Introduction:

The Rice milling is the process that helps in removal of hulls and brans from
paddy grains to produce polished rice. Rice is rich in genetic diversity with
thousands of varieties grown throughout the world. Rice has been one of man's
most important foods. Today, this unique grain helps sustain two-thirds of the
world's population. It is life for thousands of millions of people. It is deeply
embedded in the cultural heritage of their societies. About four-fifths of the world's
rice are produced by small-scale farmers and are consumed locally.

Chapter 2
Rice production in India
Rice production in India is an important part of the national economy. India is
one of the world's largest producers of white rice and brown rice, accounting for
20% of all world rice production. Rice is India's pre-eminent crop, and is the staple
food of the people of the eastern and southern parts of the country. Production
increased from 53.6 million tons in FY 1980 to 74.6 million tons in year 1990, a 39
percent increase over the decade. By year 1992, rice production had reached 181.9
kg, second in the world only to China with its 182 kg. Since 1950 the increase has
been more than 350 percent. Most of this increase was the result of an increase in
yields; the number of hectares increased only 0 percent during this period. Yields
increased from 1,336 kilograms per hectare in FY 1980 to 1,751 kilograms per
hectare in FY 1990. The per-hectare yield increased more than 262 percent
between 1950 and 1992.

The country's rice production had declined to 89.14 million tonnes in 2009-10 crop
year (JulyJune) from record 99.18 million tonnes in the previous year due to
severe drought that affected almost half of the country.India could achieve a record
rice production of 100 million tonnes in 2010-11 crop year on the back of better
monsoon this year. The India's rice production reached to a record high of 104.32
million tonnes in 2011-2012 crop year(JulyJune.
Rice is one of the chief grains of India. Moreover, this country has the biggest area
under rice cultivation, as it is one of the principal food crops. It is in fact the
dominant crop of the country. India is one of the leading producers of this crop.
Rice is the basic food crop and being a tropical plant, it flourishes comfortably in
hot and humid climate. Rice is mainly grown in rain fed areas that receive heavy
annual rainfall. That is why it is fundamentally a kharif crop in India. It demands
temperature of around 25 degree Celsius and above and rainfall of more than
100 cm. Rice is also grown through irrigation in those areas that receives
comparatively less rainfall. Rice is the staple food of eastern and southern parts of
India. In 2009-10, total rice production in India amounted to 89.13 million tonnes,
which was much less than production of previous year, 99.18 million tonnes.
Rice can be cultivated by different methods based on the type of region. But in
India, the traditional methods are still in use for harvesting rice. The fields are
initially ploughed and then fertiliser is applied which typically consists of cow
dung and then the field is smoothed. The seeds are transplanted by hand and then
through proper irrigation, the seeds are cultivated. Rice grows on a variety of soils
like silts, loams and gravels. It can also tolerate alkaline as well as acid soils.
However, clayey loam is well suited to the raising of this crop. Actually the clayey
soil can be easily converted into mud in which rice seedlings can be transplanted

easily. Proper care has to be taken as this crop thrives if the soil remains wet and is
under water during its growing years. Rice fields should be level and should have
low mud walls for retaining water. In the plain areas, excess rainwater is allowed
to inundate the rice fields and flow slowly. Rice raised in the well watered lowland
areas is known as lowland or wet rice. In the hilly areas, slopes are cut into terraces
for the cultivation of rice. Thus, the rice grown in the hilly areas is known as dry or
upland rice. Interestingly, per hectare yield of upland rice is comparatively less
than that of the wet rice.
The regions cultivating this crop in India is distinguished as the western coastal
strip, the eastern coastal strip, covering all the primary deltas, Assam plains and
surrounding low hills, foothills and Terai region- along the Himalayas and states
like West Bengal, Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh, eastern Madhya Pradesh, northern
Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. India, being a land of eternal growing season, and the
deltas of Kaveri River, Krishna River, Godavari River and Mahanadi River with a
thick set-up of canal irrigation, permits farmers to raise two, and in some pockets,
even three crops a year. Irrigation has made even three crops a year possible.
Irrigation has made it feasible even for Punjab and Haryana, known for their baked
climate, to grow rice. They even export their excess to other states. Punjab and
Haryana grow prized rice for export purposes. The hilly terraced fields from
Kashmir to Assam are idyllically suited for rice farming, with age-old hill
irrigational conveniences. High yielding kinds, enhanced planting methods,
promised irrigation water supply and mounting use of fertilizers have together led
to beneficial and quick results. It is the rain fed area that cuts down average yields
per hectare.

