Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Covering over 70% of the planets area, the Earths oceans could potentially be utilized as
a source of virtually inexhaustible renewable energy. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
(OTEC) is a method that employs naturally occurring temperature differences between warm
surface water and colder deep seawater. To be effective a minimum temperature difference
between the ocean surface layers is 20 C . These temperature gradients exist primarily in
specific tropical regions near the equator originally proposed by French Engineer Jacques Arsene
dArsonval in 1881, OTEC is not a new technology. Since then many advancements have been
made in the development of this technology. The three most common OTEC systems are: opencycle, closed-cycle and hybrid cycle, all requiring a working fluid, condenser and evaporator
within the system. These three systems all employ the thermodynamics of a working heat
exchanger and use the temperature differences naturally occurring in the ocean as the driving
force. Concerns with efficiency losses due to befouling, system power requirements and heat
exchanging systems have lead to exploration through case studies and analysis. While OTEC
systems have been studied since 1881 there have been few full-scale implementations. There are
still, however, a number of studies being conducted, especially in Japan, regarding the
implementation of this renewable large scale technology.

CHAPTER 2
History
The first known Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) system was proposed by a
French Engineer Jacques ArsenedArsonval, in 1881 (Takahashi and Trenka, 1996). Recognizing
the tropical oceans as a potential source of energy, through the natural temperature differences
between the oceans surface water and deep water, DArsonval built a closed-cycle OTEC
system, with ammonia as the working fluid that powered an engine (Takahashi and Trenka,
1996). Ammonia was chosen as the best fluid available to accommodate the pressure differences
between the two temperatures of water assuming that the temperature of the boiler was 30 C
and the condenser was 15 C (Avery and Wu, 1994). The pressure differences in the OTEC
system design was one of the challenges DArsonval had to overcome. Ammonia was selected
because it had such a low boiling point allowing it to become vaporized by the small temperature
gradients when by the pumps in the system. In similar cycles where the Rankine cycle is
followed there is usually a higher pressure gradient in which to generate energy i.e. combustion
driven engines. In the case of OTEC the temperature gradients are maximum 22 C therefore
a working fluid that was able to change phases with such as small gradient was chosen. This
proposed technology was never tested by dArsonval himself.A student of dArsonval named
George Claude soon took on the challenge of properly designing and building a working OTEC
system. Claude, however, took a different approach to the design. He stated that corrosion and
bio fouling of the heat exchanger in an OTEC system would be a problem in the closed-cycle
design. Claude suggested using the warm seawater itself as the working fluid in an open-cycle,
2

now better known as the Claude cycle (Aver Ougree-Marhaye in Belgium by creating an engine
fueled by water temperature differences.
Using the 30 C cooling water from a steel plant as the source for warm water for the
boiler (evaporator) and 10 C water from the Meuse River as the condensing fluid, Claude
successfully demonstrated the feasibility of the open-cycle concept (Avery and WU, 1994). This
water from the steel plant was the cooling water sprayed on the steel during fabrication in order
to prevent flaws in the steel when still malleable. In 1930 George Claude designed and built a
fully operational closed loop system OTEC power station in Matanzas Bay in Northern Cuba
(Takahashi and Trenka, 1996). This power station generated 22 kilowatts (kW), but had a
negative energy balance, consuming more power then it produced.
Later Claude perused the construction of a floating power plant aboard a cargo ship
anchored off the coast of Brazil (Takahashi and Trenka, 1996). Unfortunately before the plant
could be completed the coldwater pipes required for the OTEC plant were destroyed by the
oceans powerful waves. OTEC systems were not investigated again on a serious scale until 1956
when a team of French scientists and engineers designed a 3 megawatt (MW) power plant. This
design project had to be abandoned due to the expenses associated with the components of the
OTEC system (Takahashi and Trenka, 1996). In 1962 Hilbert Anderson and his son James H.
Anderson, Jr. began full scale design analysis of OTEC systems. Soon after, in 1970, they were
joined by William E. Heronemus from the University of Massachusetts along with Clarence
Zener of Carnegie-Mellon University (Committee on Alternative Energy Sources, 1975). Their
research was funded by the National Science Foundation through a grant awarded in 1972 to the
University of Massachusetts in order to allow for a complete study of the technical and economic
feasibility of the OTEC process. Another grant soon followed awarded again by the National
Science Foundation in 1973 to the Carnegie-Mellon University to further investigate other
elements of OTEC systems .Unfortunately their efforts were wasted as the energy board paid
little attention to their published findings assuming that coal and nuclear power would supply the
future energy requirements.
OTEC study in Japan began in 1974 with the launch of the Sunshine Project by the Japanese
government. The primary focus of this project was to research and develop Ocean Thermal
Energy Conversion systems. In 1977, Saga University successfully constructed an OTEC plant
known as Shiranui 3, which managed to produce 1 kW of energy. Experiments were carried out
in 1978 in order to test the performance of the condenser and evaporator in both shell and tube
type heat exchangers. In the following year, a plate type heat exchanger was also tested using a
different type of Freon as the working fluid (Uehara et al., 2005). In 1980, a 50 kW offshore
OTEC plant y and Wu, 1994). Claude next sought to prove his open-cycle theory at was
constructed and tested by Saga University. The following year, Tokyo Electric Co. successfully
experimented with an OTEC system in the Republic of Nauru, generating up to 120 kW of
electricity (Xenysis, 2007). In 1981 a new method for using the temperature differences in the
ocean to produce power was proposed. This was known as the Kalina cycle after its inventor Dr.
3

Kalina. Up until 1981 the primary focus of study had been on the well-known Rankine cycle.
The Kalina cycle was able to use a mixture of ammonia and water to operate, which gave it an
advantage\ over the Rankine cycle that requires a pure substance In 1982, Kyushu Electric Co.
also of Japan succeeded in constructing a 50 kW OTEC plant. This plant was based on a closed
loop cycle that utilized the waste heat from a diesel generator. It was not until 1985 that Saga
University managed to construct a larger version of their experimental OTEC system, capable of
producing 75 kW. In order to move the technology forward and attempt to attain economically
feasible power, a group of 25 of Japans top companies spanning a variety of fields (engineering,
manufacturing, ship building, power generation) were brought together in 1988 to form an
organization to study OTEC .

