Mineralium Deposita (1999) 34: 522538

Springer-Verlag 1999

ARTICLE

D. Large E. Walcher

The Rammelsberg massive sulphide Cu-Zn-Pb-Ba-Deposit, Germany:

an example of sediment-hosted, massive sulphide mineralisation

Received: 28 September 1998 / Accepted: 5 January 1999

Abstract The Rammelsberg polymetallic massive sulphide deposit was the basis of mining activity for nearly
1000 y before nally closing in 1988. The deposit is
hosted by Middle Devonian pelitic sediments in the
Rhenohercynian terrane of the Variscan Orogen. The
deposit consists of two main orebodies that have been
intensely deformed. Deformation obscures the original
depositional relationships, but the regional setting as
well as the geochemistry and mineralogy of the mineralisation display many characteristics of the SHMS
(sediment-hosted massive sulphide) class of ore deposits.
Rammelsberg is briey compared to the other massive
sulphide deposits in the European Variscan, including
Meggen and those deposits in the Iberian Pyrite Belt.

Introduction
The Palaeozoic volcano-sedimentary succession in the
Variscan of Central Europe hosts economically important stratabound base-metal massive sulphide and barite
deposits (including Rammelsberg and Meggen, both are
now exhausted), stratiform iron mineralisation of the
Lahn-Dill type, and numerous vein-type base-metal,
barite and siderite deposits.
The purpose of this work is to describe the geology of
the Rammelsberg deposit as an example of the sedimenthosted massive sulphide (SHMS) class of mineralisation.
Large (1980, 1983) emphasised the variability of the

Editorial handling: DR
D. Large (&)
Consulting Geologist, Paracelsusstr. 40,
D-38116 Braunschweig, Germany
E. Walcher
Consulting Geologist, Pointweg 7,
D-95652 Waldsassen, Germany
(previously Chief Mine Geologist, Preuag AG Metall,
Goslar, Germany)

deposits in this class, and the Rammelsberg should not

be regarded as a ``typical'' SHMS deposit.
SHMS deposits constitute some of the economically
more attractive base metal orebodies in the world
(Wellmer et al. 1994), and the Rammelsberg is one of the
most important massive sulphide deposits in the Variscan of Central Europe.
In view of its long history of mining, as well as the
variability of the metal concentrations within the ore,
the combined tonnage and grade of the Rammelsberg
orebodies can only be estimated at 2730 Mt with an
average grade of 14% Zn, 6% Pb, 2% Cu, 1 g/t Au,
140 g/t Ag and 20% barite. During the nal years of
mining, the daily production capacity was 1200 t ore
grading at 12% Zn, 6% Pb, 1% Cu, <1 g/t Au, 150 g/t
Ag and 20% barite.

History of mining
The earliest documentation of mining at Rammelsberg dates from
968 AD, and it was in more or less continuous production until its
nal closure in June 1988. The original discovery was made at the
outcrop of the ``Old Orebody'', and according to legend the outcrop was scraped free by a horse's hoof during a hunting expedition. The wealth generated by the mine was the basis for the
development of the city of Goslar, which is located immediately to
the north of the mine in the Harz Mountains. The mine was an
important source of revenue for the German Emperors during the
Middle Ages, and an Imperial residence was built for their frequent
visits to Goslar. In 1859 the discovery of additional resources in the
``New Orebody'', which did not outcrop and was identied during
underground development from the ``Old Orebody'', provided a
renewed stimulus to the mining activities.
Agricola (1557) mentions the Rammelsberg mine only once (De
re Metallica 6th Book), and describes it as the site of a major
disaster in which ``about 400 women were robbed of their husbands''. However, the mining activity at Rammelsberg (as
throughout Central Europe) reached a peak during Agricola's
lifetime in the early 16th Century, and remarkable annual production levels of 30 000 to 40 000 t ore are recorded (Slotta 1983).
During its nal years, under the management of Preussag AG
Metall, the mine was exploited from the two deepest of the 12
levels. The mine was accessed by two open shafts and one blind
shaft to a vertical depth of 460 m below the surface. After the ore
contained in the original pillars had been extracted, the deposit was

523
exhausted. No economic reserves had been discovered by exploration, and the mining operation closed in 1988 after a carefully
planned phase to extract virtually all the mineable reserves with
only very minor wastage.
The mine, including many of the historically important underground mining facilities as well as the surface ore-processing plant,
is now preserved as a museum and UNESCO ``World Cultural
Heritage Site''.
In addition to the Rammelsberg Mine, the Harz Mountains
also contain numerous other, mostly vein-type, mineral deposits
(including base metals, barite and uorite) that were once the basis
of a ourishing mining industry (Stedingk and Stoppel 1993a).

Regional geological setting

The Variscan Orogen marks the location of the collision between
Gondwana and Laurussia along a broad zone within which terranes docked against each other along major suture zones. The
Rhenohercynian is the most northerly terrane in the complex collage of European Variscan geology (Fig. 1). To the north the
Rhenohercynian is overthrust onto the Laurussia basement, to the
south it is in sutured contact with the Saxothuringian terrane.
Compilations by Berthelsen (1992) and Matte (1991) suggest that
the Rhenohercynian terrane extends westwards through the Ardennes to SW England. The extrapolation of the Rhenohercynian
eastwards to the Silesian-Moravian zone in the NE Czech Republic, as suggested by Berthelsen (1992), is more controversial
(e.g. Matte et al. 1990).
The geographical region known as the Harz Mountains is one
of several Variscan massifs within the Rhenohercynian. The Harz
Massif is an uplifted block of Palaeozoic sedimentary, volcanic and
intrusive rocks (Mohr 1978; Wachendorf 1986) about 90 30 km
in area. It is fault-bounded to the north and west, and overlain by
Permian sediments and local volcanics to the south and east. The
Harz Massif has been traditionally divided into three geological
zones: the Upper, Middle and Lower Harz. The Rammelsberg
deposit is located in the Upper Harz, in the northwest corner of the
Massif (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1 Variscan terranes, massifs and massive sulphide deposits in Central and Western
Europe

Stratigraphic setting of the Rammelsberg mineralisation

The geology of the Rhenohercynian is dominated by a
succession of Devonian to Carboniferous clastic and
volcanic rocks, and the Upper Harz is no exception.
The Devonian Carboniferous succession in the Upper
Harz is continuous with no angular or non-depositional
unconformities, although there are signicant lateral
variations of both thickness and facies (Fig. 2,
Table 1).
Basement
The basement to the Palaeozoic sedimentary sequence in the Harz
Massif has not been recognised. However, a fault-bounded slice of
amphibolite-grade, metasedimentary rocks is preserved in the
Ecker Gneiss adjacent to the Harzburg mac and ultramac
complex, which is about 12 km ESE of Rammelsberg. The Ecker
Gneiss yielded a Cadomian (560 Ma) deformation age (Baumann
et al. 1991), and may be a structurally preserved fragment of the
basement to the Palaeozoic sediments in the Harz Massif.

