1

TOWARDS WORLD WAR (1871-1914)

Anyone who has ever looked into the glazed eyes of a soldier dying on the
battlefield will think hard before starting a war
(Otto von Bismarck)
Introduction
1. World War - I also known as the First World War or the Great War, was a global war
centered in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918.
More than 9 million combatants and 7 million civilians died as a result of the war, a
casualty rate exacerbated by the belligerents' technological and industrial
sophistication, and tactical stalemate1. It was one of the deadliest conflicts in history,
paving the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the
nations involved. The war drew in all the world's economic great powers, which were
assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the
United Kingdom, France and the Russian Empire) and the Central Powers of
Germany and Austria-Hungary. Although Italy had also been a member of the Triple
Alliance alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary, it did not join the Central Powers,
as Austria-Hungary had taken the offensive against the terms of the alliance. These
alliances were reorganized and expanded as more nations entered the war: Italy,
Japan and the United States joined the Allies, and the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria
the Central Powers. Ultimately, more than 70 million military personnel, including 60
million Europeans, were mobilized in one of the largest wars in history.
2. World War I was immediately precipitated by the assassination of Archduke Francis
Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by a Serbian nationalist in 1914. There were, however,
many factors that had led toward war. Prominent causes were the imperialistic,
territorial, and economic rivalries that had been intensifying from the late 19th
century particularly among Germany, France, Great Britain, Russia, and
Hungary.

1 Causes and Consequences of the First World War By Stewart Ross, 1997.

Austria-

Aim
3. To carry out detailed analysis of causes of World War I with a view to highlight
various sequence of events involved in its initiation.
Scope
4.
The paper has been developed in following parts:a. Part I. German Unification The Franco Prussian War
b. Part II. Long term causes of war.
c. Part III. Short term causes of war.
d. Part IV. Immediate cause of war.
e. Part V. Analysis and conclusion.

PART- I
GERMAN UNIFICATION AND FRANCO PRUSSIAN WAR
Events leading to German Unification
5. During the early nineteenth century, Prussia was the only German state that could
match the power and influence of the Austrian Empire. They were comparable in
terms of size, population and wealth. Austria opposed the idea of German unification
as it saw this as a threat to its own empire. Although they were a minority, there was
a significant percentage of German-speakers in the empire. If they broke away to
join a unified Germany, Austria would be smaller and weaker. To this end, Prussia
and Austria were rivals.

Figure 1.1: Prussian in 18152

6. Austria had lost key allies and was losing influence in Europe. Austria had refused to
help Russia in its war against France and Britain (the Crimean War, 1854-56) and
lost a major ally as a result. Austria was defeated in a war against the French and
2 http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/nationalism/unification/revision/1.

northern Italian states. As a result, it had been forced to surrender some territories.
Prussia had become the most industrialised state in Germany. She was now a force
to be reckoned with in Europe. Prussia was producing more key resources such as
coal and iron than Austria and it had surged ahead of its rival in building road and rail
networks to help promote trade. Prussia had successfully set up an economic
alliance (Zollverein) with other German states that made trade between states easier
and more profitable.
7. Otto Von Bismarck Plan of Unification.The man who did most to unite the German
states was Otto Von Bismarck. He was the Prussian Chancellor and his main goal
was to strengthen even further the position of Prussia in Europe. His primary aims
were to:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Unify the north German states under Prussian control.

Weaken Prussia's main rival, Austria, by removing it from the Bund.
Make Berlin the centre of German affairs - not Vienna.
Strengthen the position of the King of Prussia, William I, to counter the
demands for reform from the Liberals in the Prussian parliament (the

Reichstag).
8. Isolating Austria. Bismarck knew Austria was a major obstacle to unification. To
succeed in his aims war seemed inevitable. Before he fought the powerful Austrian
empire, however, he needed to weaken its position in Europe. Prussia refused to
help Poland when it rebelled against Russian control. Bismarck then formed a
powerful alliance with Russia. Bismarck then formed another key alliance with
France. In a meeting with Napoleon III, he promised to support France in its plans to
invade and control Belgium. Bismarck also struck a deal with Italy. Italy promised to
help Prussia in any war against Austria, providing Austria were the aggressor and
Italy gained Venezia in return.
a.
Schleswig-Holstein 1864-65 and the Seven Weeks War. Bismarck got his
excuse for a war against Austria during a territorial dispute over two small
German states, Schleswig and Holstein. These were under the control of
Denmark but not technically a part of it. Following turn of events occurred:(1) In 1863, the King of Denmark declared Schleswig and Holstein
to be a part of Denmark.
(2) In 1864, Prussia and Austria teamed up and declared war on
Denmark. They won easily.

(3) Bismarck then engineered a treaty with Austria which he knew

was unlikely to work. Prussia was to control Schleswig and
Austria would control Holstein. This treaty was designed to
provoke, since Austrians would have to go through a hostile
Prussia to reach Holstein.
(4) The Austrians tried to use their influence in the German Bund to
pressure Prussia to address the Schleswig-Holstein issue.
(5) The Bund backed Austria in the dispute over SchleswigHolstein.
(6) In response, Prussia said that the Bund was invalid, declared
war on Austria and invaded the German states of Hanover,
Hesse and Saxony.
(7) The Austrians were quickly defeated by the Prussian army
during the Seven Weeks War, with the help of Italy.
b.

Bismarck's plan to isolate Austria was working. As a result of the Seven

Weeks War, Prussia kept all the territories it had captured. A North German
Confederation was set up under the control of Prussia. A federal Diet
(parliament) was established for the states in this North German
Confederation. The Diet would be elected and each state could keep its own
laws and customs. The southern German states formed their own
independent confederation. Austria promised to stay out of German affairs.
Austria paid compensation to Prussia but did not lose land to it. Prussia did
not want to weaken Austria too much since it might be a useful ally in the
future against Prussia's enemies.

