Mikhail B.

Piotrovsky
John Vrieze (general editor)
with contributions by
among others the lenders

De Nieuwe Kerk Amsterdam

Lund Humphries Publishers

This catalogue is published to coincide with the exhibition

Earthly beauty, heavenly art. The art of Islam, held in
De Nieuwe Kerk, Amsterdam, from 16 December 1999 to
24 April 2000.
The exhibition is organized by the Stichting Projecten
De Nieuwe Kerk, {Foundation Projects De Nieuwe Kerk),
Amsterdam, in cooperation with The State Hermitage
Museum in St Petersburg, Russia, together with the Institut
du Monde Arabe, in Paris, and the Museum o[ Ethnography/
Foundation Islamic Art and Culture, in Rotterdam.

The exhibition was made possible through the financial

support of the follow ing:

Generale Bank

Buhrmann

sTICHTING

DOE I'!

POSTCODE LOTCRIJ
SPONSOR LOTERIJ

nics

Mondriaan Stichting
Prins Bernhard Cultuurfonds
VSB Ponds
Gemeente Amsterdam
Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken
Ministerie van OC & W
Golden Tulip Grand Hotel Krasnapolsky
Finnair
The exhibition has been insured by:

AON Artscope Nederland

Fine An Insurance Brokers

Lenders

Authors of the descriptions

Athens

Adel Adamova (A.A.)

Benaki Museum

Brahim Alaoui (B.A.)

Julia Bailey (J.B.)

Boston

Anna Ballian (A.B.)

Museum of Fine Arts

Milo Cleveland Beach (M.c.s.)

Damascus

Barbara Boehm (B.B.)

Nationa l Museum of Syria, Ministry of Culture,

Hans-Casper Graf von Bothmer (H.C.B.)

Genera l Directorate for Antiquities and Museums,

Sheila Canby (SH.C.)

Syrian Arab Republic

Stcfano Carboni (s.c.)

Emine Bilirgen (E.B.)

Anatoli Jvanov (A.i.)

Istanbul

Mark Kramarovsky (M.G.K.)

Topkapi Palace Museum

Marta Kryzhanovskaya (M.K.)

Glcnn Lowry (G.L.)

London

Boris Marshak (B.M.)

The British Museum

Yuri Miller (v.M.)

The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art

Mona AI Moadin (M. AL M.)

Mina Moraitou (M.M.)

New York

Su h eyla Murat (s.M.)

The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Michael Rogers (M.I .), with the ass istance of

Paris

Abolala Soudavar (A.s.)

Nahla Nassar, Tim Stanley and Manijeh Bayani

Institut du Monde Arabe

Natalya Venevtscva (N.v.)

John Vrieze (J.v.)

Rotterdam

Daniel Walker (o.w.)

Museum voor Volkenkunde Rotterdam

Rachel Ward (R.w.)

Sanaa

Editors

Dar al-Makhtutat (House of Manuscripts)

John Vriezc and Arnoud Bijl

St Petersburg

Translations

The State Hermitage Museum

Arnoud Bijl (from the Ru sian)

Venice

Michele Hendricks (from the Dutch)

Procuratoria di San Marco

lgor Naftulyev (from the Ru sian)

Wcndie Shaffer (from the Dutch)

Washington, D.C.

Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution

KHWARAZM

-v'?

Khiva

Euphrates

TRANSOXIAI

"c

"'~

......, Bukhara
Samarkand (Afrasiyab)

Mashhad
Tehran
Nishapur
ar-Raqqa
KHORASAN
Samarra' ,._.),
Kashan
Herat
Damascus Baghdad Ji.
Ghazna
IRAN (PERSIA)
Karbala'
"'
lsfahan
jerusalem
ai-Kufa
AFGHANISTAN
Yazd
Basra
IRAK
Klrman
Shiraz
Kuwait
SYRIA

MAGHRIB

Marrakesh

Alexandria
Cairo (Fustat)

M.
INI
Lahore
Delhi

: Agra (~
EGYPT

Fatehpur
Medina
INDIA

HIJAZ
ARABIAN
PENINSULA

SAHARA

DECCAN
Hyderabad-Golcon

Sanaa
YEMEN

THE ISLAMIC WORLD

(circa 600 -1800)

ARAB IAN SEA

Table of contents
9

Preface

Part 11

John Vrieze and Ernst W Veen

Several authors
65

The mosque

Mikhai/ B . Piotrovsky

77

Pilgrimages

Introduction

H7

The Word

97

The Qur'an

Part I

13

The Enigma of Islamic art

Chapter 1

15 The World of Islam

Chapter 2

125

Islamic mystilism

1B

The palace

207

The mausoleum

219

Garden and Paradise

297

Bibliography

23 Monotheism and Ornamentation

Chapter 3

3 3 Ico noclasm
Chapter 4

37 Art for Everyday Life

Chapter 5

31

o Credits

49 The Qur'an as source of a ll in spiration

Chapter 6

53 The lan guage of Isl a mic art

Chapter 7

57

Paradise- the major theme of Islami c art

ART OF ISLAM

Foreword
In the Netherlands today a substantial portion of the
population is Muslim. In fact, Islam is the second
largest religion practised in the Netherlands, after
Christianity. In global terms, one person in six is
Muslim. But despite these figures, most Western
Europeans know very little about the faith of Islam,
let alone about the amazingly rich and varied culture
which it has inspired. Indeed, in Christian cultures
Islam is often represented as if it were a marginal
phenomenon. It is, on the contrary, with all its
splendid diversity, one of the religious foundations
upon which our global culture is built.
So it was partly with the aim of setting things to
rights that the exhibition Earthly beauty, heavenly art
was projected. The exhibition management of
De Nieuwe Kerk has over the past few years
concentrated on illuminating cultures of both
neighbouring and distant countries. It has done so
by means of exhibiting a selection of highlights from
these countries' artistic achievements and in this
way demonstrating the shared historic roots of our
contemporary culture. The world of the twentieth
century has expanded, in the sense that the customs
and objects that our ancestors would have found
puzzling and frightening are today encountered with
a curiosity and openness which was formerly rare.
It is to be supposed that this will only increase as we
enter the third millennium. The multi-cultural and
multi-religious nature of our society will play a large
part in the process .
This exhibition- which presents a selection of
masterpieces from some of the major world
collections- makes very clear how powerful is the
voice of Islamic art. It is the voice of a deeply-felt
belief, filled with a delight in the energy of life, and
speaks of the joy of both the artisan and the owner.
As one of the Hadith, or traditions about the Prophet
Muhammad and his first followers, puts it: 'Verily,
~

God is Beauty and loves that which is beautiful.'

Islamic art is radiant, it shines and dances with a
divine splendour. To make a beautiful work is an act
of devotion that sanctifies the maker; equally blessed
is the person who gains enjoyment from the created
object.
We are immensely grateful to the many museums
and collectors who have lent us their precious objects.
Without their confidence in us, we would never have
been able to have put on this exhibition.
We should like to extend a special word of thanks
to our guest curator, Professor Mikhail B. Piotrovsky,
director of the State Museum The Hermitage in
St Petersburg. His erudition, combined with his
evident passion for Islamic art, have made an
invaluable contribution to this exhibition and its
accompanying catalogue. After showing in
Amsterdam, the exhibition will travel to Russia
and be seen at The Hermitage.
Many people have contributed to this exhibition and
we are most grateful to them all. Scholarly authors
have made fascinating contributions to the catalogue
and many have helped and advised us with their
expertise. We should like to mention in particular the
staff of the Institut du Monde Arabe in Paris, who, at
a very early stage nurtured the seedling concept of
the exhibition and gave us their full support. Finally,
we extend warm thanks to our many sponsors who
with their generous support have made this beautiful
and memorable exhibition possible.
It is our hope that this exhibition will lead to a greater

awareness and appreciation of Islamic art and culture.

