my

little

nephew

to

his sister.

I think John

Brown has

Around

the

it,

fire

for I

saw him pick

up.

one winter night,

.The farmer's rosy children

The

it

sat.

types with which the letters are printed are

made of

metal.

The sound of dropping nuts is heard in the wood.

As we were coming home we saw, ahead of us, a

queer-

looking affair in the road.

Among
robin.

the most beautiful of small birds

is

the Australian

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

The Cadi bowed

67

ground, and kissed his master's

to the

hand.
"

"

Keep your

pleasant nap, indeed

distance

!"

!"

replied the swallow.

said the

pack horse, again throw-

ing up his heels.

He

heard

mossy

it

ringing,

and saw

glancing

it

down

the old

stones.

LESSON

XIV.

LETTER WRITING.

One of the most important things for a pupil to learn is

how to write a letter. It is a necessity in every education.
Yet mistakes in dating and directing letters are very common.

Some

years ago, an important school in Massachusetts

who
Of one hundred and

advertised for a teacher, a College graduate, and one

had had experience

High Schools.

in

ten applicants, seventy were rejected in consequence of mis-

takes in spelling, punctuation, and in dating, folding, and

directing their letters.

The

date of a letter properly

commonly

It

which the

letter is sent.
;

on the

which

at

it is

includes the nameof the place from

written.

of the page

means the time

The date should

first

line, as

stand near the top

a general rule.

should be taken to commence far enough to the

Care

left to

pre-

vent crowding.

The name

then the name of

month and day of the
month, then the year. These generally stand upon the same
line, but if the names of the post office and county are long,
it is better to make two lines, thus
of the post

office

comes

first,

the county, then the state, then the

Princeton, Bureau Co.,

III., Jan. 30th, 1869.

Jefferson, Ashtabula Co., Ohio,

September 29th, 1868.

: :

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

68

In writing from large towns, or

name of

deliver letters, the

name
thus

cities

where

the county

letter carriers

omitted, but the

is

number of the house

of the street, and the

are given,

310 E. 55th St.,

New

Let the pupils write other examples.

York, June

1st,

1869.

Notice the punctuation care-

fully.

Next
same

third line below.

thus

It should never stand

follows the address.

line with the date.

Its usual place is

should stand to the

It

on the

on the second or
left

of the date

Monticello, Jones

Co.,

Iowa, Jan.

10th, 1869.

Mr. George A. Walton,

Dear Sir:
This form of address

is

the

common one

business letters, or letters to persons with

If a business firm

slightly acquainted.

following forms

may

is

for addressing

whom

one

is

addressed, the

be used

Messrs. Harper and Brothers:

T. V.

Farwell &

Co.,

Gentlemen

A married woman
Mrs.

is

addressed thus

Mary Martin,
Dear Madam

An

unmarried

woman

is

addressed thus

Miss Sarah Williams:

In writing

to relatives, or intimate friends, they

addressed by their

first

may be

names, by the name which expresses

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.
the relationship, or

by the

name, or by the

name

last

Friend, followed by the

title

as,

69

Dear Mother

first

Cousin James

Friend George; Friend Johnson.

The heading

of a letter, including the date, the address,

and the beginning of the

letter proper,

should be in the

forms given below.

Springfield, Sangamon Co., Illinois,
February 2Mh, 1869.

Mr. Samuel Jones,

Dear
In answer

to

)
)

Sir:

your

letter of inquiry, I

beg leave

to say,

etc.

244

Messrs. P. Smith

We
and

&

Canal

St.,

New York, Aug.

1st, '69.

Co.

enclose you our price

list,

with the

latest additions

corrections.

23

Carondelet

St.,

New

November

Dear Brother William

Your

letter

Orleans, La.,
25th, 1867.

of the 15th

inst.

was received some days

since.

If the full

name

of the person addressed does not appear

at the beginning of the letter,

it

is

customary to write

it

at

the bottom of the letter, below the writer's signature, and at

the left hand.

A broad

margin should always be

left

on the

left

page, but the lines should be filled out to the right.

of the

Great

care should be taken to have no blots or erasures, and to

write legibly.

mistake

may

sometimes lead to serious

consequences.

For the ending of a

letter there are

many

forms.

A few

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

70

common

of the

ones are given.

They should

stand to tbe

right rather than to the left of the page.

BUSINESS LETTER FORMS.

Hoping

to receive

Yours

your order, we remain,

respectfully,

Harper and Brothers.

Messrs.

H. Wilder

J.

&

Co.

Yours

truly,

James A. Lockwood.
Agent

P. Sanders.

fpr S.

Yours with

respect,

John Holmes.
Daniel Anderson, Esq.
Letters to friends admit more variety.

Your

affectionate son,

Henry.
EEN,
To Mrs. Ellen Green,
Indianavolis*
is, Ind.

\
)

Cordially yours,

James Bowen.
J.

R. Clark,
Derry,

Yours

may he

No

as ever, Affectionately yours,

Yours

in love,

Yours

mentioned.

special directions

simple rule

paper should
looks

H.

good cause, Yours in Christ, are other forms which

in the

One

JV.

fill

is

to

need be given for folding a

make

as few

folds as possible.

the envelope, but not crowd

it.

letter.

The

Nothing

more clumsy than a small envelope with a large sheet

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.
of paper crowded into
press

down

A paper-folder should be

it

the folds, and

avoid soiling the paper.

71
used to

make them lie smooth, and to

The first page should be folded

inside.

The common

fault in directing envelopes

far to the right, so that the writing

The

to begin too

is

crowded and one-sided.

is

direction should stand about in the middle of the envel-

The

ope.

place for the stamp

is

on the upper right-hand

corner, and the writing should not interfere with the stamp.

The

greatest pains should be taken to have the direction

plain.

Nine-tenths of letters lost are lost by careless direc-

tion.

FORM FOR DIRECTION.

[Stamp.]
Daniel Anderson, Esq.,

288 Broad

St.,

New
Care of Kipley

The gummed
flap, is

to

part of the envelope, that

very

are to deliver

whom

it

fices in the

is

York.

Morse.

always the top of the

state should be

who

&

distinct, for the

They do not

it.

to go, as

where

The

letter.

it is

is,

the movable

post office and

convenience of those

much to know
So many post of-

care so

to go.

United States have the same name, that the state

should always be given, and generally the county.

that in the case of large cities like

Boston,

etc.,

the

name

New

of the city alone

Except

York, Philadelphia,
is

enough.

A FORMAL BUSINESS LETTER.

Washington, D. C, April

19th, 1831.

Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of

yours of

this date, in

answer

to

mine of the same.

In reply to your remark that there

my

letter to

is

one expression in

which you must except, I would respectfully

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

72

answer that I gave what I understood

of your conversation.

to

be the substance

I did not pretend to quote your

language.

I have the honor to be, with the greatest respect,

Your obedient

servant,

John Branch.
His Excellency,

Andrew

Jackson,

\
j*

President of the United States,

ORDINARY BUSINESS LETTERS.

Princeton,

Messrs. G.

The

&

W. Sherwood

C.

III.,

August

1st,

1869.

desks and settees ordered by

me

June were reI find, by measurement

ceived yesterday, in good condition.
of one of our rooms, that it will accommodate a few more
pupils, and you will oblige me by forwarding immediately

Twelve (12)

in

single desks, folding seat, size B.

I will remit the amount of your

bill

on receiot of the

goods.

Yours

truly,

William A. Dickinson,
Chairman of Board of Education*

Dover, Bureau

Messrs.

Hurd and Houghton

Co., III., July 10th, 1869.

Please change the address of the " Riverside Magazine,"

sent

me

at this

place, to Sabula, Jackson

Co.,

Iowa, and

oblige,

Yours

respectfully,

William H. French.
Messrs.

Hurd and Houghton,

459 Broome St, New York .}

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

73

FAMILIAR LETTERS.
Alpine House,
House, Gorham, N.

H.,

July 20th, 1869.

Dear Mother
According
our arrival

after

to

our promise

among

we

write you immediately

the mountains.

We

are so tired

with our long journey, and so much confused with the hundreds of new and strange things that we have seen, that we

have decided

to wait until

we

are a

little

rested before writing

We can only tell you

think
being
sick, and have alof
happy
to
that we
ready seen more wonders than we supposed were in the
whole world. With our best love to you and all the family.
you a

full

history of our journey.

are too

Your

affectionate sons,

George and Henry.

Mrs. Ellen Marcy.
Marietta, Ohio, June

Dear Joe

You know

that you

have some good news to

ive Base-Ball Club have

send you enclosed a

you

all

l&th,

1869.

about

it.

slip

We

owe me two
tell

letters

already, but I

Our Act-

you, and so I write.

just played a

match game, and I

from our newspaper, which will

won

the

game handsomely.

second base, and did some pretty good batting.

tell

I played
I

made a

I wish you had been here to cheer for us. This

clean score.
is all that I can afford to write you until you pay up.

Your

old friend,

Harry McKee.
Joseph Martin.

70.

Common errors corrected.

A few common errors are noted.

full list.

Their infinite number prevents a

Let everv teacher firmly resolve to banish every one of them

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

74

Whenever and
from his own speech, and from that of his pupils.
wherever they occur, in the school-room or out of it, make war upon
them. Keep" the most common and most offensive posted on the blackboard until they are overcome.

WRONG EXPRESSION.
When do you take up
school

I meant to go.
to

I could not go.

go.

We

done our work.

did our work.

He saw

seen him.

There he

do you begin or com-

mence school ?

I could not git

He

When

I allowed to go.

We

CORRECT EXPRESSION.

him.

There he

sot.

sat.

was me.
It was her.
It was him or them.
Who wants this ? Me.

It

was

I.

It

was

she.

It

was he or

You had ought to go.

Had I ought to go ? I

You

It

Who

think

wants
ought

Ought

they.

this ?
to go.

I to go

you had.
Give me them books.

Give me

Them

That molasses.

He

you

I think

ought.

molasses.

He
He

throw ed a stone.

lie preached

I.

a funeral.

those books.

threw a stone.

preached a funeral

mon ;

or,

ser-

he conducted a

funeral service.

I guess I will go.

I think I shall go.
I reckon I will go.

Last Tuesday was a week

Last Tuesday week ;

or,

a week

ago last Tuesday.

You was

You

there.

He

don't

know

nothing.

Every man went

house.

were there.

I was there.

I were there.

to their

He

knows nothing.

Every
house,

man went

to

his

INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

Who did you give it to

The man which came.
Set down and be quiet.
I

knowed

75

To whom did you give

The man who came.

Sit

down and be

I knew

it.

quiet.

it.

I laid abed all day.

I lay abed

Just as lives as not.

Just as lief as not.

Be

Be

present in our midst.

A specie of shells.
my

I have got

species of shell.

my

This here knife*

This knife.

That

That book.

'are book.

Your book

wore out.

day.

all

present in the midst of us.

I have

lesson.

lesson.

Your book

is

drawed a knife.
Have you wrote an exercise?

He

knife.

I hearn

I have heard of

is

He

He

tell

of

it.

meant

hope

worn

out.

exercise

I meant

to see

have visited you.

I hoped

to visit

him.
you.

We intended to have written. We

intended

He said as how he

said that he bought

bought

it.

He

to write.

They went for to find him.

You might have went

They went to find him.

You might have gone.

He

He

learned

I and

Do

my

me grammar.

taught

My father

father.

it.

has already gone.

have seen him.

to

to

drew a

Have you written an

He

has done gone.

it ?

it.

me grammar.
and

I.

I do.

Bo

of people.

Eight smart of corn.

A good many.

A great many people.

A great deal of corn.
A great many.

Quite warm.

(Quite means exactly or com-

like

A heap

as I do.

pletely.)

Between you and

I haint

got any.

I.

Very warm.

Between you and me.

I have none.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

76

The dress sets well.

The hen sets on eggs.

The dress sits well, orJits well.

The hen sits on eggs.

Require the pupils to write out a

to correct them.

list

of errors which they notice,

and

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What is a subject ? What is a predicate ? What is a

sentence ?
Does the order of words have any thing to do
with the sense? Where does the subject of a sentence generally stand ?
Where the predicate ? When is a sentence
said to be inverted ?
What are the elements of a sentence ?
Define analysis. Define parts of speech. How many classes
of words ?
Name them. Define a substantive. Define a
noun.
What is the difference between a noun and a substantive ?
What are verbs ? Explain the terms modify and
limit
Define an adjective. How is an adjective known ?
How can the part of speech of any word be known ? How
is a thing described?
How many kinds of adjectives, and
what are they ? If an adjective stand as the subject of a
sentence, what is omitted ?
Is a noun ever wsed as an adjective? What is a simple subject? Of what part of speech
is it?
What is a modified subject? What is a simple predicate ?
Of what part of speech is it ? What are adjective
modifiers ?
What are verbal modifiers ? What is a clause ?
What is a phrase ? Give examples. What are adverbs ?
What do they modify ? Give examples. What do verbal
What is an adjective clause?
modifiers generally express?
What is an adverbial clause? How do adjective clauses
usually commence ?
How do adverbial clauses usually commence ?

What are pronouns ? What is meant by the antecedent

of a pronoun?
What are personal pronouns? Explain
what is meant by person in grammar. Name the pronouns
What are the relaof the first, second, and third persons.
Where do they generally stand? Where
tive pronouns?
What are the
is the antecedent of a relative to be found ?
compound personal pronouns, and how are they formed ?
What is an interrogative sentence ? What are the interrogative pronouns ?
Where is the antecedent of an interroga*

tive

pronoun found ?

INTERMEDIATE COORSE.

77

Name the common preare prepositions used?

Name the prepositions which have opposites.
What do a prethe subsequent of a preposition?

For what
positions

What

is

What preposiits subsequent usually modify ?

subsequent usually modifies a noun ? What are
What are the common conjunctions? What
conjunctions?
other words are used to connect clauses to sentences ? What
Give, examples.
are exclamations ?
What is the root of a word ? When is a word said to be
How are words derived from other
derived from another ?
position

and

tion with its

What classes of words are

the singular number?
What is the
How is the plural formed from the singuplural number ?
When is a noun called a possessive? How is the
lar ?
How in the plural?
possessive formed in the singular?
What preposition and subsequent often mean the same as
What three relations of nouns are expressed
the possessive ?
by change of ending ? Define declension.
How may verbs be varied in form ? What is expressed
by these variations ? What is tense ? What are the divisWhat is conjugation ? What do the active
ions of time?
What is indicated by the passive
voice forms show?
What are participles? How many has a
voice forms?
verb ? In what does the imperfect participle end ? How
What is the difference bedoes the perfect participle end ?
tween a verbal adjective and any other adjective ? What
is a compound participle ?
How is a clause sometimes shortened by the use of a participle ? What other use has the
What is the infinitive ?
verbal adjective in ing?
What is comparison ? What parts of speech are compared ?
Define the positive decree.
Define the comparative, the
How is the comparative formed ? How the
superlative.
superlative ? Are all adjectives compared ? Give examples
of adjectives which can not be compared. What is a diminuIn what do diminutives end ? Give examples. What
tive ?
From what are they derived, and in
are abstract nouns ?
words

inflected?

What is
What

what do they end

What

is

sentence?

inflection ?

is

a declarative sentence

What

is

What

is

an interrogative
Define a

an exclamatory sentence?

78

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

simple, a compound,

and a complex sentence.

Give exam-

ples.

In what sentences is it most common ?

Define ellipsis.
Give examples.
What is included in the date of a letter ? Where should
When may the state, or county, be left
the date be placed ?
In writing from cities or large towns, what
out of the date ?
Give examples of dates properly
is included in the date ?
Where does the address stand ? How is the date
written.
punctuated ? How is the address punctuated ? Where is a
margin left blank ? Give examples of the address of a letter.
Give examples of the signature of letters. Direct an envelope properly to the publishers of this book.

Common School Gbammar

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS.
The pupils who commence this part should be familiar with the Intermediate part, or its equivalent. They should know the elements of
the sentence and the parts of speech, and should have the idea of inThe teacher should continue to require
flection and modification.
abundant illustration, constant written practice, and frequent reviews,
and require examples to be taken from books in common use which
will illustrate every point.
Correcting printers' proof-sheets is a very valuable exercise. The
first proofs abound in mis-spelled words, inverted letters, faulty punctuation, improper use of capitals, different kinds of type mixed, and in
omissions which materially affect the sense. In correcting these errors,
the pupil learns practical grammar, and fixes the all- important habit
Very likely the pupils will not observe every
of close, patient attention.
error, but they will improve rapidly by practice.

LESSON XV.
71.

Language

is

that

and feeling are expressed.

gestures, expressions

by which thought
It includes signs,

of countenance, pictures or

other symbols, inarticulate sounds,

and words.

Generally when language is spoken of, the language of words is

meant. Brutes have a kind of language, expressed by motions and
inarticulate sounds.
The deaf and dumb have a language of signs.

A Word is
an

the written or spoken symbol of

idea.

An 1 dea is a
with whom we are

mental picture.

The name

acquainted, calls up in

of a person

mind a kind of
(79)

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

80

image of the person.

In the same way we picture

to our-

selves unreal objects, or objects which

we have never

The word

Different languages

employ

is

the sign of this picture.

same

different signs for the

?2.

ramiiiar

seen.

idea.

treats of the &cts 9

laws,

and rules of language.

General
are common

Grammar

treats of facts

to all languages.

The facts in regard to the sentence given in

languages, and belong to general grammar.

English
and

which

1,

are the

same

in all

Grammar treats of the facts, laws,

rules of the English language.

Law is a fact which applies to a whole class of words a Rule is a

guide in the use of language. It is a law of the language that abstract
nouns (57) are derived from adjectives; it is arw/e that the relative
pronoun stands after its antecedent.

Language

Written.

is

usually divided into

Oral language

addressed to the ear

is

Oral and

spoken, and

written language

is

is

ad-

dressed only to the eye.

Grammar is divided into four parts.

Orthography, which treats of Letters.
Etymology, which treats of Words.
73.

Syntax, which treats of Sentences.

Prosody, which treats of Accent, Phuctuation, and Vers Meat ion.

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

81

LESSON XVI.
ORTHOGRAPHY.

Orthography

74.

sounds and

treats of

elementary

the letters which represent them,

of syllables, and of spelling.

The sounds of the language and its pronunciation are often treated
under a separate head called Orthoppy. Pupils are expected to learn
most of Orthography from Readers and Spellers, and to learn the
sounds thoroughly.

The English language has

forty-three elemen-

These sounds are expressed to the

tary sounds.

eye by twenty-six different characters, called

The
Alphabet.

its

language are called

letters of a

letters.

Since forty-three sounds are represented by twenty-six letters, it follows that either some letters must represent more than one sound, or
that some sounds must be represented by two or more letters combined.
Notice that the name of the letter is not the sound of the letter.

75.

There are four principal

styles of let-

ters.

Roman, A, a
Italic,

Each
size,

B, b

A, a;

B, b;

letter is represented

and generally

printed matter

is

in form.

made up

C, c
(7,

D, d

c;

by two

The

D, d;

E, e

F,

E, e;

f.

F.

characters, differing in

great body of written or

of small letters.

For

rules for

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

82

the use of the larger letters, called

Capitals

see the

Appendix.

Emphatic words

are used to express emphasis.

Italics

commenced with a

are sometimes

faced type

is

employed

attention to important words.

employed

to

capital

letter.

FiilE-

in school books to attract the

In

script, the underscore is

denote emphasis.

Sounds are divided into two classes,

Vowel Sounds, and Consonant Sounds.
Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants.
A Vowel is a letter representing a sound
which is uttered with the organs of speech open,
and which can be prolonged.
A Consonant is a letter which represents a
sound that can not be uttered without bringing
some of the organs of speech into contact.
The Vowels are a, e, i o u
and some 76.

The other

times y.
is

letters are consonants.

a consonant at the beginning of a syllable.

A Diphthong
and

els,

is

is

a combination of two vow-

uttered at a single impulse of the

voice.
In a
boil

'pro'per

diphthong both vowels are sounded

in an improper diphthong one vowel

is

sounded

as in

as in

beat, receive.

77. Consonants are divided into

liquids

and Mutes.
The

liquids are 1,

m,

n, r.

They

are also called

Semi-

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

83

vowel*, because they represent sounds which can be some'

what prolonged.

Mutes are sub-divided

1.

Labials,

2.

Gutturals,

3.

Unguals,

S,

z,

H
C is

is

and

(or /^-consonants) b,

(foft^e-consonants) d, j,

has

is,

hard
or

is soft,

<z ;

that

is

t, s,

z.

Sibilants, or hissing letters

and

not a

is

hissing sound, before

its

before the diphthong

it is

c hard, g, h, k, q.

(or throat-con sonants)

c soft, are called

that

p, v.

f,

called an aspirate, or breathing,

soft,

wise

into

letter.

and

e, i,

and

y,

as in cent, city, cycle, Ccesar. Other-

has the sound of

is, it

sounded like

j,

before

derived from the Latin and Greek.

h
and

e, i,

words

y, in

Otherwise

it

hard

is

as in go, bag.

A letter is
know,

78,

below

silent when

in often,

in

it

has no sound

as,

h and

in

hymn.

The sounds of the language

as classified into labials,

are given

and

gutturals,

Unguals.
Labials.
SONANT, NON-SONANT.
b.

p.

v.

f.

Gutturals.
SONANT, NON-SONANT.
g.

ph.

Unguals.
SONANT, NON-SONANT.

k. q.

d.

t.

ch hard.

z.

s.

j.

ch

zh, as

sh.

soft.

soft,

in azure,
th, as

th, as

in this, in thin.

Sonant consonants are seldom sounded with non-sonants,

unless one or the other

word

slabs,

is

changed in sound.

Thus

in the

the sonant b comes before the non-sonant s

in pronouncing, s has the

sound of the corresponding

z.

but

In

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

84

the word cupboard, the non-sonant

by

and the word

easier

word

pronounced as

is

comes before the sonant

if

written cubboard ; an

to speak.

Euphony means agreeable sound, and changes

made

in spelling, or in

more pleasant

sound, to

make

to the ear, are called

word
etrphonic
a

changes.

Syllable is a word, or a part of a

79.
word, uttered at one impulse of the voice with;

A-way

out any break, or interruption of sound.

has two syllables

im-in-tel-li-gi-ble

has

six.

A word of one syllable is called a mono yl I able ; a

word of two syllables is a dissyllable ; and a word of three
syllables is a trisyllable ; a word of mere than three syllables is a polysyllable.
The Accent of a word
ance of one of

Spelling
proper
sounds,

its

is

letters.
is

is

an emphatic

utter-

syllables; as, hard-ly, sub-?mi

word by

its

spelling, or spelling

by

the expression of a

Phonic

the expression of a

word by

its ele-

mentary sounds.
Spelling by rule involves the study of prefixes and suffixes. The
Rules of spelling are contained in the appendix. Spelling lessons
should generally be written.

ETYMOLOGY.
LESSON
80.

Etymology

XVII.

treats of the

Meaning,

Derivation, Classification, Inflection,

and History of words.
The meaning of a word is learned by its
nse, by its derivation, or from a dictionary.
Neither teacher nor pupil can afford to be without a dictionary.

Derivation treats of the Origin, primary

meaning, and formation of words.
The English language originated from the Anglo-Saxon
and the ft rman-Frencli. It contains many words from
the Latin and from the Greek.

From

the Anglo-Saxon

and conjunctions, and

81.
fied into

and

all

come

all

our pronouns, prepositions,

verbs of the strong conjugation.

In respect to origin, words are

classi-

Primitive, Derivative, Simple,

Compound.

Primitive word is not derived from any

other word in the language as man, boy, strike.
A Derivative word is formed from some
other word in the language by prefixing or suffix;

(85)

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

86

ing

letters,

by changing

or syllables, or

within the word;

hoy -ish,

as,

letters

tm-man,

man-fo/,

stroke.

A primitive word

from which other words are derived

From

called a stem.

the stem

tive words, manly, manful,

The root

of a word

The

in its derivatives.

The vowels

nants.

is

are formed the deriva-

unman, mannish, men.

that part which remains

root

of a

man

is

is

generally

unchangd

made up of

word are more

conso-

subject to change

than the consonants.

A Simple
words

word can not be separated

as,

two or more

of two or

more simple

window, machine.

as, door,

A Compound word
words

into

is

made up

door-mat, window-sash, sewing-machine.

In compound words the accent

is

upon the

first

part

as,

steam-boat, row-boat

Let the pupils think out the reason of this. If they have a clear idea
of emphasis, it will not be difficult.
For the use of the hyphen between the parts of a compound word,
see the subject of Punctuation.