CHAPTER 3
Plant design and location
The location of a commercial OTEC plant has to be in an environment that is stable enough for
an efficient system operation. The temperature differential at the site has to be at least 20
C(680F). Generally the natural ocean thermal gradient necessary for OTEC operation is found
between latitudes 20 north and 20 south. Land-based OTEC plants do not require a
sophisticated mooring system, lengthy power cables and more extensive maintenance as required
with open ocean environment. In addition, the land-based sites allow OTEC to be associated with
industries such as agriculture and those needing cooling and desalinated water.
The offshore or floating OTEC plant is another option. There are a number of difficulties
associated with such a facility as it is difficult to stabilize the platform. The need for lengthy
cables to deliver power and extra transportation to access the plant are added expenses. The plant
is also more susceptible to damage especially during storms.

CHAPTER 4
Environmental considerations
The amount of total world power that could be provided by OTEC must be balanced with
the impact to the marine environment that might be caused by the relatively massive amounts of
seawater required to operate OTEC plants. The discharge water from a 100 MW plant would be
equivalent to the nominal flow of the Colorado River into the Pacific Ocean. The discharge flow
from 60,000 MW (0.6 percent of present world consumption) of OTEC plants would be
equivalent to the combined discharge from all rivers flowing into the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
-1
(361,000 m3 s ).
Although river runoff composition is considerably different from the OTEC discharge,
providing a significant amount of power to the world with OTEC might have an impact on the
environment below the oceanic mixed layer and, therefore, could have long-term significance in
the marine environment. However, numerous countries throughout the world could use OTEC as
a component of their energy equation with relatively minimal environmental impact. Tropical
and subtropical island sites could be made independent of conventional fuels for the production
of electricity and desalinated water by using plants of appropriate size.
OTEC offers one of the most benign power production technologies, since the handling
of hazardous substances is limited to the working fluid (e.g., ammonia), and no noxious by5

products are generated The carbon dioxide out-gassing from the seawater used for the operation
of an OC-OTEC plant is less than 1 percent of the approximately 700 grams per kWh amount
released by fuel oil plants. The value is even lower in the case of a CC-OTEC plant.
A sustained flow of cold, nutrient-rich, bacteria-free deep ocean water could cause sea
surface temperature anomalies and biostimulation if resident times in the mixed layer and the
euphotic zone respectively are long enough the euphotic zone is the upper layer of the ocean in
which there is sufficient light for photosynthesis. This has been taken to mean the 1 percentlight-penetration depth .This is unduly conservative, because most biological activity requires
radiation levels of at least 10 percent of the sea surface value. Since light intensity decreases
exponentially with depth, the critical 10 percent-light-penetration depth corresponds to, for
example, 60 m in Hawaiian waters.
The analyses of specific OTEC designs indicate that mixed seawater returned at depths of
60 m results in a dilution coefficient of 4 (i.e., 1 part OTEC effluent is mixed with 3 parts of the
ambient seawater) and equilibrium (neutral buoyancy) depths below the mixed layer throughout
the year .This water return depth also provides the vertical separation, from the warm water
intake at about 20 m, required to avoid reingestion into the plant. This value will vary as a
function of ocean current conditions. It follows that the marine food web should be minimally
affected and that persistent sea surface temperature anomalies should not be induced. These
conclusions need to be confirmed with actual field measurements that could be performed with
the pre-commercial plant described below.
To have effective heat transfer it is necessary to protect the heat exchangers from
biofouling. It has been determined that, with proper design, biofouling only occurs in OTEC heat
exchangers exposed to surface seawater. Therefore, it is only necessary to protect the CC-OTEC
evaporators. Chlorine (Cl2) has been proposed along with several mechanical means. Depending
upon the type of evaporator, both chemical and mechanical means could be used.
Other potentially significant concerns are related to the construction phase. These are
similar to those associated with the construction of any power plant, shipbuilding and the
construction of offshore platforms. What is unique to OTEC is the movement of seawater
streams and the effect of passing such streams through the OTEC components before returning
them to the ocean .The use of biocides and ammonia are similar to other human activities. If
occupational health and safety regulations like those in effect in the USA are followed, working
fluid and biocide emissions from a plant should be too low to detect outside the plant sites.
Ammonia is used as a fertilizer and in ice skating rink refrigeration systems. Chlorine is used in
municipal water treatment plants and in steam power plants.
OTEC plant construction and operation may affect commercial and recreational fishing.
Fish will be attracted to the plant, potentially increasing fishing in the area. Enhanced
productivity due to redistribution of nutrients may improve fishing. However, the losses of
inshore fish eggs and larvae, as well as juvenile fish, due to impingement and entrainment and to
the discharge of biocides may reduce fish populations. The net effect of OTEC operation on
aquatic life will depend on the balance achieved between these two effects. Through adequate
planning and coordination with the local community, recreational assets near an OTEC site may
6

be enhanced. It is essential that all potentially significant concerns be examined and assessed for
each site and design to assure that OTEC is an environmentally benign and safe alternative to
conventional power generation. The consensus among researchers is that the potentially
detrimental effects of OTEC plants on the environment can be avoided or mitigated by proper
design