Figure 1.2: North German Confederation 1867 1871 3

9. Isolating France.With Austria weakened, Bismarck now turned his attention to the
other great stumbling block to unification - the French. France had watched Prussia's
growing power with alarm. As he had with Austria, Bismarck tried to weaken France
as much as possible before war started. Officially, Russia was an ally of France but
Bismarck used diplomacy to make sure Russia stayed out of the up-coming war.
Bismarck also made sure Italy stayed neutral and wouldn't fight for France. Bismarck
gambled that the British would stay out of the war since it didn't want France to
become any more powerful than it already was.
a.
Franco Prussian war 1870 71.
Bismarck found his excuse for war
when Spain offered its vacant crown to a relative of the Prussian King, William
I. France was outraged since it didn't want Prussia to become more powerful.
The French insisted King William makes his relative refuse the crown. King
William refused to guarantee this. Bismarck used the King's refusal as a way
to provoke the French. He published a heavily edited and provocative
telegram, known as The Ems Telegram, of the King's refusal, making it seem
3 http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/nationalism/unification/revision/2.

he had insulted the French ambassador. The French Emperor, responding to

b.

fury from the French press and public, declared war on Prussia.
Result.
In the Franco-Prussian war, France was heavily defeated and its
ruler, Napoleon III, was arrested during the war. As a result of the FrancoPrussian war, France lost the territory of Alsace-Lorraine on its border with
Germany. It also had to pay Germany 200 million in compensation. A new
imperial constitution was set up within the now unified German states, with
William I as Emperor (Kaiser) and Prussia firmly in control.

Unification achieved
10. In the build up to war, the southern confederate German states voluntarily joined the
Prussian-controlled Northern German Confederation. Germany was now unified.

Figure 1.3: Unification of Germany4

4 http://www.timetoast.com/timelines/unification-of-germany--72.

PART-II
LONG TERM CAUSES OF WAR
11. The late nineteenth century saw an acceleration of industrialization in the United
States and Germany, while France, Austria-Hungary, and even Tsarist Russia
participated in the expansion of the western world's economic power. This growth in
turn fuelled a world economy that showed every prospect of spreading wealth
beyond the narrow band of upper classes. In the end, the West's economic power
provided the resources for the catastrophic wars of the twentieth century; but for the
time being Europeans drew the comforting illusion from their prosperity that they
alone possessed.
12. The key to the future. There was a darker side to progress. The western system
rested on competition between distinct national states as long as that competition
remained confined to seeking economic and diplomatic advantage, it did not threaten
the structure's basic stability. But economic expansion placed enormous military
power in the hands of these states and in the long run made war both inevitable and
disastrous. Western political sophistication failed to keep pace with its burgeoning
military and economic power. Above all, nationalism drove statesmen and generals
to pursue policies that raised the stakes and made war seem an increasingly
acceptable alternative, while public opinion accepted careless notions of national
rights and aspirations, regardless of their political or strategic consequences. The
result was a mix of unprecedented power with general irresponsibility 5. Henceforth,
causes of World War I can be divided into four distinct categories.
The Arms Race
Our future lies upon the Ocean.(German Emperor Wilhelm II)6
13. When the German Emperor Wilhelm II, known as the Kaiser in Britain, made the
statement, everyone knew that he meant to do next and began to increase the size
of their armed forces. This lead to an arms race in which each country tried to build a
much bigger and better military machine than their enemy. Between 1870 and 1914,
military spending by the main European powers increased by 300 percent. After
5 Cambridge History of Warfare edited by Geoffrey Parker, August 2005.
6 World War I: A Student Encyclopedia, edited by Spencer Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts,
Sec 1 : the Coming of War, page 2082, 2005.

1871 all the major nations except Britain brought in conscription, which meant that all
men over the age of 18 were forced to serve a minimum period in one of their
countrys armed services.
Seria

Country

Soldiers

Money spent in millions

Britain

750,000

50,000,000

b.

France

1,500,000

40,000,000

c.

Germany

8,250,000

60,000,000

d.

Austria

750,000

22,500,000

e.

Russia

1,250,000

15,500,000

f.

Italy

750,000

10,000,000

l
a.

Table 2.1: European military spending and the size of their armies, 1913 - 14 7
14. Britain had one of the best-trained and equipped armies in Europe, even though it
wasnt very big. In 1900 the only way to travel around the World was by ship.
Whichever country ruled the waves could rule the world. Great Britain had the
largest navy in 1900. It had to be to protect the British Empire. However, Britain was
beginning to realise that it did not have enough resources to protect its vast Empire.
In particular, Britain was worried about the growing size of the Germany Navy. The
British Government was determined that their navy should remain the biggest. Soon
an arms race to build new battleships began between Britain and Germany. In 1906,
Britain launched HMS Dreadnought, a new battleship that was stronger and faster
than any other ship built before. Soon Germany also began to build Dreadnoughts
as well8. The table 2.2 below shows the results of this naval arms race.
15. Schlieffen Plan.In 1914, Germany believed war with Russia was extremely likely. If
war broke out, Germany assumed France would also attack as she was both an ally
of Russia and keen for revenge for her defeat in the Franco-Prussian war. If this
happened, Germany would face a war on two fronts. Germany wanted to avoid this
at all costs. Germany planned to defeat France rapidly and then turn to the eastern
front for a major offensive on Russia. This was the basis for the Schlieffen Plan.
7 http://www.schoolhistory.co.uk/gcselinks/wars/firstwwlinks/worksheets/causeswwi.pdf.
8 The First World War by Michael Howard, January 2007.

10

Seria

Great Britain

Germany

Dreadnoughts

29

17

b.

Pre-Dreadnoughts

40

20

c.

Battle-cruisers

34

d.

Cruisers

74

41

e.

Destroyers

167

130

f.
g.

Torpedo boats
Submarines

49
75

0
21

l
a.

Types of Ships

Table 2.2: German and British Navy in 19149

a.

Background.The Germany Army Chief of Staff, Alfred von Schlieffen was

asked to plan a way of preventing a war on two fronts. His initial plan was
produced late in 1905. He believed that it was a priority to defeat France
quickly, forcing them to surrender before Russia had a chance to mobilize her

b.

armed forces.
The Plan.
In full knowledge of French defences (French Plan XVII, detailed
plan attached as per Annexure A), Schlieffen proposed attacking France
through Holland, Belgium and Luxembourg the Benelux countries.
Schlieffen planned to use 90% of German military forces to deliver a knockout
blow to France.

The remaining 10% would defend the eastern border of

Germany against Russian attack (Detailed plan attached as per Annexure B).
Von Molkte replaced Von Schlieffen in 1906, and made some alterations to
the plan. His version avoided invading Holland, instead concentrating attack
through Belgium. According to Von Molke, the Belgium army would be unable
to resist a powerful German military, and German forces would rapidly enter
c.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

France (Comparison of both plans attached as per Annexure C).