Lower Devonian Emsian

The oldest sedimentary rocks in the Upper Harz are Lower Devonian (Emsian), and they form the anticlinal core of the Devonian
Carboniferous succession in the Upper Harz (Fig. 2). The Emsian
succession is collectively known as the Kahleberg Sandstone (du),
which is at least 1000 m thick. (The abbreviations du, dmc, dms etc
(Table 1) are used conventionally in most published maps and
sections of the the Devonian in Germany.) It consists of a series of
medium- to thickly bedded micaceous siltstones, sandstones and
quartzites that were probably deposited in a high-energy, primarily
oxidising environment (Zscheked 1955; Stedingk 1982).

524
Fig. 2 Simplied geological
map of the area around the
Rammelsberg deposit, Upper
Harz. The sections demonstrate
the facies and thickness variations between the West Harz
Rise and the Goslar Trough.
Sources: Hinze (1971) and
Brinckmann et al. (1986)

Middle Devonian Eifelian

The transition from the Lower to the Middle Devonian is very
abrupt and marked by fossiliferous calcareous shales (Calceola
Beds, dmc) that pass upwards into a monotonous sequence dominated by shales (collectively known as the Wissenbach Shales). The
Lower to Middle Devonian transition reects a sudden change in
the sedimentary and tectonic environment, and may mark the regional transition from the initial rift to sag phases of basin evolution (see the section ``Regional palaeogeographic setting of the
Rammelsberg'').
In the NW Harz the Wissenbach Shales can be subdivided into
two units. The lower unit consists of a series of thin- to medium
bedded ne-grained sandstones, siltstones and shales (Sandband
Shale facies, dms), which reects a phase of distal turbidite activity
(Walcher 1986). The upper unit mainly contains dark grey shales
(dmt1+2), which consist primarily of illite with up to 20% carbonate and minor authigenic pyrite, and were deposited as mudstones in a quiet, deep marine environment with little submarine
relief.
The development of the Goslar Trough and the West Harz Rise
(locally known as the Rammelsberg Rise) commenced in the lower

Middle Devonian (Eifelian), and is responsible for the signicant

facies and thickness variations (Figs. 2 and 3). The fragmentation
of the Middle Devonian depository in the Upper Harz may reect
the local crustal instability and dierential rates of subsidence that
occur during tensional tectonism.
The Rammelsberg deposit is hosted by the Eifelian Wissenbach
Shale, or more precisely the dmt1 unit in Fig. 4 and between dmt1
and dmt2 in Table 1. The mineralisation is located close to the
hinge zone between the West Harz Rise (locally known as the
Rammelsberg Rise, Fig. 4), where the total thickness of the shales
is 80 m, and the Goslar Trough where the thickness of the shales
exceeds 700 m.
The ore-equivalent horizon (lateral equivalent of the Rammelsberg mineralisation) is 819 m thick, and has been proved in
drill holes up to 7 km from the Rammelsberg deposit (Sperling and
Walcher 1990). The horizon occurs within dark grey shales of the
Wissenbach Shale succession, and is characterised by a distinctive
light and dark grey lamination (``pin-stripe'' lamination described
by Walcher 1986) that is not found anywhere else within the succession. The individual laminae consist of dark grey shales and
light grey ankeritic dolomite so that the ore-equivalent horizon is
markedly more carbonate-rich as compared to the remainder of the

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Table 1 Stratigraphic column in the Rammelsberg area, Upper Harz
Stratigraphic unit

Map Notation

Thickness

Lithology
Well bedded greywackes with
interbedded shales
Thinly bedded cherts and
interbedded black shale
Dark grey, locally pyritic shale
Shales, green near base becoming
red and more calcareous
upwards
Dark grey, fetid limestone
(regional marker horizon)
Streaky shales with occasional
limestone beds, local limestone
breccia beds
Grey shales with occasional
limestone interbeds Dolerite
sills in dmt3
Dark grey, locally dotomitic,
shales lateral to Rammelsberg
orebody
Dark grey shales with occasional
limestone and sandstone, minor
tu
Light grey sandy shales and
interbedded sandstones
Dark grey calcareous shales with
occasional sandstone
Interbedded sandstone and shale
Quartzitic sandstones with thinly
interbedded shales

L
C
a
r
b
Fammenian

Kulm greywacke

>1,500 m

Kulm cherts

20 m

Alum shale
Shales

30 m
300 m

Frasnian

Kellwasser Horizon

<1 m

Banded shales

200 m

Givetian
E
i
f
e
l
i
a
n

Emsian

Upper Wissenback Shale

dmt2 + dmt3

400 m

Ore-equivalent horizon

LH

60 m

Lower Wissenbach Shale

dmt1

2040 m

Sandband Shale

dms

40400 m

Calceola Shale

dmc

60120 m

Speciosus Beds
Kahleberg Sandstone

dmsp (not on gs.)

dmu

30 m
>500 m

framboidal aggregates. The ore-equivalent horizon contains enhanced Zn and Pb values (see section `host rock geochemistry'), but
sphalerite and galena are only rarely observed and then always in
the ankeritic dolomite laminae. Walcher (1986) suggested that the
carbonate component of the ore-equivalent horizon may be hydrothermal in origin.
The Wissenbach Shales (dmt2+3) above the ore-equivalent horizon become increasingly calcareous and paler grey up towards the
top of the Eifelian. Pelagic styliolina become increasingly common
in the upper Eifelian and Givetian shales.
In the Goslar Trough, several kilometres from the Rammelsberg itself, the upper Eifelian shales are intruded by ``diabase''
(doleritic) sills that were described as ``sub-eusive'' by Hinze
(1971) (Fig. 2). This mac magmatism in the Goslar Trough during
the Eifelian may be an important indicator of local tensional tectonism and crustal fracturing during the development of the Goslar
Trough (Large 1986, 1988). The only other igneous activity during
the Eifelian is represented by the keratophyre tu horizons (usually
a few millimetres to decimetres thick, maximum 1 m, typically
green colour) that are suggested by Kraume and Jasmund (1951) to
have been derived from intermediate to acidic volcanism. The
eruptive centres that might have been the source for these tutes
have not been identied.
Middle Devonian Givetian
Fig. 3 Palinspastic reconstruction of the facies distribution, stratiform
orebodies and kniest in the ore-equivalent horizon. AL, Old Orebody;
NL, New Orebody; HW, Hangingwall Ore Occurrence

Wissenbach Shale succession (Walcher 1986). The ore-equivalent

horizon is pyritic, and most of the pyrite is contained within the
light-grey dolomitic laminae rather than in the dark-grey shaly
laminae. Pyrite occurs as both euhedral grains and as ne-grained

The dierentiation of sedimentary facies and thickness into basin

and rise sequences continues during the upper Middle Devonian
(Givetian). On the West Harz Rise the Givetian lithologies consist
of a condensed sequence (about 10 m) of nodular limestones, which
correlates with a 200300 m thickness of nely laminated, dark
grey shales in the Goslar Trough (Fig. 2). Synsedimentary fault
activity on the hinge zone during the Givetian is marked by breccia
blocks of the nodular limestones that slumped chaotically from the
West Harz Rise into the Goslar Trough and were termed
sediuktion by Stoppel and Zscheked (1971).