John Vrieze
Chief curator

Ernst W. Veen
Director, National Foundation
De Nieuwe Kerk

ca t.no. 102

+ Foreword

Eartlilv beauty, li etl \'mly arl +

ART

or

ISLAM

The Foundation Projects De Nieuwe Kerk wou ld li ke to thank

the fo ll owing persons for their extreme ly valuab le consu lts:

Amsterdam

Ne w York

Maarten Frankenhuis, Frits Lameris,

Ph ilippe de Montebell o, Barbara Boehm,

Maurits van Loon, Henk van Os, Najib Taoujni, Rik Vos

Stefano Carbon i, Dan ie l Wa lker, Lisa Yeung

Ankara

Pa ris

H.E . Sjoerd Gosses, Alpay Pasinli, Nili.ifer Ertan

Nasser El Ansary, Badr Ar odaky, Bra him Alaou i

Athens

Saa rbrucke n

!I.E. Paul Brouwer, Angelos Delivorrias,

Hans-Casper Graf von Bothmer

Mina Moraitou, Anna Ballian

Sa na a
Boston

H.E. Arend Meerb urg, Yus u f Abda lla h , Abd ulm a li k

Malcolm Rogers, Julia Bailey

al-Maqhafi, 'Ali A. Abu El-R ij a l, U rsu la Dreibh o lz

Damascus

St Peters burg

!I.E. Willem Andreae, !I.E. Victor Goguitidze,

Mikhail B. Piotrovsky, Vladim ir Matveev,

Sultan Muhese n, Mohammed Quadour,

Georgc Vil inbakhov, Anato li Iva nov,

Monna ai-Moazem, Mona AI Moadin

Ade l Adamova, Yuri M ill er, Na ta lya Ve nevtseva,

Marta Kryzhanovskaya, Mark Krama rovsky

Gouda

Dineke llu izenga

Rotte rd a m

Hein Reed ijk, Charlotte H u yge n s, Mar k Hoos,

Fred Wartna

The Hague

!I.E . Bilgin Unan

Ve nice
Istanbul

Fcliciano Benvenuti t, Mons. An to ni o Meneguo lo,

Fili7 (:ag man , Emine Bilirgen, Si.iheyla Mu rat

Ettore Vio, Giuseppe Fioretti

London

Was hingt on , D.C.

Robert Anderson,

heila Canby, Rache l Ward,

Rita Phillips, Nasser D. Khalili , Nah la Nassar,

H.E. Joris Vos, Mi lo Cleve land Beach , Glen n Lowry,

Abo lala Soudavar, Massume h Farh ad, Bruce Yo ung

J.M . Rogers, Tim Stanley, Manijeh Bayani

cat. no. 274

10

ART

or

I SLAM

11

AckiiO\V/I!d!]t! lll l!ftfs

ART OF ISLAM

The Enigma of Islamic Art

The expression 'Islamic Art' is at once both simple
and complicated. Generall y speaking, it refers to the
art made by people who profess the faith of Islam.
But whether we can make a strict definition of such a
thing as an artistic phenomenon has both raised, and
continues to raise, serious doubts among researchers
and writers. Some of them prefer to see more worldly
origins for art, in terms of the culture from which it
emerges. Others support the notion of the continuity
of a specific 'national' cu lture wh ich is determined by
having a common language or territory.
So far so good. However, everyone will understand
what we mean if we speak of 'the art of Islam' and
even more so when we refer to 'the art of Islamic
peoples.' This reflects the fact that in the art referred
to with this term- in all its manifold and radiant
forms- a number of characteristics that are fairly
easy to recognize, repeated ly return.
There is a clear distinction between the objects
made during the Islamic period and works by the
same peoples from a pre-Islamic time. And the
distinguishing characteristics provide a fairly clear
division between art forms that arose contemporaneous ly in places where severa l religions were
practised. Clearly, all this is highly relative. The roots
of Islamic art in the pre-Islamic cu ltu res of Iran,
Centra l As ia, Egypt, China, India and other regions
are well known and enthus iastica ll y studied. However, id eas concerning these roots are regularly
adjusted, often in accordance with prevailing Islamic
politics and id eology. Traditions flow in and out of
each oth er and give rise to new creations. This is an
expression of the universal and synthetic nature of
Islamic society wh ich forms one worldwide community for a ll Muslims.

Not surprisingly, Islamic art and that of non-Muslims

from the same region, has much in common. The
exhibition shows several objects on loan that illustrate this fact clearly. Indeed, the unity often remains
because in the course of time qualities emerge in one
world which in fact characterize the other.
The characteristics of Islamic an are: abstract designs,
a wealth of rich decoration, and a tendency to avoid
of human or animal shapes. This may be summarized
in one single and all-embracing expression: the language of Islamic art. Many of the details may or may
not be immediately linked with the ideological foundations of the cu lture, or cultures, of Islamic peoples,
through the re li gion. It is a double connection: Islam
has determined the appearance of certa in features,
such as abstract design, and in their turn many of the
features of art serve as unobtrusive and often hazy
propaganda for the basic values of the Islamic way of
life.
Noth in g shows so clearly the unique nature of
Islamic art as a comparison with the pre-Islamic
heritage of Syria, Egypt and Iran. Because so much
remains, it can easily be seen how within a short
period an entirely new artistic language has developed. The origins of this language remain a mystery.
The Islamic conquest certainly spread the cu ltu ral
heritage of the Arabs through a large part of the
world, but this fails to explain the radical changes
and pluriform synthesis that came as a result. The
one explanation of the enigma is, for the time being,
to acknow ledge the dynamism in the Islamic spirit
which , passionate and forceful, found an aesthetic
form which was both expressive and convincing.

cat.no. 8

]3

+ /ulroductiOII

Earrllly beauty, lleavwly art +

ART

or

ISLAM

Ill. I Tower oft h e ai-Mutawakkili Mosque, Samarra ', bui/1842-852

14

ART 01 ISI AM

+ T/1e II'O I'itf Oj h/11111

The World of Islam

Islam is one of the three monotheistic religions

which arose successively in what in Europe is called

continually sent people, one after the other. prophets

and messengers to warn the world, teaching about

the Middle East. They were, in order, Judaism,

the way of righteousness and adjuring people to

Christianity and Islam and distinguished themselves

from other great world religions in that they believed

Moses and Jesus. However, the prophets were either

in only one God, the Creator of the world and all

living things . This one God, is the same in the three

murdered or- if they were received- their teachings

were soon rejected and people continued to pursue

religions but called differently by the name of Yahwe

(Jehovah), God, and All ah. The three religions have

their more bestial urges. Finally Allah 'se nt' His last
prophet, as a final warning. This is called 't he seal of

a common history, in which the patriarch Abraham

(Ibrahim in Islam) appears as a key figure. He was

the prophets'. For in the same way that a sea l on a

document confirms what it contains, so Allah con-

the first man to reject the then customary worship

firmed the words of earlier prophets and now com-

of idols. Indeed, he was even prepared to sacrifice

his own son for his belief. This is why these three

pleted the text (nothing further may be added to it) .

re ligions may be referred to as the 'Abrahamic'

religions.