Assumptions
Russia would take at least 6 weeks to mobilize.
France would be easily defeated in 6 weeks.
Belgium would not resist any German attack.
Britain would remain neutral.

9 From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow: Volume I: The Road to War 1904-1914, by Arthur J.
Marder, Jun 2014.

11

Figure 2.1: Schlieffen Plan10

Imperialism
To be a great nation, you must colonize. (A French Politician)11
16. In 1900, nearly everyone would have agreed with this statement made by a French
Politician. A large Empire was important not only for trade but also national prestige.
The larger your empire, the more important your country was. In 1800, France and
Britain both had large empires, and these continued to grow throughout the
nineteenth century. In 1870s Italy and Germany became united countries for the first
time. They too wanted an overseas empire. The result was that in the years up to
1900 competition between European powers grew more intense. There was a
scramble for territory, especially in Africa with its rich minerals and resources. This
competition for colonies caused several disputes. For example, in 1906 and 1911
Germany and France argued about Morocco. At one time, Great Britain controlled
major portion of world including Australia, Subcontinent, Canada, South Africa and

10 http://3dhistory.co.uk/fact-sheet/029-schlieffen-plan.php.
11 http://www.slideshare.net/bernardsanch/why-great-power-wars-happen.

12

parts of Africa. A table below gives an idea of colonial powers of European countries
at that time.
Serial

Country

Population of Country

Population of Colonies

a.

Britain

40.8 million

390 million

b.

France

39.6 million

63 million

c.

Germany

63 million

15 million

d.

Austria

50 million

None

e.

Russia

139 million

None

Table 2.3: European countries Empires in 191412

17. The major war fought to get the foothold in different parts of the world by great
powers of that time included :a.
Boer War (1899 - 1902)
b.
Russo Japanese War (1904 - 1905)
Boer War (1899-1902)
18. Background.Boer war is a classic example of Imperialism. Much lessons learnt from
Boer War were taken into account by Britain subsequently and forced her to forgo its
policy of splendid isolation. The southern part of the African continent was dominated
in the 19th century by a set of epic struggles to create within it a single unified state.
British expansion into southern Africa was fueled by three prime factors:
a. The desire to control the trade routes to India that passed around the
Cape.
b. The discovery in 1868 of huge mineral deposits of diamonds
around Kimberley on

the

joint

borders

of

the South

African

Republic (called the Transvaal by the British), the Orange Free State
and the Cape Colony, and thereafter in 1886 in the Transvaal of a gold
rush.
c. The race against other European colonial powers, as part of a general
colonial expansion in Africa.
19. In 1815 during the Napoleonic Wars Britain had acquired the Cape of Good Hope in
South Africa from the Dutch. Certain groups of Dutch-speaking settler farmers
("Boers") resented British rule, even though British control brought some economic
benefits. There were successive waves of migrations of Boer farmers, first east
along the coast away from the Cape toward Natal, and thereafter north toward the
12 http://www.internationalschoolhistory.net/eeb3/s6_4hr.htm.

13

interior, eventually establishing the republics that came to be known as the Orange
Free State and the Transvaal (literally "across/beyond the Vaal River).
20. The discovery of diamonds in 1867 near the Vaal River, some 550 miles (890 km)
northeast of Cape Town, ended the isolation of the Boers in the interior and changed
South African history. The discovery triggered a diamond rush that attracted people
from all over the world, turning Kimberley into a town of 50,000 within five years and
drawing the attention of British imperial interests. In the 1870s, the British
annexed West Griqualand, site of the Kimberley diamond discoveries.

Figure 2.2: Anglo African War13

21. In 1875, Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli's Colonial Secretary, Lord Carnarvon, in
an attempt to extend British influence, approached the Orange Free State and the
Transvaal Republic and tried to organize a federation of the British and Boer
territories to be modeled after the 1867 federation of French and English provinces
of Canada. However the cultural and historical context was entirely different and the
Boer leaders turned him down. The successive British annexations, and in particular
the annexation of West Griqualand, caused a climate of simmering unease in the
Boer republics.

13 http://www.sangam.org/2007/03/Boer.php?uid=2257.

14

a.

Boer Forces.The average Boer citizens who made up their

commandos were farmers who had spent almost all their working lives
in the saddle, and, because they had to depend on both their horses
and their rifles for almost all of their meat, they were skilled hunters and
expert marksmen. Most of the Boers had single-shot breech loading
rifles such as the Wesley Richards, the Martini-Henry, or the SniderEnfield.

Only

few

had

repeaters

like

the Winchester or

the Swiss Vetterli. As hunters they had learned to fire from cover, from
a prone position and to make the first shot count, knowing that if they
missed, in the time it took to reload, the game would be long gone. At
community gatherings, they often held target shooting competitions
using targets such as hens' eggs perched on posts over 100 yards
away. The Boer commandos made for expert light cavalry, able to use
every scrap of cover from which they could pour accurate and
destructive fire at the British.
b.
British Forces.
The
the Martini-Henry single-shot

standard
breech

infantry

loading

rifle

weapon
with

was
long

sword bayonet. Gunners of the Royal Artillery wore blue jackets. The
Boer marksmen could easily snipe at British troops from a distance.
The Boers carried no bayonets, leaving them at a substantial
disadvantage in close combat, which they avoided as far as possible.
Drawing on years of experience of fighting frontier skirmishes with
numerous and indigenous African tribes, they relied more on mobility,
stealth, marksmanship and initiative while the British emphasized the
traditional military values of command, discipline, formation and
synchronized firepower. The average British soldier was not trained to
be a marksman and got little target practice. What shooting training
British soldiers had was mainly as a unit firing in volleys on command.
22. Pre-emption by Boers. The Boers, recognizing that the British were assembling
superior military forces, initiated hostilities with an invasion of Natal in Oct 1899. By
doing so, they forfeited the possibility of manipulating British public opinion in their
favour. Nevertheless, most European saw British preparations as indicating hostile
intent and, throughout the war, European sympathies consequently lay with the
Boers.