In some of the states like West Bengal, Assam and Orissa two crops of rice are
raised in a year. Winter season in the north western India are extremely cold for
rice. Rice is considered as the master crop of coastal India and in some regions of
the eastern India where during the summer monsoon rainy season both high
temperature and heavy rainfall provide ideal conditions for the cultivation of rice.
Almost all parts of India are suitable for raising rice during the summer season
provided that the water is available. Thus, rice is also raised even in those parts of
western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana where low level areas are waterlogged
during the summer monsoon rainy season.
Winter rice crop is a long duration crop and summer rice crop is a short duration
crop. At some places in the eastern and southern parts of India, rice crop of short
duration is followed by the rice crop of long duration. Winter rice crop is raised
preferably in low lying areas that remain flooded mainly during the rainy season.
Autumn rice is raised in Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Summer, autumn and winter rice crops are raised in
West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Assam and Orissa. Summer rice crop is raised on a
small scale and on a small area. However, winter rice crop is actually the leading
rice crop accounting for a major portion of the total Hectare under rice in all
seasons in the country. Moreover in the last few years, several steps in order to
augment yield per hectare were taken up very seriously at all levels. Wheat is a
rabbi crop in this country. India ranks fourth in the production of wheat in the
world. Favorable Geographical Condition for Wheat Cultivation: In India, wheat is
a winter crop. Wheat requires a moderate cool climate with moderate rain. In India,
it is grown in winter. It needs temperature 10 degree C to 15 degree C for its
cultivation. It thrives well in an average temperature of 16-degree C. Warm and
sunny weather is essential at the time of ripening. Wheat requires a rainfall of

50 cm to 100 cm during the growing season. Too much rain is injurious to the
plant. On irrigated lands, a rainfall of 40 cm to 50 cm is sufficient. Light rainfall
and cloudiness before the grain ripens increase the productivity. Alluvial level
plains are ideal for wheat cultivation. Slightly rolling plains are also suitable.
Plains should be well drained so that water cannot stand there. Wheat requires
fertile alluvial soil. Clay loamy soils or even black cotton soils are suitable. Soil
should retain moisture. A certain amount of lime in the soil is beneficial. Labor
factors are not as important in the wheat cultivation as in the case of rice. However,
labor is essential for the cultivation. The other requirements of wheat cultivation
include (i) irrigation, (ii) high yielding varieties of seeds and (iii) capitals
Top Ten Rice Producing States: 2012-13
Rank

State Name

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

West Bengal
Uttar Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Punjab
Bihar
Orissa
Chhattisgarh
Assam
Tamil Nadu
Haryana

ProductionToones
15023.68
14416
11510
11374
7529.3
7295.45
6608.83
5128.51
4049.9
3976

Thausand

METHODS OF CULTIVATION OF RICE

In India Rice is mainly grown in two types of soils i.e., (i) uplands and (ii) low
lands. The method of cultivation of rice in a particular region depends largely on
factors such as situation of land, type of soils, irrigation facilities, availability of
labourers intensity and distribution of rainfalls. The crop of rice is grown with the
following methods:Dry or Semi-dry upland cultivation
(a) Broadcasting the seed
(b) Sowing the seed behind the plough or drilling.
Wet or lowland cultivation
(a) Transplanting in puddled fields.
(b) Broadcasting sprouted seeds in puddled fields.
Selection of Seeds
The use of quality seeds in cultivation of rice is an important factor to get better
crop yield. Therefore, proper care has to be taken in selecting seeds of the best
quality. Much of the success in raising the healthy seedlings depends on the quality
of seed. Seeds intended for sowing should satisfy the following requirements:1. The seed should belong to the proper variety, which is proposed to be grown.
2. The seed should be clean and free from obvious mixtures of other seeds.
3. The seed should be mature, well developed and plump in size.
4. The seed should be free from obvious signs of age or bad storage
5. The seed should have a high germinating capacity.
Before sowing the seed should be treated with fungicides which protects the seed
against soil-born fungi and also give a boost to the seedlings.
Methods of Nursery Raising

There are three major methods of raising nursery - viz.