CHAPTER 5
Working principal of OTEC

An OTEC plant consists of a heat engine that converts thermal energy into mechanical
work through the temperature gradient between a heat source and a heat sink. Although this
temperature gradient is relatively small compared to a steam engine, the principle is the same.
The OTEC technology is divided into three categories: closed-cycle, open cycle and hybridcycle. In the closed-cycle system, the most common of the three, the temperature difference is
used to vaporize (and condense) a working fluid (e.g. ammonia) to drive a turbine-generator to
produce electricity. In the open-cycle system, warm surface water is introduced into a vacuum
chamber where it is flash-vaporized. The produced water vapor drives a turbine-generator to
generate electricity.
The remaining water vapor (essentially distilled water) is condensed using cold water.
The condensed water can either return back to the ocean or be collected for the production of
potable water. The hybrid-cycle combines the characteristics of the closed cycle and the open
cycle, and has great potential for applications requiring higher efficiencies for the co-production
of energy and potable water. In all of the three cycles, it is required to obtain deep cold water to

condense the working fluid, which is normally available at depths of 1,000 meters, where the
temperature of the water is approximately 4 C (39 F).

CHAPTER 6

Environmental Impact
In general, OTEC is a benign technology from the environmental point of view. It does
not use fuel, there are no air emissions of conventional pollutants, it does not generate solid or
toxic waste, and effluents are essentially similar to the receiving waters. Nevertheless, OTEC is
not free of environmental impact. During the construction phase, several zones will be
temporarily impacted such as the area where the plant and its seawater piping system (in the case
of a land-based plant), are to be built, the electric grid interconnection facilities and the
submarine power cable (in the case of the floating platform). It is important to avoid areas that
are considered environmentally sensitive when selecting a site for an OTEC plant.
In terms of air emissions, there will not be any release of pollutants associated to the
combustion process of fossil fuels. In an open-cycle or hybrid-cycle plant, gases dissolved in
seawater will escape to the atmosphere, resulting in emissions of CO2. Nevertheless, these are
significantly lower than the emissions generated from the combustion of a fuel to generate an
equivalent amount of energy. In closed or hybrid cycle plants, there are legitimate concerns about
the possible effects of releases of the working fluid to the environment. In the past, substances
such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are not immediately dangerous to human health,
8

were proposed as working fluid. However, CFC's have adverse effects on the ozone layer and
have been identified as potential contributors to global warming. For this reason, most recent
designs have considered ammonia as the working fluid, due to its superior thermal and
thermodynamic characteristics.
Ammonia has been in use as a refrigerant for more than 100 years, and there is vast
experience in the design, operation, maintenance, storage, use and distribution of such systems
(Cohen 1982; George and Richards 1980; Avery and Wu 1994). Although ammonia has toxic
effects, history has demonstrated that systems using it as a working fluid can be operated safely
and with high reliability, if basic precautions are taken during design, construction and operation.
Most large commercial and industrial refrigeration systems use ammonia as the working fluid.
OTEC requires moving large amounts of water. This brings up three important concerns:
(1) Marine organisms entrainment and impingement through the water current.
(2) The effect of chemicals used to reduce/control bio fouling build inside the seawater pipes
and heat exchangers.
(3) The effect known as upwelling, or rise of the deep cold water to the surface. All three
problems can be controlled and mitigated during system design and/or through preventive
measures during operation .The entrainment and impingement of marine organisms occurs
mainly in the ocean warm water surface. Studies have shown that the entrainment of marine
organisms is minimal in the deep cold water. Nevertheless, proposed commercial designs
incorporate mechanisms to divert these organisms and prevent their entrance into the system,
minimizing potential harm. To control biological growth in the system it is necessary to apply
chemical agents. Uncontrolled use of these agents may cause serious harm to the environment.
Nevertheless, studies show that intermittent low dosages of oxidants are enough to control bio
fouling under acceptable levels .To reduce even more this effect, in a commercial plant
composed of multiple modules, these agents would be applied to one module at a time, hence,
diluting the residual in the effluent by a considerable factor, to probably undetectable levels.
Potential effects of upwelling have been a true concern associated to the OTEC operation.
Deep ocean water is rich in nutrients and low in pathogens.
This could cause an accelerated growth of phytoplankton, which would have stimulating
effect along the marine food chain. Another possible effect is the difference in temperature
between the effluent and the receiving waters. Design of modern plants takes into consideration
the required measures to reduce these effects. One of these measures is to discharge the effluents
at a depth where sunlight penetration is minimal. Some OTEC proponents have suggested that
both upwelling and cooling are beneficial since both can increase biological productivity and
create fishing resources. Nevertheless, both could alter natural environmental balance, and it is
prudent to incorporate measures in design aimed at minimizing their potential effects. In the case
of land-based plants, like in the case of the experimental plants in Hawaii, the deep ocean water
can be recovered and used to breed valuable species such as cold water lobsters and micro-algae.
Since there is no data from a long-term operation of an OTEC commercial plant it is desirable to
include a program to study environmental effects during the operation of the first plants. This
9

way, the magnitude of any impacts can be determined with certainty, to optimize the operation
and the design of future plants.