526
Fig. 4 Sketch cross section
through the Rammelsberg at
the time of deposition of the
ore-equivalent horizon, demonstrating lateral thickness and
facies changes in the dms unit
(Sandband Shales) that dene
the approximate location of the
hinge zone between the Goslar
Trough and Rammelsberg Rise.
Stratigraphic terminology as in
Table 1. LE, massive sulphide
ore; BE, banded sulphide ore;
Kniest, cross-cutting sulphide
mineralisation; orebody terminology as in Figs. 2+3. (Modied from Sperling 1986;
Walcher 1986)

Upper Devonian

Structure

The lithological facies and thickness variations continue into the

Upper Devonian, and result from the inuence of the submarine
topography that was established in the Middle Devonian. As
shown in Fig. 2, a very condensed Upper Devonian sequence of
about 20 m of dark grey micritic limestones was deposited on the
West Harz Rise as compared to about 300400 m of green to red
banded shales, sometimes calcareous, in the Goslar Trough. There
is no evidence for signicant tectonic or igneous activity during the
Upper Devonian and the basin was gradually lled with pelite. The
sedimentary facies reect a very quiet sedimentary environment,
and the increasingly oxidised nature of the pelites in the Goslar
Trough is indicative of gradual shallowing during the nal phase of
thermal subsidence (see Regional palaeogeographic setting: Table 2; Klein 1991; White and McKenzie 1988).

The Devonian Carboniferous succession in the Harz

Massif was deformed during the Variscan orogeny,
which reached its climax during the Upper Carboniferous, and was accompanied by low-grade metamorphism
(prehnite-pumpellyite; Muller and Strauss 1985). The
regional strike varies between N40E and N60E, and the
folding has a NW vergence with steep or overturned NW
anticlinal limbs and shallow-dipping SE anticlinal limbs.
There is a pervasive axial-plane cleavage developed in the
shales, and the cleavage orientation is relatively uniform
(N40EN60E strike, dipping 3848 to the SE). The
regional fold style is illustrated by sections through the
Rammelsberg (Figs. 5, 6), which show that the mineralisation was folded into an isoclinal syncline such that
the mineable ore thickness is eectively doubled.
The dominant fault direction in the Upper Harz is
WNW-ESE (Fig. 2). The faults are sub-vertical, and
there is a signicant lateral dextral as well as vertical
component to the fault movement. The vein mineralisation in the Upper Harz is spatially associated to these
faults, which were developed subsequent to the Variscan
folding, and were active during the vein-type mineralisation in the Mesozoic (see section on age and sequence
of the mineralisation).
The Weisse Hirsche vein system is controlled by a
WNW-ESE trending fault that marks the SW limit of
the Rammelsberg mineralisation (Fig. 3). This fault may
also have controlled the facies boundary between the
Rammelsberg Rise and the Goslar Trough.

Lower Carboniferous
A regionally extensive, very distinctive, black pyritic shale (Alaunschiefer or alum shale) and overlying chert sequence occurs near
the base of the Lower Carboniferous.
The alum shale and cherts are stratigraphically overlain by silty
shales and nally greywackes, which are considered to reect the
onset of compressive tectonics and ysch-type turbidite deposition
with a provenance in the uplifted Central German Rise to the south
(Franke 1989). These greywackes are at least 2000 m thick, and
they conceal much of the prospective stratigraphy in the Upper
Harz (Fig. 2).

Table 2 Metal contents of the ore-equivalent horizon compared to

unaltered Wissenbach Shales near the Rammelsberg (from Walcher
1986)

Pb
Zn
Cu

Shales: ore-equivalent horizon

5003000 m from orebodies

``Normal'' unaltered and

unmineralised shales

Range

Range

Mean

The Rammelsberg Orebodies

2865 ppm
90130 ppm
2841 ppm

48 ppm
110 ppm
37 ppm

The Rammelsberg Mine exploited several orebodies, the

most important economically were (Figs. 2, 6): the Old
Orebody, the New Orebody and the barite-rich Grey

Mean

4401010 ppm 620 ppm

206450 ppm 306 ppm
3560 ppm
42 ppm

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Fig. 5 Cross section through
the Rammelsberg deposit extending into the Goslar Trough
(simplied from Sperling 1986).
Stratigraphic nomenclature as
in Table 1

Orebody. Other economically less important orebodies

included the Old Orebody West, the Hangingwall Ore
Occurrence, and the Kniest. The geology of these orebodies has been described in detailed monographs by
Kraume (1955), Sperling (1986) and Sperling and Walcher (1990).
Morphology
The mineralisation is mostly stratiform within the Wissenbach Shale (Fig. 4), and has been strongly deformed
into a tight isoclinal syncline (Figs. 5, 6; Hannak 1981).
The contacts between the host rock and ore are often
tectonised.
The Old Orebody (including the Old Orebody West,
which is a structurally displaced extension of the Old
Orebody) has a strike extension of about 600 m, extends
Fig. 6 Cross sections through
the New Orebody (prole 1200)
and the Old Orebody (prole
1600) (Modied from Walcher
unpublished)

to a depth of 300 m, and is approximately 12 m thick.

The New Orebody has a vertical extent of 500 m and the
true thickness of about 8 m was increased by the folding
to a total of about 40 m. The New Orebody was the
largest deposit, with a total tonnage of 19.3 Mt at grades
estimated by Sperling (1986) to be 6% Pb, 14% Zn and
1% Cu. The stratiform mineralisation dips at about 50
60 SE, except at the hinge zone of the syncline at the
New Orebody. The Grey Orebody (primarily barite),
which stratigraphically overlies the sulphide orebodies,
is up to 6 m thick and interngers laterally with shales.
The dierent styles of mineralisation in the various
orebodies have been correlated on the basis of detailed
mapping into three cycles (Fig. 7). The massive ore
(Lagererz, LE) consists of pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite
and galena as well as some barite. The massive ore occasionally exhibits a moderately well dened, laterally
impersistent, internal lamination. The wispy laminated,

528
Fig. 7 Stratigraphic correlation
of dierent ore types in the
Rammelsberg. LE, massive ore;
BE, banded ore; GE, grey ore
(barite)

Cu-rich, mottled ore (Melierterz) also belongs to this ore

type. Average grades of the LE ores mined were up to
24 wt. % Zn + Pb + Cu combined, and they contained about 10 wt. % carbonate, 22 wt. % barite and
25 wt. % pyrite. Banded ore (Banderz, BE) consists of
rhythmic millimeter-scale laminations of ankeritic dolomite containing ne-grained pyrite, sphalerite and
galena, with interlaminated pyritic shales. The ``normal''
banded ore was low grade compared to the LE ores,
with average grades of 10% wt. Zn and 4% wt. Pb.
The Grey Orebody consists primarily of ne-grained
(about 50 lm), laminated barite with intergrown
sphalerite and galena, and contained 4 wt. %
Zn + Pb + Cu combined in 80 wt. % BaSO4. Thin
interbedded layers of pyrite emphasise the stratiform
nature of this mineralisation.
The Kniest mineralisation is stratabound, lozengeshaped and may have originally been about 1000 m
long, 300 m wide, and 35 m thick. It is located in the
stratigraphic footwall of the Old Orebody and part of
the New Orebody, extending southeast of the main
sulphide accumulations (Figs. 2, 3 and 6). It consists of
cross-cutting veinlets, stratabound lenses and disseminations of chalcopyrite, pyrite, galena and sphalerite,
often accompanied by quartz, ankeritic calcite and
chlorite. It was generally low grade (3 wt. % Zn, 1.3 wt.
% Cu and 1.4 wt. % Pb) and was not extensively mined.
Apart from the ore metals, the mineralisation was
relatively enriched in Sb (average 800 ppm), As (average
500 ppm), Co (average 150 ppm), Bi (average 70 ppm)
and Sn (average 50 ppm, locally up to 730 ppm). These
gures refer to averages of ore analysed during 1950
1954 (Kraume 1955).