Words
ing,

are sometimes compounded to express one mean-

and written separately to express another.

a glass house

is

For instance,

a house made of glass ; a glass-house

house where glass

is

is

made.

The teacher is expected to require of the class illustrations enough

to fix every fact clearly in mind.
When the pupil is able to bring to
the class a considerable number of illustrations of his own selection, it
Require written
is tolerably certain that he understands the principle.
illustrations,

and a great many of them.

82.

meant

By

their

their use.

Speech.

the Classification of words

arrangement in

The

classes

is

classes according to

are called

Parts of

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

There are eight

classes of

87

words

in ^English,

Verb, the Pronoun, the Adjective, the Adverb, the Preposition, the
Conjunction, and the Exclamation.
the

Noun,

the

The specifying adjectives, an or a and the are sometimes called ArtiThe verbal adjective ( 51,) is also made a separate part of speech

cles.

by some authors, and called a

A Noun

is

Participle.

name

the

of an object, either of

perception or of thought, and can

itself

be the

subject of a sentence.

A Verb is a word which,

in

some of its forms,

can be used as the simple predicate of a sentence.

Its office

is

assert.

to

It usually asserts

the

being, state, or action of the subject.

A Pronoun

is

word used

to supply the

place of a noun.

An Adjective

word which modifies a

substantive by naming a quality or attribute,
or by pointing out which, or how many are
a

is

meant.

An Adverb

is

word whose

office is

to

modify a verb, a sentence, or some word which

is

not a substantive.

A Preposition is
substantive to

word which connects a

some word which is modified by

the preposition and

its

A Conjunction is

subsequent.
a

word whose

office is to

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

88

connect words, plirases, clauses, and sen-

tence?.

An Exclamation

is

word used by

to express emotion or feeling,

itself

forming no part

of the sentence.

Theme

The

word is that form which is

name of the word or, as the startof a

used as the
ing-point from which other forms are derived
;

by

inflection.

Thus who is the theme of the relative pronoun, from which

come the forms whose and whom. From the theme write
come the forms wrote, writing, written.

By Inflection

meant that change

of form which words undergo to express change
83.

is

in their relations to other words,

or in their

change is expressed by a separate word, the word changed is modified, not

meaning.

If a

inflected.
Wise, taken as a theme, has

His and him are

wisest.

History

84. The
its

the inflected

of a

word

forms wiser,

theme

inflections of the

he.

tells its origin,

primary meaning, and the changes which

it

has undergone.
Thus knave

first

meant

boy,

An Obsolete word
good
word

use,
is

Leasing,

but

is

lying,

now

rascal.

one which was once in

An Obsolescent
not now.

one which

meaning

then servant,

is

is

going out of

is obsolete ;

pate for head,

use.
is obsolescent.

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

LESSON

89

XVIII.

THE NOUN.

Noun is a substantiTe name, or

85.
the name of an object. It includes the names
of all things which exist, or are spoken of as

existing.

Substantire

words which
an

object

any word or group of

is

used as a subject of a sentence,

of a verb, or a subsequent of a prepois

sition.
In grammatical analysis many sentences are formed whose subjects
These subjects
are phrases, or words used out of their common use.
should be called substantives, or substantive phrases. In analyzing the
sentence, " Will go is the predicate," call will go a substantive phrase.

Nouns
Proper,

are

divided

A Common

noun

uals; as, city, state, boy.

distinguishing

noun
it

is

from

name of a class
number of individ-

the
all

and

the

is

which may include a great

A Proper

Common

into

name of one

others of

object,

its class

as,

Peoria, Illinois, William.

The name

of the class

may

be applied to any object in

name of a person is not known,

we address him by a common name as friend, stranger,
His proper name is his own name it belongs to
sir.
the class.

If the proper

him

alone.

proper noun becomes

common when made

to

apply

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

90
to

common noun becomes

a CIa; a

proper when applied

exclusively to an individual.

There are

six

Williams

is

Williams in the school.

common noun, because

Mr. Field bought the

The

subject

applied to a class.

field.

Mr. Field

is

a proper noun, belonging to one

man.

Common

nouns are subdivided into

Abstract, Collective, Verbal, and Diminutive.
86.

An Abstract noun

is

the substantive

name

of a quality, derived from a descriptive adjec-

Abstract nouns generally end in nes as

tive.

in kindness

th

as in truth;

prudence, clemency

ce or cy

in ity as in ability.

as in

They

are seldom used in the plural, or in the possessive form.

A
is

Collective noun has a singular form, but

applied to a

number of

individuals

as, flock,

army, host

A
verb.

Verbal noun admits the modifiers of a

In form it may be either the Participle

( 51), or the Infinitive ( 54).

Playing foot-ball
not easy.

is

violent exercise.

To hear and

Diminutive

to see

is

Learning Latin

is

are very different.

a derivative noun denot-

ing a small thing of the kind expressed by

its

The diminutive endings are

primitive (56).
et kin, loek, ling, el, ie.
5

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

Ex.

Floweret,

Ling

mannikin, hillock, duckling, petrel (that

Peter, because

is, little

91

it

walks on the water),

wifie, Mattie.

Dimin-

sometimes denotes contempt, as in lordling.

utives frequently express

endearment

Let the pupils give examples.

A group

compound applied

of names not

a single person, forms a

President William

Complex noun

Henry

Harrison;

to
as,

Marcus

Tullius Cicero.

LESSON XIX.
INFLECTION OF THE NOUN.

87.

Nouns

are inflected ( 83), or change their

forms, to distinguish a

name which denotes more than

name which denotes

Number

tion of

They
sion (

( 40).

43).

This

nouns are

is

called the inflection

inflected to denote

called the inflection of

is

called the inflec-

is

Possesof Case.

are also inflected to denote the relation of

A few
This

This

one object.

The Inflection

of a noun

a difference in Sex.

ender.
is

called

Declension.

Number, cnder, and Case are

Attributes of a noun. Person (28)
called an attribute of nouns, but

by

one from

is

called
is

also

not indicated

inflection.

The

principal use of a

determine the

knowledge of these

pronoun, which

attributes

is

should be used in place

of the noun, and the form of the verb to which the noun
subject.

to

is

ENGLISH GUA31MAK.

92

88.

The name of a single object is said to be in the

The singular number is the theme of

Singular number.
the noun.

A name including more

Plural number.
The plnraB form

the

ding

its class

is

in

derived from the singular by ad-

is

book, books; house, houses.

as,

than One object of

If will not unite in sound with the final letter of the

theme, es

is

added

Nouns ending

match, matches.

as,

h 9 x, and

in s,

cii soft,

add es;

as box-es,

brush-es, church-es, gas-es.

Some nouns ending

changing

add

esand
Others

knife, knives.

off

without change

Form

in/, form the plural by adding

into v ; as, loaf, loaves

the plural of thief, chief, dwarf, sheaf, turf,

life,

hoof,

leaf, roof, wife.

Wharf has both wharves and wharfs in the plural.

Nouns ending in o generally form their plural in es but
9

there are exceptions

as, folio, grotto, portico,

which form

their plurals in s.

Nouns ending
and add es

in

y preceded

by a consonant, change

Nouns ending

in

y preceded by a

vowel,

add

man, men

called

tootli, teetn.

strong plurals
the word without
;

wilhin

A few nouns
Housen

to

i,

as, city, cities.

s,

change of y ; as, days, turkeys, chimneys.

few nouns form their plural by enanging the
as,

that

is,

without

vowel

Plurals thus formed are

they make their changes

the aid of endings.

have a plural ending

en

as,

oxen, childmz.

for houses, is fosoflete ( 84).

Compounds ending
their plural

as,

in

man, change man

alderman, seaman.

into

men

to

form

But German, Turco-

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

93

man, Mussulman, and talisman, are not compounds of man,

and add s in the plural.

8. A few

nouns have double

Brother, brothers (of a family),

plurals.

brethren (of a society).

Die,

dies (for coining),

dice (for gaming).

Index,

indexes (of books),

indices (signs of powers).

Pea,

peas (individuals),

Penny,

pennies (coins),

pence (value).

Cow,

cows,

kine (only in poetry).

Genius,

geniuses

pease (different kinds).

(men of genius),

staves (sticks),

Staff,

genii (spirits).
staffs (officers).

Many foreign words-retain their original plural

genera.
No rules can be given for their inflection.
;

Some

foreign words have

tain their original

an English

and

plural,

genus,

also re-

cherub, cherubs, or cherubim (never

as

as,

cherubims).
Letters and figures form their plural

by an apostrophe as, Cross your

your 9's closed at the top.
;

Nouns denoting

common
form

sense,

as,

have no plural

preceded

Make

and dot your i's.

idea, and, of course,

; as,

wines, teas

as irons, brasses.

ments have no plural

as,

no plural

If used in the plural, they

wheat, gold, sugar.

s,

things weighed or measured, used in their

either denote different kinds

of the material

fs,

by adding

Names

or,

things

made

of chemical ele-

oxygen, iodine.

Abstract nouns have no

CoBIective nouns

plural.

sometimes express plurality without the plural form.

Some nouns have no

numbers

as, deer, sheep, trout.

Some nouns have

ashes.

of two

In

plural form, but are used in both

(Give other examples.)

only the plural form

this class are several

corresponding

(Give other examples.)

parts

names of
as,

tongs,

as, victuals,

objects

drawers,

embers,

made up
scissors.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

94

Some nouns which seem

singular

9. In
nexed

to

have plural forms are always

news.

as, molasses, measles,

Compound
which

to that part

is

nouns the plural ending

made

really

is

an-

as man-trap,

title

before which

plural

man-traps ; father-in-law, fathers-in-law.

When proper

nouns are preceded by a

a specifying or a

made

numeral

adjective stands, the

name

is

our six General Smiths

plural and not the title; as,

the two Miss Chapins.

Whenever the same surname

4

by a

Christian names, preceded

is

annexed to two or more

title,

or whenever the

title includes different persons, the title

Mary and Ellen Brown

Misses

Harper

Messrs. George and

as,

the Misses Thompson

Usage

inclines

end

s.

in

to

the latter form

when

may

title

; or, the

as?

James

as, the

pounds, the

s is

the

whys and the wherefores.

to the last word; as,

added

Correct the following plurals

be made

Miss Thompsons.

name does not

When words are used substantively they form

in s or es

same

Generals Meade, Banks, and Butler.

In other cases, eitlier the name or the

plural

made

is

plural

the plural

In long comwill-o'-the-wisps.

oxes,

thiefs,

turkies,

chirimies,

Mussulmen,

ladys,

heros,

deers,

negros,

potatos,

gooses,

housen,

9s,

xs.

Write the plurals of the following

attorney, brother,

lynx,

calf,

pony,

Mr. Brown, court-martial,

foot,

fife.

Mary,
path,

monarch,
valley,

Write the possessive plural forms of the following nouns

woman,

ox,

child,

mother,

priest,

lady,

countess,

pupil,

scholar,

man.

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

95

LESSON XX.
GENDER AND

91.
beings

Nouns are
named by them,

The only
pronoun

is

CASE.

divided according to the sex of the

into

two

classes, or

use of this classification

to

If the sex

ing of the word, the gender

is

is

word in any way denotes the

matical.

in the third

if

sex, the

person

the ending of

gender

Nouns denoting male beings

Masculine gender

determine what

determined by the mean-

Natural

the

to

is

be used in place of a noun

and singular number.

Cienclers.

is

Gram-

are of the

nouns denoting female

beings are of the Feminine gender.

Names of objects without sex, or whose sex is unimportant,
are of the Neuter gender.
Names applied to beings of either sex are sometimes said
to

be of the

Common

gender

as, child,

parent, cousin,

pupil.

Nouns which are

inflected to denote gender,

change the

masculine ending into ess, ine, or rix, to denote the corres-

Ess

ponding feminine.

is

the only English ending, the

others belong to foreign words.

added

Ex.

to the

masculine form.

Actor,

actress

Joseph, Josephine

hunter, huntress

Wilhelm, Wilhelmine

executor, executrix

Some

Sometimes the endings are

count, countess
;

administrator, administratrix.

foreign words have other endings.

Such words

as uncle, aunt, king, queen, beau, belle,

natural gender, and the pronoun to be used for them

by

their

hero, heroine

meaning,

not by their

ending.

is

have

known

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

96

Sex
called

often ascribed to things without

is

Pcrsonificationt

life

Objects remarkable for strength,

able for grace, delicacy, or

the sun, the wind, the winter, the

moon, the

rose, the

figure

made masculine those remarkbeauty, are made feminine. Thus,

violence, or size, are usually

lily,

by a

frost,

are masculine

the

the spring, are feminine.

In ordinary speech animals are masculine or feminine, according to their leading attributes.

phant are generally masculine

The masculine gender

including both sexes

as, "

the cat

used for

is

Thus the

All

men

ele-

generally feminine.

is

all

and

lion

general

are mortal

statements

;"

No man

"

cares for him."

Names

of

countries twn and colleges are always

feminine since they are regarded as stand9

personified as

ing in a motherly relation to their inhabitants, or pupils

"Our

country

calls

as,

on her sons," "Jerusalem poured out her

countless thousands,"

"

Old

Harvard (College)

calls

her

children home."

in

which

By

it

the

ae

of a noun

is

meant the relation

stands to other words, and to the sentence.

The word Cae properly means ending, and was

duced into our language from a language
relations are indicated

by

necessity for retaining

it

in

which

different endings.

when speaking

A noun

may be

in a sentence

different

There

is

no

Some

of nouns.

pronouns have three endings, expressing three

intro-

relations.

related to the

Possessive or Appositive to a verb as Object

or it may
to a preposition as SMtoseqnent
sentence as Subject; to another noun, as
;

stand as a part of the Predicate.

The noun has two forms

in each

(See 176.)

number

one

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

Possessive, and one

for the

97

for all the other

relations.

Those who use the name of case for the relations call the
subject the Nominative cae ; the object of a verb, or
the subsequent of a preposition, the Objective cae 9 and
a noun in the possessive relation, the Posesive cae.

But
to

it is

better to drop the term

Cae

in analyzing,

and

speak of a noun as Subject, Object, Subsequent,

or a Posseive.

The Possessive gingnlar is formed by annexing to the theme the ending s, preceded by
an apostrophe ;

as, ship,

ship's

The apostrophe shows the omission of a vowel

English formed a part of this ending.

Plural nouns ending

sessive form by adding
farmers' wives

in s

river, river's.
(e

or

make

i)

which in old

their Pos-

the apostrophe

as,

eagles' wings.

make their Pospreceded by the apos-

Plural nouns not ending in s

form by adding
trophe as women's.

sessive

Sometimes when a noun

syllable,

ends in a

cially before

in the singular, of

sibilant, it

adds the apostrophe only, espe-

a word beginning with.

hissing sounds

more than one

5,

to

many

avoid too

Moses' disciples

con-

nouns, and nouns with

mod-

as Achilles' shield

science' sake.

Complex

and

Compound

ifying phrases regarded as one

ing to the last

word

GeneraVs commission
the bookseller's store.

as,

the

title,

add the possessive end-

John Paul Jmes' ship

a Major-

King of England's crown

Smith

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

98

word given as a model by which to

93.
inflect other words is called a Paradigm.
FULL INFLECTION OF A NOUN.
Singular

Plural.

Masculine. Feminine.

(General form,
Posesve,

Masculine.

Feminine.

hero,

heroine,

heroes,

heroines,

hero's,

heroine's,

heroes',

heroines'.

INFLECTION OF A NOUN WITHOUT GENDER.

Singular.

Plural.

General form,

river,

rivers,

Possesie,

river's,

rivers'.

LESSON XXL
THE VERB.

94.

A Verb

is

word whose

office is to

and which usually asserts the esisteifjfe, action, or stete of its subject.
The word Yerh means word, and was given to this part
asert

of speech as the most important.

In the Latin language,

from which we derive the names of our parts of speech,

was frequently used alone

as a complete sentence.

it

Other

words are of equal importance in meaning, but no other

words can asert.

As

verbs are necessary in every sentence, and as actions

admit of more variations than

variations of form than

The theme

of the verb

preposition to before

it

objects,

as,

is

that

form which admits the

to have,

to see.

called the Infinitive, or unlimited form,

substantive.

the verb has more

any other part of speech.

and

This form
is

is

generally a

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

99

Verbs have also Adjective forms, called P$articiple

as,

man

la boring

& printed

guished from other adjectives by

and

Participles are distin-

-page.

their form, their derivation,

their modifiers.

From

the same theme, then,

or verbs proper,

The
( 52),

ufotamlve

we have aertive

form-,

Adjective

forms.

forms, and

Infinitive and Participle sometimes imply assertion

but do not

make

it

directly.

95. The Inflection of a verb

is

called

its

Conjugation.
Verbs are inflected to give a Substantive
to show the
form, and two Adjective forms
time of the act or state asserted and to indi;

cate the

Person and Number

Verbs have two Adjective forms

incomplete,

of the subject.

the

Imperfect

or

and the Perfect or complete form.

(The Imperfect

is

sometimes called the Present, and the Perfect the

Past participle.)

The Imperfect
adding ing ;

is

is

called a

The

is

formed from the theme by

chang(e)-ing-.

as, do-tsag, be-fng",

This form

Running

participle

is

also

used as a Substantive

Gerund,

or a
is

it

formed from the theme by the

endings ed, and en.

n.

as,

When so used
Verbal Noun.

violent exercise.

perfect Participle

en becomes

Eel sometimes becomes

Examples

or

t,

and

Loved,

saved,

paid,

dealt,

discovered.

Written

thrown,

given,

seen,

known.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

100

96. The principal inflection of the verb is

to express the time of the thing asserted, and
its

state as complete, or as fineowipleteo

Hence, in German, verbs arc called time-words.

The forms

Tense

of the verbs which express time, are called

Tenses.

forms, or, simply,

Time is naturally divided into present, past, and future and any act may be spoken of as complete or
;

incomplete

any time.

at

Therefore six time-forms or

tense-forms, at least, are needed, viz.

PRESENT.

FUTURE.

PAST.

Complete.

Complete.

Complete.

Incomplete.

Incomplete.

Incomplete.

Those forms of the verb which express the

single word, are called

are simple tenses because

word may make an assertion by itself.

Compound tenses are made up of
verbs which

May

by a

simple tenses.

Write, sing, bought, told,

Infinitive forms

assertion

each

the Participle and

of the verb, combined with certain other

make an incomplete

assertion.

write, can write, will write, do write, has written,

writing, are examples of

am

compound tense-forms of the verb

write.

97. The English verb has two simple tenses

called the Present and the Past.

The Present

tense

is

used

for general assertions,

be used for either present, past, or future time.

rises in the East,

means that

there in the past,

and

St.

it

and may
The sun

does generally; has risen

will rise there

in

the future.

Louis to-morrow, implies future time.

scribing a battle, speaks thus of the

commander

I go

to

historian de:

"

He comes

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

in all haste, finds

present as

if

101

He

every thing in confusion."

uses the

the actions mentioned were going on in our

sight.

The Past Tense

thing

is

wholly past

He gave me

the ball

We

the action of seeing

is

may

yesterday

as, I ivrote it

climbed the mountain.

"I saw him

In the sentence,

time mentioned

used to assert that some-

is

wholly

this

past,

morning,"

although the

not be.

In the Past Tense, the action or state is asserted as simply past

It
denotes completion, but does not use a complete participle, as all the
tenses do which are called perfect.
The past tense corresponds to the aorist of the Greek, and the perfect
indefinite of the Latin.
.

98,

Present Tense Forms.

SINGULAR.

1st person.

3d person.

I go, write, walk, do.

He

(she,

it,)

goes, writes, walks,

does.
PLURAL.
1st person.

We

go, write, walk, do.

2d person.
3d person.

You

go, write, walk, do.

The above

They go,
are the

write, walk, do.

common

forms.

that the only change from the form of the

is

made

in the

3d person

singular,

Notice

theme

which adds

or es to the theme.

The second person singular which

is

used only

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

102

solemn

in

and in poetry, adds the endings

the theme; thus

style,

st or est to

Thou goest, writest, walkest, dost, or doest,

In solemn style and in poetry, the third person

sometimes takes the endings th, or th 5 as,

He goeth, writeth, walketh, doth, or doeth.
99. There are two methods of forming the
Most verbs form it by adpast tense of verbs.

ding

or

Theme.

ed

theme;

to the

move,

Past Tense, moved,

as,

change,

live,

form,

lived,

formed, changed, counted.

These endings are sometimes shortened

built

into t

count,

as, builded,

Participle of all such verbs has the

same form

passed, past.

The Past

as the past tense.

Such verbs are of the

weak

or

Regular

conjugation.

mostly of one
of Anglo-Saxon origin form
Some verbs

syllable,

and

all

their past tense

by changing the vowel sound of the theme,

and form their Past Participle by adding n or

en

to the theme, or to the Past Tense; as,

Theme.

draw,

grow,

ride,

fall,

drive.

Past Tense.

drew,

grew,

rode,

fell,

drove.

The

past participle of such verbs generally ends in n, or

en.

Such verbs are of the Strong or Irregular

conjugation.

'

103

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

For convenience, we call verbs weak and
of the weak, or of the strong conjugation.

strong, instead

of saying

The theme, the past tens, and the past

participle, are called the Priiaeipal Farts
of a verb.
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS.
[

Weak

Conjugation.

THEME.

PAST TENSE.

PAST PARTICIPLE

Change,

changed,

changed.

Pay,

paid,

paid.

Have,

ha(ve)d,

had.

Ask,

asked,

asked.

Gild,

gilt,

gilt.

Strong Conjugation.

Know,

knew,

known.

Eise,

rose,

risen.

See,

saw,

seen.

10.

The Past Tense has but one

form, except that

the second person singular, (rarely used,) has the ending st.

Thus, the form walked

you, or they, as

its

old English, or

may

The endings

may be

subject.

used with

Thou

walkedstf

I,

he, she, it,

may be

we.

found in

be used in the solemn style or in poetry.

s, es, st, th,

are called personal endings, and

should be used only with the proper persons and numbers.

Correct the errors in ending in the following

Thinks

Hence

He

I.

arises

dost well.

Up

Thou

comes three men.

these mistakes.

Thou knoweth

Many

all things.

advises

man come
Says

I.

ill.

hither.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

104

LESSON
101.

XXII.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs.

Before taking up compound verbal forms, it seems necessary to discuss a relation of the verb which belongs to Syntax rather than to

Etymology.

In such expressions as
teas

informed ; His name

The merchant

sold ; there

It

seems

is ;
is

I may ; That

gave

Franklin

affirmation

is

He

called

is

a subject and a verb, or the

ments of a sentence, and yet the sentence

An

looks

is

ele-

not complete.

made, but something more

is

needed

to

complete the sense.

Any

thing which completes the sense of a

verb, (or of any other word,)

Com-

is

called a

be

filled

out thus

well.

He was

plement.
The

expressions given above

seems strange.

may

go.

may

That looks

It

in-

formed of the fact. His name is Charles. I gave a dime.

Franklin is called a sage, or, is called wise. The merchant

The

sold his store.

Some

words are

italicized

Complements.

verbs admit only an adjective complement;

as,

he

looks pleasant, the apple tastes soar, I feel cold.

Some verbs admit

go,

can read, shall hear, must

Some
ment
is

only the infinitive complement

ment

to attend.

is

called good, he
is

is

called a mechanic

Henry

a student.

verbs admit either an infinitive or a noun comple-

as,

Some

he

Henry

honest,

ment;

dare say, ought

may

verbs admit either a noun or an adjective comple-

as,

Some

spell,

as,

he did learn; he tried

to

walk; he did his work.

verbs take either a noun or a clause as a comple-

as,

they said their lessons

they said that

it

was not

so.

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

Some
ment

verbs admit an adverb or an adjunct as a comple-

as,

Many
ment

he

is

here

he

is

at home.

verbs can be used either with or without a comple-

burns (no complement necessary)

fire

as,

105

we burn

coal (complement necessary).

162. The substantive complement of a

verb which does not admit an adjective comple-

ment

is

Direct object.
to be Transitive when

called the

A verb

is

said

quires no object.

If

it

it re-

requires no object,

it is

Intransitive.
The
itive

transitive verb

verb

which

is

called

is

also called

Meuter.

usually transitive

is

other verbs

that

v. n. ;

is,

The

v. a. ;

Active, and the

dictionaries

that

is,

verb in the sentence must determine.

orous action, but

" Strike for

verb

may

is

your

altars

object
;

as,

is

use of the

in the sentence,

The object of a
whom or what f

saw the Governor

(object of saw).

What

did you hear?

were going.