Chapter no.7

Socio-Economic Impact
Many nations and/or territories, such as Puerto Rico, Guam or the Dominican Republic, among
others, completely depend on imported fuels for their energy needs. This condition makes them
vulnerable to the volatility of the prices of fuel, and to any event that decreases or impacts the
world market supplies, even when it occurs in other parts of the world and the affected nation
doesnt have anything to do with the event.
Between January 2007 and July 2008, the price of petroleum increased from $54.63 to
$137.11 per barrel. This generated a global economic crisis, which consequences are still felt
today. It has been estimated that incidents such as a new war in the Middle East (e.g. Israel and
Iran), or prolonged interruptions in flow through the BTC oil pipe between the fields of Baku,
Georgia and Turkey (was endangered during the recent conflict between Russia and Georgia),
could increase price of oil to unprecedented levels (above $200 per barrel), having severe effects
on the global economy. The lack of control over the cost of energy discourages productive
activities and investment, increasing the economic impact and creates a collective socio
depression that extends throughout the society as a whole. OTEC offers these countries or
territories, currently dependent on foreign oil, the real possibility of energy autonomy and the
10

elimination of vulnerability to disruptions in fuel supplies. In addition, construction of OTEC

plants provides a stimulus to the local economy. More importantly, one 75-MWe OTEC plant
would save approximately one million barrels of oil per year. Money paid for these fuels
currently goes to oil producers. Nevertheless, the money used to pay for the energy generated by
an OTEC plant, financed with private funds, would return to the local economy of the country
that builds the plant, particularly in the cases of locations such as Puerto Rico and Hawaii.

CHAPTER 8
Types of OTEC

8.1 OPEN CYCLE OTEC

The open cycle consists of the following steps: (i) flash evaporation of a fraction of the
warm seawater by reduction of pressure below the saturation value corresponding to its
temperature (ii) expansion of the vapor through a turbine to generate power; (iii) heat transfer to
the cold seawater thermal sink resulting in condensation of the working fluid; and (iv)
compression of the non-condensable gases to pressures required to discharge them from the
system. These steps are depicted in Figure 2. In the case of a surface condenser the condensate
(desalinated water) must be compressed to pressures required to discharge it from the power
generating system. The evaporator, turbine, and condenser operate in partial vacuum ranging
from 3 percent to 1 percent atmospheric pressure. This poses a number of practical concerns that
must be addressed. First, the system must be carefully sealed to prevent in-leakage of
atmospheric air that can severely degrade or shut down operation. Second, the specific volume of
the low-pressure steam is very large compared to that of the pressurized working fluid used in
closed cycle OTEC. This means that components must have large flow areas to ensure that steam
11

velocities do not attain excessively high values. Finally, gases such as oxygen, nitrogen and
carbon dioxide that are dissolved in seawater (essentially air) come out of solution in a vacuum.
These gases are incondensable and must be exhausted from the system.
In spite of the aforementioned complications, the Claude cycle enjoys certain benefits
from the selection of water as the working fluid. Water, unlike ammonia, is non-toxic and
environmentally benign. Moreover, since the evaporator produces desalinated steam, the
condenser can be designed to yield fresh water. In many potential sites in the tropics, potable
water is a highly desired commodity that can be marketed to offset the price of OTEC-generated
electricity. Flash evaporation is a distinguishing feature of open cycle OTEC. Flash evaporation
involves complex heat and mass transfer processes. In the configuration tested by a team lead by
the author (Figure 1), warm seawater was pumped into a chamber through spouts designed to
maximize the heat-and-mass-transfer surface area by producing a spray of the liquid. The
pressure in the chamber was less than the saturation pressure of the warm seawater. Exposed to
this low-pressure environment, water in the spray began to boil. As in thermal desalination
plants, the vapor produced was relatively pure steam. As steam is generated, it carries away with
it its heat of vaporization. This energy comes from the liquid phase and results in a lowering of
the liquid temperature and the cessation of boiling. Thus, as mentioned above, flash
evaporation may be seen as a transfer of thermal energy from the bulk of the warm seawater to
the small fraction of mass that is vaporized to become the working fluid. Approximately 0.5
percent of the mass of warm seawater entering the evaporator is converted into steam.