Muhammad, chosen by Allah to be His Prophet,

summoned people to repent for the final time, gave
them the laws by which to lead a righteous life, and

The holy scriptures of the three religions more or less

proclaimed the original text of the holy scriptures.

follow each other chronologically in date of writing.

The Hebrew Bible forms the Old Testament of the
Christians who see in the prophecies concerning the
Messiah, references to the life of Jesus Christ. Islam,

Thereafter there would be no way out. A terrible

Judgment Day would arrive when the dead would
arise from their graves to be judged for their deeds

convert to faith in Him. Among these prophets were

and either punished with Hell or rewarded with

in its turn, recognizes both the Tora of the Jews and

the Gospe ls of the New Testament, but considers that

Heaven.

both Jews and Christians have debased the original

teachings about God, have turned to the worship of
ido ls, and above all have distorted the idea that there

Muhammad was an ordinary man with a keen sense

of the spiritual misery that was rife around him. lle
was forty when Allah began to speak to him, either

is only one God. For Muslims, the Christian concept

directly or via the archangel Gabriel, and commanded

of the 'Son of God' and the Trinity (Father, Son and

Holy Spirit) appear somewhat unsub tl e. The Qur'an

him to go and preach Islam to people. This preaching

implied among other things obedience to Allah and

was given to Muhammad by Allah as the final definitive Word (in Arabic qur'an means a reading,

faith in his uniqueness and all-powerfulness. After

some initial uncertainty both about himself and the

or recitation) which comes forth from the eternal

heaven ly source.

nature of his holy inspiration, Muhammad began

to preach with great conviction, proclaiming to h is
fellow countrymen what God had said to him .

Muhammad
The bearer of this 'third testament' , the message of
Allah, was the prophet Muhammad (c.57 0-632), the
son of Abd-Ailab from the mercantile city of Mecca.
This city lies inland in the Arabian peninsula , along
the ancient trading routes that criss-cross the deserts
and oases of Arabia. According to the Qur'an, Allah

These words, the direct messages from Allah to

Muhnmmad intended for all people, arc the source
of the Qur'an. The holy text was first delivered
orally and later recorded on parchment and paper.
It became the cornerstone of Muslim spiritual life,

basis for their rituals and- most important for us-

15

Earlltly beauty, h eavenly arl +

ART O F IS LAM

at.no. 36 [ro nt

Cat.no. 36 back

the fundament for their artistic ideas and the source

of their artistic creation.
Allah foretold the terrible Last Judgment Day and
described the horrors of the end of the world, the
suffering of sinners in Hell and the blessed nature of
the gardens of Paradise. As illustration he recounted
how prophets and peoples from the past had been
judged for their lack of faith. He summoned people to
turn aside from paths of wickedness and to convert to
the true faith in the One who had created humankind
and provided them with all things necessary.
Many of Muhammad 's fellow-townsfolk rejected his
preaching. They wanted to continue living as they
had alway don . Persecution forced Muhammad
to flee from Mecca in 622 with a group of his supporters. He established himself further north in
Yathrib where the local folk received him enthusiastically as their spiritual and politi cal leader. The year
and day when Muhammad moved, 16 September 622
is called the Hegira and wa s later taken to mark the
beginning of the Mu lim era. Shortly after this, Yathrib
chan ged its name to Medinat al-naabi, meaning 'the
city of the Prophet' and now known as Medina .

16

The Muslims spread their message with the word and

with the sword. Followers of Muhammad waged war
against Mecca, ending in the capitulation of the city
and the destruction of all the idols that stood around
the holy place of the Kaaba. The Kaaba itself, which
contained- set in its northeastern wa ll - the Black
Rock originally sent by Allah from heaven, became
the centre of Muslim ritual and the place of remembrance. After the Great Flood, which destroyed the
Kaaba, it was recreated by Abraham who came here
to visit his son Ishmael (who is the forefather of the
Arabs). The entire ritual of remembrance, called the
hajj, is dedicated to the memory of Abraham, who
wrestled with temptation and was even prepared to
sacrifice his only son to God.
The hajj became incorporated into the basic rules of
Islam and the Islamic way of life. Beside this, faithful
Muslims believe that ' there is no god but Allah and
Muhammad is His me senger.' Further, they must
observe the holy month of Ramadan, must pray five
times a day, either at home or in the mosque, and on
Fridays they must participate in special community
prayer which has a great symbolic value for the huge
Islamic commun ity spread across the globe. They

ART 01 I S LAM

must also give alms to the poor and donate a portion

+ Tl1e IVOrld of 1.1111111

and Sassanid Persia. The latter was in decline; grad-

of their possessions to the needy. The Qur'an consists

ually Iraq and the ancient Iranian territories fell under

of powerful texts discussing the main points of faith,

the caliphate, including Central Asia as far as the bor-

episodes recounting histories of holy figures, and

der with China and north India. Byzantium handed

general prescriptions for a pure life. It has rules apper-

over Syria, Palestine and Egypt. Armies of fanatic

warriors, inspired by the faith of Islam, penetrated

taining to inheritance law and the relationships within

the family and the wider community, as well as the
prohibition of games of chance, drinking alcoholic
beverages, and eating pork.
The teaching of the Qur'an was directed towards
the whole of humankind and prepared the way for
the expansion of its sphere of influence. Under
Muhammad, Islam conquered the entire Arabian
peninsula. When in 632 he died, at the age of about
60, the political and spiritual authority passed to
the caliphs (literally meaning 'follower' in Arabic).
The first four caliphs, called the 'righteous leaders'
established Mecca and Medina as their political
centres for their community. They also held extensive
military campaigns. The armies of Islam overcame
a large portion of the Near and Middle East. Their
neighbours were two powerful kingdoms, Byzantium

the whole of north Africa, spreading westwards and

north into Spain.

The Umayyads
Many of the great battles took place after the first
'righteous' caliphs had been succeeded by the
Umayyad dynasty from Mecca. They moved their
capital to Syria, choosing one of the oldest cities of
the world: Damascus. A great burgeoning of new
Islamic art and culture found place under the
Umayyads, based on a system of spiritual and political instructions. Those who exercised this authority
were the local population. They created highly
impressive objects which became imbeddcd in the
ancient artistic traditions of Syria, Egypt, Iraq and
Persia. As a result, local arti ts made use of their
indigenous traditions for the benefit and indeed the

ill. 2 The Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem, completed 691

17

Eartlliy !Jea11ty. ll eavwly art +

A RT

or

IS LAM

wars between various groups who had tasted the

sweets of power and d idn't want to let go. One of
the wars ended in 750 with the ann ih il at ion of the
dynasty and the trans ition of the t itle of cal iph to
the Abbasid dynasty, whose claim to ru le was based
on close family Lies with the Prophet- they were
descendants of his uncle, Abbas ibn Abd a l-Muttal ib.
One Umayyad prince managed to escape the fami ly
massacre of 750 and founded his own Umayyad
caliphate in the Spanish city of C6rdova, assuming
the title of Abdu lrahman I. This marked the beginning of the inevitable decline of the united Is lamic
state, with the independent development of Islamic
Ill. 3 Th e Umayyad Mosqu e, Damascus, built 706-714

art in Spain. One aspect of th is was that the SyrianByzantine tradition came into contact with the customs and tastes of barbarian Europe. The resu lt was

glorious reputation of their new society. The old

a sophisticated and elegant art with its own peculiar

forms of decoration and luxuriance were turned

characteristics but which, with a ll its pecu li ar ities

into ways of glorifying Islam and its followers.

was still part of mainstream Is lamic art- abstract,

decorative and extravagant.