1. The dry nursery where the dry seed is sown in dry soil. This method is
practiced in areas where water is not sufficient to grow seedlings in wet
nursery
2. Wet nursery where sprouted seed is sown on the moist puddled soil. Wet
nurseries are preferred under irrigated condition
3. And the "dapog" method. This method of raising nursery has been
introduced in India from Philippines.
"Dapog" method is commonly prevalent in Philippines. The essential feature of
this method is to have a very thick stand of the nursery seedlings without any
contact with the soil. Generally, seedlings become ready for transplanting in 12 to
14 days.
Seed Rate
The seed rate naturally influences the growth of the seedlings. Thin sowing gives
strong and tillered seedlings, whereas thick sowing provides thin and tall seedlings
without tillers. Thin sowing in nurseries is always better and it will produce strong
and sturdy seedlings, which can withstand adverse climatic conditions better and
produce better yields. Therefore, 40 to 60 grams of seed per square metre should be
sown in the nursery beds. About 500 square metre area of nursery is sufficient to
transplant one hectare area. In case of late sowing of nursery, the nursery area
should be increased to 750-1000 square metre.
Transplanting
Before transplanting, field should be puddled properly with bullock or tractor
drawn puddlers. Puddling is a very important operation in transplanted rice.
Puddling helps to kill the weeds and buries them in puddled soils. It also

suppresses the germination of weeds in subsequent growing period of crop.

Puddling keeps the soil surface in a more even condition, besides creating
beneficial physical, biological and chemical conditions for rice plant growth.
Transplanting should be done with proper age of seedlings. In case of short
duration varieties, the seedlings should be uprooted from the nursery beds for
transplanting , when it is three to four weeks old. In case of medium and long
duration varieties, four to five weeks old seedlings should be transplanted. Always
healthy seedlings should be used for transplanting at the four to five leaf stage or
when they are about 15-20 cms. high. As far as possible, delayed transplanting
should be avoided because it leads to poor tillerings, early flowering of the main
tillers and resulting in reduction in yield. In alkaline soils aged seedlings of 45 days
old should be transplanted because old seedlings establish better than young
seedlings of 25 days age or so.
Spacing
Under good management and adequate nitrogen levels, the optimum spacing for
varieties like IR-8 should be around 20x10 cms both for kharif and rabi crops. With
excellent cultural practices, the spacing may be slightly wider, say 20x15 cms but
under sub-normal conditions, the spacing should be slightly narrower, say 15x10
cms.
Number of Seedlings per Hill
Transplanting two to three seedlings per hill under normal conditions is enough.
The use of more seedlings per hill, besides not being any additional advantage,
involves an extra expense on seedlings. In case of transplanting with old seedlings,
the number of seedlings per hill can be increased.
Depth of Planting and Directions of Rows

Depth of planting has assumed considerable importance after the introduction of

high yielding varieties. The high yielding varieties are characterized with high
tillering capacity. The high tillering potential of these varieties is, however, best
expressed with shallow planting. The tiller buds formed at the basal node are not
suppressed in case of shallow plantings . Therefore, the seedlings should be
transplanted at 2 to 3 cm depth. Shallow planting gives better yields. The deeper
planting results in an increased height of the plants besides delays and inhibits
tillering.
The crop planted with rows running in the north-south direction generally gives
better yield particularly in rabi season. The adoption of this practice is worthwhile,
since it does not involve any extra expenditure.
Practices in the Direct-Seeded Crops
The success of the direct seeded rice depends entirely on the monsoon rains,
besides proper stand of crop. If sowing is done in a properly prepared land, proper
stand of crop can be achieved. A field with fine tilth facilitates the seed to come in
contact with the soil moisture after drilling and enables the seed to germinate
quickly and uniformly. Thus, an ideal preparation of the land will help to achieve a
uniform stand, facilitate weeding and fertilizer practices. Therefore, with number
of ploughings of the field and timely sowing, the direct seeded crop generally gives
better yield.
Different Methods of Seeding
Seeding is done in three different ways - viz. (i) drilling i.e. sowing in the furrow
behind a plough, (ii) dibbling and (iii) broadcasting. The light soils which generally
come into conditions quickly, any method can be adopted. Seeding with drilling
method has got a greater advantage over other methods, because of the uniformity