Fig 8.1 Open-Cycle OTEC Flow Diagram

12

A large turbine is required to accommodate the huge volumetric flow rates of lowpressure steam needed to generate any practical amount of electrical power. Although the last
stages of turbines used in conventional steam power plants can be adapted to OC- OTEC
operating conditions, existing technology limits the power that can be generated by a single
turbine module, comprising a pair of rotors, to about 2.5 MW. Unless significant effort is
invested to develop new, specialized turbines (which may employ fiber-reinforced plastic blades
in rotors having diameters in excess of 100 m), increasing the gross power generating capacity of
a Claude cycle plant above 2.5 MW will require multiple modules and incur an associated
equipment cost penalty. Condensation of the low-pressure working fluid leaving the turbine
occurs by heat transfer to the cold seawater. This heat transfer may occur in a DCC, in which the
seawater is sprayed directly over the vapor, or in a surface condenser that does not allow contact
between the coolant and the condensate. DCCs are relatively inexpensive and have good heat
transfer characteristics due to the lack of a solid thermal boundary between the warm and cool
fluids. Although surface condensers for OTEC applications are relatively expensive to fabricate
they permit the production of desalinated water. Desalinated water production with a DCC
requires the use of fresh water as the coolant. In such an arrangement, the cold seawater sink is
used to chill the fresh water coolant supply using a liquid-to-liquid heat exchanger. Effluent from
the low-pressure condenser must be returned to the environment. Liquid can be pressurized to
ambient conditions at the point of discharge by means of a pump or, if the elevation of the
condenser is suitably high, it can be compressed hydrostatically. Non-condensable gases, which
include any residual water vapor, dissolved gases that have come out of solution, and air that
may have leaked into the system, must be pressurized with a compressor. Although the primary
role of the compressor is to discharge exhaust gases, it usually is perceived as the means to
reduce pressure in the system below atmospheric. For a system that includes both the OC-OTEC
heat engine and its environment, the cycle is closed and parallels the Rankine cycle. Here, the
condensate discharge pump and the non-condensable gas compressor assume the role of the
Rankine cycle pump.
8.2 CLOSED CYCLE OTEC
The operation of a closed-cycle OTEC plant, using anhydrous ammonia as the working fluid, is
modeled with the saturated Rankine cycle. This cycle also known as Anderson cycle. In closed
cycle plant warm surface water is used to evaporate a low boiling point working fluid such as
ammonia, freon or propane. The vapour flows through the turbine and then cooled and
condensed by cold water pumped from ocean depths.

13

Fig 8.2 Closed cycle OTEC

8.3 HYBRID OTEC SYSTEM

A hybrid cycle combines the features of both the closed-cycle and open-cycle systems. In
a hybrid OTEC system, warm seawater enters a vacuum chamber where it is flashevaporated into steam, which is similar to the open-cycle evaporation process. The steam
vaporizes the working fluid of a closed-cycle loop on the other side of an ammonia
vaporizer. The vaporized fluid then drives a turbine that produces electricity. The steam
condenses within the heat exchanger and provides desalinated water.The electricity
produced by the system can be delivered to a utility grid or used to manufacture
methanol, hydrogen, refined metals, ammonia, and similar products. Now let's take a
closer look at some of the main components of an OTEC systemspecifically, the heat
exchangers, evaporators, turbines, and condensers.

14

Fig 8.3 Hybrid OTEC System

CHAPTER 9
Potential sites
The OTEC thermal resource has been summarized as follows:

Equatorial waters, defined as lying between 10 N and 10 S are adequate except for the
West Coast of South America; significant seasonal temperature enhancement would be
required on the West Coast of Southern Africa; moreover, deep water temperature is
warmer by about 2 C along the East Coast of Africa.

Tropical waters, defined as extending from the equatorial region boundary to,
respectively, 20 N and 20 S, are adequate, except for the West Coasts of South America
and of Southern Africa; moreover, seasonal upwelling phenomena would require
significant temperature enhancement for the West Coast of Northern Africa, the Horn of
Africa, and off the Arabian Peninsula. The physical factors affecting OTEC site selection,
15

i.e., thermal resource and seafloor bathymetry, greatly restrict the number of desirable
sites along the shoreline of major continents, unless some warm seawater temperature
enhancement is possible. The best, land-based, OTEC sites consist of island locations.
The severe constraint of a favorable bathymetric profile, for the practical implementation
of land-based OTEC technologies, would be relaxed to a considerable extent with
floating OTEC plants. The potential benefits of OTEC could only be recovered on a large
scale through the development of an ambitious floating-plant program, following the
initial experimental land-based OTEC phase. There are at least two distinct markets for
OTEC: (I) industrialized nations and islands; and, (ii) smaller or less industrialized
islands with modest needs for power and desalinated water. Small OC-OTEC plants can
be sized to produce from 1 MW to 10 MW of electricity, and at least 1700 m3 to 3500 m3
of desalinated water per day. That is, the needs of developing communities with
populations ranging from 4500 to as much as 100,000 could be met. This range
encompasses the majority of less developed island nations throughout the world. Larger
CC-OTEC or hybrid cycle plants can be used in either market for producing electricity
and water. For example, a 50 MW hybrid cycle plant producing as much as 62,000 m3 of
water per day could be tailored to support a developing community of approximately
300,000 people or as many as 100,000 people in an industrialized nation.
A study performed for the US Department of State in 1981, identified ninety-eight
nations and territories with access to the OTEC thermal resource within their 200 nautical
miles EEZ, exclusive economic zone. For the majority of these locations, the OTEC
resource is applicable only to floating plants. A significant market potential of up to
577,000 MW of new base load electric power facilities was postulated. In view of the
discussion given above, this volume of power production would represent an
environmental impact of significant proportion, primarily due to the movement of
massive amounts of seawater. Unfortunately, now as in 1981, there is no commercial size
OTEC plant with an operational record available. This still remains an impediment to
OTEC development.