It shou ld be noted here that the politica l system in

the conquered territories was a model of gradual

The Abbasids

assimilation. Non-Mu lims were allowed to retain

The Abbasids moved the ir cap ita l to Iraq, the land

their former religion but were heavi ly taxed.

of the Sassanids. In 762 they built a new city, their

Gradually, most of the conquered peoples chose to

capital Bagdad, 'city of Peace', vibrant centre of a

follow the new faith. A clear illustration of this is

m ighty emp ire. lL was a huge city, with many pa laces,

given by two architectural monuments from the

mosques and bazaars. After a whi le the ca liphs grew

days of the Umayyad dynasty: the Dome of the Rock

tired of it, and ca liph a i-Mutas im (870-892) built

in Jerusalem (completed in 691, see ill. 2) and the

a new capital city about 80 ki lometres north of

Umayyad mosque in Damascus (built 706-714,

Bagdad. It was ca ll ed Surraman-raa ('happy is he

see ill. J). In the architectural methods and principles

who beholds') or Samarra'. It was a centre for study

of these buildings, as well as the ornamental motifs

and scho larship, for bureaucrats and warriors, with

and the mosaics, it is easy to find para ll e ls in Christian

pa laces, hippodromes, gardens and mosq ues of enor-

architecture and Persian decorative art. In the Islamic

mous size. The famous Great Mosque of Samarra'

world, however, monuments were created with an

(see ill. I )was adorned w ith a spectacu lar m inaret,

ideological aim , that of preaching the triumph of

which had a spira l pathway lead ing upwards to its

Islam . This embraced among other things the tics

summit. The pa laces were beautified w ith striking

with ancient religious traditions, the abstract concept

wood carving and stucco. The style of this carving

of 'God', and the descriptions of Paradise. This agenda

determined to a large extent the characteristics of

dictated the style and artistic language in which flam-

the p lan t ornamentation from the Abbasid dynasty.

boyant orna menta Lion and Iuxu riou s materia ls mix

The Abbasids, then a world power and coming from

and merge with an almost iconoclastic asceticism.

Persia, had a richer and more mon umenta l manner

of constructing their bui ldings, the ir metal or ceramic

The Umayyads continued to wage war and built a

domestic objects, their weapons and their clothing,

state in the wh ich Byzantine brilliance was toned

than did the Umayyads from Syria. But for both dy-

down by the traditions and practical wi dom of the

nasties the spirit and the style were one and the same.

Bedouin desert rulers . This period w a s full of civi l

Less exuberant but no less impress ive, were the styles

18

ART OF ISLAM

+ The /Vor/d of /1/am

of Islamic Spain and North Africa. The horseshoeshaped arches and the combination of red and white
li nes in the architecture, the pale blue leaves with
golden lettering of the Qur'an and the wealth of
bone carving character ize the Spanish variation of
this dominant artistic language (ill. 4).

The Saljuqs
In the course of the 9th century the Abbasid caliphate
and its rulers were overthrown by a new military
power. Turk ish tribes of the Saljuq dynasty were the
new major political force. Under them traditional
rulers were placed on the throne, which was once
again located in Bagdad. In the meantime the Islamic
world had changed into a conglomerate of large
and small kingdoms with a varying degree of mutual
dependence. The Saljuqs followed a strictly orthodox
form of Islam. Under their influence and protection
a strong Is la mic theology developed presenting the
fundamental principles of Islamic dogma and of
polit ical organization.
Ill. 4 The Mezquita (Great Mosque), C6rdova, started 750

Classical Is lam ic art gained its shape in particular in

the llth century. At that time in many ways all kinds
of artistic customs were being circulated which for

and palaces, arc undeniably open to several inter-

many centuries were to characterize Islamic art. What

pretations . With its mysteriom glowing colour and

happened was that the taste of the Turkish steppes

suggestive layers, rock-crystal was one of the most

was overlaid upon the layers of Persian, Byzantine

coveted materials.

and Arabic art. The cupolas and minarets became

more regular, while new standard designs came

The Fatimids were powerful rulers and would often

into vogue for decoration. Metalwork witnessed the

make use of art

appearance of brass inlaid with copper and silver, in

the city of ai-Qahira ('the Conqueror'), today Cairo,

which motifs are to be found from China and India.

to

assert their position. They built

adorning it with mosques such as the ai-Hakim in

which grandeur goes hand in hand with the ever-

The Fatimids
At the same time Egypt and part of north Africa were

present possibility for the individual to withdraw into

contemplation and prayer. The immeasurable ri hes

ruled by the Fatimid dynasty who were descended

of the Fatimids were used in a demonstrative manner.

from Muhammad's daughter Fatima and his nephew

The Fatimid caliphs organized huge processions in

'Ali ibn Abi Talib. During an extended struggle for

which countless gold objects, often utensils, would be

power they developed a complicated religious law

borne along and revealed to the crowds, along with

containing many obscure principles and meanings

enormous bronze figures and candlesticks, together

wh ich was only accessible for the initiated. Their

with lamps of rock-crystal and splendid garments

stress on the inner significance of rel igion, on secret

embroidered with texts and motifs.

r ituals and a secret system of propaganda gave a

unique anraction to the teaching of the Fatimids,
which was increased by the addition of a mystical

The Crusaders, the Ayyubids, and the Mamluks

ln 1099 Jerusalem fell

to

the Crusaders. Palestine

'sparkling' in their an. Many products of Fa timid art,

came under European feudal overlords whom the

such as illustrations on pottery, or motifs in mosques

sophisticated Byzantines and Muslims considered to

19

art !J/y betlltty, !Jeave11/y art +

ART OF ISLAM

be quite simply barbarians. Much of Europe's cultural

who claimed descent from Jingghis Khan, rul ed in

development is thanks to the daily contact and the

Central Asia in the 14th century. He was a great war-

wars waged in the time of the Crusades. Furthermore,

lord and conquered Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq including

these wars and commercia l ties helped create a kind

Bagdad, Syria and Asia Minor. Timur moved his

of unity in the Near East, turning it into a genera l

capital to Samarkand (now in Uzbekistan) which

cu ltura l terrain where both Christian and Islamic

h e made into one of the most sp lendid cities of the

art was made in a like sp irit and often with like ma-

world. His descendants also mad e their contributi on s:

terials. This exh ibition shows some objects which, as

thanks to them remarkable architectural monuments

far as their detail and motifs are concerned illustrate

appeared, richly decorated with tiles bearing fl ower

the enriching effect on Islamic art through th ese

motifs, and gracef ul texts. The special school of

contacts.

miniature painting, the beautiful examp les of elegant

The Fatimids were driven o ut of Egyp t by the Kurdish

Ayyubids, th e dynasty of the famous Salandin.