(The clause

is

the object of heard.)

often an infinitive, a clause, or an entire

She heard what he

A customary object
(the ground),

and

fires !"

be developed by the question

That you were going,

sentence

and your

Strike expresses vig-

sometimes intransitive, as

Whom did you see ?

We heard that you
The

a verb active

But the

verb neuter.

intrans-

mark a verb

is

He

said.

often omitted

and sows (the seed).

said " I will go."

The farmer plows

The trader buys and
as,

sells (goods).

Care must be taken

to distinguish the object

from a noun

forming part of the predicate. If the verb admits an adjective complement, it is not transitive.
In the sentence, He
is

is

not an object, for

sailor, sailor answers* the question,

is

What

is

he

but

admits an adjective complement.

it

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

106

This subject will be referred to again under Pronouns and under

Syntax.

The
it is

object

is

often called an element of the sentence, but

not an essential element.

The pronoun complement

of an intransitive verb has the

nominative form.

LESSON

XXIII.

IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS.

Verbs which do not form the prin*

cipal parts according to the models given in
Lesson XXI, are called Irregwlar.
Verbs which are not used in all their parts
13.

are called Defective.

The most
jugation

is

irregular verb in the language

is be,

whose con-

given below:

Principal parts, toe,

was, been.

Present tense, singular number,

Present tense,

plural number,

Past tense, singular number,

am,

art,

i.

are in all persons.

was, wast, was.

were in all persons.

Past tense, plural number,
dropping
the
v before the endings,
Have is irregular by
except before ing*

Present tense,

sing.,

have, thou ha(ve)st, he ha(ve)s.

Present tense, plural,

liave

Past

tense, singular,

Past

tense, plural,

ha(ve)d, liadst, had, etc.

liad in all persons.
but supplies its place by borrowing

* has no past

tense,

in all persons.

from the verb wend.

Past

tense, I

went,

thou

wentest,

etc.

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

107

following verbs want the infinitive and the participles,

The

and are irregular in their past tense:

Theme, may, can, must, shall,

Fat,

might,

must,

could,

should,

will,*

ought.

would,

ought.

Errors in the use of the forms of be are frequent. The most commistake is to use the singular form of the verb instead of the

mon

plural

as,

we was, you was,

instead of

we

were,

you

The pupil
Thus

were.

should be taught to give the reason for the correction.

We was is incorrect, because the singular form was

is

used with the

plural subject we.

must not be used with a plural, nor with

a compound subject, nor a plural form with a singular
singular form

subject.

Correct the following

You was with

I were going home.

you yesterday

We

Were

it

John

Had

Where was

him.

thou been there

was out skating yesterday.

The

obsolete form be

is

often incorrectly used instead of

the present tense forms of the verb be

Be we men ?
Be is correctly used

as,

Be you going ?

in imperative sentences

as,

Be

still

104. There are four compound tenses in

English; the Present Perfect, the Fast

Perfect, the Future, and the

Future Per-

fect.

The Present Perfect affirms that something is complete

The form is made up of the present
at the present time.
tense of the verb have combined with the past participle of

any verb

as,

I have,' thou hast, he has )

>
We, you, or they \have )

,
walked.

If any modifier denoting time

perfect, that time

used with the present

is

must include the time

* Will in the sense of wish

is

at

which the

regular.

asser-

**

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

108
tion

We

made.

is

We have

say, "

must not

seen you yester-

day" because yesterday does not include the time

the assertion
is

"

made.

is

We

have seen you

correct in form, if the assertion

The IPat Perfect

made

is

The form

up of the past tense of have, and the past

verb

'

'

We, you, or they had

The iFuture Tense
combined with the

is

)
y
)

We

you

shall,

will,

made up of

infinitive of

and

in the second

foreigner
;

nobody

who

the verbs shall and

any verb

as,

.,

they will }

shall in the second

The
drown

any

express simple futurity, shall

and will

and

made

walked*

I shall, thou wilt, he will

To

is

participle of

as,

I had, thou hadst, he had

will

morning"

this

in the morning.

something was finished

affirms that

some past time mentioned.

at or before

which

at

used in the

Will in the

third.

and

is

shall help

person,

first

person,

third, express determination.

into the water

fell

first

and

cried;

" I will

me," declared that he intended to

drown, and to receive no help.

The Future Perfect,

or complete future, asserts that

something will be complete, or

The form

ture time.

is

finished, at

made up

some

specified fu-

of shall or will, as in the

simple future, the infinitive have, and the past participle of

any verb

as,

I shall, thou wilt, he will

We

shall,

1S.
Present.

you

will,

they will

^^ wa|ked

Examples of Tenses.
Fire burns. Birds fly. He

doeth

all

things

well.

She fainted.
Present Perfect,

Past.

seen him to-day.

They passed by.

You have come

Jesus wept.
at last.

I have

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

109

Pat Perfect, He had gone before I reached

office.
You had just crossed the street when I saw you.
Future. It will rain. I shall expect you. This
You will fall.
certainly happen.

the

will

Future Perfect, We shall have finished our task beHe will, doubtless, have seen your father
fore you return.
before this time.

The

of liavc? combined with the past participle

infinitive

of any verb, forms a perfect or complete infinitive

to

have written

The
fect

present participle of

as,

have, combined with

the per-

compound

any verb, makes up the

having walked.

Weak Verb

Conjugation of the

106.

as,

the perfect infinitive of write.

is

participle of

participle;

Learn,
\

Present,
Past,

Compound,

Participles.

^-H

To

Present Tense.
Past Tense.

learning.
learned.
having learned.

L^. earned.
Singular.
Plural.
Singular.
Plural.

I learn, thou learnest, he learns.

learn (for the three persons.)
I learned, thou learnedst, he learned.
learn (in all persons.)

Present Perfect Tense.

Singular,
Plural.

j
(

I have, thou hast, he has

have (in all persons.)

-,

learnea

Past Perfect Tense.

Singular.
Plural.

I had, thou hadst, he had

had (in all persons.)

na learaecl

-,

Future Tense.
Singular, i I shall, thou wilt, he will
Plural.
shall, you will, they will
\

We

ieam

'

Future Perfect Tense.

Singular. ( I shall, thou will, he will
(,
,
A
have learned
Plural.
shall, you will, they will \
\

We

Conjugate in the same

way

unite, complete, happen, finish.

the

weak

'

verbs, use, help,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

110

Conjugate the strong verbs,

grow,

fall,

give, write, take, see,

rise.

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER.

Let the pupils

first learn the participles, as necessary in forming tin

tenses ; then the simple tenses, and then the method of
forming the compound tenses. The present and past of be and have
should be very thoroughly learned. With the above forms fixed, the
compound tenses are easy to form.
After learning the forms in order, practice reversing the order, and
calling for the tenses at random, till the pupils give the exact form
without hesitation. In giving the third person form of any tense, do
not let them suppose that he is the only pronoun to be used, nor that
nouns cannot be used as subjects. Let the teacher also give the form,
and require rhe pupils to name the tense promptly.
In the compound tenses, the participles and infinitives, which can
make no assertion, are really the auxiliaries of the verbs have, will, and
shall, and other verbs which stand before them.
But the usage seems
fixed to call the assertive words the auxiliaries, and the others principal
This probablv came, with many other of our grammatical
verbs.
In these languages, numerous
notions, from the Latin and Greek.
changes of ending express the same ideas as our compound tenses do,
of person, number, tense, and voice. Hence the so-called auxiliaries
are supposed to help out the meaning of the principal verb.

compound

LESSON XXIV.
PROGRESSIVE AND EMPHATIC FORMS OF THE VERB.

107.

The ProgreIve form of the verb

made up of the tenses of the verb be, followed

by the present participle. This form presents
is

an action as in progress and unfinished.

Syepi

of a verb

is

the giving of a sin,

gle personal form in each tense.

Synopsis', of the

verb send.

Progressive form, third per-

son, singular.

Present, is sending.

.Present Perfect, have been sending.

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

Past Perfect, had been sending. Future,

was sending.

Past,

Ill

Future Perfect, will have been sending.

will be sending.

Synopsis of write, 1st person singular, progressive form.

I

am

was

writing,

writing,

writing, shall be writing, shall

have been writing, had been

have been writing.

108. The Emphatic form of the verb is

made up of the present and past tenses of the

followed by the infinitive of the verb

verb

do,

as, I

do learn,

This same form

Did you

see

my

did

I
is

try,

he does

used in questions

friend

It is

see.
as,

Do

you know

it ?

then called the interrogative

form of the verb.

lOO. The Potential

It is
used in four tenses.
fective verbs

may,

Form, of the verb

made up

can, must,

combined with the

infinitives

is

of the de-

and will,
and compound

shall,

participles of other verbs.

Preent Tense. Potential Form,

of the verb write.

SINGULAR.
1st person.

I may, can, must, or will write.

2d person.

Thou

3d person.

He

mayst, canst, must, or shalt write.

may, can, must, or

shall write.

PLURAL.
1st person.

We

2d person.

You may,

3d person.

They may,

may, can, must, or will write.

can, must, or shall write.
can, must, or shall write.

Past Tense* Potential Form.

i

1st person.

I might, could, would, or shoidd write.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

112
2d person.

Thou

mightst, couldst, wouldst,

or shouldst

write.

3d person.

He

might,

could, woidd,

or should write.

Plural, for all persons.

Might, coidd, ivoidd, or should write.

The Preent Perfect Tense

of the Potential

Form

is

formed from the present, by substituting the compound participle for the infinitive

as,

may have

The Past Perfect Tense

written.

of the Potential

Form

formed from the past, by substituting the compound

ple for the infinitive

as,

is

partici-

I might have written.

These verbs are often treated as if very peculiar in meaning. But

the pupil learns their exact meaning from a dictionary, he will find
no difficulty in their use, except in explaining how their past forms can
be used when the sense is plainly future. Thus, one says, " I might do
"
could easily stop that." What is post ?
that for you to-morrow."
Kot the actions implied in do and stop ; these are present forms, and
may be used for the present or future. The speaker implies that something is past in his own mind which he is thinking of; some condition,
" I might do that for you to-morrow, if you wished me to
for instance.
do it" The conditional clause having its verb in past time, the other
verb is past also. Compare " I may do it, if you wish " with " I might
do it, if you wished." The first sentence implies that the speaker is in
doubt whether the person spoken to wishes it done the second form
implies that the doubt is past.

if

We

The progressive

potential form of a verb

is

made by com-

bining the potential forms of the verb be with the imperfect

participle of a verb; as,

reading, he

may

He may

be reading,

he might

be

have been reading, he might have been read-

ing.

HO.

The forms of the verb already given

are called the Active Voice.
The Passive Voice is made up of the
forms of the verb be, followed by the Past
Participle; as, I am loved, was loved, have been

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

had been

loved,

113

shall have

loved, shall be loved,

been loved.
Notice that in the potential form shall and will are used
exactly opposite to their use in the future

ployed in the

first

is

itself

has something done to

By common usage

finished.

imply that the subject

it

"The

this

not finished by the subject.

the letter" with

em-

is

person and shall in the second and third.

This form does not in

ive, or

that will

is

pass-

but simply that the act

form

is

is

used when the act

Compare

" I

have finished

The

letter is finished."

active form

gives prominence to the subject as the doer of the action, the

passive form gives the fact of completion as the important

fact.

If the doer of the action

form,

it

is

to

be expressed in the Passive

done by an adjunct which follows the predicate

verb, introduced

won

is

by the

pressed thus

by the preposition by ; as, The battle was

The same idea may be actively ex-

English.
:

The English won

the battle.

111. Only transitive verbs admit the

passive form. Any idea expressed by the active
form of a transitive verb, may also be expressed
by the passive form, by making the

direct object

of the active form the subject of the passive

form

as,

ACTIVE.

PASSIVE.

I broke the stick.

They captured

the city.

The
The

city

Change the predicate verbs

in the following

sentences to the passive form.

doer of the action.

was broken.
was captured.

stick

Express the

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

James held the

fire consumed the

We

city.

my ball.

Isaac found

house

The sun warms the earth. The

The saddler bought my leather.

dog.

Who bought that

I wrote that letter.

made

the

The

attempt.

officer arrested the

thief.

This distinction of the active and passive forms is a difference in

meaning, rather than in form, and need not be given in analyzing the
sentence.
It is only given because pupils will find the term in general
use, and ought to know what it means.
There is just as much passivity implied in the sentence, The boy is sick, as in the sentence, The
boy is struck. In either case, the last word in the sentence is an adjective, forming a part of the predicate.

112. Of

making
It is

its

way

made up

late,

a progressive passive form has been

into newspapers,

of the verb

be,

complete participle of the verb.

ent

and

common

into

speech.

the participle being, and the

It is

used only in the pres-

and past.

The picture is being painted.

The picture was being painted.
The proper form to express the above
lowing the forms of
written, the picture

be

is

as,

the picture

is

is

the

Gerund

fol-

painting, (formerly

a-painting,) the house

is

building,

wheat

the meat is cooking, the water is boiling.

Sometimes the past participle makes equally good sense as, While
" Not where he
this was doing, or, While this was done.
eats, but where he is eaten? instead of being eaten.
The
is selling,

new form seems

for,

and

is

to

be gaining ground, but

is

wholly uncalled

not used by the great majority of good writers.

1 13* Complete Conjugation of the Transitive Verb Find.

COMMON FORM.
-p

PRESENT.

ACTIVE VOICE.

Singular. I find, thou findest, he finds.

plum l

We findj

you

find>

they fin(L

COMMON SCHOOL
j

Past.

Present

Perfect.
Past
Perfect.

\
j

\
(

Future.

COURSE.

115

Singular. I found, thou foundest, he found.

Plural.
found, you found, they found.

We

Singular. I have found, thou hast found, he hast found.

Plural.
have found, you have found, they have found.

We

Singular. I
Plural.

had found, thou hadst found, he had found.

they had found.

We had found, you had found,

Singular. I shall find, thou wilt find, he will find.

shall find, you will find, they will find.
Plural.

We

Singular. I shall have found, thou wilt have found, he will

Future
Perfect.

Plural.

have found.
have found, you will have found, they
will have found.

We shall

COMMON FORM. PASSIVE

Present.

(
j

Past

Tense.

VOICE.

Singular. I
Plural.

am

Singular. I
Plural.

was found, thou wast found, he was found.

found, thou art found, he is found.

you are found, they are found.

We are found,

We were found, you were found, they were found.

Singular. I have been found, thou hast been found, he has

Present

been found.

Perfect.

Plural.

We have been

found, you have been found, they

have been found.

Singular. I

Past
Perfect.

Plural.

had been found, thou hadst been found, he had

been found.
had been found, you had been found, they
had been found.

We

Singular. I shall be found, thou wilt be found, he will be

found.

Future.

Plural.

We shall

be found, you will be found, they will

be found.

Singular. I shall have been found, thou will have been

Future
Perfect.

Plural.

POTENTIAL FORM. ACTIVE VOICE.

may find, thou mayst find, he may find.
We may find, you may find, they may find.
(Can or must may be used in place oimay.)

Singular. I
Plural.

(
'

Past

found, he will have been found.

shall have been found, you will have been
found, they will have been found.

We

I
(

Singular. 1
Plural.

might

find,

We might

may be used in place of might.)

may have found, thou mayst have found, he
may have found.
We may have found, you may have found, they
may have found.

(Could, would, or should,

'

Present
Perfect,

Singular. I

J
j

Plural.

thou mightst find, he might find.

you might find, they might find.

find,

'

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

110

might have found, thou mightst have found, he

might have found.
We might have found, you might have found,
they might have found.

Singular. I

Past

'

Perfect.

Plural.

POTENTIAL FORM.
Singular. I

Present.

Plural.

ACTIVE

VOICE.

may

be found, thou mayst be found, he may be

found.
may be found, you may be found, they may
be found.

We

might be found, thou mightst be found, he

might be found.
Past.
Plural.
We might be found, you might be found, they
might be (bund.
Singular. I may have been found, thou mayst have been
Present
found, he may have been found.
We may have been found, you may have been
Perfect Plural.
found, they may have been found.
Singular. I might have been found, thou mightst have been
found, we might have been found.
Past
\
We might have been found, you might have
Perfect.] Plural.
been found, they might have been found.
Singular. I

PROGRESSIVE FORM.
Present.

Singular. I
Plural.

am

Singular. I
Plural.

was

ACTIVE VOICE.

finding, thou art finding, he

is

finding.

We are finding, you are finding, they are finding.

We

Past.

finding, thou wast finding, he was finding.

were finding, you were finding, they were

finding.
'

Present
Perfect.

Singular. I have been, thou hast been, he

Plural.

has been
have been, you have been,
they have been

finding.

We

had been, thou hadst been, he

had been
We had been, you had been, they
had been

Singular. I

Past
Perfect.

Plural.

Singular. I shall be, thou wilt be, he will

Future.

Plural.

We shall
will be

Future
Perfect.

be,

you

will

be,

they

finding.

Singular. I shall have been, thou wilt have")

been, he will have been
shall have been, you will have
Plural.
been, they will have been
J
!

We

fl n(

n0

'

117

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

PASSIVE VOICE.

PROGRESSIVE FORM.

^
Pbesent.

V ast.
v st
1

i
-j

am, thou art, he is

arc> you a re, they are
Singular. I was, thou wast, he was
We were, you were, they were
p/ wra /.

Singular. I

^a

pl

We

(
<j

^
Past.

foun ^
bDemg 10llna

bei

b foimd

ACTIVE VOICE.

EMPHATIC FORM.

^
Pkesent.

I do find, thou dost find, he does find.

Singular.
*

We do find,

pl ra i

you do

find,

they do find.

Singular. I did find, thou didst find, he did find.

We did find, you did find,

piuraf

they did find.

PARTICIPLES.

Pin din g.
Imperfect.
Pound.
Perfect, or Past.
Compound Active. Having found.

Compound Passive. Being found.

INFINITIVES.

To
To have found.
Present Passive. To be found.
Perfect Passive. To have been found.

Present.

find.

Perfict.

114.

The verb once had forms to denote whether

was made as a fact, or as a condition, or supThese forms were called the Subjunctive mode.

an assertion
position.

The verb

be still retains its subjunctive

forms in the Pres-

ent and Past tenses.

Present Singular.

Present Plural.
Past Singular

Past Plural.

be,

If

If

thou

beest

he

be.

I were, thou wert, he were.

Were.

Were he to do

Be

beest,

Be.

These forms are used

as,

thou

this,

in

suppositions, or in conditions

he would ruin his case.

a man, defend him.

the)r ten thousand, I defy

them

all.

thou wert wise, thou wouldest at once escape.

Though my

foe^ be

many, I

am

not afraid.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

118

The
s in

third person singular of other verbs omits the ending

the subjunctive form

as, If

he write a

letter,

instead

of,

If he writes a letter.

Have

is

used in the second and third singular subjunctive,

instead of hast and has.

The

subjunctive forms are all

the past tense of

obsolescent, except

in

be.

1 15. To make a verb in grammar, means

to put it into any required form. To tell where
it ts

ber,

made is to name the tense, form, voice, numand person of the verb, if these can be known

by the verb itself. If all these facts cannot be

known, name as many as possible.
Most forms of the verb do not show the perCan go, for
son and number ol the subject.
instance, is made in the present tense, and potential form,

but

lar or plural,

its

subject

may be

either singu-

The form
it is present and active.
shows tense, voice, num-

and of either person.

write shows only that

But the form am loved

ber, and person, as it can be used only with a
pronoun of the first person singular.
Only a few forms of the verb denote person or number, and it
needless to ask for the person and number of a verb, unless there
something in the verb to express them.

is
is

ILLUSTRATIVE EXERCISE.

Where

is

has written made

It

is

made

in the

Perfect tense, active voice, third person, singular

Where
voice.

is

did made

It

is

made

Present

number

in the past tense, active

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

Where

may

is

going made?

be

119

In the present potential

progressive form, active voice.

Where

has been told

is

made ?

In the Present Perfect

tense, passive voice, third person, singular.

In written work, allow the pupils

to abbreviate

as,

Does

made in the pres. act., emph. form, 3d sing. Might

have gone is made in the past perf., pot. form, act. voice.
believe is

Tell where the following verbs are made.

am

been found,

writing, hast been, can be seen, wilt learn,

was known, might have been prevented, had

shalt teach,

given, doeth, learnedst, thinks, am,

shall

say,

Is written, has

have arrived,

will

hast fallen,

is,

be talking, were

I, if

might be caught, must notice, should be

know, had been seen,

ed, dost

is

being

he

charged,

twite, should

slain,

built, to

is

had learn-

have known,

being concealed, did go, could be caught, might have been,

had had,
said,

have been,

shall

will

doth or doeth, has been

try,

should have thought.

6. Beware,

ought, quoth, wit,

and

think, in the sense

of seem, are defective.

Beware
sentences.

used only in the

is

Ought

is

tense with the subjects

ject.

is

Quoth

by me

as,

/or

he,

used only in the

in the present

and past

is

is

used

and always precedes

Think

is

its

sub-

used only

tense, third person singular, preceded

is

the following sentence.

see

In

in imperative

used only in the past

infinitive.

Methinks I see him now.

Mm now.

and

past in form (from owe) but

either as present or past.

Wit

infinitive,

The

The meaning

is,

subject of thinks

It

seems

to

me

that

this latter sentence it stands for the sen-

tence following seems.

120

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

LESSON XXV.
117.

The

principal parts of

The

formed from the theme.

the

Strong Verb renders

it

weak verbs

are

easily-

variety of vowel changes in

necessary to give a

list

of the

most common.

Regular Strong Conjugation.

THEME.

PAST TENSE.

PAST PARTICIPLE.

Arise,

arose,

arisen.

Bid,

bade,

bidden, or bid.

Chide,

chid (obs. chode),

chidden, or chid.

Come,
Draw,

came,

come

drew,

drawn.
driven,

(obs.

comen)

Drive,

drove,

Eat,

ate,

Fall,

fell,

fallen.

Forsake,

forsook,

forsaken.

Give,

gave,

given.

Go,

(went),

gone.

Grow,

grew,

grown.

Hide,

hid,

hidden, or hid.

or eat,

eaten, or eat.

Hold,

held,

held, or holden.

Know,

knew,

known.

Eide,

rode,

ridden, or rode.

Rise,

rose,

risen.

See,

saw,

seen.

Slay,

slew,

slain.

Smite,

smote,

smitten.

Stride,

strode,

stridden.

Take,

took,

taken.

Write,

wrote,

written.

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

121

S. Verbs whose Past Participle is formed from

the Past Tense by adding n, or is the same as the Past.

THEME.

PAST TENSE.

PAST PARTICIPLE.

Bear,

bore, or bare,

borne, or born.

Bind,

bound,

bound, or bounden.

Beat,

beat,

beaten, or beat.

Bleed,

bled,

bled.

Break,

broke,

broken.

Breed,

bred,

bred.

Cling,

clung,

clung.

Feed,

fed,

fed.

Fight,

fought,

fought (foughten).

Find,

found,

found.

Forbear,

forbore,

forborne.

Get,

got,

got, or gotten.

Lead,

led,

led.

Lie,

lay,

lain.

Meet,

met,

met.

Read,

read,

read.

Ring,

rung, or rang,

rung.

Run,

ran,

run.

Shoot,

shot,

shot (shotten).

Shrink,

shrank,

shrunk (shrunken)

Sit,

sat,

sat (sitten).

Sling,

slung,

slung.

Slink,

slunk,

slunk.

Speak,

spoke (spake),

spoken.

Spin,

spun (span),

spun.

Spring,

sprang, or sprung,

sprung.

Stand,

stood,

stood.

Steal,

stole,

stolen.

Stick,

stuck,

stuck.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

122
THEME.

PAST TENSE.

PAST PARTICIPLE.

Sting,

stung,

stung.

Stink,

stunk (stank),

stunk.

Strike,

struck (strake),

struck (stricken)

Swing,

swung,

swung.

Tear,

tore,

torn.

Tread,

trod,

trod (trodden).

Wear,
Weave,
Win,

wore,

worn.

wove,

woven.

won,

won.

The forms

in parentheses are obsolete, or are used only

as adjectives.

1 10.

The

following have different vowels in the

three different principal parts

Begin,

began,

begun.

Drink,

drank,

drunk (drunken).

Fly,

flew,

flown.

Sing,

sang, or sung,

sung.

Sink,

sank, or sunk,

sunk (sunken),

Swim,

swam, or swum,

swum.

The

following verbs

make

all their

Beat, beset, bestead, cast, cost, cut,

set,

principal parts alike

hit, hurt, let, put, rid,

shed, shut, shred, spit, thrust.

The

following are of the

their forms, or change

ciple is the

weak

them

same as the past

for

conjugation, but contract

euphony.

tense.