of the stand and the control of the population of the plants per unit area. Heavy
soils which do not come in conditions quickly, other methods except broadcasting
are not feasible. It has been found that drilling or dibbling always gives
considerably better yields than broadcasting system.
Broadcasting Sprouted Seeds in Puddled Land
This method is adopted in an area where agricultural labourers are not easily
available for transplanting or some time labourers are very expensive. In this
method field is prepared and puddled just like in the case of transplanting. About
100 kg seed is required for one hectare area. In the puddled field sprouted seeds
with radical length of one to two millimeter are uniformly broadcast by hand.
Manure and Fertilizer Application
Organic manures are as much as important for rice cultivation as inorganic
fertilizers. In case of upland rice cultivation, the use of bulky organic manure is
very much desirable in order to maintain the physical condition of the soil and also
to increase the water holding capacity of the soil for maximum utilization of rain
water. In upland fields 10-15 tonnes of well rotted Farm Yard Manure or compost
should be applied in one hectare area preferably 4 to 6 weeks before sowing.
Organic manures should be spread evenly on the upper surface of the soil and
ploughed in to get it well mixed in the soil.
Application of chemical fertilizers depends basically upon (i) fertility states of the
field and (ii) previous crop grown and amount of organic manure applied. Before
deciding the fertilizer dose, soil is required to be got tested to know the status of
the nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the soil. After testing the soil, fertilizer
dose should be calculated accordingly.
Soil fertility status varies in different agroclimatic zones to a considerable extent.
Therefore, common fertilizer dose can not be recommended for all regions. The

Department of Agriculture of various states and State Agriculture University have

formulated fertilizer recommendations for rice crop in their states keeping in view
the variability in soil fertility and local conditions.
Application of fertilizer in transplanted rice field is quite different from upland
rice. A series of reactions-physical, chemical and biological take place in
transplanted rice fields due to presence of excess water in the field. In the root zone
anaerobic environment is formed from aerobic condition due to depletion of
oxygen in the soil profile, which is responsible for gaseous loss of nitrogen
fertilizer due to de-nitrification process. This anaerobic environment also affects
the behavior of phosphorus and micro-nutrients specially iron and manganese.
The soil in the transplanted rice fields after puddling develops two zones in water
logged conditions. The upper layer of soils ( 1 to 10 millimetre thick) generally
receives Oxygen periodically from fresh supplies of irrigation water and turns in to
brown colour called "Oxidised zone" and reacts like an unflooded upland soil. The
remaining lower portion of puddled soil without oxygen is called "reduced zone".
When ammonical nitrogen fertilizer is applied in such soils, it gets oxidised to
nitrate (NO3 ) form in the oxidised zone (upper surface layer of the soil).
Afterwards nitrate nitrogen is leached down to the reduced zone and further gets
denitrified to gaseous nitrogen. This gaseous nitrogen is lost. If ammonical
nitrogen is incorporated in to the reduced zone of the soil, where it is held, the loss
can be prevented. Fertilizers containing nitrogen in the nitrate form are more
susceptible to loss of nitrogen through leaching and de-nitrification process.
Therefore, ammonical form of nitrogen is found more beneficial for rice crop.
Due to variation in soil fertility, rainfall and climatic condition , a common dose of
fertilizer can not be recommended for all regions. However, in general a level of 30
to 40 kg of nitrogen per hectare in kharif and 60 to 80 kg of nitrogen per hectare in

rabi appears to be the optimum dose for the tall indicas and double that level for
the high yielding varieties on soils of average fertility in the southern and eastern
regions. In the northern region, where sunshine is available for longer hours, higher
dose of nitrogen is beneficial in the kharif season.
The maximum efficiency can be obtained in the direct seeded upland rice by
applying 50% nitrogen dose, three weeks after seeding, 30% at 45 days age and the
rest at the boot-leaf stage.
In order to obtain better results, full dose of phosphorus, potash and half dose of
nitrogen should be applied before last puddling. Remaining half dose of nitrogen
should be applied in two equal doses, first at tillering stage and second dose at
panicle initiation stage.
Water Management
The water requirement of rice crop is comparatively higher than any other crop of
the similar duration. Assured and timely supply of irrigation water has a
considerable influence on the yield of the crop. During the crop growth period, the
water requirement is generally high at the initial seedling establishment stage.
After the transplanting , water should be allowed to stand in the field at a depth of
two to five centimeters till the seedlings are well established. The second, the most
important critical stage is tillering to flowering and in this period the crop should
not be subjected to soil moisture stress. The water supply should be ensured in
required amount during panicle initiation to flowering stage. About five
centimeters depth of water should be maintained in the field up to the dough stage
of the crop. Before harvesting, water should be drained out from the field to allow
quick and uniform maturity of grain.
Harvesting and Threshing