15

23. Fast moving Boer columns soon isolated both Mafeking and Kimberley, and within
the month had trapped a third force at Ladysmith. The British hastened to relieve the
besieged towns. At the end of November a column of 10,000 troops under General
Paul Methuen fought their way to the Modder River in an effort to reach Kimberley,
but suffered nearly 500 causalities while Boers scarcely lost a man. With smokeless
powder and bolt action rifles, the Boers put down a murderous fire. Neither British
troops nor their Artillery could see the enemy yet any movement across killing zone
covered by unseen Boers resulted in unacceptable causalities.
24. Black Week.
In the second week of December 1899, the British suffered a
series of defeats that became known collectively as Black week. The skirmishes
included:a.
On 10 December, a column under Sir William Gtaacre got lost: the Boers
ambushed the muddled advance near Stromberg and inflicted heavy
causalities. On the same day, at Magersfotein, Methuen launched heavy
attacks on firmly entrenched Boer positions: his troops achieved nothing, but
again suffered heavy losses (210 dead and 675 wounded). Since the British
soldiers and gunners hardly ever saw the defenders, the Boers again suffered
b.

little causality.
Five days later the commander in chief in South Africa, General Redvers
Buller, attempted to turn the flank of Boer forces after crossing the Tegula
River. But the British got entangled in difficult country, while Boer riflemen
devastated their columns. British artillery once more failed to make out the
defensive positions and Boers killed most of the gun crews. The attackers lost
143 dead, 756 wounded and 220 missing. The Boers gained eleven guns,

c.

while losing barely fifty men.

Buller made two more and larger attempts to break through the Boer
positions, but at Spion Kop and Vaal Kranz his troops suffered even heavier
causalities and achieved nothing. Total losses for the two battles were 408
killed, 1390 wounded and 311 captured, against under a hundred Boer

d.

causalities.
A new commander assumed control of the campaign, General Lord Roberts,
with Kitchener as his chief of staff. Roberts introduced movement into the
campaign by using cavalry to outflank Boer positions, and in February 1900,
the British relieved Kimberley and broke the major Boer force in front of
Magersfontein and captured Piet Cronje Boers Commander.

16

25. Aftermaths of War.

In conventional terms the war was over, but in reality it

had only just begun. The Boers returned to their homes as conventional resistance
collapsed, but refused to accept the result that brought their country under British
colonial administration. They turned to guerrilla and supply lines, while the local
population provided hiding places, food, and intelligence on British movements. Well
informed about the enemy, the Boers were able to hit and run without suffering
significant causalities. On the other hand, the British operated almost totally in the
dark.
26. Scorched Earth Policy.

British wanted to end the war quickly, so they adopted a

scorched earth policy. They decided to sweep the country bare of everything that
could help the Boers (cattle, sheep, horses, women and children, etc.). British
destroyed 30,000 Boer farmhouses and more than 40 towns. Thousands of women
and children were removed from their homes by force. They had little or no time to
remove valuables before their houses were burnt down. They were then taken by oxwagon or in open cattle trucks to the nearest concentration camp. British built the
worlds first concentration camps. The camps were not intended to kill, just to keep
the women and children imprisoned until the end of the war.
27. Conditions in the camps were less than ideal. Tents were overcrowded. No meat,
vegetables, fresh milk for the babies and children was made available. This all
resulted in malnutrition and the rapid spread of diseases such as whooping cough,
measles, typhoid fever, and dysentery especially amongst the children. Lack of
medical facilities also added to worsening the situation. Eventually 26,370 women
and children (81% were children) died in the concentration camps. The Boers
ultimately lost the war because of this scorched earth policy. Boers came out of the
war very bitter towards the British because so many women and children died in the
concentration camps
28. As end result British lost 5,000 soldiers; Boers only lost 3,700 soldiers plus over
26,000 women and children British are not the majority group in South Africa even
though they have the political power.
Russo Japanese War
29. Background.

The Russo-Japanese

War was

war

between

the Japanese

Empire and the Russian Empire. It started in 1904 and ended in 1905. The war
happened because the Russian Empire and Japanese Empire disagreed over who
should get which parts of Manchuria and Korea. It was fought mostly on the

17

Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden, the seas around Korea, Japan, and the Yellow
Sea. The politics of the two countries in the war were very complicated, but both
wanted to gain land and economic benefits. The Chinese Empire of the Qing, was
large but weak, and it was Qing land and possessions they fought over. For example
Korea was under Qing rule, but was seized by Japan. The Russians wanted a
'warm-water port' on the Pacific Ocean for their navy and trade. The harbor
at Vladivostok freezes over in the winter, but Port Arthur (now called the Liaodong
Peninsula in China) can be used all the time. Russia had already rented the port
from the Qing and had got their permission to build a railway from St Petersburg to
Port Arthur. Japan thought that when Russia completed her railway in 1906 she
would be able to beat Japan in a war because she could supply large numbers of
troops there.

Figure 2.3: Russo Japanese War14

30. If Japan didn't want a war then she would have to compromise with Russia, but
Russia would get the better deal. Japan wanted a bigger share of Korea and China
than she thought Russia would offer and decided to attack before the railway was
complete and she still had a chance of doing well in a war with Russia. Russians
possessed barely 100,000 troops east of Baikal and could only laboriously build up
and supply that force. The Japanese by contrast could immediately throw a standing
army of 250,000 men onto the Asian mainland, while their reserves would double
those numbers. On the naval side Japanese fleet was superior in Asian waters, while
Russians Baltic fleet faced an extraordinary difficult journey across thousands of
14 http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/asia_rising/ar_essay01.html.

18

miles to reach the pacific. Moreover, conclusion from defensive alliance with Britain
provided the security to Japan: Russian could not receive direct help from its French
allies without bringing Britain into war.
31. Russo Japanese Skirmishes
a.
In Feb 1904, Japanese torpedo boats attacked Russian fleet in Port Arthur
before declaration of war. The attackers sank few vessels and bottled the
Russians up and a week later Japanese Army landed and seized Seoul, with
Korea as a secure base Japanese army headed towards Russian forces in
north at Manchuria. The Russian Commander General Alexal planned to
withdraw into the depths of Manchuria and allow port Arthur to withstand a
siege, while he awaited reinforcements from Serbia but Tsars viceroy ordered
an immediate offensive, Japanese Army inflicted maximum causalities onto
the Russians, who had to face a great defeat, meanwhile, second column of
Japanese forces landed north east of port Arthur. Third column landed west of
b.