Make

THEME.

The

past parti-

drops k before

THEME.

PAST TENSE.

Feel,

felt.

Lose,

lost.

Have,

had.

Make,

made.

Hear,

heard.

Pay,

paid.

PAST TENSE.

Keep,

kept.

Rend,

rent.

Lay,

kid.

Say,

said.

Lend,

lent.

Shoe,

shod.

d.

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE,

Many

verbs cot given, in this

list

123

contract ed in t; as,

past, for blessed, builded, gilded, passed.

blest, built, gilt,

Verbs of the mixed conjugation change the vowel and

add d or t in the past tense Bring, brought buy, bought
:

teach, taught

done

do, did, (strong participle

;)

seek, sought

sell,

sold

think, thought.

REDUNDANT VERBS.

ISO.

verb

forms for any of

its

Many

been given.

is

redundant when

parts.

among

the

Some examples have

already

verbs once strong are weal: in

common

The

following

use, but retain their strong

are

has double

it

forms in poetry.

more common redundant verbs

Awake,

awoke, or awaked,

awaked, or awoke,

Cleave,

cleaved, or clave,

cleaved.

clove, or cleft,

cleft,

Clothe,

clothed, or clad,

clothed, or clad,

Dare,

dared, or durst,

dared, or durst,

Hang,

hung, or hanged,

hung, or hanged,

Heave,

heaved, or hove,

heaved, or hoven.

Light,

lighted, or

lighted, or

Saw,

sawed,

sawed, or sawn,

Seethe,

seethed, or sod,

seethed, or sodden,

Shine,

shone, or shined,

shone, or shined.

Wind,

winded, or wound,

winded, or wound.

Work,

worked, or wrought, worked, or wrought.

adhere

(to

to),

Cleave,

or cloven.

(to split),

lit,

lit.

DERIVATION OF VERBS.

321.

Verbs are derived from adjectives and nouns

by adding the ending

do that which

means

to

is

en.

Such verbs

make wide

make or to
Thus widew

signify to

implied in the primitive.

lengths, to make long.

'

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

124

Form

verbs from deep, height, broad, strength, fast,

Sometimes an adjective
with the same force

used as a part of a predicate

is

make

as,

glad,

= gladden.
change of accent.

Verbs are derived from nouns by a

The accent
Nouns,

light.

of the verb comes on the final syllable.

Verbs,

object,

cem'ent,

survey,

transport,

con'sort.

object',

cement',

survey',

transport',

consort'.

Let the pupil add to

this

list,

which contains about 150 words.

Verbs are derived from nouns by changing anon-so-

nant consonant
Noun,
life,
Verb,
Form

into the corresponding

live,

sonant,

breath,

cloth,

grief,

glass,

use.

breathe,

clothe,

grieve,

glaze,

use.

verbs from the following nouns

Bath, swath, half

relief, leaf, refuse.

Verbs are derived from Latin roots by adding fy 9 signifying to make. Thus, amplify means to make ample ; glorify

make glorious ; certify to make certain.

The ending ize with Greek and Latin roots has sometimes the same meaning as, realize, to make real Anglicize, to make into English.
to

RECAPITULATION OF THE VERB.

The Verb has two conjugations,

the weak and the strong; two simple tenses,
the present and the past; four compound
tenses, the present perfect, past perfect,
future) and future perfect ; two substantives, the infinitive and the gerund two
adjective forms, the imperfect and the perfect participles; two voices, the active
and the passive.
122.

COMMON SCHOOt COURSE.

It

has also an

Emphatic,

125

a Progressive,

and a Potential form, and a few forms which

denote the person and number of the subject.

Subjunctive mode.
In form verbs are regular or irregular;
complete, defective, or redundant. In
It

has also an obsolescent

respect to complement, they are

transitive

or intransitive.

The compound forms are made up of the

verbs be, have, do, may, can, must, shall,
and will, with their infinitive and adjective
complements.

LESSON XXVI.
THE PRONOUN.

A Pronoun is a word used in place

123.

of a substantive, which admits only adjective

modifiers,

and can stand

in

any relation

in

which

a noun can stand.

Adjectives are sometimes used in place of nouns, but do not admit
the modifiers of nouns.

The substantive
is

called the

may be

for

which the pronoun stands

antecedent

of the pronoun.

It

a noun, a phrase, a clause, or a sentence.

Antecedent means going before, but the substantive for which a

noun stands often comes after it, or is unknown. When we
" Who did it
we use a pronoun for an unknown noun.

proask,

Pronouns are divided into three classes, Personal Relative, and Interrogative.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

12 G

Personal pronouns are those which indicate

noun

the grammatical person of the

which

for

they stand.

/ is

the pronoun of the

the second person

masculine

person

thou, of

of the third singular,

of the third singular, feminine

she,

he,

first

of the third singular, neuter.

it,

The pronouns

of the

first

and second person have no gender.

The pronouns, are

and are thus declined

124.
clension,

irregular in de-

SINGULAR.
Subject,
Possessive,
Objective,

he,

she,

it.

my, or mine,

thou,
thy, or thine,

his,

its.

me,

thee,

him,

her, or hers,
her,

I,

^t.

PLURAL.
our, or ours,
us,

Objective,

The
We

esty.

we

plural

speakers,
as,

you, or ye,
they,
your, or yours, their, or theirs,
you,
them,

we,

Subject,
Possessive,

as if

also

Thou
in

takes

its

,,
i

This

etc.

is

called the plural of

use the plural in their edicts, as

This

is

as,

>

mod-

if

It is

they

our

called the plural of majesty.

used in poetry and in addressing the Deity, and

is

common

Friends.

Jf

genders.

sometimes used by editors or public

is

embodied in themselves the will of a nation

royal pleasure*

>

they were speaking for a number of persons

are informed,

Kings

discourse

You

is

by some

religious sects

as

by the

used in addressing a single person, but

verb in the plural

Te in the nominative

is

you were ; never, you was.

retained in solemn style and in
;

as,

poetry*

The second forms of the possessive are used when the

name denoting the thing possessed is omitted as yours is
;

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

127

Mine and thine were formerly used fur

euphony before a word beginning with a vowel; as mine
(Compare the use of an and a.) In such a phrase
eyes.
as, A brother of mine, mine seems to be used instead of me.

better than mine.

Its is

common

of recent introduction.

It does not

appear in the

His was

version of the Bible published in 1611.

employed

in

place

its

as,

the altar and his vessels.

It stands as the subject of the verb be followed

by a sub-

any gender or either number; as, It is they; It

the French It was she.
It often stands as the subject of a verb whose real subject
a sentence, an infinitive, or a clause following the verb.

stantive of
is

is

It is

then redundant, or unnecessary to the construction,

and may be omitted by transposing the sentence.

It is no light thing to violate one's conscience.
It is not strange that he is ashamed of his conduct
It is difficult to

By

hear him

transposing these sentences,

hear him distinctly

It is

distinctly.

may be

it

omitted ;

as, to

is difficult.

sometimes used indefinitely

as, It rains

it

thunders.

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

126.

Myself, thyself, himself, herself,

self, ourself,

ourselves, yourself, yourselves,

themselves, are called

Pronouns.

They

it-

and

Compound Personal

are used in

two

senses.

To make emphatic a preceding substantive

which they modify; as, The king himself} I
1.

myself.
2.

After a transitive verb

to denote that

the action terminates upon the subject;

as,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

128

have hurt myself.

They

The

child will kill

itself.

are then said to be used reflexively.

means

Reflex

turn back

the pronoun turns back our thought to the

subject.

Rarely a compound personal pronoun

subject of a sentence

as,

is used alone as the

Thyself shall see the act.

LESSON XXVII.
RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

127. The pronouns, who, which, what,

that, and as, besides supplying the place of a
substantive, perform the office of a connective,

and join an adjective clause to the substantive

which it modifies. When so used they are
,

Relative Pronouns.
Who, which, and what, when used in asking a
question, are called Interrogative Pronouns.
called

The antecedent
before

in the

it

of a relative generally stands immediately

same sentence

usually begins a sentence, and

the interrogative pronoun

its

antecedent

is

in the

answer

to the question.

The

relative has usually a definite antecedent

the inter-

rogative has often an indefinite antecedent.

The

relative

and interrogative pronouns are thus declined

Subject, or nominative,

who,

which,

that.

Possessive,

whose,

whose,

whose.

Objective,

whom,

which,

that.

The same forms

Whose

is

What and

are used in the singular and plural.

rarely used as the possessive of which and that.

as are not varied in form.

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

Who

word

the only

is

pronoun.

129

which

of either class

always a

is

It applies only to persons, or to things personified

The man who.

as,

Which, formerly used of persons,

things.

It

is

we have

art in heaven,''

who

which (man) was

Whenever

art."

128*
antecedent

is

may

as,

The man

The words

that ; or

What, as a relative,
expressed before

me what money

(What, in

never used when the

is

It

it.

that.

often indefinite, and

is

the ob-

is

an interrogative.

he had.
a specifying adjective.)

this sentence, is

me what you

Tell

is

as

refer either to per-

ject of a verb, and should then be called

gave

it

it?

often stands at the beginning of a question which

He

which

in questions

always implied after

is

That, also a specifying adjective,

;

is

Modern

the old use of the pronoun.

used of persons, a noun

sons or things

only of

In the expression, " Our Father which

followed by a noun.

use requires "

now used

is

properly a specifying adjective, and often

saw.

What, in the above,

and

interrogative

is

indefinite.

It

may mean what persons, what sights, what goods, or any thing
The clause what you saw, is the object of tell, and is
else.
called

This

is

What

omitted.

The

if.

is

is

the object of saw.

clause what

indefinite

it

is

ye in

As

changed

to

as,

the

or, if

it

is

be called
If an an-

which ; the

indefi-

definite.

is

antecedent of what

Sometimes the antecedent of what

following clause

I wanted,

modifies an omitted noun.

expressed, what

form to the

is

the object of wanted

a specifying adjective,
tecedent

The

what I wanted.

complement of

nite

What

an indirect question.

what I

tell

is

expressed in the

you

in darkness, that speak

it

introduces an adjective

light.
is

a relative pronoun

when

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

130

clause after many, much, same, and such

same as you saw

and chasten.

That

l5S9t

As many

week.

last

This

as,

cedent preceded by a redundant

Who was

know.

This

is

the

as,

He

that

we had

it ;

same

They

gave us the water ?

"Thoughts

honored.
It

that

it

an

inter-

an unmodified antecedent, and after any ante-

rogative, after

that I

the

used in preference to who or which

is

after a superlative, after the antecedent same, after

man

is

as I love, I rebuke

the greatest

is

and words

that breathe

yesterday.

that are wise are

that burn."

he that we lament.

is

If the relative

is

the same form as

the subject of a verb, the verb must take

if

The woman who

the antecedent were the subject

Thou

hesitates.

that

sittest.

He

as,

that

keepeth watch.

Which admits a sentence, or something implied in a

sentence, as an antecedent as, He lost his money, which
;

made him
tive

it

clause,

Money

insane.

not the antecedent of the rela-

is

Supply

the fact of losing money.

is

and

which

will read,

it

loss in

the

rendered him insane.

loss

Which then becomes a specifying adjective.

Correct the following expressions

The

wisest

man who

Who

which I sold you.

hate

The

sin,

love

become

was

righteousness.

noblest deed which

1$.

ever lived.

The

indefinite

is,

This

is

the same knife

Men who

who

told

It is

me whom you

you ?

want.

was ever done.

relative pronouns who, which,

by the addition of

whoso, tvhoever, whosoever.

pronoun

it

so, ever,

The antecedent

of course, generally omitted.

and what,

and soever ;

as,

of an indefinite

Who

is

sometimes

used indefinitely.

Whoever comes

Whoso

shall

be welcomed.

offereth praise glorifieth me.

Who

breaks, pays.

Notice that the omitted

COMMON SCHOOL COUBSE.

antecedent

the leading subject of the sentence, and that

is

the relative

is

the subject of an adjective clause.

tecedent were expressed,

nite relative

131

it

would be

would be used;

as,

Any

indefinite,

who

one

If the an-

and a

comes,

defi-

etc.

What is sometimes an adverb in the sense of partly ; as,

What with running, and what with shouting, my breath was
spent.

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.

131.

Certain specifying

are

adjectives

so

often

used without a noun following them, that they are someWhat, which, and

times called pronouns.

They

are not strictly pronouns, but

iiomi*

afl

Adjectives.

Their number

Pro-

not fixed, be-

This and that (plural, these and those)

quency of their use.

demonstratives.

more emphatic.
the more remote.

as the, but are

that to

is

called

principally upon the fre-

cause the classification depends

are called

are examples.

that,

may be

They have

same root

the

This refers to the nearer

Each, every, either, neither, and the other are called Distributives.
Each is used of any number taken one by one as, Each
;

you shall have a share.

Every is more emphatic than each, and is used of any
number more than two, taken one by one.
Either, neither, and the other are used of one of two.
The
ending er is comparative, and they should not be used of
more than two. Instead of saying, Either of the three, say,
of

Any

one of the three.

All, another,

one,

both,

few, former,

latter,

many, much, none,

own, same, several, and such are generally classed as

pronominal adjectives.

and might be called an

applies to

One admits a complete declension,

Both

indefinite personal pronoun.

two taken together.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.'

132

1 32.
Each

rocals.

other

is

Each
other

and one another are called Recipused when two is spoken of; one an-

other
is

used of any number larger than two.

They admit

of declension, and add the declension endings to the last

word.

They were

beating each other, means,

They

each (of the

two) were beating the other.

Little children, love one another

that

is,

do you each one

love another, any other, or, all the others.

Correct the following expressions

Either one of the United States.

one another.
hand.

If any one has

Each one has had

one another.
as Russia.

my

The two

children love

book, let them raise the

their say.

Two

negatives destroy

Neither of the countries of Europe

(Two

errors.)

Let every pupil keep

is

so large

their seat.

LESSON XXVIII.
THE ADJECTIVE.

133.

The Adjective

modifies or limits a substantive

quality or attribute

or

how many

or

word which
by naming some

is

by pointing out which,

are meant.

It is frequently

as a part of the predicate, as the

used

complement

of a verb.

There are three principal

1.

Descriptive

classes of adjectives.

Adjectives,

or

Names

of

Qualities.
2.

Specifying

ivhich are meant.

Adjectives, which point out

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

Numeral

3.

133

which

Adjectives,

denote

IVuintoer.
divided into

Descriptive adjectives are

Invariable.

Variable

vary in degree

name

as, golden,

square, triangular.

Proper

which

Invariable

adjectives are derived from proper nouns,

commenced

are

qualities

small.

large,

which cannot be varied in degree;

adjectives

qualities

name

adjectives

as, sour, costly,

Variable and

with a capital letter

and

Websterian intellect,

as,

After long and frequent use such adjec-

Socratic method.
tives

may become common

may

be either descriptive or

They

as, martial, stentorian.

definitive.

Material adjectives denote the material of which any

They
thing is made sometimes that which it resembles.
;

are derived from nouns by adding

leaden, brazen, (from brass.

A noun

is

en

as, golden,

flaxen,

Notice the consonant change.)

often used instead of a material adjective

chains, steel bolts, silver cord.

as iron

(These are a kind of descrip-

tive adjectives.)

Specifying

134.
an,

and

the,

adjectives include

a,

the pronominal adjectives, and a

few others.

Numeral
1.

Cardinals, which are used

the question,
2.

adjectives are of four kinds.

how many

in counting,

as, one, twelve, twenty.

Ordinals, which denote which one in

time or in place

and answer

order, either in

as, first, fifth, ninth.

Multiplicatives, which denote the number taken

together, or the number of parts which make up the whole
3.

as, two-fold,
4.

few,

fourfold,

single, triple.

Indefinite, which denote number indefinitely;

several,

many.

as,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR,

134

Let the pupils form the ordinals and multiplicative s from

the cardinals.

One by

two by two,

one,

etc.,

are

called distributive

numerals.

A
tion,

verbal adjective ( 95)

derived from a verb by inflec-

and admits verbal modifiers.

135. The
Comparison,

is

is

only inflection which the adjective admits

(Except a few specifying

adjectives,

131).

Comparison

is

an

inflection of certain variable adjectives

to denote the degree of the quality.

The Theme
quality,

and

of the adjective

is

like,

blacks,

as,

or resembling, and

jectives

as, wolfish,

the ordinary

Positive degree

called the

The Sub-positive degree

the ending isli

is

is

name

of the
cool

as, black,

formed from the Positive by

is

coolish.

The ending

ish

means

often added to nouns to form ad-

clownish.

The Comparative degree

is

the form of the adjective,

which, besides naming the quality, expresses comparison.

er as, He is older than I blacker than night.

The Superlative degree is that form of the adjective

Its

ending

is

which expresses the highest degree of the quality

wisest of his

sect

the bravest of the brave.

Its

as, the

ending

is

est

Monosyllabic variable adjectives, and a few dissyllabic, admit the inflection of comparison.

Other variable adjectives

are compared by adverbial modification.

The adverbs some-

what and rather give nearly the equivalent of the ending ish
more corresponds
Less and

to

least gives

the ending

most to the ending

est.

a comparison of decrease, making the

positive a starting-point

common.

er,

as,

common,

less

common,

least

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

135

136. Comparison of adjectives.

COMPARATIVE.

SUPERLATIVE.

SUB-POSITIVE.

POSITIVE.

Sweetish,

sweet,

sweeter,

sweetest.

lovely,

lovelier,

loveliest.

famous,

more famous,

most famous.

is,

BY DIMINUTION.
Rapid,

least rapid.

less rapid,

IRREGULAR COMPARISON.
Good,

better,

best.

worse,

worst.

Much,
Many,

more,

most.

Near,

nearer,

nearest, or next,

Bad,
ad,

Evvi\, [
)

111.
L

or

Late,

later, or latter,

latest,

Old,

older, or elder,

oldest, or eldest,

Far,

farther, or further,

farthest, or furthest,

Little,

less,

least.

Much

denotes quantity, and

number, and
time

latter

eldest are

is

and

plural.
last

now used

singular

is

Later and

latest

last,

many

denotes

are used only of

of either time, or place.

Elder and

only of persons.

Specifying, numeral, and material adjectives are invaria-

All nouns used as adjectives are

some may be modiffed by adverbs.

invariable,

ble.

The

though

adjectives junior, senior, major, minor, interior, exte-

rior, prior, posterior, anterior,

and

superior, are Latin

com-

paratives.

Some

adjectives take most as a superlative ending, instead

of prefixing

it

as

an adverb

a*,

foremost hindmost.
,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

136

1 37.

In analyzing a sentence the degree of an adjective need not be mentioned, unless it is expressed by

The

the ending.

modification by adverbs does not differ

from any other modification.

The

adjective of whatever class usually stands before

Except when the adjective

noun.

following

Some

as,

man

compounds of

a,

can be used only

awake.

as, asleep, alive,

its

modified by an adjunct

agreeable in manner.

adjectives, mostly

in the predicate

is

Some adjectives which are strictly invariable are compared

by way of emphasis, or because we do not use words in their
exact meaning.

We

house

say, the

fuller

is

than usual to-

meaning more nearly full. But, of course, if it were full

could not be more than full.
So we say that one ball is

night,
it

rounder than another

that

is, it

comes nearer

to

a globular

shape.

138.

The

an or

and

the are

closely allied in

mean-

specifying adjectives

a,

often called articles.

An

the same as one, and any

is

is

Before a consonant sound n

ing.

As an

is

singular.

singular,

it

is

dropped for euphony.

can only be used before a noun in the

The has the same root as

this

and

that.

It

is

used

with nouns of either number.

An

is

used in general statements,

thing definitely

In a

moment

known
saw

Often an and the

An

the

as,

man

I saw a

indefinitely.; the

man

of some-

(indefinite) passing.

(definite) turn back, etc.

differ principally in ejnphasis.

honest man's the noblest work of God.

The honest man's

In the expressions

the noblest
the

more,

work of God.

the better, the is

an adverb.

Certain numerals, as hundred, thousand, are used as collective

nouns in the singular, and admit the

thousand (of) men.

article

an ;

as,

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

In such expressions as

many a

time, the

137
phrase

many a

has a distributive force, and can agree with a singular noun.

LESSON XXIX.
THE ADVERB.

139.
is

to

The Adverb

a word whose office

is

modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

and frequently

It rarely modifies prepositions,

serves as a connective.
Its

name means added

to

and

verb,

it

stands in the same

relation to the verb that the adjective does

that

to the

noun

so

modifiers of the verb are sometimes called, collect-

all

ively, adverbial modifiers.

A few

adverbs admit the inflection of

are compared like adjectives

The

comparison, and

as, soon, sooner, soonest.

following adverbs are irregular in comparison

better, best

much and

ill,

little,

Well,

whose adverbial forms are

the same as the adjective forms already given ( 136)

farther, farthest

far,

forth, further, furthest.

Adverbs are derived from nouns,

adjectives, pronouns,

and

prepositions.

Many words

are either adjectives or adverbs according

to the connection.

either for

rhyme or

They

are often interchanged in poetry,

for meter.

ADVERBS.

ADJECTIVES.

Much gold,
The farther side,
The still hour,

Many

Much worse.
They went farther.

He

fared

still

better.

adverbs are derived from descriptive adjectives by

adding ly ;

as, brave/y,

earnest^, knowing/^.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR..

138

Some adverbs
subsequent

its

as, indeed, instead.

140.

compounded of a preposition and

are

Pronominal Adverbs.

series of

adverbs derived from pronouns deserves special

notice.

The pronoun
force of
th,

From

this.

and the

he was once a specifying adjective with the

relative

its

root h, from the demonstrative root

and interrogative root wh, are formed

series of adverbs with corresponding endings

Root

h.

Root th.
Root wh.

Here,
There,

Where,

and meanings.

hence,

hither,

thence,

thither,

then.

whence,

whither,

when, why.

Here = in or at this place.

There = in or at that place.
Where in or at which or
what place.

(obsolete hen).

Hence
Thence

= from this place.

= from that place.

Whence
what

from which or

place.

Hither

Why =

Thither

Then

= to this place.
= to that place.
Whither = to what place.

==

for

what

reason.

= at that time.
When = at which or

what

time.

141

As

these adverbs are closely related to pro-

nouns, they are frequently used as the subsequents of prepositions,

and

may be

called pronouns

as,

Till then, I boast a Saviour slain.

Where are you going to?

(Better,

Whither are you

going?)

They departed from

thence,

thence.

(Better,

They departed

but good usage admits the preposition.)

For why ? his owner had a house."

These adverbs are compounded with several prepositions
The compounds with of
as, hereof, thereat, wherein, hitherto.
"

are adjective modifiers, and

may be

treated as adjuncts, call-

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

ing the

first

part of the

compound a pronoun.

formerly used as the possessive of

the villages
or of which

it

Thereof was

( 124); as,

Gaza and

Whereof'was used instead of of what

The country whereof ye spake. Thereof

thereof.
;

as,

and whereof are

adjective modifiers of substantives,

and may
and

adjectives, or separated into the preposition

be called
its

139

subsequent, calling the

first

part a pronoun.

142. The principal relations denoted by

adverbs are, manner, time, place, direc
Besides these
tion, degree, and number.
there are modal adverbs which modify the assertion

and adverbial connectives.

Adverbs of Manner answer the question

How ?

as, well,

nobly, skillfully.

Adverbs of Place are sub-divided

1.

Place in which

2.

Place from which

3.

Place

to

which

as, here,

as,

into those of

yonder, hereabouts.

as, thence,

away, forth.

homeward, ashore,

thither.

Adverbs of Time include those which denote

1.

2.

3.
4.

5.

Time present; as, now, to-day, yet, now-a-days.

Time past as, already, yesterday, formerly.
Time future as, to-morrow, hereafter, henceforth.
Time in general as, always, forever, aye.
Time repeated as, often, once, thrice, usually.
;

Adverbs of Degree are divided into

1. Adverbs of abundance or excess

as, greatly, totally,

fully, altogether.
2.

Adverbs of equality or

sufficiency

as,

enough, precisely,

so, as, even, quite.

3.

Adverbs of deficiency

as, less, hardly, scarcely, partly.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

140

Adverbs of number may be referred

to

Time

repeated,

and

Place in order.

Modal adverbs modify the

assertion,

and may be

1.

Emphatic;

as, verily, certainly, indeed.

2.

Affirmative

which modifies

(obsolete yea),

yes,

as,

either a preceding verb, or a sentence following.

3.

Negative

as,

no (used in modifying like yes),

as,

perhaps, possibly, perchance.

not, no-

wise, nay.
4.