Timurid stamp.

ceramics, and the weaponry, all bore the exceptiona l

Following in the tracks of the Ayyubids, Egypt was

The Ottomans

ruled for severa l centuries by the Mamluk dynasty,

origina ll y slaves captured in war who, from being

of the Ottoman su ltan Muhammad II. Gradually th e

In 1453 Constan tinopl e was captured by the forces

commanders of military units, became the rulers of

Ottoman Turks took over the whole of Asia Minor,

the country. Under the Mamluks, who were both

together with the Near and Middle East and the

courageous warriors and excel lent merchants in the

Balkans. For several centuries- into the 20th- the

Red Sea and Mediterranean areas, Egypt enjoyed a

Ottoman empire was a power to be reckoned with in

period of great prosperity. This is recorded in Cairo

world politics. This vast kingdom revived th e a rts of

with a number of remarkable architectura l monu-

Islam by developing further the traditions of the

ments from the period, as we ll as exceptiona l gla ss

Mamluks from Egypt, Syria and Byzantium. Ideas in

lamps clecora ted with en a me!, beau tifu I brass obj_ects

with an intricate overall design, and manuscripts of

western Europe concern in g Islami c cu ltu re and the

daily life of Muslims stem large ly from impressions

the Qur'an rich in stunning ly vivid decoration.

gained about th e Ottoman empire. The character istic

socia l patterns of thi s comm unity, with their lu xury

The Great Mongols

and ceremony, find express ion in the exuberance of

At the same time, in the 13th century, the eastern

its art: brocade robes and turbans, domestic ware,

part of the Islamic world was attacked by the Mongols

weapons and garments encr usted with precious

under Jingghis Khan and his descendants. In 1258,

stones and metals, the delicately decorated ceram ic

the armies of Jingghis's grandson, bgedei Khan,

tiles and pottery with their blues and reds, not

captured Bagdad after a bitter and bloody str ugg le .

Syria was the on ly place where the Mamluks co uld

forget the cu lt of the tulip in the Ottoman empire

to

(see cat.no. 274, p. 11). After all, the tulip was born in

offer resistance to the fierce Mongols. The Islamic

Turkey and sti ll possesses great symbo li c value for

culture suffered a severe blow; bloodthirsty massacres

Turks.

took place and count less people, including many

artists were killed. Also, many palaces, mosques and
lib raries went up in flames. Gradually, however, the

The Mughals

The merging of luxuriousness with the grea tes t

aggressors converted to Islam, became assimilated

refinement a lso characte ri zes th e art from th e period

into the already centuries-old cu lture, and indeed

of the Mughals, rulers of India who claimed decent

became its guardians. There arc many schoo ls and

from Timur, or Tamurlaine. One of the wonders of

styles in Islamic art that take their names from dyn-

th e world, built in Mugbal sty le, is India's Taj Mahal

asties of Islam ic rulers whose roots lay in Mongolia.

(see ill. 5), a mausoleum se t up by sha h Jahan in mem-

ory of his beloved wife, the beautiful Momtaz Mahal.

An exceptional place is occupied by the Timurid
dynasty. Timur (known in the West as Tamurlane)

20

The objects from the treasures of th e Mughals, on

show in this ex hibition , glitte rin g with precious

AI<T OF I SLAM

jewels, serve as symbols, as it were, for the later

these vastly different historical periods and geogra-

period of Islamic art. They were taken to Russia by

phical regions- including China and Indonesia-

the ambassador to the Persian government of Nadir

share certain characteristics which may be recognized

Shah who in 1739 demolished the Mughal state and

while being difficult to describe. The shared nature

plundered the capital city of Delhi.

has many roots, but the chief of these is the inspiration based on Islamic traditions and ideas. This also

In the course of fourteen centuries dynasty followed

dynasty. Each in turn ru led over part of the Islamic

made it possible for art to survive through various

political and cultural scenarios.

world and each had its own ethnic, political and

cu ltural peculiarities. The political structure and the
culture in the world of Islam changed from age to

The spiritu al inspiration is not immediately obviou

For it lies not in the subject, but in the manner of

age. Clearly, the art of 9th century Egypt is totally

different from that of Egypt in the 18th century. And
equa ll y clearly, the art of Muslims in 15th-century
India varies markedly from that of Morocco in the

This exhibition is designed to excite visitors, to introduce them to the outer beauty and the inner riche~
of the art of a religion still so little known to many i

same period. This will come as no surprise. However,

in the West.

art istic expression. It is unexpected , vital and alluring.

Ill. 5 The Taj Mahal. Agra, bui/t/632-38

21

Tl1~

world oj /\lam

Eartilly beall ty, lt eaveuly nr t + ART

OF I SLAM

cat.no. 59

22

AllT 01

ISLAM

+ MOIIOI/tl!i.\111 t1Jtd Ontaltlt'IIIOtian

Monotheism and Ornamentation

Islam is a relig ion of an emphatic, almost exalted,

monotheism. The entire message of the early preaching of the Qur'an was to abstain from idolatry. To
worship a person or a god other than Allah, the
Creator, was condemned by the Qur'an as the most
terrible sin a person could commit, as a monstrous

and Thine aid we seek.

Show us the straight way,
The way of those on whom
Thou hast bestowed Thy Grace,
Those whose (portion) is not wrath,
And who go not astray.

betrayal of th e faith and trad iti ons of one's ancestors,

who believed in One Indivi sible God. It should

The origina l formu la ti on of monotheism is found

be noted h ere that the three world monotheistic

in sura I 12, al-lkhlas, or 'Purity of Faith'. The text

religions- Judaism, Chri st ianity and Islam-

has become one of the most important elements in

a ll originated from the same source in the Near

East.

Islamic art. lt is repeated in unending sequence in

cal li graphic script round objects, round buildings both
spiritua l and temporal , and on talismans (small pieces

For Islam, monotheism was equivalent to knowledge

of paper bearing a text from the Qur'an which will

about the religion of the earli est people- something

ensure good luck). The opening of the sura reads:

th at was often forgotten but cont inu a ll y revived

by the prophets. The idea th at belief in A ll ah isn't
somet hin g new but ra th er the rebirth of an ancient
religion, is of great importance in Islam, for it empha-

Say: He is God, the One and Only;

God, the Eternal, Absolute;
He begetteth not, nor is He bef}otten;
And there is none like unto Him.

sizes the tradit ion stemming from Abraham which is

also a cen tra l theme in Islam.

it is fairly evident that this precise formulation is a

concrete rebuttal of both the

It is this total monotheism that arguably gave Islam

hristian belief that

God had a son, and the heathen Arabians who,

the right to ca ll itse lf 'a more advanced religion' than

whi le recognizing Allah, saw Him (God) as one

those o f th e patriarchs, since they deviated from

among many gods.