30 lm). In addition to these ore-forming minerals,

Ramdohr (1953) described a further 25 minerals including pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, magnetite and tetrahedrite. Gold occurs as free gold and electrum primarily
in the BE2, where it is associated with galena and tetrahedrite, and the LE2 zones (Fig. 7; Sperling 1986).
In addition to forming a separate orebody (Grey
Orebody), barite occurs as a gangue mineral in the sulphide orebodies. Apart from barite, the principal nonsulphide minerals are ankeritic calcite and quartz.
Primary textures of the sulphide minerals are not well
preserved due to recrystallisation and the intense deformation. Pyrite and sphalerite occur as framboids, and
diagenetic pyrite nodules, ``graded'' bedding, slumping
and load casts have also been identied within the
massive and banded ores (Sperling 1986; Hannak 1981).
Ramdohr (1953) described chalcopyrite inclusions in
sphalerite, and Sperling (1986; Plate 23) shows ne blebs
of chalcopyrite that are crystallographically oriented in
distinctive layers within the sphalerite. This texture may
be comparable to the ``chalcopyrite disease'' (Craig and
Vaughan 1981), the origin of which is discussed in detail
by Eldridge et al. (1983) who conclude that it marks
incipient replacement of sphalerite by chalcopyrite.
Sperling (1986) describes remobilisation of the primary sulphides over several metres (locally more than
10 m). The LE1 and 2 massive ore has been mobilised as
irregular veins into BE 2 banded ore (e.g. Sperling 1986:
his Fig. 38), and both ore types have been remobilised
along cleavage in the footwall shales (Hannak 1981: his
Fig. 25).
Sulphur isotopes

Mineralogy
The principal sulphide minerals are sphalerite, pyrite
and barite, with lesser amounts of galena and chalcopyrite. The primary minerals are ne grained (10

Anger et al. (1966) and Nielsen (1985) have published

data on the sulphur isotopes of pyrite, sphalerite, galena,
chalcopyrite and barite from various styles of mineralisation at the Rammelsberg deposit. The o34S values for
pyrite range from )15& to +20&, which is typical for

529

diagenetic pyrite in which the sulphur is derived from

biogenic reduction of seawater sulphate (Ohmoto and
Rye 1979). The o34S values for chalcopyrite, sphalerite
and galena are more homogeneous, and in the massive
ore o34S values for the sulphides vary from about +5
to +20&. The data presented by Nielsen (1985) shows
that the o34S values for chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena increase stratigraphically upwards through from the
cross-cutting mineralisation in the Kniest through various styles of stratiform massive and banded sulphide
mineralisation in the New Orebody (Fig. 8). Isotope
ratios for mineral pairs indicate a minimum temperature
of 180 C. Most of the barite-S has a o34S value in the
range from 20 to 30&, although the barite in the kniest
and some of the barite in the Grey Orebody has distinctively lower o34S values.
Nielsen (1985) interprets the data in terms of two
sulphur sources for the sulphides, a hydrothermal
component with homogeneous o34S value of 5 to 10&,
and another a biogenic component bacterial reduction
of sea water sulphate at the site of mineralisation. The
barite-SO4 was probably derived from the prevailing sea
water (Anger et al. 1966).
Pb-isotopes
Recent Pb-isotope studies by Tischendorf et al. (1993)
and Leveque and Haack (1993) demonstrates that the
Rammelsberg galena is isotopically distinct compared to
the galena from the vein deposits in the Harz Massif and
Kupferschiefer of central and eastern Germany (Fig. 9).
The model age of the Rammelsberg galena-Pb is

Fig. 9 208Pb/204Pb versus 206Pb/204Pb diagram of ore leads from

mineralisation in the Harz Massif (modied from Tischendorf et al.
1993). Field 1 includes material from Rammelsberg as well as data
from Wedepohl et al. (1978) from Meggen. Field 2 includes data from
vein-type mineralisation in the Upper, Middle and Lower Harz. The
growth curves are from Doe and Zartman (1979)

340 9 Ma as compared to a stratigraphic age of

about 400 Ma. The dierence is explained by Tischendorf et al. (1993) as being caused by ``diageneticmetamorphous'' recrystallisation of the mineralisation
during the Variscan orogeny. However the homogeneous and uniform lead isotope signature as well as the
slightly anomalous model age can be explained by the
plumbotectonics model (Doe and Zartman 1979)
whereby the lead is derived from a homogeneous crustal
source (Leveque and Haack 1993).
The new data from the Harz Mountains is compatible
with earlier work by Wedepohl et al. (1978) and Large et
al. (1983) that demonstrated the similarity of the Pbisotope signatures from the Meggen and Rammelsberg
SHMS deposits, as well as the synorogenic Ramsbeck
deposits in the Rhenish Massif. The same data also
showed that the Pb-isotopic data from the SHMS deposits plot in a eld that is distinct from both the isotopic signatures of the Kupferschiefer mineralisation as
well as Mesozoic vein-type and carbonate-hosted mineralisation in the Rhenish Massif.
Alteration

Fig. 8 Overview of the sulphur-isotope data for the Rammelsberg

mineralisation, simplied from Nielsen (1985)

Hydrothermal alteration of the host rocks around the

Rammelsberg is only weakly expressed through minor
increases in silica and carbonate as well as subtle changes in the composition of chlorite.
Silicication and a slight increase in the carbonate
content of the Wissenbach shales and siltstones is associated with the Kniest style of cross-cutting mineralisation in the footwall to the massive sulphides. The
Kniest contains about 60% quartz, and the silicication
is marked by the development of secondary quartz.
According to Sperling and Walcher (1990), this quartz
content is distinctly greater than that of the Lower
Wissenbach Shale. Kaselitz (1988) has shown that the
carbonate and illite content of the Kniest is distinctly
less than that of the normal Wissenbach Shale, and that