Doubtful

Adverbial connectives are adverts which connect a clause

They

to a sentence.

pronoun

are generally derived from the relative

in the principal clause

shall

antecedent

is

the verb

Occasionally they have an antecedent adverb

of the clause.

Then

They modify

why, wherefore, when.

as,

as,

we know, when
a noun

as,

At

Christ shall come.

the time

when

(at

Often the

which) kings

go out to war.

g 143.

The adverb and

the preposition are closely

related, and a preposition without a subsequent

is

usually an

adverb.
It

is

the usage of the language that the subject should

We

stand before the predicate.

a sentence
it

may

there is

is

the subject,

used in the same

This sounds

There
less

Words used
ample.

noticed in

25 that when

often precedes the verb, so that

not stand without an apparent subject.

were many.

called

it

abrupt than,
for sound,

Expletives.
It is said to

ing power.

is

way

before the verb be

no doubt.

The adverb
;

as,

There

There will be a shower.

A shower will be, No doubt

is.

and not affecting the sense are

There as used above

be used

expletively,

is a good exand has no modify-

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

141

LESSON XXX.
THE PREPOSITION.

is

144. A Preposition is a word whose office

to connect a substantive with a word which

is

modified by the preposition and the follow-

ing substantive in a manner denoted by the

preposition.

The word

means placed

preposition

before,

preposition stands before the substantive.

which follows

called the

is

subequent

The

because the
substantive

of the preposition.

The preposition and its subsequent are together called an

adjunct. The preposition is called the base of the adjunct.

A pronoun used as a subsequent of

a preposition has the

objective form.

To

the

be added

list
:

of prepositions given in 34, the following may-

aboard, athwart, ere, throughout, amidst, besides,

out, underneath,

Some

amongst, betwixt, round, unto, within.

of the above are only different forms of the prep-

ositions given

Most

before.

prepositions are of

Saxon

origin.

used.

Those

and are not

A
spite,

The

14:9*.

following are prepositions less frequently

in italics are

borrowed from foreign languages,

fully recognized as

(as a-fishing), abaft,

good English

adown,

afore, aslant,

astride, de-

inside, maagre, minus, outside, per, plus, sans, versus, via.

Save, and except, which are really the verbs of imperative

sentences, are sometimes called prepositions.

Bating,

concerning,

past, pending, respecting,

during,

excepting, notwithstanding,

and touching, which are

really im-

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

142

perfect participles, are used

prepositions, although their

as.

form and their derivation are opposed

14.

The

adjectives

to this use.

and opposite

near, nigh,

like,

are sometimes absurdly called prepositions, because the fol-

lowing preposition

often omitted

is

as, like

him.

Prepositions are sometimes compounded or doubled

Come

out

from among them

subsequent of from
to supply

From heyond

preposition

first

as,

The

Jordan.

the following adjunct.

is

a noun for the

Some prefer
From the

as,

In such compounds as out of out

from, over against, the first word is an adverb.
preposition and its subsequent denote the relations of
land beyond Jordan.

place and direction

more frequently than any

and

other,

very seldom modify a noun.

Between (by twain or by two) requires or implies two

subsequents

as,

between you and me; Between

more than two are implied

in the subsequent,

If

u.

among should

be used instead of between.

verb,

147

The preposition is often compounded with the

adding its own meaning to that of the verb as, un

Intransitive

dergo.

become

verbs often

when compounded with a

preposition

Intransitive.

live,

stand,

Transitive.

outlive,

understand,

Sometimes the preposition

By

is

He
up

his

by water, where by

brought up a family
situation, are

as,

joined to the verb in sense

They went

is

He

as,

look,

leap.

overlook,

overleap.

They went

by the house.

not to the noun.

Compare,

a preposition.
is

well spoken of;

He

gave

other examples of a preposition com-

pounded with a verb.

Compare the

verbs

incorporated with the verb

is

meaning, but not in position

in

transitive

separable particle in

German.

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

Two

143

prepositions are sometimes used with one subsequent;

Our acquaintance with and mastery of English. Better,

Our acquaintance with English and our mastery of it.
The subsequent of a preposition may be an entire clause

as,

as,

Ere the blue heavens were stretched abroad.

Till the work was finished.

LESSON XXXI.
THE CONJUNCTION AND THE EXCLAMATION.

148. The
speech whose

Conjunct ion
office

that part of

connect words,

to

is

is

phrases, clauses, and sentences.

The Conjunction forms no part of the sentence in which it stands, and has no modifying
Its meaning determines the relation in
power.
which the terms connected stand to each other.
Adverbs and

relative pronouns

may

connect clauses to

sentences, but do not connect words, nor independent sentences.

Words connected by

conjunctions are usually of the same

part of speech, and in the same relation in the sentence

vSamuel or Robert will

140.
junctions
1.

The

come and help

following

lists

contain the

common

con-

Pum

conjunctions, or

Although, and, because,

if,

words used only to connect.

lest,

nevertheless, nor, or, than,

though, unless, whereas, whether.

2.

as,

you.

Conjunctions, or prepositions.

3. Conjunctions, or adverbs.

But,

for, since.

Also, as, even, then, yet.

ENGLISH GRAMMA K.

144

Both,

Conjunctions, or adjectives.

4.

neither

either,

that.

Conjunctions are classified into

Co-ordinate, which connect words

1.

lation,

or sentences in the same form

making the sentence complex

be done, if you will do your part.
sentence,

15

The

following are

expressed by conjunctions

Addition

1.

re-

clause to a principal
;

as,

This work will

the principal meanings

The

blind

and dumb

and

both spake

Conjunctions connecting terms in the same relation,

saw.

and

as,

same

as,

Art is long, and time is fleeting.

uo-ordinat e, which connect a

2.

in the

to be considered together, are called Copulative.

2.

Separation;

as,

Take one

or the other.

Either

you are mistaken, or I am. These conjunctions imply a

choice between two, and are called Disjunctive.
3. Opposition, or Contrast ; as, He is rich, but economical He was defeated, yet he persevered.
;

4.

Cause;

mined
5.

Conclusion
Then

commission.

7.
8.

is

fell,

as he is

because the stream underis

called a Causal clause.

innocent, therefore he

is confi-

often used instead of therefore.

Purpose;

often used

wall

This dependent clause

it.

dent.
6.

The

as,

as,

He came

that

he might receive

Instead of a clause with that, an infinitive

as,

He came

Condition
Concession

his
is

to receive.

If you wish, you can have it.

as, Though he slay me, yet will I trust

as,

in him.
9.

Comparison

strong as a

as,

He

learns faster than

I.

He

is

as

lion.

Comparison of difference

is

denoted by than; comparison

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

of equality

by

As

as.

noun which modifies

151
is, if

it

often connects a
as,

He

him

noun

another

to

as ambassador.

Conjunctions are often used correlatively

one conjunction

connected, the other

is

is

used in the

employed

pal correlatives are both

neither

or,

sent

145

first

member

then,

nor, if

that

of two terms

The

in the second.

and, either

princi-

whether

or,

though

yet, or

still.

If the
ber,

its

first

of one of # these pairs

correlative

must be used

the one or the other,"

the correlative nor.

is

is

used in the

first

mem-

" Neither

in the second.

not correct, because neither requires

The

first

of the correlatives

is

often

omitted.

"When two connectives come together, there

transposition, or an ellipsis of some clause.

is

usually

And if it be true, why do you fear ?

And why do you fear, if it be true ?
In the

come

first

of the above, the two conjunctions

together.

By

and and if

transposing the sentence, they are sep-

arated and brought into their proper order,

and connecting

the complex sentence to some preceding sentence, and if

connecting the clause to the interrogative sentence.

was parted as if by an earthquake's shock. It was

parted as (it would be) if (parted) by an earthquake shock.
Some prefer to call as if a compound connective.
It

THE EXCLAMATION.

152. The Exclamation is that part of

speech which is used to express emotion or
feeling,

without forming any part of the sen-

tence.
Other words which express emotion and feeling form a

146

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

part of the sentence;

the exclamation stands usually en-

tirely alone.

sorrow; as, ah, alas; Surprise;

whew; Contempt; as, fudge, pshaw, pooh ; Aversion; as, fie, faugh; Exultation; as, huzza, hurrah
JLaugliter; as, ha, ha ; Interrogative; a?, eh? hey?
Exclamations express

as, ha,

Weariness as, heigh ho.

Words used in calling or
;

driving animals

whoa, haw,

as,

gee, are classed as exclamations.

LESSON XXXIL
SYNTAX.

153.

which

Syntax

treats of the

tions, modifications,

is

that part of

Grammar

Sentence, and of the

rela-

and arrangement of words

in sentences.

Sentence

is

the complete expression of

a thought by means of words.

The expression of a thought involves,

at least,

three things.
1.
2.

Some
Some

subject of thought.

idea which

is

connected with the

subject.
3.

Some word which

of the

first

and second

expresses the connection

ideas.

Thus if one has the idea of glass, and connects with it in

his mind the idea of brittleness, he expresses the connection
of the two ideas by a word which asserts as, glass is brittle.
;

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

The second idea may take an

or two ideas may be expressed
as,

147

assertive form,

one word;

in

trees grow.

The

first

idea

is

that of

trees,

the second, of growth, and the

A complete

word grow asserts the second idea of the first.

sentence must contain, at least, two words.

The Subject of a sentence

154.
word denoting that of which something

is

is as-

serted.

The Predicate of a sentence

is

is

that

which

asserted of the subject.

The Elements of a sentence are the subject

and the predicate.
The subject of a sentence is a substantive,
The predieither with or without modifiers.
cate

is

a verb either modified or unmodified.

thought

may be expressed

as a declaration

of the belief, or the purpose of the speaker,, as

a question, as a

The word

command,

assert

is

or as an exclamation.

used to express any one of

these forms of communicating thought.

There are four kinds of sentences Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Ex;

clamatory.

declarative sentence

tion.

general

modification

as,

is

called a

Proposi-

proposition has no limit, or

Fire burns.

Iron

is

heavy.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

148

A limited proposition is restricted to bounds

defined by limiting words

This

as,

burns

fire

tvell.

The

affirmation of the last sentence

specified fire,

and burns

is

is

restricted to

one

modified by an adverb of manner.

155. Any word which limits the application, explains the meaning, or completes the
sense of another word,

said to

is

modify

"

that

word.

My

Newfoundland dog

This assertion
the

limited

is

modifier completing

whom

its

it

swim.

made

is

of but one dog, and

modifiers, one telling

word dog has two

dog, and the other to

likes to

what kind of
Likes has a

the dog belongs.

meaning-, telling

The Simple subject

is

what the dog

likes.

the substantive with-

out modifiers; the simple predicate

the verb

is

without modifiers.
are the

The Logical subject and predicate

simple subject and predicate with their

respect-

ive modifiers.

The

honest

man who

founo* the purse, restored

it

without

delay to the owner.

The
cate

is

found

simple subject of the above

The

restored.
the

purse

is

man, the simple predi-

logical subject is the honest

the logical predicate

is

restored

man who
it

without

delay to the owne*r.

156.
ject

Simple

sentence has one sub-

and one predicate.

compound sentence

is

made up

of simple

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

sentences combined.

It

149

can be separated into

simple sentences.
Either the subject or the predicate, or both,

may be made compound

John and James

as,

read and write.

Claiase contains the elements, of a sen-

make complete

tence, but does not

is

sense.

It

always used as a modifier.

A Complex
modifier;

sentence contains a clause as a

They

as,

who

also serve

only stand

and wait

sentence

may

be both compound and complex.

complex sentence may contain several

clauses, either in the

subject or in the predicate.

An Independent
itself;

Clause.

which

is

sentence makes sense by

dependent sentence is the same as a

That member of a Complex sentence
modified by the rest

cipal, or leading

sentence

is

called the prin-

He

as,

said that he

would go. He said is the leading sentence,

though it is not complete that he ivould go is a
dependent sentence.
A Phrase is any number of related words
;

in

proper order, not forming a sentence or a

clause.
Phrases are named from their
adjective phrases

or,

office

as,

adverbial phrases,

from some leading word,

tional phrase, a participial phrase.

as,

a preposi-

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

150

The Analysis of a sentence

is

the

naming

of the elements of the sentence with their modifiers.

Parsing"

is

verbal analysis

the naming of

the several parts of speech, with the relation

which each word has

in the sentence.

lesson xxxm.
MODIFIERS OF THE NOUN.

The Noun admits of five kinds of

modifiers; the Appositive, the Possessive,
the Adjective, the Adjunct, and the Clause.
A noun or pronoun annexed to a substantive
to define it, explain it, or make it emphatic, is
called an Appositive, or is said to be in Apposition; as, Mr. Miller the merchant; Longfellow the poet; The king himself could do no
157,

more.
The

appositive usually stands after the

word which

it

same case ( 92) as the modified word.

meaning to an adjective clause ; as, Napoor, Napoleon who was first emperor.
leon, the first emperor
The different words which make up a Complex noun may
be regarded as appositives, and when the possessive relation
is to be expressed by a noun modified by an appositive, the
s is annexed to the last word; as, King Richard's crown
modifies,

and

is

in the

It is equivalent in

Allen the bookseller's

The

appositive

is

store.

sometimes connected with the noun by

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

him a

the conjunction as; as, I gave

151
as his birthday

ball

present.

Instead of a noun in apposition, an adjunct with the prep

of can sometimes be employed

osition

or, the city

The
it

as,

the city Boston,

of Boston.

whole

is

often modified

They went in haste

as,

by

its

parts in apposition with

some to the

field,

some to the

garden, some to the forest.

noun

is

sometimes in apposition with a sentence or with

something implied in

The

painful duty.

it

as,

I must

truth that all

men

tell

the whole truth

are created equal

is self-

evident.

The pronoun

often in apposition with a clause, sen-

is

it

tence, or phrase following the verb of

as, It is

a good thing

A substantive
must be

same

to

which

it is

the subject

give thanks.

used in apposition to two or more nouns

in the plural

as,

Helen and Mary, pupils

in the

school.

noun or pronoun in the Possessive

158.
Case limits the noun denoting the thing possessed;

as, his

book;

Mary's slate;

Achilles'

kinds, including

articles,

shield.

Adjectives of

all

pronominal, verbal, descriptive, specifying, and

numeral adjectives, modify nouns.

An adjective may be the complement of a
verb, and is then said to refer to the subject, but
does not modify or limit
The

grass

is

becomes green.

green.

The

it.

grass grows green, looks green,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

152

Green, in the above,

each case the quality

in

anodified

a quality or attribute of grass, but

is

by

and the subject

#

not

is

standing in an abridged proposition ( 52,

participle

175)

asseiied,

is

it.

may be

said to refer to the

subject of the clause, if

noun which would be the

were not

it

elliptical.

Adjectives which imply the singular idea, like an, one, each,
either,

ber

should be nsed only with nouns in the singular num-

those which are plural in meaning, like both,

these,

many,

should be used only with nouns in the plural number.

The

modifies.

The

noun which

it

does not admit the adjective before

it.

adjective generally stands before the

The pronoun

specifying adjective the stands before descriptive and

numeral adjectives modifying the noun

the two Scipios.
all

But

all

and

as,

the white house

both take the after

them

as,

the gold; both the men.

The only adjunct which generally

modifies the noun is that which is introduced by
159.

the preposition of}

The

adjunct with of

ive case, and

is

is

as,

the roof of the house.

generally equivalent to the possess-

gradually displacing the possessive.

few exceptions, the possessive form

to

is

limited to pronouns,

We

proper names, and names of living things.

say,

The

With
do not

house's roof, the tree's bark, the* pencil's tip; but,

the roof of the house, the bark of the tree, the tip of the
pencil.

By the

abbreviation of propositions, an adjunct often stands

in such close relation to a noun, that

when

strictly it

phrase, "
really

it

is

said to modify

modities an omitted word.

The man

in the

Thus,

moon," the adjunct in

an abbreviation of the clause

it,

the

moon is
moon, and

the

that is in the

153

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

But speaking

modifies the omitted verb.

be said to modify man, because

it is

concisely,

may

it

a part of a clause which

modifies man.

1 60. Clauses modifying nouns are generally

introduced by a relative pronoun, and are called
relative clauses.

They are often

(127.)

equiv-

alent to an adjective, either descriptive or speci-

man who
man, means, the man

Thus, yonder man, means, the

fying.

stands yonder; the honest

who

is honest.

The

Relative clauses have two distinct uses.

modify by way of

restriction, or description.

they are the equivalents of adjectives.

add spme

fact

In

first is

to

this sense

The second

is -to

which might be expressed by an independent

sentence.

A relative clause

which performs the

an adjective either descriptive or

called a restrictive clause

as,

office

of

definitive, is

They who

are

Our Father which

(who) art in heaven the letter which you received the lesson which we are to learn the
man to whom you sold it the effects for which

tvise shall

shine like stars

I did the

murder.

relative clause

additional fact
as,

God,

who

ernor,

sits

came soon

accessory

called an

is

General Harrison,

which simply expresses an

above,

is

who was
after.

clause

mindful of man.
also

military gov-

His son William,

who

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

154

was a very strong man, caught him as he fell.

Man, that is mortal, is also fallible.
The first of the above might be expressed by
the compound sentence, God sits above and is
The sentence as given is commindful of man.
plex in form, and compound in meaning.
The
its

relative clause should stand as near as possible to

antecedent, and after

It gives a

meaning

It gives to his

By

its

it.

to his

words which

is

words a meaning which

absurd.

is

absurd.

position in the first sentence, the clause which is

The

absura seems to modify words instead of meaning.

second order makes the sense clear.

"

Who ever

who was

saw a lady running a sewing-machine

not handsome

Place the relative clause in

The antecedent

its

of a relative

whom

is

very seldom in the posses-

whom ye

a noun, and the relative

obey.

In God's bright face

dwelleth infinite love.

In modern prose we should read,

whom

fair

naturally to refer to the nearer noun.

His servants ye are

in

proper position.

sive, for the possessive stands before

seems

at

?"

ye obey.

Ye

are servants of him

In the bright face of God,

in

whom,

etc.

LESSON XXXIV.
MODIFIERS OF THE PRONOUN, ADJECTIVE, ADVERB, AND
PREPOSITION.

161."

The

Pronoun

admits four classes

of modifiers, the Appositive, the

the

Adjunct, and

the Clause.

Adjective

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

The
first

appositive

is

common

very

and second person

as,

155

with the pronouns of the

We

Paul beseech you.

You rich men know

You idle fellow !

suls are remiss.

Con-

nothing of our burdens.

You rogue !
The adjective modifying a pronoun usually stands after
This modification is not very
it; as, You ally them both.
common.
The adjunct
the city ;

The

who

is

rarely used with the pronoun

as,

They of

of you all ?

clausal modification of the

pronoun

differs in

nothing

from the noun modification.

162. The Adjective may be modified

by an Adverb, and by an Adjunct, including
the infinitive, and

by a noun used

in

an adverb-

ial relation.

Adverbs modifying adjectives are generally of

emphasis,' as, somewhat, rather, excessively.

degree, or

Verbal adjec-

by adverbs of nearly every class.

The variety of adjuncts admitted by the adjective is very
The verbal adjective may be modified by any prepogreat.
tives are modified

sition with its subsequent.

Descriptive adjectives are most

frequently modified by adjuncts whose bases are

and for ;
the fields

as,
;

eager for pnnise

The

103.
alent of the

desirous of going; useful to

infinitive

modifying an adjective

Gerund

( 95), as

its

may

base.

be seen below

to see, or, fair to the seeing, or, to the sight.

to learn, or,

Competent

anxious for learning.

to instruct, or,

for instructing.

is

a true

It is the equiv-

Good to eat, or, good for eating.

Apt to teach, or, apt in teaching.
Anxious

in, to

strong in purpose.

adjunct, with the preposition to as

Fair

of,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

156
This construction

further explained under the head of

is

the Infinitive ( 181).

The

preposition proper to use after the adjective should

be carefully noted;
ent from

like

164.

as,

agreeable to; delighted with;

differ-

to.

Adjectives denoting time,

meas-

ure, distance, and value are modified by a

noun used adverbially as,
;

The book

He

is

The

is

is

(Time.)

(Measure.)

four feet thick.

is five

(Value.)

dollar.

sixteen years old.

wall

Harrisburg
.

worth a

miles away.

(Distance.)

In languages which denote relation by ending, nouns used

adverbially have the objective form.

enough

to

say that the adjective

expressing value, time,

The

adjectives

like,

near,

in parsing,

it is

and opposite admit a substantive

me; near

This modification

is

is

But

modified by the noun

etc.

modifier; as, like

tion to

is

the wall; opposite the house.

an abbreviated adjunct.

often expressed before the noun.

The preposiThe adjective

may be

said to be modified by the noun used adverbially, or

by an adjunct with the preposition omitted.

The Adverb may be modified by

other adverbs, chiefly by those denoting emphasis and degree / and by adjuncts as, very wisely,
165.

most kindly, where in the world, never in

my

life.

The Preposition

is

nearly related to the

adverb, and therefore sometimes admits an ad-

verb as a modifier
beside him.

as,

just about going, close

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

157

The Conjunction and the Exclamation

neither modify, nor are modified.

LESSON XXXV.
MODIFIERS OF THE VERB.

166.
modifiers;

The "erfe admits

the

Adjunct,

the

foject,

four classes of

the

Ajdvcrfo, and the Clane.

The Object

is

the substantive complement of

a verb which does not admit an adjective com-

Such a verb is called

( 100, 101.)
transitive, and the complement is called the

plement.

Iirect toject.
The direct object, if a personal name, answers the question whom ? if the name of a thing, the question what ?
A noun used as object has the general form. The relative
who, and the personal pronouns except

it,

have a

distinct

form, called the objective case.

The direct object may simply

or may express what the action
I saw the sun.

These objects simply

fected

by the

limit the assertion of the verb,

asserted accomplishes.

I heard a
limit

bell.

the assertion, and are not af-

action.

He made

He

a boat.

These objects not only

built

a house.

limit the verb, but express

what

the action accomplishes.

167. Besides the direct object, transitive

verbs admit another complement, which is not
essential to the sense,

the action of the verb.

but

is

closely related to

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

158

This complement

the Indirect

called

is

Object,
Mr. Green

The

sold a horse.

sense of the above

complete

may be

of the buyer

is

grammatically complete

but to

further the history of the transaction, the

still

Mr. Green

sold

my father

(The name of the buyer

Pilate sent Jesus

name

added.

to

is

a horse.

the indirect object.)

Annas.

The boy bought his sister an orange.

The teacher read a story to his pupils.

Who
I

told

When
osition

you such a story ?

send her a

will

is

new book.

the indirect object stands before the direct, no prep-

needed

sition to or

for

when

is

it

stands after the direct, the prepo-

generally used before

the book, or, I gave the book

Care must be taken not

for as indirect

He

sold his

ject,
to

admit

Some

it; as,

I gave him

him.

to consider all adjuncts

This object

wheat for

name

object, but the

168.

objects.

to

cash.

is

the indirect; as,

This

For cash

do.
is

to

or

usually personal.
is

not an indirect

of the buyer preceded by

verbs which

with

to

would

be.

not admit the direct ob-

forme;

It

seems strange

me.

In the words methinks, methought, and meseems, the me

an indirect object, and the subject of the verb

is

is

a following

sentence or clause.

Methinks I see a
It

seems

to

me

that

The second form

wrote, "

When

it

fair

I see,

is

worth

the

the

etc.

common

thinks best unto

ern writer would say, "

Woe

and lovely child.

day

prose use.

your royal

When it seems
Woe is me /

best."

Shakspeare

self.'*

A mod-

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

The above

are examples of the indirect object.

an obsolete defective verb in the sense of

When

159
Worth

be.

a sentence containing a direct and an indirect ob-

ject is put into the passive form, the direct object

the subject, and the indirect object

me a

gave

is

book (active form)

retained

is

A book

becomes

They

as,

was given me

(pass-

ive form).

169.
osition, is

The

Boys expect

to learn.

to

Verbs signifying
make, admit two

to

is

to

appoint, to

object

first
;

When
first

call, to

name, and

choose, to

as,

They called the city

They made Richard
exerted

objects, one of which is direct, and the

of the idea expressed by the verb and
complement
a

first

The

as, Let us try

"When do you begin

become men.

I dare not go.

plant

other

with or without a prep-

used as the direct object of a verb

to

the

infinitive, either

Cleveland.
their leader.

object expresses that

upon which the action

is

the second expresses the result of the action.

sentences of this kind assume the passive form, the

object becomes the subject,

and the second remains as a

power as, Rich-

part of the predicate, and has no modifying

ard was made leader.