Yalu.
In late May, Japanese launched an attack on the outposts surrounding Port
Arthur: and drove Russian forces from heights at Nanshan but suffered over

c.

three times the causalities of their opponent.

At end of September, Japanese resumed the offensive. This time they
received even more causalities without sufficient gains. Forth Offensive at end

d.

of October and fifth at end of November added only to their causalities.

Japanese then concentrated the whole effort at capturing 203 meter Hill, the
lynchpin of Russian defenses. By 5 th December they finally pushed the
defenders out of the positions but suffered 11000 causalities in the process.
Possession of 203 meter hill allowed Japanese artillery to destroy the

remnants of Russian fleet on far eastern side.

32. Aftermaths of War.Series of skirmishes gave victory to the Japanese Army when
United States President Theodore Roosevelt helped Russia and Japan make peace
after the war. He won a Nobel Prize for this. Russia had to give up all influence in the
Far East. The Russian people were very angry at the government and
at Tzar Nicholas II for not continuing the war because everyone was sure that Russia
could have won. This is true because Japan was completely broke and she would
have suffered an economic crisis after just a few more months of fighting. Russia's
army was also much stronger than Japan's and had very large reserves to replace
the soldiers she lost, but Japan had no more men with military training to replace her
losses and no money to give new men training.

19

Nationalism
33. Pride and patriotism in ones nation. In terms of WWI, nationalism became
aggressive and subsequently (because of this) a major cause of international tension
Independent nations desired dominance and prestige and as these powers tried to
dominate each other in Europe, their rivalries may be regarded as one of the causes
of the First World War.
34. Nationalism leading to Territorial Disputes. By the turn of the 20th century, a
fierce rivalry indeed had developed among Europes Great Powers. Those nations
were Germany, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, and France. This
increasing rivalry among European nations stemmed from several sources.
Competition for materials and markets was one. Territorial disputes were another.
France, for example, had never gotten over the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany
in the Franco-Prussian War (1870). Austria-Hungary and Russia both tried to
dominate in the Balkans, a region in southeast Europe. Within the Balkans, the
intense nationalism of Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians, and other ethnic groups led to
demands for independence. While nationalism unified people in the powerful nations,
it was dividing people in weakening empires.
a.
The Balkans.
No region was tenser in the years before World War I
than the Balkans. Serbia, Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, & Romania broke from
the Ottoman Empire to create new nations. Slavic people in Serbia wanted to
unify all Slavs but Austria-Hungary opposed giving up the largely Slavic
territories Bosnia & Herzegovina. The Balkans became a powder keg
waiting for a spark to blow up. Nationalism was a powerful force in these
countries. Each group longed to extend its borders. Serbia, for example, had
a large Slavic population. It hoped to absorb all the Slavs on the Balkan
Peninsula. Russia, itself a mostly Slavic nation, supported Serbian
nationalism. However, Serbias powerful northern neighbor, Austria-Hungary,
opposed such an effort. Austria feared that efforts to create a Slavic state
b.

would stir rebellion among its Slavic population.

Annexation of Bosnia & Herzegovina exploits Nationalism.

In

1908,

Austria annexed, or took over, Bosnia and Herzegovina. These were two
Balkan areas with large Slavic populations. Serbian leaders, who had sought
to rule these provinces, were outraged. In the years that followed, tensions
between Serbia and Austria steadily rose. The Serbs continually vowed to

20

take Bosnia and Herzegovina away from Austria. In response, AustriaHungary vowed to crush any Serbian effort to undermine its authority in the
Balkans. The growth of Slavic nationalist groups in the Balkans threatened the
stability of the fragile Austro-Hungarian Empire. Aggravated by Viennas
annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, young Serbs joined radical nationalist
groups like the Black Hand (Crna Ruka). These groups hoped to drive
Austria-Hungary from the Balkans and establish a Greater Serbia, a unified
state for all Slavic people. It was this pan-Slavic nationalism that inspired the
assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo in June 1914, an
event that lit the touch paper of World War I.

21

Alliances

Figure 2.4: The Chain of Friendship - an American cartoon from 1914 depicting
the web of alliances, captioned, "If Austria attacks Serbia, Russia will fall upon
Austria, Germany upon Russia, and France and England upon Germany" 15
35. All countries by World War 1 believed that they have to form alliances to safeguard
themselves against possible threats. These alliances designed to keep peace in
Europe, instead pushed continent towards war. Many Alliances made in secret, by
1914 all the major powers were linked by a system of alliances. The alliances made
it more likely that a war would start. Once started, the alliances made it more likely to
spread. The main alliances included following:a.
The Triple Alliance. Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy formed the Triple
Alliance. In 1882, they signed a document that promised they would give each
other military support in case of a war. The Alliance agreement stated it was
'essentially defensive and conservative' with the aim of stopping anyone who
'might threaten' the three nations. The alliance formed between Germany and
Austria-Hungary had strong ethnic ties. Germany and Austria-Hungary shared
the desire to add to their territories. Austria-Hungary specifically wanted the
Balkans. Italy wanted more territory in parts of Greece, Turkey and the
Balkans. It also wanted protection from attacks from its northern neighbor,
France. Finally, Italy still disputed land with Austria-Hungary. An alliance could
turn out to be more effective in negotiating this land back, and stop Austria
15 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_I.

22

from taking any more land in a war. However, Italy still did not entirely trust
Austria-Hungary, so made a secret treaty with France after the joining the
Triple Alliance.
(1) A conflict involving any one of the Triple Alliance countries could, by the terms of the
treaty, bring in the other two.
(2) Rather than acting as a deterrent, the Treaty could be used as a bullying tactic.
(3) If a small nation was threatened by one of the Triple Alliance, the Triple Entente
would have to ignore the situation or face a major conflict with Germany,
Austria-Hungary and Italy combined.

Figure 2.5: Triple Alliance16

b.

Re-Insurance Treaties.In January 1871, German Unification took place

under the leadership of Bismarck and Kaiser William I. Russia and Germany
signed secret treaties - 'reinsurance treaties' - in the 1880s. These ensured
Germany and Russia remained on friendly terms, and that France remained
isolated. Facing the competition between Russia and AustriaHungary on the
Balkans, Bismarck felt that this agreement was essential to prevent a Russian
convergence toward France and to continue the diplomatic isolation of the
French so ensuring German security against a threatening two-front war. He,
thereby, hazarded the expansion of the Russian sphere of influence toward

c.

the Mediterranean and diplomatic tensions with Vienna.