16

Fig: Global Resource availability of OTEC

CHAPTER 10
Economic considerations and market potential
In considering the economics of OTEC, it is appropriate to determine if multiple-product
systems, e.g., electricity, desalinated water, mariculture, and air conditioning (AC) systems yield
higher value by, for example, decreasing the equivalent cost of electricity. Because mariculture
operations, as in the case of AC systems, can only use a relatively minute amount of the seawater
17

required for the thermal plants they should be evaluated independent of OTEC. For example, the
cold water available from a 1 MW OTEC plant could be used for daily exchanges of twenty-five
100 m x 100 m x 1 m mariculture ponds, requiring more than 25 Ha of land. Therefore, it is
recommended that OTEC be considered for its potential impact in the production of electricity
and desalinated water and that mariculture and AC systems, based in the use of deep ocean water,
be considered decoupled from OTEC.
OTEC is capital-intensive and the very first plants will most probably be small requiring a
substantial capital investment. Given the relatively low cost of crude oil and of fossil fuels in
general, the development of OTEC technologies is likely to be promoted by government
agencies rather than by private industry. The motivation of governments in subsidizing OTEC
may vary greatly, from foreign aid to domestic concerns. For the former case, ideal recipient
countries are likely to be independent developing nations. If their economic standing is too low,
however, the installation of an OTEC plant, rather than direct aid in the form of money and
goods, may be perceived as inadequate help. In addition, political instability could jeopardize the
good will of helping nations to invest. For the latter case, potential sites belong to, or fall within
the jurisdiction of, developed countries. Comparing production costs of electricity and
desalinated water can identify scenarios under which OTEC should be economical, relative to
conventional technologies. Table 1 summarizes results obtained for the capital costs given in
Figure 6 using a fixed rate of 10 percent, 20 year loan, and OTEC plant availability of only 80
percent (Vega, 1992).
Operation and maintenance costs corresponding to approximately 1.5 percent of the
capital cost are used. One scenario corresponds to small island nations, where the cost of dieselgenerated electricity and fresh water is such that a small, 1 MW land-based OC- OTEC plant,
with water production, would be cost-effective today. However, only a few sites throughout the
world meet this scenario. A second scenario corresponds to conditions that are plausible in
several island nations where 10 MW land-based OC-OTEC plants could produce cost
competitive electricity and desalinated water. One can envision these small plants deployed in,
for example, Pacific islands such that 20 years from now a total of 100 to 300 MW would be
installed. A third scenario corresponds to land-based hybrid OTEC plants for the industrialized
nations' market producing electricity through an ammonia cycle and desalinated water through a
flash evaporator. This scenario would be cost-effective in industrialized island nations with a
doubling of the cost of oil fuel or with a doubling of water costs, and for plants rated at 50 MW
or larger. The fourth scenario is for floating OTEC electrical plants, rated at 100 MW or larger,
and housing a factory or transmitting electricity to shore via a submarine power cable. These
plants could be deployed throughout the EEZ of numerous nations and could encompass a
significant market. Estimates of their capital costs and resulting costs of electricity are given in
Table.

18

Nominal Size,
MW

TYPE

Scenario

Potential Sites

Land-Based OCnd
OTEC with 2
Stage for
Additional Water
Production.

Diesel: $45/barrel
3
Water: $1.6/m

Present Situation
in Some Small
Island States.

10

Same as Above.

Fuel Oil:
$30/barrel

U.S. Pacific
Insular Areas and
other Island
Nations

Water: $0.9/ m

50

5
0
100

Land-Based
Hybrid
CC-OTEC with
nd
2 Stage.

Fuel Oil:
$50/barrel

Land-Based CCOTEC

Fuel Oil:
$40/barrel

Same as Above.

CC-OTEC Plant
ship

Fuel Oil:
$20/barrel

Numerous sites

3
Water: $0.4/ m
Or
Fuel Oil:
$30/barrel
Water: $0.8/ m3

Hawaii, Puerto
Rico
If fuel or water
cost doubles

Table 10.1 OTEC Potential Sites as a function of Fuel and Water Cost

Offshore Distance, km

Capital Cost, $/kW

19

COE, $/kWh

10

0.07
4200

50

5000

0.08

100

6000

0.10

200

8100

0.13

300

10200

0.17

400

12300

0.22

Table 10.2 Cost Estimates for 100 MW CC-OTEC Plant ship

CHAPTER 11
Advantages of OTEC
20

We can measure of an ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) plant and continued OTEC
development by both its economic and noneconomic benefits. OTEC's economic benefits include
these:

Helps produce fuels such as hydrogen, ammonia, and methanol

Produces base load electrical energy

Produces desalinated water for industrial, agricultural, and residential uses

Is a resource for on-shore and near-shore mariculture operations

Provides air-conditioning for buildings

Provides moderate-temperature refrigeration

Has significant potential to provide clean, cost-effective electricity for the future.

OTEC's noneconomic benefits, which help us achieve global environmental goals,

include these:

Promotes competitiveness and international trade

Enhances energy independence and energy security

Promotes international sociopolitical stability

Has potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions resulting from burning fossil fuels.

21

CHAPTER 12
Application of OTEC

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) systems have many applications or uses.
OTEC can be used to generate electricity, desalinate water, support deep-water mariculture, and
provide refrigeration and air-conditioning as well as aid in crop growth and mineral extraction.
These complementary products make OTEC systems attractive to industry and island
communities even if the price of oil remains low.

Fig 12.1 Application of OTEC

OTEC can also be used to produce methanol, ammonia, hydrogen, aluminum, chlorine, and other
22

chemicals. Floating OTEC processing plants that produce these products would not require a
power cable, and station-keeping costs would be reduced.
12.1 ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION:
Two basic OTEC system designs have been demonstrated to generate electricity: closed cycle
and open cycle.