The maximum quantity and better quality paddy and rice depend on the harvesting
of the crop at the correct maturity stage. Therefore, it is of the paramount
importance to harvest the crop at suitable time. Harvesting of the crop when it is
not fully matured might result in loss of yield with poor quality grains. If
harvesting is delayed, grain may be lost due to damage by rats, birds, insects,
shattering and lodging. Thus, timely harvesting ensures better yield, good quality
of grains, consumer acceptance and less breakage when milled. The right stage for
harvesting as commonly understood by laymen is when panicles turn into golden
yellow and the grains contain about 20 percent moisture. When the moisture in the
paddy grains reaches 16-17% in the standing crop in the fields, the crop sustains a
heavy loss owing to shattering and damage by birds and rodents.
Extensive studies have been carried out on specifying the optimum time of
harvesting. Based on the results of the various studies, in general, three criteria are
taken into consideration to specify the right time of harvesting viz. (i) the moisture
content of the grains, (ii) the number of days after planting or flowering and (iii)
the dry matter of the plant or seed.
The most common and old methods of threshing of paddy is trampling by bullocks
or lifting the bundles and striking them on the raised wooden platform. Now pedal
threshers are being used. Power driven stationary threshers are also used for quick
threshing.

History of Rice in India

India is an important centre of rice cultivation. The rice is cultivated on the largest
areas in India. Historians believe that while the indica variety of rice was first
domesticated in the area covering the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas (i.e. northeastern India), stretching through Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Southern
China, the japonica variety was domesticated from wild rice in southern China
which was introduced to India. Perennial wild rice still grow in Assam and Nepal.
It seems to have appeared around 1400 BC in southern India after its domestication
in the northern plains. It then spread to all the fertile alluvial plains watered by
rivers. Some says that the word rice is derived from the Tamil word arisi.
Climatic Requirements
In India rice is grown under widely varying conditions of altitude and climate. Rice
cultivation in India extends from 8 to35N latitude and from sea level to as high as
3000 meters. Rice crop needs a hot and humid climate. It is best suited to regions
which have high humidity, prolonged sunshine and an assured supply of water. The
average temperature required throughout the life period of the crop ranges from 21
to 37 C. Maximum temp which the crop can tolerate 400C to 42 0C.
Nutritional value of Rice
Rice is a nutritional staple food which provides instant energy as its most important
component is carbohydrate (starch). On the other hand, rice is poor in nitrogenous
substances with average composition of these substances being only 8 per cent and
fat content or lipids only negligible, i.e., 1per cent and due to this reason it is
considered as a complete food for eating. Rice flour is rich in starch and is used for
making various food materials. It is also used in some instances by brewers to
make alcoholic malt. Likewise, rice straw mixed with other materials is used to
produce porcelain, glass and pottery. Rice is also used in manufacturing of paper
pulp and livestock bedding.
The variability of composition and characteristics of rice is really broad and
depends on variety and environmental conditions under which the crop is grown.
In husked rice, protein content ranges in between 7per cent to 12per cent. The use
of nitrogen fertilizers increases the percentage content of some amino acids.
Medicinal Value