The secret treaty signed by Bismarck and the Russian Foreign Minister
Nikolay Girs was split in two parts:

16 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_Alliance_%281882%29.

23

(1) Germany and Russia both agreed to observe benevolent

neutrality should the other be involved in a war with a third
country. Should Germany attack France or Russia attack
Austria-Hungary, this provision would not apply. In those cases,
the distinguished bilateral alliances could come into effect. The
reinsurance treaty only applied when France or Austria-Hungary
were aggressors.
(2) In the most secret completion protocol Germany declared
herself neutral in the event of a Russian intervention in the
d.

Bosphorus and the Dardanelles.

As part of Bismarck's system of "periphery diversion" the treaty was highly
dependent on his personal reputation. After the dismissal of Bismarck, his
successor Leo von Caprivi felt unable to obtain success in keeping this policy,
while the German Foreign Office under Friedrich von Holstein had already
prepared a renunciation toward the Dual Alliance with AustriaHungary.

e.

Figure 2.6: German Chancellor Bismarck17

Dual Entente.Kaiser William died in 1888. His successor, Frederick, died
within 3 months. The Kaiser who followed, William II, clashed with Bismarck in
two policy areas: Russia and the Navy. William II saw no need to stay friendly
with Russia and wanted to build the Navy up. Bismarck resigned in 1890. As
William II did not renew the reinsurance treaty, Russia looked for another
partner. France had been giving Russia large loans since 1888. France was
no longer isolated - it was exactly what Bismarck had tried to avoid: a RussoFrench alliance. Germany found herself with potential enemies on two fronts.
From 1893 to 1895 Russia and France negotiated and a treaty of alliance was

17https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1yPRDEekcfsqPUmC9wUyK_LxtM3rhyKHsCnn9
mMeOmYg/edit#slide=id.i35

24

finally published in 1895. The Russo-French alliance became known as the

Dual Entente. Under the terms, they agreed that:
(1) France would support Russia if Russia was attacked by
Germany.
(2) Russia would support France if France was attacked by
Germany.
(3) If any member of the Triple Alliance mobilized then both France
and Russia would mobilize.

f.

Figure 2.7: Dual Entente18

Triple Entente.Europe now had two hostile alliances facing each other.
Britain prided herself on her policy of 'Splendid Isolation'. This policy meant
that she would only get involved with British Empire matters and didn't wish to
tie up in any continental alliance. At the turn of the twentieth century, Britain
recognized that Splendid Isolation would have to be abandoned. There were a
number of reasons including its relations with Germany, nations not
supporting the Boer War and challenges to Britain's power. Naval Bills passed
in Berlin in 1898 and 1900 worried the British. Kaiser William II was building
up the Germany navy. This was a clear challenge to British naval supremacy.
Britain was worried about losing control of the seas. There were three main

18 http://www.aprilsmith.org/alliances.html.

25

steps that eventually led to Britain becoming involved in the European

Alliances:
(1) Step 1 - The Anglo-Japanese Alliance [1902].

This was

Britain's first step away from isolation. This alliance added

security to the British Empire in the Far East. Each country
promised that if one of them was at war with just one country,
the other would remain neutral. But once there were two
countries against Britain or Japan, then the other would fight.
(2) Step 2 - The Entente Cordiale [1904]. In 1904, Britain finally
secured a European Alliance when long-standing disputes with
France were settled. The British King, Edward VII, made an
official visit to France, helping to create a friendly atmosphere.
(3) Step 3 Triple Alliance. With the help of France, the
longstanding quarrels between Britain and Russia were
forgotten and the Anglo-Russian Entente was signed in 1907.
With this treaty the Triple Entente was formed against the Triple
Alliance.

26

Figure 2.8: Triple Alliance and Triple Entente 19

19 http://www.johndclare.net/causes_WWI2.htm.

27

PART III
SHORT TERM CAUSES OF WAR
36. With all nations forming alliances and surmounting an unreachable arms race, one
would expect initiation of war as imminent. The war was even brought closer as
countries started to gain dominance in Europe and other regions. This quest to have
higher hand gave rise to many crises that brought the countries at the brink of war
waiting for a spark to ignite. Following events could be described as short term
causes of war.
a.
Moroccan Crisis.Germany Kaiser William adopted a menacing attitude
towards French attempts to take over Morocco. He also challenged Britain by
increasing his naval building programme. The Anglo-French Entente Cordiale
was soon tested over Morocco in 1905. Kaiser William made his infamous
(1)

Tangiers Speech.
Tangiers Speech. On March 31, 1905, Kaiser William II of Germany landed
at Tangier, Morocco and conferred with representatives of Sultan Abdul-Aziz
of Morocco. The Kaiser declared he had come to support the sovereignty of
the Sultana statement which amounted to a provocative challenge to
French influence in Morocco. Wishing to frustrate French efforts to take over

(2)

Morocco, Kaiser made a menacing speech which was aimed at France.

Algeciras Conference. The Kaisers coup was followed by the formal
demand that the status of Morocco should be referred to an international
conference of the major powers. The outcome of the conference convened at
the Algeciras in Spain 1906 was, however, very different from that anticipated
by Germany. Isolated but for the faithful support of Austria-Hungary, Germany
had to accept confirmation of French predominance in the sultanate, now

(3)

strengthened by its control over the Moroccan police.