12.2 DEEP-WATER-SUPPORTED MARICULTURE:

Deep-drawn seawater from an OTEC plant is cold, rich in nutrients, relatively free of pathogens,
and available in large quantity. It is an excellent medium for growing phytoplankton and
microalgae, which in turn support a variety of commercially valuable fish and shellfish. An
OTEC plant can be part of a poly culture operation that combines the production of protein and
energy. A sea weed used to wrap sushi was successfully grown at accelerated rates in experiments
at the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii (NELHA). Using phytoplankton and kelp,
researchers at NELHA have grown salmon, trout, northern lobsters, oysters, giant clams, and
abalone with good to exceptional results The large, constant flow of water pumped from an
OTEC plant will reduce disease and contamination in the ponds; marine life, therefore, can be
grown in high densities. In addition, deep-drawn cold water can be mixed with warm surface
water, allowing local communities to culture a broad variety of species. Such integration of
operations would mitigate the large seawater pumping cost associated with mariculture and
increase the revenue for the OTEC plant.
12.3 DESALINATED WATER:
Desalinated water can be produced in open- or hybrid-cycle plants using surface condensers. In a
surface condenser, the spent steam is condensed by indirect contact with the cold seawater. This
condensate is relatively free of impurities and can be collected and sold to local communities
where natural freshwater supplies for agriculture or drinking are limited. System analysis
indicates that a 2-megawatt (electric) (net) plant could produce about 4300 cubic meters of
desalinated water each day .The large surface condensers required to condense the entire steam
flow increase the size and cost of an open-cycle plant. A surface condenser can be used to recover
part of the steam in the cycle and to reduce the overall size of the heat exchangers; the rest of the
steam can be passed through the less costly and more efficient direct-contact condenser
stages. A second-stage direct-contact condenser concentrates the non condensable gases and
makes it possible to use a smaller vacuum exhaust system, thereby increasing the plant's net
power.One way to produce large quantities of desalinated water without incurring the cost of an
23

open-cycle turbine is to use a hybrid system. In a hybrid system, desalinated water is produced by
vacuum flash distillation and power is produced by a closed-cycle loop. Other schemes that use
discharge waters from OTEC systems to produce desalinated water have also been considered.

12.4 REFRIGERATION AND AIR-CONDITIONING

The cold [5C (41F)] seawater made available by an OTEC system creates an opportunity to
provide large amounts of cooling to operations that are related to or close to the plant. Salmon,
lobster, abalone, trout, oysters, and clams are not indigenous to tropical waters, but they can be
raised in pools created by OTEC-pumped water;
this will extend
CHAPTER
13 the variety of seafood products
for nearby markets. Likewise, the low-cost refrigeration provided by the cold seawater can be
used to upgrade or maintain the quality of indigenous fish, which tend to deteriorate quickly in
intoOTEC
Technology
warm tropical regions. The cold Achievements
seawater delivered
an OTEC
plant can be used in chilledwater coils to provide air-conditioning for buildings. It is estimated that a pipe 0.3-meters in
In 1881, Jacques Arsene d'Arsonval, a French physicist, was the first to propose tapping the
diameter can deliver 0.08 cubic meters of water per second. If 6C water is received through such
thermal energy of the ocean. Georges Claude, a student of d'Arsonval's, built an experimental
a pipe, it could provide more than enough air-conditioning for a large building. If this system
open-cycle OTEC system at Matanzas Bay, Cuba, in 1930. The system produced 22 kilowatts
operates 8000 hours per year and local electricity sells for 5-10 per kilowatt-hour, it would
(kW) of electricity by using a low-pressure turbine. In 1935, Claude constructed another opensave $200,000-$400,000 in energy bills annually.
cycle plant, this time aboard a 10,000-ton cargo vessel moored off the coast of Brazil. But both
plants were destroyed by weather and waves, and Claude never achieved his goal of producing
power (theEXTRACTION
remainder after subtracting power needed to run the system) from an open-cycle
12.5netMINERAL
OTEC system. Then in 1956, French researchers designed a 3-megawatt (electric) (MWe) opencycle plant for Abidjan on Africa's west coast. But the plant was never completed because of
Notcompetition
yet exploitedwith
to its
full potential
is the opportunity
could
mine ocean
water of
inexpensive
hydroelectric
power.OTEC
In 1974
the provide
NaturaltoEnergy
Laboratory
for Hawaii
its 57 elements
dissolved
inNELH),
solution.atInKeahole
the past,Point
moston
economic
analyses
that of
mining
(NELHA,
formerly
the Kona
coast ofshowed
the island
Hawaii,
the was
oceanestablished.
for trace elements
dissolved
in
solution
would
be
unprofitable
because
so
much
energy
It has become the world's foremost laboratory and test facility for OTEC
is required
to
pump
the
of water needed
and(kWe)
because
it is so expensive
to separate
technologies.In 1979,large
the volume
first 50-kilowatt
(electric)
closed-cycle
OTEC demonstration
the plant
minerals
OTEC plants
will was
already
be pumping
the water
wentfrom
up atseawater.
NELHA.However,
Known asbecause
"Mini-OTEC,"
the plant
mounted
on a converted
U.S.
economically,
the
only
problem
to
solve
is
the
cost
of
the
extraction
process.
The
Japanese
Navy barge moored approximately 2 kilometers off Keahole Point. The plant used a cold-water
recently
began
investigating
concept
of and
combining
uranium
pipe to
produce
52 kWe ofthe
gross
power
15 kWethe
netextraction
powers. Inof1980,
the dissolve.
U.S. Department of
Energy (DOE) built OTEC-1, a test site for closed-cycle OTEC heat exchangers installed on
board a converted U.S. Navy tanker. Test results identified methods for designing commercialscale heat exchangers and demonstrated that OTEC systems can operate from slowly moving
ships with little effect on the marine environment. A new design for suspended cold-water pipes
was validated at that test site. Also in 1980, two laws were enacted to promote the commercial
development of OTEC technology: the Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Act, Public Law (PL)
96-320, later modified by PL 98-623, and the Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Research,
24