An
object

adjective

may be

may form a

part of the predicate, and an

used at the same time, after the verb

The streams whereof shall make glad the city

Make glad is equivalent to gladden. Changing
to the passive form, city

as,

the sentence

becomes the subject and glad re-

mains as a part of the predicate

shall

of our God.

thus,

The

city of

our

God

be made glad.

The verbs
object

is

ask and teach take two direct objects.

Either

used as a subject in the passive form, and the other

object is retained after the verb.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

160

They asked me a

question.

was asked a question.

We taught him grammar.

question

was asked me

or, I

Grammar was
1

The

<T.

He was

to the subject

complements

The

active

or,

form gives

makes prominent

the passive form

The

the fact of completion.

requires

grammar

between the active

principal differences

and the passive forms are these.

prominence

taught

taught him.

active form of a transitive verb

the passive, except with the verbs

given above, does not.

The complement
a phrase

of a verb

as in the following

was, "

His only answer

We

may be
:

You must do it"

heard that you had been

Without raising

a sentence, a clause, or

his head,

he

ill.

said, "

To

the left"

171. An abridged clause is sometimes used

chiefly with verbs
as the complement of a verb
;

denoting thought and sensation.

An

abridged clause, when used as a comple-

ment or

omits the

object,

connecting word,

changes the subject, if a pronoun, to the objective form, and changes the assertive form of the
verb to the

infinitive, or,

sometimes, to the gerund.

OBJECT CLAUSES UNABRIDGED.,

I believe that she

They knew
She
All

that he

felt that these

men wished

They heard him

lete.)

is truthful.

was an

Italian.

words were

that the

true.

work should go

that he sang.

on.

(This expression

is

obso-

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

161
t

OBJECT CLAUSES ABRIDGED.

I believe her

to be truthful.

They knew him

She
All

words

felt these

men wished

They heard him

In

to be

the

to be true.

work

tremble.

Let us go.

The

abridged clause

to

go on.

They heard him

singing.

expressions the full form has become

and the abridged

made him

Italian.

sing, or,

many common

obsolete,

an

is

the only proper form

saw him do

Hear me say my

it.

They

as,

lesson.

object in each of these examples

is

the

not the substantive which stands before the

infinitive.

The

used in abridged ob-

infinitive, then, is

jective clauses instead of the assertive form of

the verb, and has a subject in the objective form.

The

We

object clause abridged answers the question what

saw

the bird

fly.

Saw what

infinitive is a necessary part of the

sentence, " I shipped the goods

Saw

; as,

bird fly.

The

But

in the

complement.

go by steamer/' goods

to

answers the question what was shipped

is

the

and the

not needed, except to express an additional

infinitive

To go

fact.

expresses the purpose of the shipper.

Some
meaning

verbs generally intransitive admit an object whose

is

like their

own

as, to live

life,

to

dream a dream,

to run a race.

Some

intransitive verbs are used in a causative sense,

then admit an object.

a child

to

dance

to

Thus,

to

dance a

child,

run a horse, means

to

means

to

and

cause

cause a horse

to

So, to fly a kite, to spin a top, to grow grain.

The verbs lie, sit, rise, and fall, are so often misused that

run.

they need special attention.

All these verbs are intransitive.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

162

Each

of them has a causative transitive form, derived

changing the vowel

cause
lies

table.

I set the hen

but the hen,

when

fells the tree

der

raise, fell.

set,

Thus, I lay a book on a

to lie.

on the

lay,

viz.,

that

table,
is,

on her eggs.

set, sits

the tree falls.

by
Lay means

but the book

I cause her

to sit,

The wood-cutter

We raise the ladder

the lad-

rises.

The verbs
lay, raise,

lie, rise,

and fall, are of the strong conjugation,

and fell, are of the weak conjugation.

LESSON XXXVI.
MODIFIERS OF THE VERB CONTINUED.

172, 2. An adjunct modifying a verb mayhave any preposition as a base. Adjuncts express Time, Place, Manner, Cause, Assent, Negation,

and all the

also the

relations expressed

Agent of the

action,

by adverbs

and the Origin or

Source.

Many
sertion

adjuncts, like
as,

modal adverbs, modify the whole

Of course, he

will go.

as-

Without a doubt, he will

succeed.

An

adjunct often modifies a verb and

the sentence,

and the

" In the beginning,

earth."

The

God

its

modifiers

and

as in

created the heavens

adjunct in the beginning modifies not

simply the verb created, but the whole predicate.

ated the heavens

Gocl cre-

the earth in the beginning.

173. 3. The Adverb is genex-ally used as

a modifier of the verb.
All modifiers of a terb
are called

by the general name

adverbial.

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

The adverb

often equivalent to an adjunct

is

for with speed; emphatically, for with

163
as, speedily,

emphasis; soon, for in

short time.

A noun

may

be used as an adverbial modifier of a verb.

This modification

is

used with intransitive verbs to express

time, quantity, direction, and value.

The

a year.

He

has gone

field

measures

He

We are going

five acres.

This happened last week.

east.

nine dollars a barrel.

remained
home.

Flour costs

This horse weighs twelve hundred

pounds.

This adverbial modifier originally had the objective form,

may be

and a noun so used

called

an adverbial

objective.

may

be asked, why not call a noun used adverbially an adverb ?

a noun used in apposition an adjective. ? The principal
reason is that a word is classed according to its general use, and when
its class-name is once fixed, it is well, when its use in the sentence puts
it into another class, to recognize in the name applied to it, both its
general use, and its special use.
When we say "An adjective used as
a noun," we recognize the general use of the word as an adjective, and
its special use as a noun.
It

Why not

call

Clauses used

1 74L

pally of the following classes

Temporal,

1.

as modifiers of verbs are princi:

They

or such as denote time.

introduced by an adverb of time

as,

He

will

are usually

hear us when

Sometimes a preposition introduces the clause

Charles waited till he heard the bell.

we pray.

Causal, or such

2.

They

tion.

tions because

help
3.

some asserby the causal conjunc-

as,

He

does

it,

because he can not

it.

Inferential, which denote a conclusion from a preas, I believed, therefore have I spoken. Then

vious sentence

and now are sometimes used in inferential clauses

me,

as,

as express the reason of

are generally introduced

and for ;

then,

this is

what you mean

an absurdity.

to do.

Now we

as,

Tell

are satisfied that

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

164

Conditional, or such as denote doubt, or supposition

were so, it was a grievous fault. If we are to do it, you

4.

If

it

must

us

let

know to-morrow.

If and whether are most

quently used in conditional clauses.

fre-

Conditional clauses

generally modify a whole proposition rather than a verb.

Conceive, or such

5.

as admit something, while an

made

opposite, or contrasted statement is

The

oppose me, I will go on.

an imperative whose verb

that

Grant that

as,

Tet and

is

as,

concessive clause

Though you
is

sometimes

followed by the conjunction

this story is true,

what does

it

prove ?

are frequently used in the principal sentence as

still

correlatives to though in the concessive clause.

Final, or those which express purpose

That and
intention that order be maintained.
6.

erally introduce final clauses.

employed

The

infinitive

my

is

lest

most gen-

is

very often

to express purpose.

In conditional, concessive, and

tive

It

as,

mode

of the verb

113)

is

still

final

clauses, the subjunc-

employed; particularly the forms

be.

175.

Temporal and causal clauses are often abridged

by dropping the connective, and changing the assertive form
of the verb to the participle; as, Having finished his work,
for

when he had finished

having crossed the

work Crossing the river, or,

when he had crossed the river.

his

river, for,

In such contractions as the above, the subject of the clause

same

as that of the leading sentence.

The

participle

is

the

is

then said to refer to the subject, and an assertion

plied, but not directly

When

im-

is

made.

the subject of the clause

is

the leading sentence, the connective

not the same as that of

is

omitted, and the sub-

ject remains, with a participle instead of the assertive

When the war was over,

The war being over, the

form

the prisoners were released.

prisoners

were

released.

as,

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

The noun

When

it

elected^

the opposition

of when he was

elected.

independent

retains the

member

of a

a pronoun

Taking refers

the door.
I

knew

that he
his

was a

of,

compound sentence

He

took

as,

as,

is

some-

Taking a lamp,

a lamp and opened

to he.

soldier.

having been a

knew of

his

being a sol-

soldier.

of
This form of the participial clause

dier, or,

the sub-

was diminished; instead

times shortened into a participial clause;

he opened the door, instead

is

form of the subject

ject of such a clause,

He having been

An

be absolute, or used

in such clauses is said to

without grammatical relation.

165

is

used when the verb

verb of the predicate.

be is the

LESSON XXXVIL
CONSTRUCTION.

176.

meant

its

By

Construction of a word is
use in the sentence, and its relathe

tion to other words.

A noun or pronoun
1.

As

the

may be used

ubject of a sentence.

The

subject

noun has

the general form,and the pronoun the subject form, or nominative case.
2.

As

a modifier denoting the relation of possession.

This relation

is

which expresses
3.

As an

marked by a change of ending, and

it is

the form

called the possessive case.

adjective modifier of

some other substantive

which denotes the same person or thing. It is then called an

appositive of the substantive modified. The pronoun is
very rarely used

in

this

construction.

Proper nouns are

most frequently modified by an appositive, and personal pro-

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

1G6

nouns are often modified, but do not themselves modify.

appositive
It

ifies.

is

in the

same

relation as the

word which

sometimes modifies a clause, and

it

Ai\

mod-

used absolutely

is

( 157).

As direct or indirect object of a verb ( 101,

The pronoun when thus used has a form called the
167).
4.

objective form, or case.

5.

As

the

subsequent

of

a preposition ( 144).

subsequent pronoun has the objective form.

6.

As

the subject of an infinitive in an abridged ob-

ject clause ( 171).

A pronoun

so used has the objective

form.
7.

As a

part of a predicate, as a complement of a verb.

This substantive complement

employed

is

after intransitive

verbs, especially after the verb he, and after the passive form.

He was
victim.

we.

sailor.

They became

He

I walk a queen.

He

is

made

A noun used as

merchants.

died a martyr.

He

It is

fell

It is

I.

overseer.

complement of an intransitive verb has

the general form, and a pronoun so used has the nominative,
or subject form.

the

In analyzing, say that the substantive

is

part of the predicate.

This same construction

used in abridged propositions,

is

both after the infinitive and the participle

man was greater than

tences

is

The

the abridged clause.

of the implied predicate.

Roman and

A noun

he

a Ro-

it

cripple are a part

so used

is

as,

often called

has the nominative, or

This form of the abridged clause

subsequent of a preposition;

To

subject in either of these sen-

the predicate Nominative, because

general form.

as,

His heing a cripple prevented

a king.

his obtaining the place.

may be

the

the atrocious crime of heing

a young man.
8.

As absolute, with a

participle, in

an abridged clause.

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

167

This use implies the subject relation, and a substantive so

used has the subject form.
9.

As absolute,

in direct address,

As an

the noun has no

and has the general form.

relation to the sentence,

10.

when

adveirt> 9 modifying adjectives and verbs de-

noting Time, Quantity, Direction, and Value ( 165, 173).

Give the construction of the nouns and pronouns in the

following

am

mine

stored to

thou persecutest.

We

remained a week.

made

are thy beams,

heard the

bell toll

king forever.

He made

Tell

my

the ground

O thou that rollest

died a martyr.

re-

The book

in the heavens above

sun, thy everlasting light?

me who you

are.

The Lord

Let

He

is

not a whit better.

lost, all

me

Your

virtue

sitteth

be the leader.

gained our position.

177.

made

where

lost.

His being a foreigner prevents his

Franklin ,was appointed

is

fathers,

The law
Foot by foot, we

is

having been broken, the penalty follows.

Darkness

he

Hortensius

bed.

on thy funeral day.

Shame being

election.

Me

a wall nineteen miles long, and a ditch sixteen

feet deep,

are they

whom

office.

cost a dollar.

Whence

Jesus

minister

France.

to

light.

The adjective

lias

two

distinct

offices.
1.

2.

The

To modify or limit nouns.

To form a predicate with intransitive verbs.
adjective

when modifying

stands before the noun.

when

It

may

or limiting a noun generally

be a part of the predicate

a pronoun, an infinitive, or any substantive

ployed as the subject.

It is

is

em-

then said to refer to the subject.

Numerals and a few pronominal adjectives contain the

idea of number, and must be used with nouns which correspond to them in number. Nouns which have the same

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

168

numbers may be modified by singular or by

plural adjectives
as, one pair
three pair.
Five yoke of

form

in both

In the expression

oxen.

cause one period

1 H8

is

this ten years, this is singular, be-

implied.

The Verb has endings

and third

in the second

persons singular of the present tense, and in the second singular of the past tense, to show* the person and number of

In these forms, the verb

the subject.
subject,

its

said to agree with

is

and the singular forms should

never be used

with a plural subject, nor a plural form with a singular

Observe that a word may be singular

subject.

and that a

plural in idea,

collective

noun

in form, but

may

86)

take a

verb in either form.

Two

times two are four.

The

forms are used.

(For a

mar

of

times two
is

Both

is four.

preferable.

of this expression, see Goold Brown's

pp. 587-591.)

fall discussion

Grammars

Upwards of a
a thousand

Some

Gram-

million bushels have been received.

dollars have

been

Over

collected.

use the singular verb in the a^>ove, and consider the

logical subject as

Bushels

Two

singular form

an expression

the subject of the

is

subsequent of

of.

first

for a

sum, or a quantity.

sentence, and million

Bushels upwards of a million

is

is

the

the order

of the sense.

The verb properly

1TD.

stands after

its

subject,

except in Interrogative and Imperative sentences, and

the sentence

is

transposed for emphasis, or for meter

when
;

as,

Did you know ?

Ash you why ? Have we changed ?
Go thou. Great is Diana of the
Break we our watch up.
Ephesians

Parched was the

grass,

and

blighted

was the

corn.

Except
omitted

also
as,

conditional clauses,

Were

it

when

so, instead of if

it

the conjunction

were

so.

is

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

When
verb,

it

The

the subject

169

properly a clause standing after the

is

often stands before a verb as an apparent subject.

verbs lack, need, and want are sometimes used in the

simple form instead of the compound

evidence, instead of no evidence

men of daring, instead

is

of were not lacking.

the ending of the third person singular

instead of

He

There needs no
There lacked not
Need often omits

as,

needed.

as,

He

need not go,

needs not go.

The active form is sometimes used instead of the passive

as, Wheat sells readily, instead of is sold.
No one is to
blame (to be blamed.)

When

18,

stantives composing

the subject

it

compound, and the sub-

is

by

are connected

or nor, the verb

or,

number ;

agrees with the nearer subject in person and

,

You

or I

am.)

am

mistaken.

Neither the

When

You

(Better,

citizens,

nor the

as,

are mistaken, or I

city pleases him.

the three persons are spoken of together, modesty

on the part of the speaker brings his own name, or the pro-

noun referring

to

it,

last in order;

addressed requires that his

proper order
for you,

is

and respect

name should

second, third, first persons

one for your

brother,

and one

to the person

stand
as,

The

first.

There

is

one

for me.

General truths are always expressed by the present tense.

He

said that the sun

is

(not was) a fixed star.

Epicurus taught that happiness

is

(not was) the chief

good.

I told you that

we

are (not were) Americans.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

170

LESSON XXXVIIL
SYNTAX OF THE INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE.

I 8 II Although the infinitive and participle are really included

under the noun, adjective, and verb, it is thought best to give them a
more complete discussion by themselves.
The infinitive

is

noun
had the ending an, and was never

It admits verbal modifiers, but has

forms of the verb.

In Saxon

relations.

the theme, and one of the substantive

it

preceded by the preposition

sition is still

about as

The

to.

common

as

omission of the prepo-

After the so-called

use.

its

auxiliary verbs may, can, must, shall, will

feel, let,

The

make,

see,

and several

in early

infinitive

others,

it is

Saxon had a

after bid, dare,

generally omitted.

declension,

and the

case of the indirect object ended in enne, and was preceded

by the preposition

This form was used after the great

to.

majority of verbs, and came in time to be regarded as the

true infinitive form.

meaning had
finitive is

The

preposition

And

entirely disappeared.

used as subject,

we

find

was retained

to,

even when the

The

infinitive, then,

as

in-

the preposition appro-

priate to the indirect object, standing before

182.

after its

it.

now

it

exists

in

our

language, comes from three sources.

From an

1.

old nominative and objective form in an,

which never had a preposition before

used as the direct object of a verb,

it.

This

predicate of an abridged clause; as, do go;

us

may

in

send;

is

the
let

see.

From

2.
to.

infinitive

and sometimes

the old indirect object form, after the preposition

In many

cases, the preposition

as a subsequent; as,
to let,

that

is,

for

too late to see him,,

good

letting

to eat,
;

glad

still

that

is,

to hear,

takes the infinitive

for eating
that

is,

a house

at hearing

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

From

3.

err

is

is

In

a part of the form.

This form

has no meaning.
object,

by to, from a mistaken notion

the form preceded

that the preposition

171

this sense, to

used as a subject as a direct

is

and as part of a predicate ; as, to hear is to obey ; to

human, to forgive, divine. This form is even used as

the subsequent of another preposition

To thoroughly comprehend

following infinitive.

The adverb should

1 83.
of the
1.
is,

The

to

is

and the

incorrect.

stand after the verb.

following are the principal additional uses

infinitive.

To

express

purpose ;

Do

as,

purpose of playing.

for the

that

Noth-

as about to go.

ing should ever stand between the preposition

for the purpose of hiding.

is,

not stop

to

I flee unto thee

am

play ; that
to

hide

me

going to Quincy

to

buy grain.
2.

To

pained
3.

express

to

cause

am

glad

As an adjective modifier,

imperfect participle

Our kings

time.
4.

as,

to

know

We are

it.

hear of his conduct.

After

as, to

that

is,

future kings.

express comparison with result. So great

as to surpass himself; that

Who

the time to come; that incoming

as, in

to be ;

or in the sense of the

is,

great as the surpassing of him-

know these things ? That is,

Who is so wise as the knowing these things would prove
him to be ? ( To surpass and to know are the subjects of
self

is

omitted verbs.)

member

the

so wise as to

Also

to express result without as

commandments

to

do them.

He

is

as,

Re-

too old to be

caught.
5.

As an adjunct,

in

a great variety of meanings;

as, at

liberty to think, desirous to learn, apt to teach, competent to

advise, permission to go.

6.

It

is

used in place of the participle in abridged

clauses, referring to the subject

as,

To return

to

our subject,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

172
that

tell

the truth, i did

it;

Every common -sense man

The phrase 50 to speak
to speak, a stereoscopic vision.

or, Telling

has, so

To

returning to our subject.

is,

the truth, I did

means speaking

it.

and the implied subject

thus,

is indefinite

one might speak thus.

As

7.

a verb predicate of an abridged clause, used as ob-

ject of a verb, with a subject

They knew him

made him die ?
as,

As

8.

speak
is

used

is

in the sense

of

am

in the objective case;

We

as,

saw him fall. What

am

Who

to go.-

is

to

I have to go, (where have

not to be found.

The Gerund and

is

have money.

a part of a predicate

He

to

which

obliged.)

the Infinitive represent the action of the

verb in a general sense, without* any distinction of Voice.

Hence, in the phrases, a house

painting, there

1 84,

is

no necessity

The Imperfect

to

let,

Saxon had the

from the Gerund but

Participle in
it

The

both endings in time became ing.

by three
1.

distinct

is

for using a passive form.

ending and, which distinguished

in ing has three distinct uses,

the picture which

verbal form ending

which may now be distinguished

names.

It stands before

a noun as a modifier

machine, running water, a standing army.

as,

It is

a threshing

then called a

Verbal Adjective.
2.

It is

used as a Substantive, either as a subject, a com-

plement, or an adjunct modifier

Leave wringing of your hands.

ing.
I saw him running, that
is

then called a
3. It is

as,

Your writing

My
is,

brother

is

looks well.

going a-hunt-

in the act of running.

It

Gerund,

used to imply Assertion, in abridged clauses, either

with a noun absolute in the same clause, or referring to the

subject or object of the principal sentence, or to some indefinite word.

It is

then called a Participle-

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

173

EXAMPLES.
1.

With

a substantive absolute.

This having been done, they returned in triumph.

The enemy having

received reinforcements, the siege

was

raised.

Notwithstanding his struggles, he was bound

His mission having been fulfilled, he returned

2.

fast.

to Carthage.

Referring to the subject, or object of the principal sen-

tence.

Nouns ending (which end)

in et are generally

Diminutives.

Having a little leisure, I write to you.

Finding that the enemy were giving way, he ordered a
charge.

They

said nothing concerning (which concerned) the elec-

tion.
3.

Referring to an indefinite subject.

we can

Touching the Almighty,

Speaking plainly,

Making

all

due allowance, the statement

Respecting your
(The

not find him out.

this affair disgraced the nation.

offer, it is

is

not yet time to decide.

so-called prepositions in ing belong here.)

Care must be taken

Participle.

Gerund from the

to distinguish the

If the infinitive can be substituted for the form

in ing, or, if a preposition can stand before

as, I

improbable.

saw him running,

writing, or, they found

185.

The

or,

saw him run

him

is

a gerund

they found him

a-writing, or, at his writing.

Perfect Participle

a descriptive adjective before a noun

an admitted necessity.

it, it
;

But

it

is

is

as,

sometimes used as
a finished article

much more common

as a

predicate adjective; as in the passive form, or as a comple-

ment of having

in a

form generally called

far as the perfect participle

is

active,

concerned, as

and yet so

much a

passive

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

174

Be and have do
ordinary compound forms

form as any other.

not differ

ing in the

of the verb.

man

much in meanThe Ger-

language uses both have and be in making up

pound
been.

We

tenses.

We

say, I have

say either

been

German

its

com-

says, I

am

arrived, or, has arrived, and, in

is

either case, the leading idea

is

completion, not passivity, or

the suffering something to be done.

*

LESSON XXXIX.
4

TRANSPOSITION.

18G.

ANALYSIS.

The proper order of words

been already indicated, but a brief review

The

subject

and

its

modifiers stand

in English has

given.

is

first

in the sentence,

the verb next, and the complements of the verb

The

last.

indirect object without a preposition precedes the direct.

Descriptive, definitive, and numeral adjectives stand before

the noun.

Except when themselves modified by an adjunct

which stands

The

after them.

adjunct generally stands after the

word which

it

modifies.

The

appositive stands after the

noun which

it

modifies

the possessive before.

Adverbs modifying adjectives precede them.

Adjective clauses stand directly after the nouns which

they modify.

and concessive clauses stand before

Conditional, temporal,

the principal sentence.

The modal adverb

the verb and

Also adjuncts denoting time.

stands before the sentence, or between

its infinitive

Doubtless he will succeed.

The order

complement
Certainly

of subject and predicate

as,

it is

is

Interrogative and Imperative sentences.

They dare

not go.

there.

regularly inverted in

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

The

order of the sentence

changed

is

175
for emphasis, for

euphony, for variety, and, in poetry, for rhyme and meter.

187.
arrange

its

Before analyzing a sentence,

is

it

desirable to

parts in their logical order, or, to transpose words.

EXAMPLES OF TRANSPOSITION.
* High with the last line scaled her voice, and this

All in a fiery dawning wild with wind

That shook her tower, the brothers heard."

Transposed.

Her voice scaled high with the

the brothers heard this in a fiery

dawning

all

and
wild with wind
last line,

that shook her tower.

In the costly canopy

Blazed the
Transposed.

him

set

diamond of the nameless king.

last

The

blazed in the costly

o'er

last

diamond of the nameless king

canbpy set

o'er him.

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS.

complete analysis should embrace every word, and give its relations
Written analyses of sentences
to other words and to the sentence.
They serve as composition, punctuation,
should be required often.
and spelling exercises, and are too important to be omitted.
Pupils
should be taught to abbreviate their work, so as to save time in writing
and correcting. Written analyses may be exchanged by the pupils in
class ; one pupil may read, and the rest may criticise and correct errors.
When the pupils are reasonably familiar with analysis, the simpler
modifications may either be omitted or briefly indicated, and the attention directed to obscurer points.
.

188.
inequality,

The above

Society has almost always begun in

and
is

tendency

its

is

towards equality.

a compound declarative sentence, consisting

of two propositions, connected by the conjunction and.

ciety is the first subject

it is

unmodified

has begun

Sois

the

simple predicate-; has almost always begun in inequality

the logical predicate.