th e ce ntra l concept of an unshakeable faith in one

God. The One Indi vis ibl e God was held and sti ll is in

Another passage in the Qur'an about Allah which

Islam ic theology as both sub lim e ly simple and end-

has acquired the nature of a powerfu l citation with

less ly complex, something both as intimately close as

exorcising force , and is frequently used in Islamic

breath in g and at the same time immeasurably distant.

cal ligraphic ornamentation, is the aya (verse) known

as the Throne Verse ($.11:255):

The Qur'an begins with the sura (chapter) titled

a l-Fa tih a, the Opening Chapter. In it the essence
of Islam is so encapsu lated that it became the most
importa nt text in Muslim prayers:

In the name of God,

Most Gracious, Most Merciful.
Praise be to God,
the Cherisher and Sustainer of the Worlds;
Most Gracious, Most Merciful;
Master of the Day of Judgment.
Thee do we worship

God! There is 110 god but He - the Living,

the Self-subsisting, Eternal.
No slumber can seize Him , nor sleep.
His are all things in the heavens and in earth.
Who is there can intercede in his presence,
except As He permitteth?
He knoweth what (appeareth to His creatures as)
Before or After or Behind them.
Nor shall they compass aught of His knowledge
Except as He willeth.
His throne doth extend over the heavens

23

Eartilly bea11ty, l1 eavw/y art +

ART OF ISLAM

and the earth, and He feeleth

No fatigue in guarding and preserving them.
For He is the Most High, the Supreme (in glory).

descriptions, having the nature of a written formula, which in different ways attest to the nature of
All ah, such as 'Allah is the Greatest, Allah is the AllKnowing, we all return to Allah.' The repetition of

Images

this type of formu la became an important element

With regard to this aya, we may refer to one of the

both in Muslim prayer and in daily conversation and

problems that arise in connection with pure theology

such expressions became the source of ca ll igraphic

as also witl1 questions of an artistic nature. Name ly,

decoration.

the aya describes Allah seated upon a throne, and for

some this raises the picture of an earthly emperor.

Allah's names

Indeed, other parts of the Qur'an refer to the bands

One particular way of describing God was to list his

of Allah, or to His actions which may well suggest

names. The Qur'an lists 99 names for Allah. They

similar human comparisons. In Islamic theology of

are written out in many ornamental decorations,

the classical period fierce arguments arose over the

on special talismans and magic rolls, on sheets of

question as to what extent these anthropomorphic

manuscript and decorative plates and dishes. The

descriptions should be interpreted literally. The

names refer to the many aspects of Allah's character.

overriding opinion, which was generally accepted,

Here follows a list from the Qur'an giv ing His names

was to interpret these words metaphorically, to see

the images as symbolic, and of a literary nature. In
theological terms they are expressions which make
comprehensible for the lay person concepts of a
profound philosophical content. This kind of manylayered and therefore enriching understanding of
the text of the Qur'an and of theological ideas is
typical for Islam. It is also customary for the Muslim
to discover in everyday shapes and objects deeper
meanings and layers, and indeed to find fuller
meaning in the actions of daily life.
The Qur'an contains other passages which refer more
or le ss directly to making likenesses or images. In
Paradise, the just, or righteous, behold God face to
face. This led to lengthy

controver~ies:

can a man

behold God, and if so, what does he see? Does God

have a face?
Symbolic explanations offered a means of solving

God is He, than Whom there is no other god;

Who knows (a// things) both secret and open;
He, Most Gracious, Most Merciful.
God is He, than Whom there is no other god;
The Sovereign, the Holy One
The Source of Peace (and Pe1jection),
The Guardian of Faith
The Preserver of Safety
The Exalted in Might
The Irresistible, the Supreme:
Glory to God (High is He)
Above the partners they attribute to Him.
He is God the Creat01;
the Evolve1;
the Bestower of Forms (or Colours).
To him belong the most beautiful names:
Whatever is in the heavens and on earth
Doth declare His Praises and His Glory.
And He is the Exalted in Might, the Wise.
(S. 59:22-24)

the contradictions between concrete physical words

and abstract concepts. It is not possible to describe

The most important names here are those which

God's Being in human language, nevertheless these

occur at the opening of every Islamic text, 'ln the

words represent a means whereby the believer may

name of God, most Gracious, most Mercifu l.' Second

approach the Divine Presence. The many aspects of

only to the statemem of faith, this formula is the most

God's Nature are described in episodes from the holy

frequently found in Islamic texts. With the help of a

scriptures and hymns of praise to the glory and

complete understanding of the mercy and goodness of

majesty of Allah. The power of His Might and Will

Allah, Islam managed to solve one of the major points

arc also apparent in the commandments, the debates

with unbelievers, and the terrifying prophecies

of debate in this and many other religions. Namely,

concerning the Day of Judgment. There are many

powerful God He can determine human action and

24

if the Only God has created humankind and if as all-

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1 1

Ca t.no. 32

1 1

Carpel containing the word Allah re pea ted

behaviour, how then can humankind be responsible

for their actions? Many are the Islamic and Christian
writings on the question of free will and predestination, trying to explain what appears a highly
contradictory riddle. Variations appear in these
writings, granting people different degrees of free
will and responsibility. However, a general summing
up of the attitude of Islam is that choices must be
made within the limitations imposed by the will of
Allah, that people must obey His will, hoping for
His mercy- which the faithful arc sure to find; the
only question is where, when, and in which world.
To repeat the name of Allah is an act of piety. Jn this
Islam is very different from Judaism, which considers
the name of God too holy to be spoken. Only variant
forms of His name may be said, such as Jehovah, or

He may be called llashem, meaning ' the Name'.

Different too is Christianity, which adheres to the
commandment 'Thou shalt not take the name of the
Lord Thy God in vain' (Ex . 20:

7)

and teaches that

the name of God is holy and should be treated with

great respect. In Islam, however, the rule is: the more
the holiest name, Allah , as well as I lis other names,
arc spoken and repeated, the better. To repeat them
either silently or aloud forms the basis of prayer and
of the mystics' trance. Their repetition is one of the
ways of attaining truth and of manifesting dedication
to God.

Abstract ornamentation
With this, we have come close to the world of visual
art. For the basic nature of ornamentation in Islamic
art is formed from the repetition of certain artistic

25

,... , . , . , . , . , ._ . . " " , ~

Earthly beauty, heavenly art +

ART OF ISLAM

elements. This is one of the ch ief- if not the chief-

formed a natura l successor to the pre-Islamic tradi-

areas of developmenL belonging to Islamic art. It is in

tions. Like the new religion, the decor was pruned of

essence an abstract an and this is undoubted ly re lated

excess ive tendri ls and reformed into some thin g that

to the understanding of God's nature. The attempt is

was pure ly Islamic.

made not only with words that describe Him, but a lso
with art and abstract ornamentation, to speak of that

In Islam, every part of life is holy. An essent ial dif-

which is essentia ll y abstract. To recount ta les of the

ference between Isla m and Ch ristianity is that the

invisible. The orna menta Lion, the motif, is con tin uall y

former does not divide life into the tempora l and

repeated, teaching in a restrained but persistent and

the spir itual. Every e lement in a Mus lim's li fe has a

subtle manner, how to nourish certain feelings that

religious significance and is judged by comparing it

are derived from the many representations of All ah as

w ith the standards and principles o f their religion.

the one, indivisible and immeasurab ly good Creator.