Agadir Crisis.
France's pre-eminence in Morocco had been upheld by
the 1906 Algeciras Conference. Anglo-German tensions were high at this
time, partly due to an arms race between Imperial Germany and Great Britain,
including German efforts to build a fleet two thirds the size of Britain's.
Germany's move was aimed at testing the relationship between Britain and
France, and possibly intimidating Britain into an alliance with Germany.
Germany was also enforcing compensation claims, for acceptance of effective
French control of Morocco. In 1911, a rebellion broke out in Morocco against
the Sultan, Abdelhafid. By early April, the Sultan was besieged in his palace in

28

Fez. The French prepared to send troops to help put down the rebellion,
under the pretext of protecting European lives and property, dispatching a
flying column at the end of April. On 1 July, the German gunboat SMS Panther
arrived at the port of Agadir, under the pretext of protecting German trade
interests. The larger Bremen-class cruiser SMS Berlin arrived days later,
replacing the gunboat. The British became worried by Panther's arrival in
Morocco. The Royal Navy had a naval base in Gibraltar, in the south of Spain.
They believed the Germans meant to turn Agadir into a naval base on the
Atlantic. Britain sent battleships to Morocco, in case war broke out. As in the
First Moroccan Crisis, British support of France showed the strength of the
(4)

Entente Cordiale.
Aftermath. France subsequently established a full protectorate over
Morocco, ending what remained of that country's formal independence.
Rather than scaring Britain into turning toward Germany, increased fear and
hostility drew Britain closer to France. British backing of France during the
crisis reinforced the Entente between the two countries (and with Russia as
well), increasing Anglo-German estrangement, deepening the divisions which

b.

would culminate in World War I.

Annexation of Bosnia & Herzegovina.

International politics in the

Balkans at the start of the Twentieth Century was too tangled and volatile to
easily summarize, but it basically consisted of small, ambitious states playing
increasingly dangerous games of power politics. As the Ottoman Empire
weakened in the Nineteenth Century, the long-submerged Balkan nations
began to reappear, though their independence was compromised as they
became pawns for competing European powers. But by about the turn of the
century, the local kingdoms began to assert themselves; most importantly,
from 1903 Serbia became increasingly defiant of its former protector AustriaHungary.

29

Figure 3.1 Balkan States in 190520

c.

In 1908, Austria officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. Austria-Hungary

annexed Bosnia because they wanted to expand their empire into the
Balkans. Serbia were annoyed by this because they wanted Bosnia to
become part of a 'Greater Serbia' as there were a lot of Slavic people living in
Bosnia. Russia backed up Serbia as it saw itself as the protector of the Slavic
people that Serbia sought to protect. Serbia and Russia had to back down
because Germany backed up Austria-Hungary, in accordance with the Triple
Alliance of 1882. Germany's army was far stronger than Russia's, and so
backing down was their only option; however Russia did begin to modernize
her armed forces and increase the speed of their mobilization, in addition,

d.

Russia was determined not to back down again.

The Balkan Wars.In 1912, the Balkan countries were controlled by the
Ottoman Empire (Turkey). After the first Balkan Crisis, these nations had
formed the Balkan league, the Balkan countries then fought against the
Ottoman Empire for independence. The Balkan League won and conquered
Turkey's land in Europe. In 1913 the Balkan countries turned on each other
and fought among themselves for power. The outcome was that Serbia
became the most powerful country in the Balkans and proclaimed that AustriaHungary was its next target. This was worrying for Austria-Hungary as their

20 http://sturgiswesthistory.weebly.com/world-war-i-1914-1919.html.

30

opponents were clearly growing in strength, and could now challenge their
empire.

.
Figure 3.2: Bulgarian Losses after 2nd Balkan War21
e.

Aftermath.The Balkan Wars left the region dangerously unstable. The losers
were eager for revenge, the winners were recklessly overconfident, and the
great powers were actively interfering in the area. It was the continuation of
Balkan wars that resulted in the main cause of World

War-1, the

assassination of Austrian Heir Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

21 http://mentalfloss.com/article/52190/world-war-i-centennial-second-balkan-war-ends.

31

PART - IV
IMMEDIATE CAUSE OF WAR
37. Balkans were boiling in heat and entire Europe was warming up. Serbia had come
out strong as result of Balkan wars and its plans for greater Serbia involved
expansion into Bosnia & Herzegovina. Many Serbs lived in Bosnia Herzegovina,
controlled by Austria. Thus there was enormous tension between the two. Austria
was hostile to Serbia and calculated that war with Serbia would come. Austria
therefore thought it would make sense to fight Serbia before she became much
stronger. The final event which led to the outbreak of the First World War took place
on June 28, 1914; the heir to the Austrian throne was assassinated by a young Serb,
Gavrilo Princip.
Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
38. The Assassination.
On the last days of June 1914 Arch Duke Ferdinand was
going to Austria to conduct some ceremonial services and the Serb national terror
squads warned Austria not to let him in, sent their assassins to strategic places in the
cities he was attending to, and braced for war. Assassins placed in various parts of
the cities one took a shot at Ferdinands wife but missed. Gabriel Princip another
strategically placed assassin got a call from one of his leaders telling him to go to
such and such a corner and wait for Ferdinands car to roll by and shot him.
Stationed at a corner with a pistol he waited and waited but the driver of the
limousine got lost. Princip became depressed after waiting for a long time and
decided to go to coffee shop where he bought a drink and cried over it. Then he
looks through the window and the Arch Dukes Limousine was right outside. He steps
out the coffee shop and goes up to the car and shoots the Arch Duke dead and his
wife. Then he was quickly arrested. This was a major assassination and at first it was
not known who the culprits behind the shooting were. When authorities questioned
the Serb national terrorist movement they denied having anything to do with it. But,
soon the real details came out who was behind it a demand for no more
assassination and an apology was ordered by the very upset Austrians.

32

Figure 4.1: Archduke and Duchess Just Before Murdered 22

39. Austrian intention to destroy Serbia.Austria considered the murder of the heir to
the throne an open Serbian attack on the existence of the Dual Monarchy because if
Francis Joseph died Austria would be left without an heir. Although she could not find
any evidence that the Serbian government was connected with the assassination,
Austria consciously exploited the occasion to destroy Serbia as a state to put an end
to the Serbian threat to the existence of the Dual Monarchy forever. A war with
Serbia might lead to a war with Russia. Thus Austria wanted to be assured of
German support.
40. German Support. The German Kaiser decided to support Austria because he
regarded Austria as the only ally of Germany and because he believed that the
Russian Czar would not come to help Serbia in a war involving the death of a future
monarch. On July 6, Germany assured Austria that should there be an AustroSerbian war, Germany would stand by her (Austrian) side and give her unlimited
support as an ally. This was called the "Blank Cheque".
41. Ultimatum to Serbia.
Having received the wholehearted

support

from

Germany, Austria sent an ultimatum to Serbia on July 23, 1914. The ultimatum was
to be answered within 48 hours. It included the following demands:
a. Serbia was to suppress all anti-Austrian (and Pan-Slav) publications,
societies and propaganda.
22 http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2414474/Max-Hastings-Archduke-FranzFerdinand-Duchess-Sophie-Royal-human-story-WW1.html.