530

albite is the predominant feldspar. At least some of the

secondary quartz in the Kniest is derived from the
breakdown of illite to Fe-chlorite. These mineralogical
changes are reected in the geochemistry of the Kniest,
which is enriched in Fe2O3, MnO, SiO2, and Na2O as
compared to the unmineralised Wissenbach Shale
(Kaselitz 1988).
Fine-grained tourmaline is also present in the footwall rocks, but is considered to be sedimentary in origin
(Paul 1975).
The Fe-content of the chlorites in the ore-equivalent
horizon and host shales is about 2626 wt. %, and this
increases to 3746 wt. % Fe in chlorite within the orebodies. This variation in the Fe/Mg ratio of the chlorite
may be a sensitive indicator of the proximity to the
centre of hydrothermal activity (Renner 1986).
Zonation
Although a vertical Cu-Zn-Pb-Ba zonation upwards
through the massive sulphide mineralisation was described by Hannak (1981), it is now realised that this
general pattern is complicated by both lateral and vertical zonation sequences within the individual ore horizons. Sperling (1986) described a crude vertical zonation
of Cu-enrichment in the core, and at the base, of LE1
and LE2 (Fig. 7). A few lenses of barite ore occur at the
contact between the LE1 and the overlying BE2 layer.
The barite mineralisation in the Grey Orebody is
stratigraphically the highest of the stratiform ore zones,
and is located about 6 m above the BE3 layer from
which it is separated by dark grey, pyritic shales with
interbedded dolomitic carbonate horizons (Fig. 7).
The Kniest zone of quartz-enrichment and Zn-Cu
mineralisation in the footwall of the southeastern margins of the New and Old Orebodies (Figs. 3, 4) marks a
continuation of the zonation pattern into the footwall.
In addition, minor occurrences of sulphide-bearing veinlets and disseminations occur in the Calceola Shales
and Lower Devonian sandstones up to 300 m stratigraphically below the massive sulphide mineralisation.
Age and sequence of the mineralisation
The age and genetic relationships between the various
stratiform orebodies, the Kniest and the mineralised
occurrences in the Lower Devonian have always been
controversial, and the literature contains many dierent
correlations (e.g. Kraume 1955; Gunzert 1969, 1981;
Hannak 1981; Sperling and Walcher 1990). The earlier
workers considered that there were at least two phases of
mineralisation, a more or less synsedimentary event for
the massive sulphide mineralisation and a later, synorogenic (Variscan) event for the other occurrences.
Subsequently, it was proposed that the dierent styles of
mineralisation in the immediate area of the Rammelsberg may have been products of a single long-lived hy-

drothermal event and that they were recrystallised and

remobilised during the Variscan orogeny.
Sperling and Walcher (1990) considered that both the
massive and cross-cutting (Kniest) sulphide mineralisation occurred contemporaneously in the Eifelian
(lower Middle Devonian), but that the silicication associated with the Kniest commenced before the deposition of the sulphides with the alteration of illite to
chlorite and quartz, and the dissolution of carbonate.
The same hydrothermal activity was responsible for the
formation of the stratiform massive sulphides.
There are at least two cycles of stratiform banded and
massive ore mineralisation followed by further banded
ore and barite mineralisation (Fig. 7). The depocentre of
the sulphides changed slightly between each of the cycles
(Fig. 4). The rst cycle: BE1 LE1, was concentrated at
the site of the New Orebody in a depocentre with a
primary dimension of about 200 300 m. The second
cycle commenced with the deposition of the BE2 zone in
a limited area, and continued with LE2, which is laterally the most extensive, extending from the New Orebody (primary dimension of about 250 500 m) to the
Old Orebody (primary dimension of about
800 300 m). At this time, a barite-enriched fringe developed at the western edge of the Old Orebody, and
eastern edge of the New Orebody. The overlying BE3
was more restricted in its lateral extent, and marked the
end of metal sulphide deposition in the New Orebody.
The stratiform, barite-rich, Grey Orebody was the nal
hydrothermal event in the area.
Vein-type mineralisation is common in the Harz
Massif, and is controlled by post-Variscan structures
(Sperling and Stoppel 1981; Stedingk and Stoppel
1993b; Franzke and Zerjadtke 1993). Recent age-dating
of selected veins suggests that the mineralisation occurred at various times during the Mesozoic, with a
cluster of dates concentrated in the late Jurassic to
Cretaceous (Mertz et al. 1989; Hagedorn and Lippolt
1993; Haack and Lauterjung 1993). There is, therefore,
no relationship between the structurally controlled veintype mineralisation with either the massive sulphide
mineralisation at Rammelsberg (Middle Devonian) or
the intrusion of the Variscan granites (late Carboniferous). However, the mineral paragenesis and galena-Pb
isotopes of the Weisse Hirsch vein system in the Rammelsberg area (Fig. 3) are comparable to that of the
massive sulphides, and not with the typical assemblages
in the Upper Harz vein systems.
Host rock geochemistry
Table 2 (Walcher 1986) demonstrates that the oreequivalent shales contain a marked enrichment of Pb
and Zn as compared to the ``normal'' shales (derived
from the mean of over 1000 analyses of unaltered and
unmineralised Wissenbach Shales).
At distances up to 300 m from the massive sulphide
deposit, the ore-equivalent horizon contains 15%

531

Discussion
Palaeogeographic setting of the Rammelsberg
Regional palaeogeographic setting

Fig. 10 Relationship of average metal content to distance from the

orebodies, logarithmic scale (Walcher 1986)

Zn + Pb. Figure 10 shows that the metal content in the

ore-equivalent horizon decreases most rapidly in the rst
300 m from the orebodies. It is also clear that Pb is the
more widely dispersed element. Walcher (1986) has
proposed that the relatively extensive dispersion of the
Pb in the ore-equivalent horizon is related to the enhanced carbonate content of this horizon, and transport
of the Pb as bicarbonate and carbonate complexes.
Based on the enrichment of Pb and Zn in the oreequivalent horizon Walcher (1986) also suggests that, in
addition to the metal in the massive sulphide deposits
(estimated 2.1 Mt Pb and 5.1 Mt Zn metal), about 9 Mt
Pb and 4.3 Mt Zn metal were dispersed into the marine
milieu and absorbed into the sediments lateral from the
main orebodies.
In addition to the main metals, initial studies by
Walcher (1986) indicated that the ore-equivalent horizon
is also enriched in Hg, Ag, Sb, Bi and As as compared to
the background values in the underlying and overlying
Wissenbach Shale.

The regional palaeogeographic setting of the Harz

Massif is within the Rhenohercynian terrane that extended from southern Ireland through the Cornish Basin, Ardennes to the Rhenish Basin, and further east to
Silesia (Fig. 1; Franke 1992; Ziegler 1990). The tectonic
evolution of the Rhenish (Engel et al. 1983) as well as the
Harz Massifs (Buchholz and Wachendorf 1993) could be
interpreted in terms of the evolution of a rifted basin, in
which the most important phases for the Meggen and
Rammelsberg areas (Fig. 11) are shown in Fig. 12 and
described in Table 3. The SHMS mineralisation (e.g.
Rammelsberg and Meggen) is associated with tectonic
extensional ``pulses'' associated with mac volcanics and
synsedimentary faulting at specic horizons during the
post-rift thermal subsidence phase (Middle Devonian) of
the basin evolution (Large 1986, 1988).
Local palaeogeographic setting
of the Rammelsberg mineralisation
The mineralisation occurred during a period of quiet
sedimentation, the ore and ore equivalent horizon are

Fig. 11 The Rhenohercynian and Moravo-Silesian Massifs: volcanichosted massive sulphide (VHMS) and sediment-hosted massive
sulphide (SHMS) deposits: M, Meggen; R, Rammelsberg; L,
Lohrheim; LD, Lahn Dill district; ZL, Zlaty Hori; HM, Horni
Mesto; HB, Horni Benesov