The immense diversity of rice germplasm is a rich source for many rice based
products and is also used for treating many health related maladies such as
indigestion, diabetes, arthritis, paralysis, epilepsy and give strength to pregnant and
lactating mothers. Ancient Ayurvedic literature testify the medicinal and curative
properties of different types of rice grown in India. Medicinal rice varieties like
Kanthi Banko (Chhattisgarh), Meher, Saraiphul & Danwar (Orissa), Atikaya &
Kari Bhatta (Karnataka), are very common in India. Few varieties cultivated in
restricted pockets of Kerala for their medical properties e.g. Chennellu, Kunjinellu,
Erumakkari & Karuthachembavu etc.
Crop Production Practices
In India Rice is mainly grown in two types of soils i.e., (i) uplands and (ii) low
lands. The method of cultivation of rice in a particular region depends largely on
factors such as situation of land, type of soils, irrigation facilities, availability of
labourers intensity and distribution of rainfalls. The crop of rice is grown with the
following methods
Dry or Semi-dry upland cultivation
o Broadcasting the seed
o Sowing the seed behind the plough or drilling
Wet or lowland cultivation
o Transplanting in puddled fields.
o Broadcasting sprouted seeds in puddled fields.
Selection of Seeds
The use of quality seeds in cultivation of rice is an important factor to get better
crop yield. Therefore, proper care has to be taken in selecting seeds of the best
quality. Much of the success in raising the healthy seedlings depends on the quality
of seed. Seeds intended for sowing should satisfy the following requirements
The seed should belong to the proper variety, which is proposed to be grown.
The seed should be clean and free from obvious mixtures of other seeds.

 The seed should be mature, well developed and plump in size.

The seed should be free from obvious signs of age or bad storage.
The seed should have a high germinating capacity.
Before sowing the seed should be treated with fungicides which protects the seed
against soil-born fungi and also give a boost to the seedlings.

Cultivation of Rice in India: Conditions, Methods and Production

Rice is the most important food crop of India covering about one-fourth of the total
cropped area and providing food to about half of the Indian population.
This is the staple food of the people living in the eastern and the southern parts of
the country, particularly in the areas having over 150 cm annual rainfall. There are
about 10,000 varieties of rice in the world out of which about 4,000 are grown in
India.
Rice is life for thousands of millions of people. In Asia alone, more than 2,000
million people obtain 60 to 70 per cent of their calories from rice and its products.
Recognising the importance of this crop, the United Nations General Assembly
declared 2004 as the International Year of Rice (IYR).
The theme of IYRRice is life reflects the importance of rice as a primary food
source, and is drawn from an understanding that rice-based systems are essential
for food security, poverty alleviation and improved livelihood.
Conditions of Growth:
Rice is grown under varying conditions in India from 8 to 25 N latitude and from
sea level to about 2,500 metre altitude. It is a tropical plant and requires high heat
and high humidity for its successful growth. The temperature should be fairly high
at mean monthly of 24C. It should be 20- 22C at the time of sowing, 23-25C
during growth and 25-30C at the harvesting time. The average annual rainfall
required by rice is 150 cm.
It is the dominant crop in areas of over 200 cm annual rainfall and is still an
important crop in areas of 100-200 cm rainfall. The 100 cm isohyet forms the limit
of rice in rainfed areas. In areas receiving less than 100 cm annual rainfall, rice can
be grown with the help of irrigation, as is done in Punjab, Haryana and western
U.P. About 40 per cent of rice crop in India is raised under irrigation.
However, it is the temporal distribution of rainfall, rather than the total amount of
annual rainfall which is more decisive. The rainfall should be fairly distributed

throughout the year and no month should have less than 12 cm of rainfall. Lesser
amount of rainfall is required as the harvesting time approaches.
The fields must be flooded under 10-12 cm deep water at the time of sowing and
during early stages of growth. Therefore, the fields must be level and have low
mud walls to retain water. This peculiar requirement of rice makes it primarily a
crop of plain areas. Rice grown in well watered lowland plain areas is called wet or
lowland rice.
In hilly areas, the hill slopes are cut into terraces for the cultivation of rice. Such a
cultivation in which the hill slopes are cut into terraces is called terraced
cultivation. The supply of water to the hill terraces is not as much as in the plain
areas and the rice grown in hilly areas is called dry or upland rice.
Rice can be grown on a variety of soils including silts, loams and gravels and can
tolerate acidic as well as alkaline soils. However, deep fertile clayey or loamy soils
which can be easily puddled into mud and develop cracks on drying are considered
ideal for raising this crop.
Such soil requirements make it dominantly a crop of river valleys, flood plains,
deltas and coastal plains and a dominant crop there. High-level loams and lighter
soils can be used for quick maturing varieties of rice. Black lava soil is also useful
for rice cultivation.
Rice culture is not much suited to mechanisation and is called hoe-culture. Most
of the work in preparing the seed-bed, in broadcasting seeds, or in transplantation
of plants from nurseries to the fields, in harvesting and in winnowing operations is
done by human hand. Thus it is a labour intensive cultivation and requires large
supply of cheap labour for its successful cultivation.
It is, therefore, primarily grown in areas of high population density which provide
abundant labour and at the same time, offer ready market for its consumption. In
most rice producing states, labour is locally available but in Punjab and Haryana,
rice cultivation mainly depends upon the migrant labourers from Bihar and eastern
U.P.