Every work of an is assessed according to a re ligious

world view. And on the other hand, religious and

The idea of the abstract Allah, high above all else,

po litica l pract ice requ ires an a rtist ic formulation.

became the main element in the inner world of every

There was a social 'decree' which, un like analogous

Muslim and a lso comributcd to a fee ling of inner

decrees in the Christian world, was not essentia l to

pride: in Islam that has been preserved as an essential

the religious history but was so, in the way that it

and holy aspect of life, something wh ich they claim

symbo li zed and represented abstract truths. The first

has been lost in Judaism and Christianity. Mus lims

of these concerned the existence of one God 'without

emphasize the fact that they have not succumbed

whom there is no God, and to w h om there is none

to the temptation to worship strange ido ls; they

equal.' Ornamentation, wh ich by its very nature is

have preserved and continue to preserve the purity

endless, was a perfect vehicle to ill ustrate this and

of monothei sm. Undoubtedly, this is the primary

became the favourite means for expressing the

clement of not only the intellectual but also the

Islamic attitude to li fe.

emotional world of the Muslim. In some way or

another, it had to manifest itself in their works of an.

It is important to note here that in medieval Islamic

literature there are no discourses to be found on the

The power of the arts to transmit this Islamic message

re lation between an and religion. Furthermore, it

was well understood . From the start, Islam paid due

seems probab le tha t in the majority of cases peop le

heed to artistic representations of its victories, its

scarcely considered that the artist was free to choose

supremacy and its grandeur. That huge masterpiece,

the tenor of a work of art in a re lig ious context.

the Dome of the Rock (see ill. 2, p. 17) was a combina-

Undoubtedly, internal factors of psychology and the

tion of the reconstruction of Solomon's Temple in

spiritua l standards that the artis ts he ld, would play

Jerusa lem, the creation of a house surmounting the

a role here. They wou ld elicit a reaction from the

grave of Jesus Christ, and the proclamation of the

commun ity wh ich wo uld recognize the sty le applied

triumph of Islam over the Christians and the Zoro-

as be longing to them, and thus acceptable.

astrians, followers of the Persian prophet Zarathustra

(or Zoroaster) who lived circa 1000 BC. The artistic

Ornamentation became the most characteristic

style of the decoration fo ll ows the Islamic thought:

artistic genre, gaining enormous significance and

there is luxuriant ornamentation without the use

attaining a high level of refinement. Ornamenta ti on

of concrete (human or animal) images. The Umayyad

can be classified into three major types: ca ll igraphy,

mosque in Damascus (see ill. 3, p. 18), the famous

plant (that is, arabesque) and geometric. One of the

mosques of Kairouan (now Tunisia) and C6rdova

things these three forms have in common is that

(see ill. 4, p. 19) -a ll these formed the conquerors'

they conta in artistic references to and rem inders of

triumphant affirmations of faith. With their elaborate

the divin e Being.

beau ty they were intended to amaze and de light.

And it wasn't long before this luxurious decoration
gained its own agenda. Ornamental decoration

26

Calligraphy

ings. Its formal severity was remarkably appropriate

Before long, calligraphy became the foremost artistic

for inscriptions on Arab ian coins, which were decor-

signature of Islamic an. Arabic script is in itself grace-

ated purely with texts declaring Islamic dogma and

ful and e legant. Since the letters of its alphabet may

stressing the supremacy of the ruler who had ordered

be written in various ways it presented many oppor-

this particular coin to be minted. In th e field of ap-

tunities which the Islamic masters multiplied time

plied art the e legant Kufic script wou ld be used in

and again. Often, it is difficult to read a text in ca lligra-

carving, inlay and painted decoration. At a fairly

phy. Thus its primary function is purely decorative-

early stage two variations of the script developed.

it delights the eye, it absorbs the viewer into an end-

The eastern variant was more refined and ebu llient

less river of rhythmical lines gliding in and out of

than the classical Kufic; indeed, its joyful letters seem

each other and opening out into works of refined

to skip along the page. The western variant (from

ornamentation. In this highly complex dance of

the Maghreb and Spain) retained the strong sobriety

s h apes, which is typical for all Islamic decoration,

of form and had dignified loops and angled links

there is a cease less movement which began with a

between letters. Eventually thi s sty le developed into

primal act of A ll ah and is one of the ways of mani-

the Maghribi script.

festing His Being to this world.

The Kufic script was and is used for the most formal
The decorative nature of Arabic script forms the basis

purposes. However, from the 9th century cursive

for an e laborate ystem of handwritten styles, varying

Arabic scripts also developed, many of these attaining

from exuberant and monumental to one so delicate

a monumental and ornamental form. Severa l reforms

it resembles strokes of air. The ancient Arabic scripts,

introduced a great advance in the development of

which were used when people first copied out the

script, one of these being the introduction of poin tin g

Qur'an, were ama lgamated into one script ca ll ed

for consonan ts and vowels. This brought a system not

Kufic (see cat.no . 56, p. 48), after the city of a l-Kufa

on ly into the meaning of the letters but a lso into the

which the Arabs had founded in Iraq. This was a

filling-in of the space between the thicks and thim of

monumental script with strongly delineated vertical

the letters. Furthermore, a system of constructing the

bands of letters and severe horizontals. Dots in various

letters was established, making the script uniformly

co lours indicated groups of letters and vowels.

geometric. A basic module would be selected, such

Generally black or dark-brown ink was used on a pale

as a lozenge shape, formed by the diagonal stroke of

ye llo w parchment or paper. In the Maghreb region a

the Arab reed pen, called a qalam, which was the

type of Qur'an was preva lent ca ll ed 'Kairouan', in

favourite instrument of the calligrapher. A fixed

which the text was written in go ld letters on a dark

number of th ese lozenges (five or seven) determined

blue background. The go ld en lettering was common ly

the height of the letter a/if, which in turn determined

used to illuminate titles and as filling on ornamental

the diameter of a circle. This system was created by

word divisions in the form of palmettes, rosettes and

Ali ibn Muqla (d . 940), a politician who served as

patterned disc-shapes. The Kufic script incorporated

vizier under three Abbasid aliphs, and was also a

the possibilities for both great dignity of shape and

most talented and inventive calligrapher. Many was

e laborate decoration. The ends of leuers cou ld be

th e tim e when h e landed up in gaol, and on one

developed by calligraphers into tendrils of plants; the

occas ion hi s right hand was chopped off, but h e

top of the vert ica l stroke cou ld be shaped lik e a plant

simp ly went on with his left- producing more

or eve n a human figure. The leuers themselves could

beautiful ca lli grap h y than anyone else. A system

indicate direction, adding a sense of rhythm and

developed known as al-khatt a/-mansub, meaning

change.

proportional script.