532
Table 3 Summary of basin evolution in the Rhenohercynian using
the nomenclature of White and McKenzie (1988)
Phase of Basin
Evolution

Age

Initial rifting,
Lower Devonian
rapid subsidence

Fig. 12 Sketch stratigraphic sections in the NW Harz Massif and the

Rhenish Massif showing the stratigraphic location of Meggen and
Rammesberg in the context of phases of basin evolution during the
Devonian and Carboniferous

located within a sequence of dark grey Wissenbach

Shales (Figs. 3, 4). The location is marked by an
anomalously thin (40 m) sequence of Sandband Shales
in the footwall, which has been interpreted by Sperling
and Walcher (1990) in terms of a small ridge, although it
could reect the local palaeotopography at the margin
of the Goslar Trough.
The thickness variation within the Goslar Trough is
reected primarily by the Sandband Shales, which vary
from about 2040 m to the east of the massive sulphides,
to about 600 m in the Goslar Trough. Sperling (1986)
noted evidence for slumping, debris ows and chaotic
bedding in these beds.
The palaeogeographic dierentiation into the Goslar
Trough and the Rammelsberg Rise was presumably
caused by contrasting rates of subsidence, although the
rate of sedimentation was sucient to ensure that there
was little morphological expression of these palaeogeographic features. During deposition of the Sandband
Shale unit (dms) in the footwall succession to the mineralisation, the boundary zone between the Goslar
Trough and the Rammelsberg Rise was marked by a
synsedimentary growth fault that is marked by sedimentary slump structures and chaotic bedding
(Brinckmann et al. 1986).

Post rift thermal

subsidence
(sag phase)

Middle to Upper
Devonian

Compression

Lower
Carboniferous

Lithologies and
thicknesses
Thick
sequences
(>2000 m) of coarse
clastics and felsic volcanics deposited in
fault-bound, rapidly
subsiding, rifting basins
Filling of the less rapidly
subsiding (rate of
subsidence exponentially decreasing) basin
with pelites; thick
clastic sequences and
associated
sediment
loading at the Old Red
Sandstone continental
margin in the NW
Rapid sedimentation of
thick sequences of
ysch-type
greywackes derived from the
uplift of the Variscan
Orogen to the south

In spite of the local dierentiation into the Rammelsberg Rise and Goslar Trough, there is no direct
evidence for the development of a small ``basin'' before
or during deposition of the shales in which the Rammelsberg mineralisation was formed. The density of the
massive sulphides themselves might have resulted in local subsidence, dewatering and minor fracturing as
proposed by Walcher (1986).
Comparison of the Rammelsberg to the SHMS class
The attributes typical of the SHMS class (Large 1981;
Gustafson and Williams 1981; Lydon 1983; Krebs and
Gwosdz 1985; Goodfellow et al. 1994) are compared to
the geological observations at Rammelsberg in Table 4.
With few exceptions, the Rammelsberg possesses most
of the SHMS attributes.
In addition to the European Variscan, Palaeozoic
sequences in the American Cordillera, Alaska, Siberia
Kazakhstan and North Africa also contain important
stratabound massive sulphide and barite deposits (Table 5). These mineralised successions were all developed
on the cratonic margin of Laurussia prior to the main
Hercynian deformation event caused by the collision of
Laurussia with Gondwana (Ziegler 1990).
The mineralisation at Rammelsberg is relatively
copper-enriched as compared to most Phanerozoic examples (with the possible exception of the poorly known
SHMS deposits in Kazakhstan). The reasons for this are
not clear, copper-enriched source rocks such as basic
volcanics, and/or relatively higher temperatures of the
mineralising solutions might be possible causes. Both

533
Table 4 Attributes of the Sediment-hosted massive sulphide (SHMS) class of deposits compared with the observations at Rammelsberg
Attributes of SMS deposits

Features at Rammelsberg

Hosted by basinal sediments within fault-controlled basin.

Vertical tectonics, and dierential rates of subsidence
reected by lateral facies and thickness variations

Goslar Trough interpreted to be a fault-bound basin. Marked

facies and thickness variations between the Goslar Trough
and West Harz Rise. Rammelsberg located near the
``hinge-line''
Middle Devonian shale sequence considered to be deposited
during post-rift thermal subsidence
Diabase sills within the Elfelian shale succession in Goslar
Trough. Tu horizons within host succession
Prevailing low energy environment reected by shales and
silstones of the Wissenbach Shale sequence

Mineralisation occurs during the post-rift ``thermal

subsidence'' phase of basin development
Close spatial and temporal association to magmatic activity
Host sediments: autochthonous sediments are ne clastics
and carbonates deposited in the prevailing low energy
environment
Host sediments: allochthonous sediments are coarse clastics,
debris ows, conglomerates deposited rapidly in a high energy
environment, possibly as a result of synsedimentary fault activity
Age distribution: SMS deposits tend to be concentrated in
the Middle Proterozoic and Palaozoic
Morphology of massive sulphide mineralisation is
stratabound, up to 6 km strike length, variable thickness.
Stratiform textures are common
Cross-cutting mineralisation (veins, veinlets, replacement)
occurs subjacent to massive sulphides. This is interpreted
as a hydrothermal feeder or vent zone
Grades and tonnage. Economic SMS orebodies are 10s
Mt ore (some Proterozoic examples 100s Mt) at grades
of >10% Zn + Pb. Cu is usually insignicant
Characteristic metal zonation: a Cu-Fe core proximal to
the vent, Pb and Zn more widely dispersed, peripheral
and/or overlying barite enrichment
Primary sulphide mineralogy is typically ne-grained
sphalerite-chalcopyrite with pyrrhotite and/or pyrite. Minor
arsenopyrite and tetrahedrite.
Alteration: silication and carbonatisation (typically
Fe-carbonates) are common. Tourmalinisation, albitisation,
chloritisation and sericitisation ocassional
Pb-isotopes are generally homogeneous within each deposit
S-isotopes generally suggest two S-sources: hydrothermal-S
with relatively homogeneous o34S values, and bacterially
reduced seawater-S with a wide range (typically in pyrite).
Barite-S tends to reect prevailing seawater-sulphate
There are only a few uid inclusion studies on SMS
deposits T ranges between 180280 C

these features may be related to local crustal rupture and

consequent high geothermal gradient in the Upper Harz
during the Middle Devonian (Large 1986).
Although the Rammelsberg is located on a tectonically active zone (possibly a growth fault), as reected by
the thickness and facies changes of the Middle Devonian
sediments between the West Harz Rise and the Goslar
Trough, the allochthonous lithologies typical of other
the host sequences for SHMS deposits (Table 4) are not
well represented in the succession at Rammelsberg.
The genesis of the Rammelsberg mineralisation
In their discussion on the genesis of SHMS deposits,
Goodfellow et al. (1994) recognise a sedimentary hydrothermal facies and a vent facies, at Rammelsberg