Development, and Demonstration Act, PL 96-310. At Hawaii's Seacoast Test Facility, which was
established as a joint project of the State of Hawaii and DOE, desalinated water was produced by
using the open-cycle process. And a 1-meter-diameter cold-seawater/0.7-meter-diameter warmseawater supply system was deployed at the Seacoast Test Facility to demonstrate how large
polyethylene cold-water pipes can be used in an OTEC system.
In 1981, Japan demonstrated a shore-based, 100-kWe closed-cycle plant in the Republic of Nauru
in the Pacific Ocean. This plant employed cold-water pipe laid on the sea bed to a depth of 580
meters. Freon was the working fluid, and a titanium shell-and-tube heat exchanger was used. The
plant surpassed engineering expectations by producing 31.5 kWe of net power during continuous
operating tests. Later, tests by the U.S. DOE determined that aluminum alloy can be used in place
of more expensive titanium to make large heat exchangers for OTEC systems. And at-sea tests by
DOE demonstrated that befouling and corrosion of heat exchangers can be controlled. Befouling
does not appear to be a problem in cold seawater systems. In warm seawater systems, it can be
controlled with a small amount of intermittent chlorination.
In 1984, scientists at a DOE national laboratory, the Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI, now
the National Renewable Energy Laboratory), developed a vertical-spout evaporator to convert
warm seawater into low-pressure steam for open-cycle plants. Energy conversion efficiencies as
high as 97% were achieved. Direct-contact condensers using advanced packings were also shown
to be an efficient way to dispose of steam. Using freshwater, SERI staff developed and tested
direct-contact condensers for open-cycle OTEC plants.
British researchers, meanwhile, have designed and tested aluminum heat exchangers that could
reduce heat exchanger costs to $1500 per installed kilowatt capacity. And the concept for a lowcost soft Then in 1956, French researchers designed a 3-megawatt (electric) (MWe) open-cycle
plant for Abidjan on Africa's west coast. But the plant was never completed because of
competition with inexpensive hydroelectric power. In 1974 the Natural Energy Laboratory of
Hawaii (NELHA, formerly NELH), at Keahole Point on the Kona coast of the island of Hawaii,
was established. It has become the world's foremost laboratory and test facility for OTEC
technologies.
In 1979, the first 50-kilowatt (electric) (kWe) closed-cycle OTEC demonstration plant went up at
NELHA. Known as "Mini-OTEC," the plant was mounted on a converted U.S. Navy barge
moored approximately 2 kilometers off Keahole Point. The plant used a cold-water pipe to
produce 52 kWe of gross power and 15 kWe net power.
In 1980, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) built OTEC-1, a test site for closed-cycle OTEC
heat exchangers installed on board a converted U.S. Navy tanker. Test results identified methods
for designing commercial-scale heat exchangers and demonstrated that OTEC systems can
operate from slowly moving ships with little effect on the marine environment. A new design for
25

suspended cold-water pipes was validated at that test site. Also in 1980, two laws were enacted to
promote the commercial development of OTEC technology: the Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion Act, Public Law (PL) 96-320, later modified by PL 98-623, and the Ocean Thermal
Energy Conversion Research, Development, and Demonstration Act, PL 96-310.
At Hawaii's Seacoast Test Facility, which was established as a joint project of the State of Hawaii
and DOE, desalinated water was produced by using the open-cycle process. And a 1-meterdiameter cold-seawater/0.7-meter-diameter warm-seawater supply system was deployed at the
Seacoast Test Facility to demonstrate how large polyethylene cold-water pipes can be used in an
OTEC system.
In 1981, Japan demonstrated a shore-based, 100-kWe closed-cycle plant in the Republic of Nauru
in the Pacific Ocean. This plant employed cold-water pipe laid on the sea bed to a depth of 580
meters. Freon was the working fluid, and a titanium shell-and-tube heat exchanger was used. The
plant surpassed engineering expectations by producing 31.5 kWe of net power during continuous
operating tests.
Later, tests by the U.S. DOE determined that aluminum alloy can be used in place of more
expensive titanium to make large heat exchangers for OTEC systems. And at-sea tests by DOE
demonstrated that biofouling and corrosion of heat exchangers can be controlled. Biofouling does
not appear to be a problem in cold seawater systems. In warm seawater systems, it can be
controlled with a small amount of intermittent chlorination .In 1984, scientists at a DOE national
laboratory, the Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI, now the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory), developed a vertical-spout evaporator to convert warm seawater into low-pressure
steam for open-cycle plants. Energy conversion efficiencies as high as 97% were achieved.
Direct-contact condensers using advanced packings were also shown to be an efficient way to
dispose of steam. Using freshwater, SERI staff developed and tested direct-contact condensers
for open-cycle OTEC plants. British researchers, meanwhile, have designed and tested aluminum
heat exchangers that could reduce heat exchanger costs to $1500 per installed kilowatt capacity.
And the concept for a low-cost soft seawater pipe was developed and patented. Such a pipe could
make size limitations unnecessary, as well as improve the economics of OTEC systems.In May
1993, an open-cycle OTEC plant at Keahole Point, Hawaii, produced 50,000 watts of electricity
during a net power-producing experiment. This broke the record of 40,000 watts set by a
Japanese system in 1982. Today, scientists are developing new

26

27