To sum up it can be said that rice needs plenty of heat, plenty of rain, plenty of
alluvium and plenty of labour to provide plenty of food for plenty of people. There
is no other food crop which is so plentiful as rice in India.
Methods of Rice Cultivation:
Following methods of rice cultivation are practised in India.
1. Broadcasting method:
Seeds are sown broadcast by hand. This method is practised in those areas which
are comparatively dry and less fertile and do not have much labour to work in the
fields. It is the easiest method requiring minimum input but its yields are also
minimum.
2. Drilling method:
Ploughing of land and sowing of seeds is done by two persons. This method is
mostly confined to peninsular India.
3. Transplantation method:
This method is practised in areas of fertile soil, abundant rainfall and plentiful
supply of labour. To begin with, seeds are sown in nursery and seedlings are
prepared. After 4-5 weeks the seedlings are uprooted and planted in the field which
has already been prepared for the purpose. The entire process is done by hand. It is,
therefore, a very difficult method and requires heavy inputs. But at the same time it
gives some of the highest yields.
4. Japanese method:
This method includes the use of high yielding varieties of seeds, sowing the seeds
in a raised nursery-bed and transplanting the seedlings in rows so as to make
weeding and fertilizing easy. It also involves the use of a heavy dose of fertilizers
so that very high yields are obtained. The Japanese method of rice cultivation has
been successfully adopted in the main rice producing regions of India.
Rice Cropping Seasons:
Rice is grown almost throughout the year in hot and humid regions of eastern and
southern parts of India where two to three crops in a year are not uncommon. But
in the northern and hilly parts of the country, the winters are too cold for rice

cultivation and only one crop is grown in those areas. Table 24.1 gives the period
of sowing and harvesting the rice crop.

Cultivation of Rice: Suitable Conditions Required for the Cultivation of Rice

(6 Conditions)
Suitable factors required for the cultivation of rice are : 1. Temperature, 2. Rainfall,
3. Soils, 4. Surface, 5. Fertilizers and 6. Labour !
1. Temperature:
Rice is a tropical crop and grown where the average temperature during the
growing season is between 20C and 27C.
Abundant sunshine is essential during its four months of growth. The minimum
temperature should not go below 15C as germination cannot take place below that
temperature.
2. Rainfall:
Paddy requires more water than any other crop. As a result, paddy cultivation is
done only in those areas where minimum rainfall is 115 cm. Although the regions
are having average annual rainfall between 175300 cm are the most suitable.
Paddy also needs flooded conditions with the depth of water varying over 25 mm
at the time of transplanting to as much as 150 mm for 10 weeks of the growing
period.
3. Soils:
Paddy is grown in wide range of soil, from the podzolic alluvium of China to the
impermeable heavy clay of central Thailand. Fertile riverine alluvial soil is best for
rice cultivation.
Clayey loam soil in monsoon land is considered to be the best for rice cultivation
as water retention capacity of this soil is very high. Rice is also grown in saline
areas of deltic region. Rice cultivation needs high fertilizer application.
4. Surface:
Unlike other crops, paddy needs a level surface to enable the fields to be flooded at
least during the growing period. Its ideal habitat is therefore in the great alluvial

deltas and river basins of the world: the Ganges, Siking, Yangtzekiang, Irrawaddy,
Menam Chao Phraya and Mekong, where there is practically no gradient.
5. Fertilizers:
Paddy requires three essential plant nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
Most paddy lands have a moderate quantity of such nutrients, but if they are
deficient, organic manure or artificial fertilizers have to be used.
6. Labour:
Paddy cultivation is extremely labour-intensive, therefore, requires more labour in
comparison to other cereal crops. Labour is necessary for: preparing the field,
weeding, sowing, transplanting, manuring, harvesting, threshing, winnowing and
milling. For rice cultivation large number of cheap labour is required.