Local debris ows and soft sediment deformation

Devonian age is one of the principal ages for SMS deposits
(Table 5)
Two principal stratabound massive sulphide orebodies with
stratiform textures, and stratabound barite deposit
The ``Kniest'' zone of cross-cutting mineralisation may
represent a hydrothermal vent underlying the stratabound
massive sulphides
Rammelsberg tonnage (about 2730 Mt: see text) is typical of
economic SMS deposits. Grades (14% Zn + 6% Pb) are
high, and 1% Cu is anomalous for SMS deposits
Vertical Cu-Pb-Zn zonation cycles recognized in the massive
sulphides. Barite present throughout, but enriched In the
overlying ``Grey Orebody''
Pyrite, sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite are principal
sulphides, with minor pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, magnetite
and tetrahedrite
The ``Kniest'' is slightly enriched in silica, chlorite and albite
(Kaselitz 1988). Ankeritic dolomite is a principal constituent
of the massive ore, and siderite veins occur in the ``kniest''
Tourmaline is present, but described as detrital (Paul 1975)
Rammelsberg Pb-isotopes are homogeneous and comparable
to those of Meggen, and contrast (less radiogenic) with
other styles of mineralisation in the Harz
Rammelsberg S-Isotope data is interpreted in terms of a dual
sulphur-source (Nielsen 1985)
No uid inclusion studies reported

these are represented by the stratabound massive sulphide mineralisation and the Kniest cross-cutting mineralisation respectively.
In the exhalative model, the metal sulphides are precipitated from a hydrothermal solution that is expelled at
a vent into the submarine environment. Typical uid
chemistry for an SHMS ore-forming solutions might be:
temperature, 260 C; salinity, 8 to 10 equivalent wt. %
NaCl; very low O2-activity: very high CO2-activity; low
H2S activity; and weakly acid to neutral pH. These gures were derived by Goodfellow and Rhodes (1990)
from their studies on the Tom SHMS deposit, Yukon
Territory, Canada. There are no uid inclusion data
from Rammelsberg, but the mineral assemblage and
sulphur isotope data indicate that the chemistry of the
ore-forming hydrothermal solution probably did not
vary very signicantly from these gures.

534
Table 5 Sediment- and volcanic-hosted massive sulphide mineralisation in the Variscan and other orogens marginal to the Laurussia
craton
Terrane/basin

Country

Type

Examples

Age

South Portuguese Zone

(Iberian Pyrite Belt)

Portugal, Spain

VHMS

L. Carboniferous

Rhenish Basin
(Rhenohercynian)
Moravia

Germany

SHMS

Neves Corvo, Aljustrel,

Rio Tinto, Tharsis (over
53 known occurrences)
Meggen, Rammelsberg

Czech Rep.

VHMS

M. Devonian

North Brittany

France

VHMS

Pyrenees
Massif Central
Graz (Alpine belt)
Caucusus
Selwyn Basin

France/Spain
France
Austria
CIS
Canada

SHMS
VHMS
SHMS
SHMS
SHMS

Brooks Range
Altai

Alaska, USA
Kazachstan, CIS

SHMS
VHMS/SHMS

Omulevka Terrane
Franklin Basin
Ouachita Mts
Great Basin

Siberia, CIS
NWGreenland
Arkansas, USA
Nevada, USA

SHMS
SHMS
SHMS*
SHMS*

Zlate Hory, Horni

Benesov and others
Bodennac,
Porte-aux- Moines
Arrens + several others
Chessy
Occurrences
Occurrences
Tom, Jason, Cirque +
ca 10 others
Red Dog, Lik and others
Maleevskoie, Artemievskoie,
Yubileinoie
Occurrences
New discovery
Several barite deposits
Several barite deposits + ?
SHMS Triumph, Idaho

M. Devonian

L. Devonian
M. Devonian
U. Devonian
Devonian
?Devonian
(Cambrian -)
Carboniferous
Devonian
M. Devonian
L. Carboniferous
Devonian
Devonian
Devonian-L.
Carboniferous

* Barite only

Although an exhalative origin for the massive sulphides is incorporated into most models for SHMS
mineralisation (Large 1983; Lydon 1983), there is considerable argument about the origin of cross-cutting
mineralisation and the possible importance of replacement in the mineralisation mechanism. Stockwork
mineralisation in a vent may be an acceptable explanation for the Rammelsberg Kniest, where cross-cutting
and replacement mineralisation occurred in the watersaturated sediments immediately beneath the sea-oor.
However, at Mt. Isa a similar quartz-carbonate-sulphide
assemblage is considered to have formed during later
deformation and to be unrelated to the adjacent SHMS
stratiform zinc-lead mineralisation (Perkins 1984).
Sulphur isotopes indicate that the source of sulphur
for the pyrite was probably biogenically reduced seawater sulphate. They also suggest that the base metal
sulphide may have been hydrothermal in origin, and
barite-sulphate was derived directly from the seawater.
The buoyancy of the hydrothermal solutions with
respect to seawater, and the eect on the morphology of
the mineralisation, is discussed by Lydon (1983). Compared to other SHMS deposits, the Rammelsberg orebodies are not laterally extensive (compact) and have a
variable thickness. By contrast, the Meggen deposit is
laterally very extensive (6000 m) and the thickness is
relatively constant at about 8 m (Table 6). These characteristics of the Rammelsberg indicate that the precipitation of the base metal sulphides occurred immediately
above the vent (possibly as a mound), and that there was
only limited lateral dispersion. The mixture of barite in
much of the sulphide ore, and the development of discrete barite orebodies, may have resulted from precipi-

tation of at least some constituents from a buoyant

plume above the discharge site (Goodfellow et al. 1994).
There is no evidence for accumulation of a dense brine in
small basin, other than the depression that may have
been created by the compaction of the dense sulphides
on the sea oor.
The cyclic zonation and development of discrete
orebodies suggests that the mineralisation occurred in
several pulses, although it is not possible to put an absolute time constraint on the duration of the hydrothermal activity.
The origin of the hydrothermal solutions can be explained in terms of the basin expulsion model, by which
the uids are derived from the underlying sedimentary
sequence. The Lower Devonian syn-rift clastic sequence
would have been a suitably permeable reservoir succession for the development of metal-bearing brines from
the trapped pore water. During the Middle Devonian
this pregnant aquifer was sealed by the overlying postrift shales (Wissenbach Shales). Deeply penetrating
faults, as well as an increased thermal gradient during
the post-rift extensional tectonic pulse, may provide the
physical parameters within which these metal-bearing
hydrothermal brines can be focussed to the vent site.
This model is compatible to that proposed for SHMS
deposits by Lydon et al. (1985) and Large (1988).
Other exhalative ore deposits in the Variscan
of Central Europe
Massive sulphide base metal deposits have been, and still
are, an most important source of base metals in the

Czech
Republic

Czech
Republic

VHMS

VHMS

VHMS

Einheit

Zlate Hory

Horni
Benesov

Horni Mesto VHMS

Morphology

ca. 4 Mt @ 2%
Zn+Pb
(trial mining)