Has begun

is

is

modified by the temporal

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

176

adverb always, and by the adjunct in inequality, denoting

Always

place where.

modified by the restrictive adverb

is

The second subject is

predicate.
The subject

almost.
is

the

which

is

it

The

predicate,

by

the possessive

requires a complement,

The

the adjunct towards equality.

denotes a general truth.

towards equality

is

modified

is

the simple predicate,

Is is

its.

tendency

present tense

adjunct forms a part of the

and does not modify any

thing.

1 89 Parsing or verbal analysis of the same.

Society, common noun, 3d singular, subj. of the sentence.
Has, verb, present, 3d singular, weak
the ending

s,

taken with

its

drops v before

conj.,

complement begun forms

pres.

perfect tense.

Almost, an adverb of degree, modifies always.

Always, an adverb of time repeated, modifies begun.

Begun, past part, of strong verb

complement of

befin, adj.

has.
In,

a preposition, base of the adjunct.

Inequality,

abstract noun, subsequent of in, and with it

modifies begun.

And, copulative
Its,

conj.,

connects the two sentences.

pronoun, 3d singular neuter, stands for

society's,

pos-

sessive, modifies tendency.

Tendency,
Is,

common noun, 3d

verb from irregular

pond with

subj., takes

singular, subj. of sentence.

be, intransitive,

3d

sing, to corres-

the adjunct following as

its

comple-

ment.

Towards, a preposition, denoting direction.

Uquality, abstract noun, from adj. equal, subsequent of

towards.

I.

Many

think this

man

a patriot; we,

on the contrary, think him a mere,

serving politician.

selfish,

time-

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

Many

',

pron. adj. mod. omitted noun, subj. of 1st sentence.

Think, vb.,
patriot

taking the abr. clause

irreg., trans.,

man a

this

as complement.

This spec,

man.

adj., limits

Man, comm.
A,

177

n., subj.

of omitted

inf. to be.

spec, adj., limits patriot

Patriot,

comm.

part of the pred.

n.,

We, pers. pro., 1st pers. plu., standing for some,

unknown

noun, subj. of think.

On, prep., base of adj. on the contrary.
The, spec,

adj., limits

contrary.

Contrary, adj. used as

n.,

The

subs, of on.

adjunct

is

modal ; mod. the sentence.

Think, vb.

mod. by

trans.,

him

obj. clause,

(to be)

a poli-

tician.

A,

spec, adj., limits politician.

Mere, desc.

adj., variable,

from

Selfish, desc. adj.,

mod. politician.
mod.

n. self,

Time-serving, comp. desc.

adj.,

politician.

made up

of n. time, and

verbal adj. serving, mod. politician.

comm. n., part of pred.

The sentence is compound and complex each of the two
members containing an abridged clause as an object.
Politician,

191*

A figured verbal

the parts of speech,

is

as in the following example.

The numbers above

indicate the parts of speech as

4164

The tower
4

1^

analysis, simply pointing out

convenient for brief written exercises

4161

numbered
2

of old Saint Nicholas soared

Relations of words

may

also

641
16
growth

be figured

method which the teacher may choose

way

in 36.

upward

Like some huge piece of Nature's make, the

the words

to the skies.
i
t

of centuries.

to the

to adopt.

eye by any

The

best

of fixing the different relations of nouns, different offices

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

178
of the infinitive,
select

etc., is to

require the pupils to compose, or

examples of whatever

to

is

be

illustrated,

and

to present

them in writing for the criticism of the teacher and the class.
Thus the teacher may require as the lesson of the day, that
each of the ten constructions of the noun and pronoun (176)
shall be illustrated by two examples, either composed by the
pupils, or selected from some author.
It is not recommended, at this stage, to require of the pupil the
reason of every assertion. Time is really frittered away when a pupil
who possesses ordinary intelligence, and has been studying language
for years, is required to tell the reason why he calls the most familiar
name a noun. This minute common-place analysis belongs to the elementary work, and is then important. The teacher should now aim
to present to the pupil the points which involve most difficulty.

1 92.

A few passages

are given with questions de-

veloping the most important points.

sometimes hold

To put

in

it

half a sin

words* the grief

I feel.

Of what part of speech is half?

"What verb corresponds to half, and how is it formed ? (121).
For what does

it

stand

Construction of half and of sin

Does

to

Would

have a subsequent, or

Construction of

is

it

be used, and

Illus-

by examples and determine when in should

when

What

into.

omitted

is

after grief?

Verb corresponding to grief? Is feel transitive, or

Is any word omitted after grief?
tive?

Go

put ?

used without meaning

in or into be used in prose in this passage

trate their use

to

leave me, priest

my

soul

intransi-

would be

Alone with the consoler, Death

Far sadder eyes than thine will see
This crumbling clay yield up its breath.

How many

sentences in the above

How many

imperii-

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

Resentences?

Principal parts of go

Why

tion of priest?

is

would used

179
Construc-

of leave?

the speaker is contemplating something in the future

Does alone ever stand before a noun?

Death
speech

of thy

Why commenced with

?
is

Compare

far?

Why

thine

is

does thine limit?

Of yield ?

sad.

a capital

When

Of what

responds to breath

( 109),

Construction of
?

Of what

part of

thine used instead

is

employed instead of yourtf

Object of will see

part of speech

when

in the past tense

is

What

Construction of clay

up

What

verb cor-

LESSON XL.
FIGURES OP SPEECH.

193. A Figure of Speech is an intentional departure from the ordinary form, order,
construction, or

meaning of words.

Figures of

Speech are intended to give emphasis,

clearness,

variety, or beauty.

They are divided into Figures of Orthography,

of Etymology, of Syntax, and of Rhetoric.

194.

figtfre

of Orthography

is

an inten-

tional mis-spelling of a word.

Archaism

the spelling of a

is

word

after the old form,

or the use of an obsolete form instead of the modern

kynge ibr king
for struck.

Ingelow's "

Mimesis
by

kauphe for coffee

spake for spoke

as,

strooh

For many examples in a modern poem, see Jean

High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire."
is

the mimicking of an incorrect pronunciation

false spelling

as,

Hans Schnitzer

hat a vloshipede,

Von of de newest

hint.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

180

195.. Figures of Etymology are changes

in the ordinary forms of words by additions,

and by separation of

omissions,

Apliserei

the omission of one or

is

beginning of a word
His for it

parts.

as, 'gainst for

more

letters at

the

against ; 'gan for began

is.

Prothesi is the prefixing of letters for euphony, or

meter as, adown for down ; awake for wake.

for

Syncope
word

the omission of letters in the middle of a

is

as, e'en for

even

o'er for over

times in poetry, the* sound

retained

is

Some-

e'er for ever.

omitted while the letters are

as,

No

medicine in the world can do thee good.

The meter requires medicine

to

be pronounced as

if

printed

med'cine.

Apocope
though

th*

the cutting off of final letters

is

for the ;

v>'

for

of

an.

a' for

forms come from the ancient by apocope

Tho

generally tend to shorten their forms.

as, tho

for

Many modern
since languages

omission of the

old gerund and infinitive endings, and of the en in the strong

participle, are examples.

Paragoge

the addition of a letter or syllable which

is

has no significance;
steep

steely for steel;

Diaeresis

is

as,

withouten for without;

mine and thine

for

my and

steepy for
thy.

the separating of two vowels which might

form a diphthong ; as aeronaut, not aeronaut, orthoepy, not

orthoepy.

$ynserei&

is

the opposite of diaeresis

syllables into one

or by syncope

as,

the uniting of two

either in sound without change of form,

court'sy for courtesy

can't for

can not

loved for lov-ed.

Tmeis

is

the separating of the parts of a

compound word

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

by some other word
for

as,

181

His thoughts which are

toward us; on which side so ever I turn

to

my

us ward,
eyes, for

whichsoever side.

196.

Figures of Syntax are intentional

variations

from the regular grammatical con-

struction of words.
Ellipsis

the omission of words essential to the structure

is

of the sentence.

It is

ing, as the looks

more common

in speech than in writ-

and gestures of the speaker supply the place

Words omitted are said to be understood.

Any member of the sentence may be omitted, even the verb
of omitted words.

as,

I'll

My

(go) hence to London.

father

wiser than I

is

(am.)

The
as,

of the infinitive and participle of be

ellipsis

is

frequent

I consider him (to be)

This (being) done, they returned.

an honest man.

end a sentence with the preposition

It is inelegant to

requiring an infinitive subsequent

but he tried

Either express the

to.

as,

He

to,

did not escape,

infinitive, or

change the

order.

Pleonasm
said that he

is

the use of superfluous words

would

go.

know

emphatic repetition of a word

is

thee

who

as,

thou

John he

art.

a kind of pleonasm.

The

An

may be a pleonasm.
series of nouns in the
same connection are often summed up in one word as, father, mother, children, servants, all were swept to ruin in a
apposition

moment.
Syllepsis

is

the use of a word according to the sense, and

not according to the form of some word to which

Philip went

down

to

it refers.

Samaria and preached Christ unto

them.

Them would be

it,

were

it

not for the figurative use of

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

182

Samaria

The pronoun is used

The use of a plural

for the people of Samaria.

according to the sense, not the form.

form of the verb with a collective noun in the singular

is

kind of syllepsis.

Enallage

the use of one part of speech for another, or

is

The use of
a common example

the plural you for the

of one form for another.

singular thou

is

poetry, the Adjective

The

we

In

for I.

and the Adverb are often interchanged.

use of a pronoun for a verb

"Whom

also of

is

under the same figure

as,

thouest thou, Scot?"

" If thou thouest

him some thrice, it shall not be amiss."

Hyperbaton, or Tranpoition, is a change in the
lisual

"

order of words.

Do

they

call virtue

there forge tfulness ?" for,

Do

they

there call forge tfulness virtue 2

u

Wander

the wide world over," fox,

wander over the wide

tvorld.

197.

Tropes,

Figures of

Rhetoric,

called

also

are deviations from the ordinary mean-

ing of words.

A Simile

is

a direct comparison of two objects, by

of explanation, or of embellishment.

duced by

like, as,

or

so,

It

is

generally intro-

with a correlative in the second

ber of the comparison.

The

way

introductory word

is

memoften

omitted.

Like as a father

them

that fear

pitieth his children, so the

The sun is dying like a

In his own blood.
Sunset

Upon

Lord

Him.

is

cloven king

burning like the seal of

the close of day.

God

pitieth

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

A Metaphor
as,

God

a comparison implied, but not expressed

is

His name

a rock.

is

183

is

a tower of strength.

A great city lying in its smoke,

A monster sleeping in its own thick breath.
An Allegory

a story designed to

is

some moral

illustrate

truth, containing a continued metaphor.

Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress

the best example of an

is

allegory carried through an entire work.

Some

ture parables are allegories.

Metonymy
name

for a cause

lated

name

the container for the thing contained

a place for

made

the cup to

of

it

Synecdoche
a part

for

Hyperbole
beyond

winter day

inhabitants

bread for food.

is

extravagant metaphor, or a comparison

Cold as Greenland for a severe

a clear moonlight night
;

is

for

waves

good or ex-

a turning aside from the order of narra-

some

Warsaw

ma-

a roof for a house

mountain high ; awful, for very splendid,

cellent, are commoi examples of hyperbole.

" Fall of

the

his steel.

light as day, for

tion to address

the sign

Gray hairs deserve respect.

He carried away the palm.

a sail for a ship

as,

Apostrophe

effect

as,

dregs.

reasonable limits.
;

its

an

the putting of a part for a whole, or a

is

winter for a year

all

its

He drew

Hear me, Rome.

whole

are reading Shakespeare.

He drank

for another re-

of an author for his works

terial for the thing

We

name

as the

for the thing signified

Scrip-

fables are metaphors.

a substitution of one

is

Many of the

real or

imaginary character

" the author turns

away from

as in the

his narrative

with this apostrophe,

"

righteous

Where

Heaven

ere

slept the sword,

Personification

is

Freedom found a grave

omnipotent to save ?"

the representing an inanimate object,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

184

human

or a brute, as endowed with

wire

!"

you are

exclaimed the

dial-plate,

satisfied," replied the

Irony

is

attributes

holding up

its

monkey, "Justice

as,

"

Lazy
" If

hands.
is

not."

a playful or sarcastic statement of something-

intended to be taken in a sense exactly opposite

says, "

"

Very

when he means very

it," when he means

pleasant,"

Much you know

nothingiabout

about

The

it."

as

one

disagreeable
"

You know

intonation of the voice expresses the

sense to a hearer.

Onomatopoeia
its

is

the use of a

sound, a sound which

rap, clang, hum,

is

to

word which

be expressed

murmur ; and such words

imitates in

as, buzz,

whiz,

as moo, bow-wow,

ding-dong, rub-a-dub.

Alliteration

the

is

with the same letter

commencing of

successive words

as,

Begot by butchers but by bishops bred,

How high his honor holds his haughty head.

Many other
principal.

figures are enumerated, but the

They should be

above are the

required as a part of the study

of the reading-lesson, as important in the

meaning of the

sentence.

LESSON

XLT.

PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES.

198.

Certain significant prefixes and

suf-

used in composition of words,

adding their own meaning to the root with

fixes are often

which they are compounded.

The more

im-

portant are given.

ANGLO-SAXON SUFFIXES.
A, a

preposition,

meaning

on, in, or at,

sometimes simply

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

Abroad, ashore,

prosthesis.

awake,

He
itive

afield, afloat,

or without meaning,

arise.

changes intransitive verbs to trans-

signifies over, by ;

gives emphasis to transitive verbs

185

and

sometimes

is

expletive.

Ex.

Becloud, bedim.

1.

bepraise.

Mi

4.

Bethink,

2.

belie.

3.

Bedeck,

Begird, beloved.

wrong,

signifies

ill,

or

simply negative.

is

Mistaken,

mis-shapen, mistrust.

Un

denotes negation.

It

and verbs, and always before

is

used with

participles

many

adjectives

which admit a neg-

Unkind, unman, unknowing, unwept

ative form.

With (German

wider) denotes against,

stand, withhold, withdraw.

preposition of the

same

It has

from ;

with-

as,

no connection with the

spelling.

LATIN PREFIXES.

199

means from, away; as, avert,

turn away abduct, lead away abstract, draw .away.
Ad (changing d into c, f, 1, n, p, and s before those consonants respectively) means to or at; as, adduce, bring to;

A,

at>, or at>

accede, yield to

affix, fasten to

apposition, putting to

Ante means

ally,

bind to

assume, take to

before

as,

Cireuin means around

annex,

attract,

draw

tie to

to.

antediluvian, before the deluge.

or about ; as circumjacent, lying

about.

Coin (co, co! 9 con, cor) means

commingle

with or together

co-partner ; colloquy, talking together

as,

conjoin

correlative.

Contra, contro (French counter, means

as, contradict, controvert, counteract.

De

means from or down

as, depart, descend.

against;

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

186

Dis

or di implies separation;

disjoin,

as,

divert,

turn

aside.

E
out

or

ex (ef ) means

efface,

out

as, eject, cast

out

expel, drive

rub out.

Extra means over, beyond; as, extraordinary.

In (il, ini, ir) with verbs, means in, into,
with nouns or adjectives

it is

illumine, immerse, irradiate

usually negative

injustice,

Inter means between or among ;

Ob (oc, of, op) means against
against;

run against;

occur,

immoral,

or upon;

as,

indent,

illegal.

as intermix, intermeddle.

or

offer,

to ; as, obtrude,

bring to;

push

oppose, put

against.

Per means

through or by

; as,

permeate, flow through

perchance, perhaps.

Post means

after

as,

postpone, put after.

Pre means before, premeditate, prefix.

Pro means for, forth, forward ; as, proconsul ;
put forth

Re

propel, to

means back or again ;

e means away

propose,

push forward.

or aside

as, recall, re-establish.

as,

seduce, lead

away

secede,

withdraw.

Semi.

(Greek Item 5, French demi) means

half,

as,

semi-circle.

(sue, suf, sug, sup, sus) means under ; as, switerranean; succor, literally running under; suffer, labor

Sun

under

suggest, put

under

supposition, placing under

sus-

pect, look under.

Super

is

the opposite of sub

as,

superhuman, super-

natural.

Trans means
fer, carry over

yond

over, across, beyond, or through ; as, trans-

transport, carry across

translucent, shining through.

transgress,

go be-

;;

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

187

GREEK PREFIXES.

200.

Words which

contain ch hard, ph, or y except

at the beginning or end, are usually of

Greek

origin

as,

monarch, physic, synonym.

an

or

has a negative force

acephalous, headless

as,

anarchy, without rule.

Ant-i means against;

Apo

or apli (Latin ab) means

trophe, turning away-;

IMa means
Epi

as, anti-slavery.

aphceresis, taking

through

; as, diameter,

or epli means upon

Hyper

or

as,

apos-

away.

measure through.

as, epitaph,

away ;

upon a tomb.

(Latin super) means above, over;

ical, over-critical

Hyp

from

as, hypercrit-

hyperbole, overshooting.

(Latin sub) means under

as, hypothesis,

putting

under.

Meta means
Peri means
Syn,
syllable,

yl,

over,

beyond ;

around,

sym

as,

as,

metamorphose* change over.

perimeter measure around.

',

(Latin com) means with, or together;

taking together

symphony, sounding

as,

together

syntax, putting together.

FRENCH PREFIXES.

means

to ; as,

adieu, to

God; alarm

(a l'arme), to call

to arms.

I>e or d' means of or from;

deliver,

as,

free

from;

D'etroit, of the strait.

En

or

em

is

the Latin in

sur

is

the Latin super.

ENGLISH PREFIXES.

301. Dom,

in a noun, indicates the quality, state*

condition, or jurisdiction

of

the

primitive;

martyrdom, wisdom, dukedom, Christendom.

as,

freedom,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

188

Mood,

or

head

denotes existence, quality, or state

as,

Godhead, hardihood, boyhood.

Ness

is

an abstract (57) ending, found in about 1300

nouns.

Less in adjectives denotes without; as, careless, hopeless.

Ship nearly equals hood. It expresses abstractly that
which

is

implied by

The endings

its

primitive

as,

hardship, partnership.

ei\ ar, or, ard, art, ster (feminine) an-

nexed

to

sailor,

drunkard, braggart, spinster.

a verb, denote the agent or doer ;

as, baker, beggar,

LATIN AND FRENCH SUFFIXES.

202.

The

endings or, rix (feminine), eer* ier,

ee

(passive),

ent, and ant denote a person connected

way with

that action or thing which the root implies; as,

actor, executrix, auctioneer,

brigadier,

in

some

committee, president,

servant.

Cute and cte

are diminutives

animalcule, particle, con-

venticle.

Cy, ance, ence. ice, ion, ment, or, ity, ude, and
ure are abstract endings, sometimes annexed to adjectives,
sometimes to verbs
justice, division,
ture*

as,

inclemency, extravagance, penitence,

judgment, splendor\

nullity, amplitude, tinc-

PEOSODT
LESSON

Prosody

203.

XLII.

Accent, Versi-

treats of

fication and Punctuation.

Accent

syllables for

upon

a stress of voice laid

is

certain

euphony, for pointing out the em-

phatic idea, and to distinguish different uses of

the same word.
If

syllables

all

were pronounced with the same

monotony would be

The

intolerable.

accents distinguishes verse from prose

"

And

the sheen of their spears

was

In compound words the accent

the emphatic distinction
boat.

The verb

is

Accent

even when a sentence

the book

in

the

regular succession of
;

as,

on the

like stars'

on the

first

first part,

sea'."

because

as steam'boat, row--

noun by throwing
euphony is common in prose,

distinguished from the

the accent forward.

me

is

is

force, the

is

for

made up of monosyllables

as,

Give

7
.

Every word of more than one syllable has an

Polysyllables may have two or more accents as, ex
7
tion, un in-tel- Ii-gi-biT-i-ty.
;

accent.
7

-po-si

24. E2mphais is that variation of tone,

of form, or of position in the sentence, by which
special attention
It is generally

is

called to

any word.

expressed by contrast

a louder tone

contrasted with the ordinary level of the voice

(189)

is

in loud pas-

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

190

often expressed

sages,

it is

erally

an emphatic word

is

by dropping the voice

and gen-

followed by a pause, to contrast

a sound with silence.

Rhythm is a regular
Verse

is

made up

succession of accents.

of sentences rhythmically

arranged.

Rhyme

a correspondence of two words in

is

sound with a difference in initial sounds

as plam, main ; Atlantic, gigantic ; unfortunate,
importunate.
It usually occurs at the end of

final

verses.

205.

A Verse is

a single line in rhythmic

order.

Poetry

is

the language of imagination and

strong feeling.

The

It is a

nobler term than verse.

multiplication table can be put into verse,

but not into poetry. Poetry does not necessarily

imply rhyme or rhythm, but generally includes

rhythm.

Unrhymed rhythmic poetry

is

called

blank

verse.

A Canto

is

a principal division of a long

poem.

Stanza is a regular division of

made up of a uniform number of verses,
.in

regular order.

It is often

a poem,

repeated

erroneously called

a verse.

205.

A Foot

is

a combination of an ac-

COMMON SCHOOL

191

COUliSE.

cented syllable with one or more unaccented

The following are the four feet most
syllables.

used in English verse

The Trochee an accented

lowed by an unaccented as,
1.

syllable fol-

" Sail' of sat'in, mast' of ce'dar."

2.

The Iambus

ing an unaccented
"

Thy

an accented syllable followas,

shores' are em'pires changed' in

The iambus

is

the most

common

all'

save thee'."

English verse.

foot in

Most of the longer poems of Milton, Pope, Young, Campbell,

and Byron,' are in ten-syllabled iambic
mostly the eight syllabled iambic
3.

The Dactyl

cented syllable

4.

Scott used

line.

composed of an
followed by two unaccented
is

" In' the Aca'dian land',

Mi'nas."

lines.

(The

a foot

as,

on the shores' of the ba'sin of

last foot is a trochee.)

The Auapest

ac-

is

the dactyl reversed; two

unaccented. syllables followed by an accented

as,

"And his co'horts were gleam'ing in pur'ple and gold'."

The following lines may help to fix the feet in memory.
The Spondee, which accents every syllable, is rarely found
in English verse.

For long and

short,

understand accented

and unaccented.
" Tro'chee trips' from long' to short'

From

long to long, in solemn

Slow' Spon'dee'

sort,

stalks', strong' foot',

Ev'er to come' up with Dac'tyl

yet

ill

able

trisyl'lable

Iam'bics march' from short to long'

With a

leap'

and a bound' the

swift An'apests throng'."

ENGLISH GKAMMAK.

ID 2

In a long poem, the same foot

out, but in short

same

poems, a variety

is

generally used through-

is

often found, even in the

verse.

Dactyls are not very

Evangeline

fellow's

is

common

English verse.

in

Hiawatha

in dactyls.

is

Long-

in trochaic

verse.

Be

careful in reading verse not to accent too strongly, and

give the sing-song tone, and do not

make a rhythm

in read-

ing prose.

LESSON

XLIII.

PUNCTUATION.

307. Punctuation

treats of the points

which are

used in the division of written language, to develop the sense,

and show the

relations of words.

The Period

(.) is

used at the end of a sentence, either

simple or compound, which

is

not interrogative, nor exclama-

tory.

used after any expression regarded as complete, as in

It is

or headings of chapters, which are regarded as ellipti-

titles,

cal sentences.
It is also

used after abbreviations, and, in writing numbers,

at the right of the unit's place

as,

Hon.

S.

A. Douglass, M.

Wm. Morgan, Jr. 5.055.

208. The Colon (:) is now seldom used.

C.

use

between sentences

is

distinct,

It

is

and yet are but

to

show

Its

proper

that they are not entirely

slightly connected.

used principally before a long quotation, after the

expression as follows, or something of a similar meaning;

as,

He

low
It

addressed the assembly in the following terms

" Fel-

citizens of Tennessee."
is

also used

when a sentence

is

added

to a previous sen-

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE.

193

word

tence as an illustration, without a connecting

writer can expect always to write his best

as,

No

good Homer

sometimes drowses.

The Semi-colon

(;)

is

used between sentences which

are independent in meaning, and yet stand connected

which

are in similar relation to some other sentence, or which have

the same form

We
is

as,

must not take

this for the invention of

I have often wished that

upon one purpose

to

fancy

the fact

confirmed by a dozen eye-witnesses.

one pursuit

could concentrate

that I could direct the energy

my

that I could conquer

about the future

my mind
of my life

habit of dreaming

and could work in the present time as

my

only certain opportunity.

A professed Catholic, he imprisoned the pope

became the adopted

of St. Louis, he

name

in the

the orphan

child of the Republic

of Brutus, he grasped without shame, and wore

without remorse, the diadem of the Caesars.

21.