Rice Cultivation in India: Milling, Plant Protection and Uses of Rice Cultivation

Rice:

Rice is predominantly a crop of Asia. 95% of the worlds area being concentrated
in south-eastern Asia extending from West Pakistan to Japan. India has the largest
area. 79 million acres in the world under rice cultivation, and production is about
25 million tonnes per year India and Indo-China are supposed to be the centres of
origin of rice. It is believed that the cultivation of rice in India dates back of
ancient periods even earlier than 3,000 B.C.
The traditional use of rice in the religious ceremonies of the Hindus, associated
with birth marriage and death is a testimony to its great antiquity as also to the
intimate place it has in the life of the people. The crop is cultivated in almost all the
states of India, extending from the delta region of the south to the higher altitudes
of 900 to 1500 above seam level in the Kashmir valley in the north. It is mostly
cultivated in the valley of the Ganga and its delta and the low-lying coastal areas in
southern and north-eastern India.
Of all the principal crops grown in the country rice has the largest area under it.
Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal are the main producing states; together they
account for more than 90% of the total average under the crop.
Cultivation:
The rice grows best on damp soils underlain with semi-impervious subsoil in
places where it can be flooded. A considerable interest has been aroused in India
during last decades in the Japanese Method of Rice Cultivation. This combines
improved cultural practices with proper maturing and Plant Protection measures.
The increased acre yields obtained by this method have naturally led to its
popularity. The results of breeding for high-yield have also been very satisfactory
and many improved varieties have been evolved which give an enhanced yield.
It has also been realized that the newer intensive methods of cultivation and
maturing demand varieties which are capable of giving higher yields. There has
been started an intensive hybridization programme between the japonica and indica
varieties of rice. The japonica varieties are high yielding, while the indica varieties,
have a better tailoring capacity and are resistant to disease and adverse climatic
conditions.

The fields are ploughed and the rice is transplanted from seedbeds when 22.5 or 25
cm young plants are covered with water, and the water is kept in circulation. As
soon as ripening starts the water is drawn off and field is allowed to dry out. Rice is
harvested and the stalks are stacked up to dry.
Investigations have carried out to determine the role of blue-green algae in rice
nutrition and their effect on the fertility of soil. The results indicate that the fixation
of nitrogen is increased by the activity of blue-green algae.
It has been established that incorporation of green matter in paddy soil improves
yield. It provides the cheapest way of maturing rice fields wherever facilities for
raising green-manure crops are available. Sesbanea aculeate (dhaincha) found to be
the most suitable crop for rice areas as it can stand the soil and water conditions
prevailing in these areas. In Kashmir valley, green maturing of rice crop with Lens
esculents was found to be very effective. In Uttar Pradesh Crotalaria juncea is
becoming popular.
Milling:
The grains of rice are removed by Thrashing. The grains are to be husked when
they are to be used, and then pounded in a mortar (okhli) with a wooden mallet
(musal) and winnowed. The resulting grain is very nutritious as it contains protein
and fat as well as starch.
In the commercial preparation the impurities are removed and the paddy is passed
between millstones to break up the husk. This chaff is moved by blowers. Now the
grain is pounded in huge mortars and a portion of the bran layer and embryo is
removed.
The waster is called rice bran. The white rice is then scoured by friction and
polished. In polishing the embryo which contains proteins, vitamins and oils is
knocked out due to lack of strong link between the embryo and the endosperm
during this process the outer, more nutritive parts of the grain are removed.
Plant-Protection:
At Jorhat, 5 inundative releases of Trichogramma japonicum at 50,000/ha/week,
starting from 30 days after transplanting (DAT), gave effective control of stein-

borer during rabi. At Ludhiana, 9 simultaneous releases of Trichogramma chilonis

and Trichogramma japonicum Lit 10 days interval lit 100,000/ha, starting from 20
DAT, proved effective in controlling rice stem-borer and leaf-folder.
Uses:
The chief use of rice is as food, and more people use it then any other cereal. The
rice is generally eaten with pulses (legumes) or some other food rich in proteins. A
diet of rice and soybeans makes the food of millions. The rice-straw is used for
making straw boards, paper and mats.
Rice bran oil is used for making soaps and cosmetics. Rice starch is much used in
European countries. In several tropical countries intoxicating beverages are
prepared from rice. Important beverage of Japan, sake is prepared by fermenting
rice. Important Andhra Pradesh intoxicating beverages are prepared from rice.