Past production
5 Mt @ 2%
Zn+Pb

Stratiform lenses
in complex
structure,
1500 m strike,
up to 45 m thick
Stratabound
lenses, up to 3 m
thick

ca. 28 Mt @ 1721% 2 main lenses

of strata-bound
Zn, 712% Pb,
12% Cu,
and stratiform
80120 g/t Ag,
massive sulphides
and barite,1050 m
01 g/t Au, 026%
thick, ca. 600 m
barite. Ceased
mining 1989
strike. Stratabound
lens of veinlets and
disseminations
in FW (Kniest)
50 Mt @ 8% Zn &
Stratiform bed,
1% Pb 10 Mt
3.58 m thick,
@ 95% barite
6000 m strike.
Ceased mining
Barite peripheral to,
1992
and not mixed with,
massive sulphides
20 Mt pyrite
Disseminated and
Exploited pyrite
massive pyrite
until 1989 for
sulphuric acid
production
Past production
4 deposits in
30 Mt @ 1.22.4%
10 km strike length.
Zn, 0.25% Pb,
Stratabound in
0.40.8% Cu
complex structure.
Late-stage
Au-enriched ``pipe''

Tonnage/grade

HW: shales, micrites

Ore-equivalent
micrites FW:
sandy siltstones
and minor tu

Dark grey shales,

dolomitic at
ore horizon.
Minor tu

Stratigraphy

Upper Givetian
to Lower Frasnian
(Transition
Mid- to
Upper Devonian)

Eifelian
(lower Middle
Devonian)

Age

Pyrite, sphalerite,
galena, barite

Pyrite, trace barite

Keratophyres and
keratophyre tus

Middle Devonian

FW: Acid-intermediate Upper Givetian

volcanics
to Lower Frasnian
(keratophyre) HW:
(Transition
Middle to Upper
shales/limestones
Devonian)
Streaky-disseminated Quartz-mica schists
Middle Devonian
pyrite, pyrrhotite,
(keratophyre tus),
chlorite schists,
sphalerite, galena
graphite schists
and chalcopyrite,
common
remobilisation
of sulphates
Upper Givetian
FW: sericitic
Fine-grained
to Lower Frasnian
keratophyre tus.
disseminated
HW: shales
pyrite, sphalerite,
galena and barite

Fine-grained,
massive, pyrite,
marcasite,
sphalerite,
galena, barite

Massive sulphides,
some streaky
laminations.
Pyrite, sphalerite,
galena,
chalcopyrite,
barite

Mineralisation

Abbreviations: SHMS, sediment-hosted massive sulphide deposit; VHMS, volcanic-hosted sulphide deposit; FW, footwall; HW hanging wall

Czech
Republic

GermanyHarz Mts

GermanyRhenish Mts

SHMS

Meggen

Location

GermanyHarz Mts

Type

Rammelsberg SHMS

Deposit

Table 6 Characteristics of sediment-hosted (SHMS) and volcanic-hosted (VHMS) massive sulphide deposits in the Variscan of Central Europe

Fojt (1966)

Pouba (1986)

Pouba (1986);
Constanides
and Pertold
(1971)

Scheer
(1973)

Krebs (1981),
Thein
(1985)

This study

Reference

535

536

Variscan of Central and Western Europe. However, in

Germany there are only a few (<10) known occurrences
and deposits of massive sulphide mineralisation, and
only three supported mining operations (Meggen,
Rammelsberg and Einheit; Table 6). This compares to
hundreds of relatively small deposits of vein-type mineralisation that have been worked in the past (Walther
1986; Large 1992).
The Meggen deposit is a very important example of
SHMS mineralisation in the German Variscan (Fig. 11,
Table 6; Krebs 1981). It consists of a stratiform Zn-barite
massive sulphide orebody and is hosted by upper Givetian
sediments in the Rhenish Massif (Werner 1988, 1990).
There are only a few other occurrences of SHMS mineralisation in the Rhenohercynian, all of which are small
and economically insignicant (Krebs and Gwosdz 1985).
The Lahn-Dill type of iron ore mineralisation derives
its name from the Lahn-Dill iron ore district in the
southern Rhenish Massif, Central Germany (Quade
1976). The style of mineralisation was economically
important, and the original ore resource is estimated to
have been greater than 100 Mt in the Lahn-Dill District
alone (Walther 1986). The mineralisation is stratiform,
consists primarily of siliceous hematite with magnetite,
siderite and rare pyrite, and is hosted by Middle to
Upper Devonian (GivetianFrasnian transition) tholeiitic volcanics, tus and related sediments within a
well-dened belt that extends from the Rhenish Massif
northeast into the Harz Massif (the Upper Harz Diabase
Zone). In addition to the Rhenish and Harz Massifs, the
Lahn Dill type of mineralisation is also common in the
Moravo-Silesian zone of the Czech Republic (Fig. 11).
Volcanic-hosted massive sulphide (VHMS) mineralisation also occurs in the German Variscan at the Einheit
deposit in the Harz Massif and the Lohrheim deposit in
the Rhenish Massif. Both these deposits are associated
with Middle Devonian acid volcanics in sequences that
are otherwise characterised by tholeiitic volcanics and
the presence of Lahn-Dill type oxide-carbonate iron ores
(Table 6). The mineralisation at Einheit consists almost
entirely of pyrite, and was exploited as a sulphur-source
for manufacturing acid. Stratabound sulphide mineralisation, also with low base metal contents, is associated
with Devonian felsic volcanic centres in the Palaeozoic
succession in the Moravo-Silesian district of NE Czech
Republic (Fig. 11, Table 6).
The volcanogenic sulphide deposits, particularly in
the Moravo-Silesian district but also within the LahnDill district and Upper Harz Diabase zone, bear some
geological similarities to the famous deposits in the
Lower Carboniferous of the Iberian Pyrite Belt (Saez
and Almodovar 1993):
1. Spatial and genetic association with felsic volcanic
centres within a volcano-sedimentary succession
2. Association of jaspilitic Fe-exhalites with the mac
volcanics
3. Dominance of Fe and relative low-grade (with the
exception of Neves Corvo) of base metals in the

stratabound massive sulphide and oxide mineralisation

4. Association of sulphide mineralisation with K-metasomatism
5. Low S-isotope ratios (o34S +8 to )16&)
In addition, the volcanism and mineralisation occurred
during transtensional tectonism in pull-apart basins in
Moravo-Silesia, Rhenohercynian and Iberian Pyrite Belt
respectively.
Both ``sediment-hosted'' and ``volcanic-hosted''
massive sulphide deposits occur within the same terranes
in the European Variscan, and it is often dicult to
make a strict distinction between the VHMS and SHMS
classes. The exhalative mineralisation within the Variscan of central and western Europe is dominated by
iron, both as sulphide (VHMS, SHMS) and as oxidescarbonates (Lahn-Dill type). The region could therefore
be regarded as an iron province, with an overprint of
economically attractive base metal deposits. Considerable more research is required to address the important
question of why, within the same terrane, some deposits
are economic ``prizes'' (e.g. Rammelsberg, Neves Corvo)
and others, at the time of writing, are just uneconomic
iron deposits. It is hoped that the information provided
in this contribution might provide a basis for further
work towards solving this critical problem.
Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the anonymous
reviewer for constructive criticism that improved the paper enormously, as well as to the Editor for his patience and support.

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