33

b. Serbia was to dismiss all anti-Austrian officials objected by Austria.

c. Austrian police and officials were to enter Serbia and to take part in the
Serbian police force in order to carry out the suppression of antiAustrian activities and investigations concerning the Sarajevo murders.
42. Serbian Reply.
These demands infringed Serbian sovereignty. Austria expected
that Serbia would reject, thus giving her the excuse to declare war. Serbia accepted
the first two demands but rejected the third. Serbia suggested to submit it for
arbitration by the Hague Tribunal. William II was satisfied with the Serbian reply and
did not feel the need to punish Serbia with a war. He declared, "a brilliant diplomatic
triumph, no excuse for war." If Serbia had accepted the ultimatum it would have
meant the virtual end of Serbian independence. In spite of a conciliatory reply from
Serbia, Austria, keen to crush Serbia once and for all - declared war on Serbia on
July 28th.
Outbreak of War - July 1914
43. War Declared.

Austria was still determined to destroy Serbia. After declaring

the Serbian reply unsatisfactory, the Austrian government declared war on July 28.
The bombardment of Belgrade began on July 29.

Figure 4.2: New York Paper headline on July 19,1914 23

44. Russian Mobilization.The Serbian ally, Russia, learnt of the ultimatum on 24 July.
On 26 July, the Czar reassured the Serbian crown prince that "Russia will in no case
be indifferent to the fate of Serbia." Russia certainly could not bear humiliations from
Germany anymore; if she failed to defend Serbia again and again, Russia could no
23 http://mentalfloss.com/article/58119/wwi-centennial-opening-shots-great-war.

34

longer set her foot on the Balkans as the leader of the Slav nations. The Russian
Czar was probably encouraged by the French to take a firm stand against Germany,
for France had learnt of the Schlieffen War Plan. France urged Russia to mobilize for
fear of an immediate German attack. After the bombardment of Belgrade on July 30,
the Czar was persuaded by his ministers and Chief of staff to order full mobilization.

Figure 4.3: Harrisburg Newspaper headline on 26 July, 1914 24

45. German Declaration of War.Germany feared that she would face attacks from both
Russia and France. Germany demanded Russia to stop her mobilization at once.
Russia refused. Germany at once declared war on Russia on August 1. According to
the Schlieffen Plan, Germany had to attack France at once. Germany sent an
ultimatum to France demanding her to be neutral. After receiving a French reply that
France would side with Russia, Germany lost no time and declared war on France
on August 3.

24 http://onetuberadio.com/category/world-war-1/page/5.

35

Figure 4.4: New York Newspaper headline on 1 August, 1914 25

46. Britain Joined the War.On August 4, according to the Schlieffen Plan, the German
troops crossed the Belgian frontier. On the same day the British government
declared war on Germany.

Figure 4.5: The Washington Herald Newspaper headline on 13 August, 1914 26

25 http://onetuberadio.com/category/world-war-1/page/5.
26https://www.reddit.com/r/100yearsago/comments/2dfi0y/august_13_1914_britain_declare
s_war_on_austria.

36

PART - V
ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION
Analysis
47. World War 1 was the cataclysmic event which would end the lives of 10 million
young European men, therefore destroying an entire generation of Europeans. It
would end the empires of Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary. Russia would
resort to communism, which would promptly outlaw religion and impose a totalitarian
government. The analysis of events which led to world war 1 can be summarized
as under:a.
The supreme present of militarism, "a policy of aggressive military
preparedness", in this period of time gave all countries great reason to feel the
heavy weight of an oncoming war. Great Britain's naval policy (to always be
twice as big as the next two largest navies put together), along with the
predominate feeling of war provided countries with a strong reason to try and
create an incredibly strong military force. This led to an arms race, which
b.

made the impending war seem inevitable.

Nationalism, the love and support of one's country, has always existed. In this
era, however, it was to take part in the creation of one of the most famous
wars in history. Since so much pride was devoted to countries, it made the
possibilities of peace between past rivals less probable. It also meant that
most nations, especially the great powers, would rather fight a war than back
down from a rival's diplomatic provocation. In effect, nationalism was also a
contributing factor to the alliance system. No country feels comfortable being
in a war alone, and with the growing militaries in almost every country, allies

c.

provided much comfort.

With nationalism, militarism, and imperialism all showing large presences at
the same period in time, a solid ground was formed for the alliance system to
build itself on. The Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria was formed,
the Triple Alliance between Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy was created,
and the Triple Entente was created between France, Russia, and Great
Britain. Although the Triple Entente was not an official alliance, they all

d.

maintained a very close understanding, and were viewed by many as a threat.

The crises in Morocco and the Balkans had a devastating result only because
these crises occurred one directly after another. The several crises in these

37

regions followed by what is known as the "second Balkan crisis" led to what
most would say was the short term causes of the war.

38

Conclusion
48. The alliance system was holds the greatest responsibility for the breakout of a world
war. However, the alliance system might have never occurred had it not been for
nationalism, militarism, and imperialism. Furthermore, the Morocco and Balkan
crises did not directly cause the war, but they were used as justification for the war to
begin. Hence, many factors contributed to the formation of the alliance system,
which led to feeling of tension between enemy countries, and the Balkan crisis paved
the way for the war to begin.

39

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Cambridge History of Warfare edited by Geoffrey Parker.

The Origins of the War 1871-1914 by J. Holland Rose.
The Great Explosion, Volume 1 of Harpers Pictorial Library of the World War.
Causes and Consequences of the First World War by Stewart Ross.
The Great War and Modern Memory by Paul Fussell.
The First World War by John Keegan.
Historical Backgrounds of the Great War, The War: Its origins and Warnings by Frank

J. Adkins.
8. The First World War by Michael Howard.
9. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwone/summary_01.shtml.
10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_I.

40

Annexure A
FRENCH PLAN XVII

41

Annexure B
THE SCHLIEFFEN PLAN

42

Annexure C
COMPARISON OF THE SCHLIEFFEN PLAN AND FRENCH PLAN XVII

43