The

Comma

phrases, sentences, and clauses,

nected,

and are

in the

tence, words, phrases,

same

used to separate words,

is

(,)

which stand closely con-

relation

and

as, in

the above sen-

clauses,

are all in the

object relation to separate, and are separated

by the comma.

When

only two terms are used, and a co-ordinate conjunc-

tion is expressed
series,

sentences,

no

between them, or between the

comma is
They laughed and

and brave.

last

needed, as in the above, or as,

group of words

is

said

to

two of a

He

is

wise

shouted.

be

set

off

by commas when

preceded and followed by them.

If one of two similar terms has a modifier which stands
after

it

which does not modify the other, a comma must be

used between
terror.

He

as,

He came

in great haste,

and was

works hard, and earns good wages.

9

in great

If an or-

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

194
dinary connective

His

life is

omitted, a

is

comma

When

dark, desolate.

takes

place

its

words are joined

by conjunctions, a comma separates the

pairs

as,

in pairs

He may

as,

be prince or peasant, fool or philosopher, rich or poor, but

he

shall

An
as,

"

have a

shelter.

accessory relative clause

God, who knows

always set

is

all things,

off

by commas

reads our thoughts.

Nouns absolute by address are set off by commas

Romans, friends, countrymen, lend me your ears."

An

appositive standing after

except the

its

noun, with any modifier

generally set off by the

article, is

comma

Rome, the

Franklin, the American philosopher.

as,

mistress

John, the miller.

of the world.

An

as,

abridged participial clause

Having found our

we

friend,

is

set out for

having conquered the world, wept

by the comma as,

home. Alexander,

set off

more worlds

for

to con-

quer.

subject containing a clause as modifier

rated from the predicate by a

defeated Napoleon

comma

the subject.

sometimes excepted;
singular

who

Waterloo, was born in 1769.

at-

Adjuncts modifying the predicate are set

when they precede

generally sepa-

Wellington,

as,

is

as,

off

by the comma

short adjunct of time

is

In 1853, in the village of Barton, a

In winter we

phenomenon was observed.

slide

and

skate.

When

a word

is

repeated for emphasis, a

the repeated word from the preceding

time.

as,

comma separates
Now, now is the

Yes, yes.

A comma

takes the place of an omitted word which

essential to the sense

as,

To

err

is

human, (and)

is

to forgive,

(is) divine.

A modal adverb,
by the comma as,
;

course, this

made

adjunct, or clause,

is

Certainly, I will do

trouble.

generally separated

it

If you wish,

with pleasure.

it

can be moved.

Of

Common school

careful

recommended

195

couus::.

study of the punctuation employed by good writers is

as the best guide for common use.
Authorities differ

widely, particularly in the rules for the use of the comma.

Close connection in sense forbids any point.
long sentence does not require
a point within it simply because it is long. Heading pauses are no
sure guide.
The sense alone determines.

211.
inverted)

The Interrogation Point

(?

the semi-colon

question means one which requires an answer.

tion
rect,

is

placed after every direct question.

is

If the ques-

quoted with the form of the verb changed,

and does not require the interrogation

direct

it

indi-

is

point.

He said, u Will you venture ?" (Direct.)

He asked me if I would venture. (Indirect.)
The Exclamation Point (!) stands after the exclamaEx.

tory sentence, and after most exclamations

folly

Pshaw

how absurd

The Apostrophe

as,

Alas

what

denotes the omission of a letter;

(')

as, e'er for ever.

Quotation Points

(" ") are

used

to inclose

taken from another author or speaker

well said, "

He

that hateth suretyship

is

as,

a passage

Solomon hath

sure."

Single quotation points are used when a quotation stands

in

"

a quotation

What
What

as,

haste hast thou

Ride

here?

bringst thou

softly

He

take thy breath

answered,

'War and

death.'"

The

Hyphen

pound word
It
is

is

(-) is

used between the parts of a com-

as, ant-hill,

red-hot, will-o'-the-wisp.

used at the end of the line when a part of the word

The

carried over to the following line.

syllable should

never be divided.
It is also used

when

syllables are to

re-elect, instead of reelect

to indicate to the

be made distinct

lti-mi-na-ry,

eye the several

when

syllables.

the design

as,
is


ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

196

The Diaeresis

to show that it is not

same syllable as the preceding vowel as, cooperate.
Without the diseresis, the word would be pronounced in
is

used over a vowel

in the

three syllables.

The Caret (A)

used in manuscript to denote the

is

omission of some word which

The Star
Dagger

(j),

is

inserted above.

or Aterik (*), the

and

letters

and

Dagger

figures, are

Double

(f), the

used as marks of

reference.

The Dash

) is

used to denote a sudden interruption

And

or transition of sense; as,

the

thrice

image leapt from the ground.

to tell

Also to denote the omis-

of B
word a*, Mr.
n.
of Parenthesis or Curves are used to enclose

sion of a word, or a part of a

Marks

wonderful

explanations or remarks which are not a part of the sen-

and might be omitted without

tence,

tion of the proposition

to-night!

Upon

this,

as,

affecting the construc-

How many

(soldiers) are to fall

the weights (who had never been ac-

cused of light conduct) began to urge him forward.

Dashes often take the

many languages

object in

by a

place of curves

Latin, for

as,

example

The

is

indirect

indicated

special case, or ending, called the Dative.

The

sound

macron
as,

The Breve
sound;

(~) placed over a vowel denotes

its

long

ago.
w
(

as, level.

placed over a vowel denotes

its

short

APPENDIX

USE OF CAPITALS.

212.

1-

Capital letters should be used at the begin-

ning of each independent sentence.

At

1.

Common

the beginning of each

proper noun and adjective.

nouns personified are included, and

all appellations

of the Deity, whether noun or adjective.

At

3.
title

4.

5.

the beginning of each noun, adjective, or verb in a

as of a book, or of a society.

Every line in poetry should commence with a capital.

The pronoun / and the exclamation O are always in

capitals.
6.

A direct quotation

7.

Personal pronouns of the second and third persons

commences with a

referring to the Almighty are sometimes

capital.
8.

This usage

is

gaining favor, but

Capitals are sometimes used

capital.

commenced with a
is

at the

not universal.

beginning of an

emphatic w ord, instead of putting the whole word into

T

italics.

9.

Headings

ol chapters,

running

titles

of books, and the

principal divisions of books* are printed wholly in capitals.

In advertisements, posters, and other matter designed to

at-

tract special attention, capitals are freely used.

RULES FOR SPELLING.

213.

I.

Final

(197)

f,

I,

and

are

doubled in monosyl-

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

198
lables

cept

when preceded by a vowel;

if,

and the

yes,

gas, has, hi-,

as,

clef, of,

as,
is,

third singular of verbs

stiff] ball,

Ex-

pass.

pus, this, thus, us, was,

which end

in silent e

as,

gives.

Other

II.

final

Except ebb,

consonants remain single.

add, odd, egg, inn, err, burr, butt, buzz, fuzz.

A,

III.

doubled.

li,

C|

i,

is

J,

It,

v,

ii,

<j,

w,

x,

and y are never

always followed by u.

IV. Monosyllables and words accented on the

which end

ble,

vowel

double the

final sylla-

consonant preceded by a single

in a single
fiiatiB

consonant

ending which commences with a vowel

on receiving an
as,

bud, budding

commit, committee.

The double consonant indicates the

Thus hopping is
preceding vowel.
hoping by the double consonant.
Words not accented on the final

short sound of the

distinguished

syllable,

from

ending in a single

consonant, retain the consonant single on receiving an ending

as, pencil, penciling

offer, offered.

Usage varies in regard to words ending in el, and a few

Worcester doubles
others. Webster follows the above rule.
the

as in traveller,

mute

V. Final e

is

dropped before an ending which

commences with a vowel as, forc(e)ible. Except after c

and g to preserve the soft sound, singeing and dyeing to
distinguish them from singing and dying, and words ending
;

in

ee and oe
VI.

mute

as, agreeable, shoeing.

final is retained

gins with a consonant

as,

before an ending which be-

careful.

Except duly,

truly,

awful, wholly, judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment.

VII. Final

y preceded by a

ceiving an ending which

as,

merriment,

consonant becomes

commences with any

pitiless, pitying.

letter

on

except

reI

APFENDIX.
VIII. Final

y preceded by

before an ending
-said, staid, daily,

as,

199

a vowel remains unchanged

chimneys, payment.

Except

laid, paid,

gaily (or gayly).

IX. Compounds are spelled like their primitives, unless

When this
three letters of the same name come together.
occurs, the letter

is

dropped, or a hyphen

is

employed between;

as, Ross-shire, fully, instead of full- ly.

Compounds of
drop one

X.

and full not written with a hyphen

all

as, fulfill,

When e

and

always, fearful.

first

otherwise,

When
Except

comes

Except

niece, relieve.

that of

and

long,

first

c or

s,

as, either, seize, deceive, grief,

neither, siege, financier.

in a diphthong have any sound other than

e comes

first;

as,

heifer,

weight, sleight.

sieve.

The above

rules apply only to English ivords,

include proper names.

by

e comes

are a diphthong with the sound of

long, at the beginning of a word, or after

It is

recommended

special spelling lessons, containing

and do not

to fix

a great

each rule

many

ex-

amples.

DERIVATION OF SURNAMES.

The word Surname means an

name, and is now used to denote the name of
added to the name of the individual. In Bible

21 4.

names were unfrequent.

Many nations

at present

additional

the family
times, sur-

make

little

use of them.

Besides their use in distinguishing persons, surnames are

of interest as giving important facts in the history and derivation of words.

Most surnames can be referred to the following classes

1. Patronymics ; or names derived from the name of a
English patronymics end in son, and
father, or ancestor.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

200
every familiar

first

name

or nick-name has

corresponding

its

patronymic.

Ex.

Adamson,
=

Wilson

Davidson, Johnson, Peterson, Jackson,

Dickson or Dixon

Williamson,

Anderson == Andrew's

as,

Richardson,

son.

Fitz, a corruption of the

prefix in patronymics

French

Jils

son,

is

used as a

Fitz James, Fitz Maurice.

Scotch patronymics have the prefix

Mac

or

Mc ;

The Irish prefix is O, said to

The Welsh prefix the preposition ap, meaning
name of the father, and ap, contracting with the

Clellan, Macgregor.

grandson.
the

of, to

Mcmean

as,

following name, gives us several patronymics commencing

with

as,

Powell, for ap Howell ; Price, for ap Rice.

Surnames of Occupation.

2.

derived from verbs, and end in

Ex.

of these are

er.

Baker, Brewer, Cooper, Fowler, Crocker or

Miller, Jenner (that

and

Many

its

is,

Potter,

Mason, Smith (from smite)

Joiner),

compounds.

Some names

of this class end in

man ;

as,

Seaman, Water-

man.

Feminine surnames of occupation were formed

Baxter

in ster ; as,

Bakester, Brewster, Spinster, and Webster, the

feminine of

Webber

==

Weaver.

Obsolete professions give us such names as Arrowsmith ==

Fletcher, Bowyer,
ner, that
1

3.

is,

Lorimer (bridle-maker), Latimer (Lati-

interpreter

who can

talk Latin).

Official Title. Duke, Earl, Knight, Squires, Bishop,

Dean, Parsons, Clark

Bailey

and Pope,
4.

one

Bailiff,

Pope.

Clerk,

Some

may have been

Hardly a

village

Saxton, Priest,

of these names, such as King

given as nicknames.

Surnames of Locality

dence.

Sexton

in

derived from place of resi-

England or JS'ormandy which

has not originated some surname.

Besides these, there are

APPENDIX.

names of

localities of

occupation and

first

every kind.

201

Two men

of the same

name, would readily be distinguished as

James from the hill, and James from the dale, naturally becoming James Hill and James Dale.
Ex.
Meadows, Ford,' Park, Bridge = Eriggs, Banks,
Field, and Wood, with their numerous compounds; Towner,
Weller, Wellman.
5.
Names derived from Personal Qualities, or
Ex. Black, Brown, White, Little, Long,
Peculiarities.

Snell (quick), Armstrong, Hardy, Doolittle, Toogood, Roy,

Ro c s = Red.
National Names.

Reed, and
6.

English, England, French, Irish,

Dane or Denis, Switzer, German, Dutcher,

Walesa W albs = Walsh = Welch, Flanders, Gael or Gale.
7. Names of Emblems, derived from coats of arms.
Most of the animals familiar to our ancestors have given
ns surnames as, of quadrupeds, we have Buck, Doe, Hind,
Of birds,
Hart, Stagg, Lion, Lamb, Kidd, Hogg, Wolfe.
Heron, Hawk, Robin, Jay, Pigeon, Nightingale, Wren. Of
Ireland, Scott,

fishes,

Parr, Salmon, Chubb, Herring.

From

other familiar objects likely to be used as emblems,

we have Sun, Moon,

Starr,

Rock, Rose, Oakes, Swords,

Spear.

There are other sources, but the above are the

When

the pupils are of different nationalities,

teresting to trace the corresponding

Thus, Schneider

languages.
ler

= Tyler,

it

principal.

is

names through

often indifferent

= Taylor, Miiller Miller, Zieg-

Mc Go wan = Carpenter.
SYNONYMS.

915.
to

A Synonym

is

word equivalent

in

meaning

some other word.

Words

precisely equivalent are called exact synonyms.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

202

These are uncommon

in

any language.

once agreed upon as the sign of an idea,

needed

to

express the same idea.

When

word is
another word is not

Still, in

taking into our

language words from different sources, we have a few exact

Hypothesis from the Greek, and supposition from

synonyms.

But

the Latin language are examples.

and
is

for meter,

and in

all

in poetry for

rhyme

writing for variety of expression,

it

convenient to have terms of different sound, different accent,

and of

Thus, falchion, brand,

different length.

saber, scimitar, are

blade, glaive^

synonyms of sword ; yet these names are

not exactly equivalent.

falchion

is

a crooked sword (falx= sickle), a saber

horseman's sword, curved at the point, a blade

is

is

a part put

for the whole, etc.

Much

of the ease and grace of composition depends upon

the writer's ability to express an idea in terms which are

exact,

Even a

and yet not too common-place.

may seem

fresh

words than

and interesting when expressed

usual.

It is excellent practice to

produce the idea of a good

The most
expression.

familiar truth

w riter
r

in our

own

in better

attempt to rewords.

familiar ideas have usually the greatest forms of

Thus the verb

see

has the following approxi,

mate synonyms:
Look, view, survey, eye, behold, descry, espy, gaze,

(There are others which the pupil

watch, scan, scrutinize.

will

stare,

do well to search out and compare.)

The above might be

transitive, those

separated

first

which take a direct

take an adjunct complement.

into transitive

object,

and

in-

and those which

Look, gaze, and stare require

the preposition at to follow them.

Look means properly

but not

see.

to direct the sight.

One may

look,

203

APPENDIX.
Gaze means a prolonged steady look.
glance,

Its

Stare, like gaze, implies a long look, with eyes

expressing astonishment or rudeness.

lent

opposite

is

which implies a brief look.

is to

View

make great

is

Its

German

equiva-

eyes.

very nearly the same as

It

see.

It generally implies a distinct

French.

wide open,

comes from the

and somewhat pro-

longed vision.

Survey means overlook ; look from above upon any thing,

and see all its parts.

Eye means to examine
figure of Metonymy.
Behold means

closely.

It

literally to hold upon.

is

emphatic by the

It expresses steady,

continued looking, like gaze.

Descry means to see something which had been invisible

because of distance.

Espy

or spy

means

something which had been con-

to see

cealed.

Watch

is

used chiefly of bodies which are in motion.

has the same

root as wake,

It

and implies roused and close

attention.

Scan and

mean

scrutinize

to observe carefully

and

criti-

cally.

Approximate synonyms of round are

cylindrical,

curvilinear,

spherical,

circular, annular,

globidar, elliptical, oval.

Let the pupil learn the exact meaning of each.

Take the,following list of words
:

Speak, say, utter,

talk, tell,

harangue.

Give the precise meaning

many synonyms

as possible, and write sen-

sert, express, discourse,

of each, add as

announce, declare, affirm, as-

tences which contain the several verbs used correctly.

select sentences

use.

Also
from standard authors, illustrating the proper

Newspaper authority

is

often of no value

204

ENGLISH GRAMMAI!.

The

exact meaning of words must generally be sought for

Unabridged Dictionaries, which should be in every school

room.

in

Many words find their synonyms

and these admit of endless variety.

in phrases, or in clauses,

Thus a

historian

may

be a writer of history, a historical writer, one who writes histort/, an author of a history.

may

Pupils

with profit practice the changing of words as

they read, to secure a ready use of synonyms.

be supposed that their changes

will

may improve

author's words, but they

It

is

not to

always improve upon the

their

own

style

by the

exercise.

passage from Cicero

is'

given below, and the same pas-

sage changed by the. substitution of synonyms.

"

Had

I not,

by deeply pondering

the precepts of philoso-

phy, and the lessons of the historian and the poet, imbued

my

mind with an early and an intimate conviction

nothing in

renown,"
"

Had

life is

that

worthy of strenuous pursuit but honor and

etc.

by careful meditation upon the teachings of

philosophers, and the instructions of authors of history and
I not,

poetry, early persuaded

object in existence
it

is

be glory or fame,"

my

reason to the

full belief that

no

deserving of vigorous endeavor, unless

etc.

Similar exercises carefully prepared and sharply criticized

by the

class,

and by the teacher, are very

useVul.
i

EXERCISE IN SYNONYMS.
Difference between love and

like ?
Between idle and lazy?
Between generous and liberal?
Between education and learning ? Between spot and blemBetween bring and fetch ? Bear and carry ? Underish ?

Between plunge and dive

2Vo

APPENDIX.
stand and comprehend?

Tomb and grave?

Calamity and catastrophe

prefer ?

Civil

Choose and

and

polite ?

Womanly and womanish ? Conscientious and scrupulous ?

Frugal and economical ? Hope and expect ?
Courage, bravery, fortitude,

transport

heroism

Hinder and

Knowledge and wisdom ?

Guess and think?

Large and big?

Export and
Droop and drop ?

deter ?

Usual and general?

High and tall ?

Poetry and poesy ?
Ally and confederate ?
semble and convene ?
Hate and abhor

As-

INDEX.
(The numbers

refer to the page.)

Abstract nouns, 58, 90.

Comma,

193.

Comparison of adjectives,

endings, 90.

56, 135,

Accent

of adverbs, 137.
Complement of a verb, 104

Adjectives, 25, 87,132.

classes of, 28, 132.
comparison, 26, 135.
modification, 155.

Compound

defined, 189.
of compounds, 94.

Adjuncts, 162.
Adverbs, 32, 137.
relations

of,

accent

words, 86.
of,

86, 189.

Conjugation, 51, 120.

Conjunctions, 43, 87.
'list of, 143.

138.

derived from pronouns, 138.

classes of, 143.

correlative, 144.
Consonants, 82.

Alphabet, 81.
Allegory, 183.

sonant and non-sonant, 83.

Construction, 165.

Alliteration, 184.
An or A, 136.
Analvsis, 33, 65.

Dactvl, 191.

models, 63-65, 175-179.

Anapest, 191.
Antecedent, 125.
Aphaeresis, 180.

Apocope, 180.
Apostrophe, use

of, 195.
183.
Apposition, 150.
Archaism, 179.
Articles, 136.
As, relative pronoun, 128.
Auxiliaries, 141.

figure

of,

Base of an adjunct, 141.

Be, forms of, 112.
Subjunctive forms, 117.

Dash, 196.
Declarative sentences, 60.
Declension of nouns, 50.
of pronouns, 126.
Demonstratives, 131.
Derivation, 85.
of verbs, 123.
of surnames, 199.
Diaeresis, 196.

Diminutives, 58, 90.

Diphthongs,

82.

Distributives, 131.

Each other, one another, 132.

Elements of the sentence, 19.
Ellipsis, 62, 181.

Emphasis defined, l v 9.
Emphatic form of verbs,

Capitals, rules for, 197.

Cardinal numerals, 133.

Enallage, 182.
Errors corrected, 73-76.

Case defined, 94.

Clause defined, 31.

Etymology,

kinds of, 163.

Collective nouns, 90.
Colon, 192.

Exclamations, 44, 145.

Euphony,

110.

85.

84.

Exclamatory sentences,
Expletives, HO.

60.

08

INDEX.

Feminine endings, 98
Figures of speech, 179.
plural

of, 96.

Foot denned. 190.

French prefixes, 187.
Gender, 95.
Gerund, 99, 172.

Grammar
Greek

defined, 80.
prefixes, 187.

Hyperbaton,182.
Hyperbole, 183.

Hyphen,

195.

Modifiers of pronouns, 154.

of adjectives, 154.
of verbs, 157.
Mode subjunctive, 117.
Multiplicatives, 133.

Nominative, 97.

Nouns

defined, 22, 89.

classes of, 89-91.
inflection of, 96.
plural, 98.
possessive, 50, 98.
modification of, 150.

construction

Number,

of,

165.

96.

Iambus, 191.
Imperative sentences, 62.
Imperfect participle, 102, 172.

Object defined, 97.

Infinitive, 56, 104.

Object clauses, abridged, 161,

Obsolete words, 88.

syntax
uses

of,

of,

170.

170.

in abridged clauses, 170.

Inflection, 47, 91.

Interrogation point, 195.

Interrogative sentences, 62.

pronouns, 39, 128.

Irony, 184.
Irregular verbs, 106.
It, special uses of, 127.
Labials, 83.

Language

defined, 79.

Latin prefixes, 185.

Letter writing, 67.
date of, 67.
address, 68.
conclusion, 70.
direction, 71.

models

of, 67-73.
Letters defined, 82.
classified, 71-73.
Liquids, 82,

Metaphor, 183.

Metonymy,

183.

Methinks, 119, 158.

Modal adverbs, 139.

Modify defined,

25.

Modifiers, 24, 150-165.

of nouns, 150.

indirect, 158.

Onomatopoeia, 184.
Ordinal numerals, 133.
Orthography, 81.
rules of, 197.

Paradigm, 98.
Paragoge, ISO.
Parenthesis, 196.
Parsing, 150.
Participles, 54, 99.
in abridged clauses, 161.
uses of, 172, 173.
Parts of speech, 22, 87.
Passive voice, 112, 160.
Period, 192.
Person defined, 43.
Personal pronouns, 36, 126.
compound, 43, 127.
declension of, 126.
Personification, 183.
Phonic spelling, 84.
Phrase defined, 149.
Pleonasm, 181.
Plural, formation of, 48.
Poetry defined, 190.
Positive degree, 57, 134.
Possessives, 49, 97.
Predicate, 19, 147.
Prefixes, Ansrlo-Saxon, 184.
Latin, 185.

209

INDEX.
Prefixes, Greek, 187.
French, 187.
Prepositions, 40, 141.
list of, 41, 141.

compounded with

Suffixes; English, 184.

Latin and French, 188.

Superlative degree, 134.
Surnames, derivation of, 199.
verb, 142.

Primitive words, 85.

Progressive form of verbs, 114.

Pronominal adjectives, 131.

Pronouns, 35, 91, 125.
classes of, 125.
declension, 126.
relative, 45, 128.

interrogative, 39, 128,

reciprocal, 132.
Proposition, 147.
Prosody, 189.
Punctuation, 192.

Quotation points, 195.

Syllables, 84
Syllepsis, 181.
Syncope, 180.
Synecdoche, 183.

Synonyms, 201/
Syntax, 146.
Tense, 56, 100.
That, when preferred
as relative, 152.
Title, when pluralized, 97.

Tmesis, 180.
Transitive verbs, 104.
Transposition, 174.

examples

of,

175.

Trochee, 191.

Redundant

verbs, 123.

Relative pronouns, 45, 128.

Root of a word, 86.

Rhyme, 175, 190.

Rhythm, 190.
Rule denned,

84.

Rules of spelling, 197.

for capitals, 97.

Semi-colon, 194.

Sentence defined, 19, 146.

classes of, 59, 147.
analysis of, 63.
for analysis, 66.
analvzed, 64, 174.
Simile, 182.
Spelling defined, 84.
rules of, 197.
Spondee, 193.

Strong conjugation, 103.

Subject, 19, 147.

Subjunctive mode, 117.

Subsequent, 141.
Substantive, 44.

Verbs, 98, 106.

auxiliary, 113.
causative sense, 161.
conjugation, 103.
defective, 106, 125.
derivation, 123
emphatic form, 111.
irregular, 106.
lists of strong, 120.
potential form, 111.
principal parts, 103.
progressive form, 110.
progressive passive, 117.
redundant, 123.
voice, 112.
Verse, 190.
Vowels, 82.

What, use of,

Words, 79.

Weak

129.

conjugation, 109.

AI

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