The Kufic script is by its very nature both monu-

Con tinuin g the work of lbn Muqla several famous

menta l and exuberant which is probably why it was

pupils of his, among them lbn al-Bawwab (d. I 022)

the most commonly used, especially for the solemn

developed and used new scripts. These Arabian ca l-

lists in the Qur'an and when decorating huge build-

ligraphers, whose name and patronymic has been

27

Earthly beauty, heavenly art +

ART

or

ISLAM

preserved for posterity, arc among the best-known

list of the names of God (al-asthma al-khusna) and

creators of Islamic art. The makers of other genres

descriptions of the appearance of the Prophet

may well be known to u (many of them inscribed

(shamail). In the Ottoman wor ld a gentle, rounded

their name on their work) but are now less famous.

script became w idespread (naskh, thuluth) . The ca l-

The next 'star' in the ca ll igraphic firmament was to

ligraphers, w h o a lready enjoyed h igh socia l status,

be Yaqut al-Musta'simi (d. 1298). He survived the

gained even greater prestige and the most famous

plundering of Bagdad by the Mongols, when thou-

of them, such as Seyh Hamdullah (d. 1520) or

sands of manuscripts were destroyed. One piece that

Ahmed Karakh isari (d. 1556) were among the

a lso survived is a delightful miniature showing Yaqut

most acclaimed people of their society.

serenely concentrated in his work of producing

beautiful calligraphy while all around him in the

A major step in the development of elaborate manu-

city of Bagdad the battle raged .

scripts were the tughras of the Ottoman sultans. The

The calligraphers invented and deve loped various

intricate pa ttern in wh ich the loops and li nes of many

scripts, some of which remained in fashion for many

letters danced and intertwined. In this way a sign

name and title of the sultan was embedded in an

centuries. Others disappeared together with their

would deve lop bearing clearly distinguishab le lines

creator. Generally, the number of basic scripts is

and details mak ing it possib le to decipher the mono-

confined to six, known as a!-aklma as-sitta, mean ing

gram o f the su ltan w itho ut reading th e text. The

the 'six feathers' or handwritings. They consist of

written word flowed and merged into the decorative

three pairs of cursive script; first. the large rounded

icons that were characteristic for the Turkish fami li es

thuluth with its smaller variant, the naskh. The latter

and which are sti ll often to be found in Islamic

has become the major standard used when copying

cu lture. Thus these tug hras demonstrate in many

texts and forms the basis for printed Arabic script.

ways the deve lopment of ornamentat ion in Arab ic

Second, there is the slightly elongated, solid-looking

script. The word became almost complete ly trans-

muhaqqaq and its smaller variant, the elegant rayhani.

formed into a symbolic motif (see also cat.no. 304).

Finally there is the script called tawqi with its smaller

variant, the riqa. The former is a passionate script

Parallel with this, vinuos ic methods developed o f

with expressly curving letters which often transform

into the intricate delicacy of the second, which today

producing mirror-image ornamenta l manuscripts,

and above al l texts that took the shape of objects

is the most commonly used in Arabic handwritten

such as lamps, books, birds, a seated figure, or a boat.

texts.

This form of art istic gymnastics is bo th interesting

and remarkable, but to a great extent breaks with

The world of the Persians had a strong impact on

the essence of the calligraphic ornamental tradition.

the standard scripts and led to their sloping more

sideways, becoming more elegant and more curling.

In a way, ca lli graphic ornamentation see-saws be-

A sheet of Persian manuscript is utterly different from

an Arabic one- there is more flowing movement,

tween a beautiful ly produced text and a beautifu l

motif as framework. The seamless link between these

often with exuberant patterns. The Persian script

two aims lies- in various ways- at the basis of a ll

seems to curl along across the sand leaving its great-

such ornamentation. It is a lmost everywhere to be

fu l traces.

found, as in pious texts and in t he writ ings describing

The Persians, and after them the Turks, had the

the One Indivisible God. This decides the ideological

significance of the ornamentation. Generally, cal-

habit of making a distinction between the type of

ligraphers would inscribe on objects and buildings

calligraphy used for the main text and that of another

the essential, specifica ll y monoth eistic citat ions from

body of text interwoven with it. Thus separate sheets

the Qur'an. The names of God were a frequent

would be written, bearing- in different handwriting-

subject. The various blessings formed another

citations from the Qur'an and sayings of the prophet

category, such as the wish 'May Allah grant the

Muhammad. Particu larly popular were sheets with a

bearer of this happiness, prosper ity, en lightenment,

28

A I< I

success' and so forth. All the virtuous combinations

01

10,1 AM

MUIIV/1/Cf.\111 tllftl (JHitlllfl'llftlffOII

derived from the intricate rhythmic undulations of

derive from Allah, which is why on objects and orna-

the vine tendril. Not surprisingly, this motif was born

ment they are always associated with Allah. They are

in the Mediterranean countries, where the vine grows

a reference to His almighty power and the fact that

plentifully. As motif it was very popular in Roman

He alone, out of His great compassion, can grant true

and Byzantine art, frequently found in their mosaics.

we lfare to humankind. The name of Allah and His

The Arabs would often have seen this motif, both

sovereign power served as protection for an objects or

before and after the Islamic conquests in these

buildings, and their owners. Furthermore, we find-

countries. In itself it was an attractive design and it

chiefly

contained no idolatrous images. The Arabs soon

on domestic pottery such as beakers and dishes (in

adopted it and developed it in an imitable manner,

imitation of Chinese porcelain) various wise sayings.

whereby it became one of the most distinctive marks

Allah could not be named here, but the selection of

of Arabic ornamentation. Indeed, this is the source

lauded qualities would always be consistent with the

of the word 'arabesque' in Europe for this looping

Islamic ru les of conduct. Final ly, writing on objects

and tw irling decoration.

of applied art, especially those coming from the

regions of post-llth-century Persia , would often take

The curling movement of the vine tendrils is enriched

the form of poetry. Generally, these would be mystic

and interrupted in a rhythmical fashion by the leaves

verses, in tilling people anew with an awarene s of

and fruit of the plant. They may- and indeed should-

the a ll-pervading being of Allah.

vary greatly. The space between the fundamental

flowing lines is filled in with twirls, plant shapes and

In this way we see that the content of calligraphic

their elements, and vases and animals. Gradually,

ornamentation was always a highly conscious witnes

the aspect that became characteristic for Islam- that

to monotheism, a 'story' about Allah, dressed as

all the empty spaces should be filled in- became

an appealing and visua lly attractive motif. Thecal-

compulsory. This is generally done by using an

ligraphic texts, especially those in Kufic, always

interwoven plant motif on a small snlie, which does

require of their reader a certain amount of prep-

not obscure the basic rhythm but in fact

aration, not to mention considerable concentrated

The tendril motif is characteristic of the earliest

effort. This results in a feeling of pleasure and

Islamic art, from the time of the Umayyad dynasty

enhance~

it.

satisfaction when the result is achieved and the

(661-750). Under the Abbasids (750-1258) it

reader understands the text. The feeling of satis-

developed further and since then has become an

faction with an effort rewarded is to a certain extent

essential feature in all Islamic periods and through-

re lated to the processes of penetrating more profound-

out the Islamic world. The motif varies in different

ly into an understanding of God, of movement in

ways but always retains the unbroken rhythm

His direction, of reading the Qur'an and reciting the

of an exuberant living plant, while with virtuosic

prayers aloud. It is this connection that gives calligra-

imagination the empty spaces bet we en the tend ri Is

phic orna mentation its exceptional signi fica nee.

arc given flamboyant filling.

There is yet another exceptional quality in calligraphy

One of the earliest and most remarkable examples

that reflects a religious notion. Arabic writing has the

of this type of ornamentation can be seen in the

appearance of an unending flow of line, a linked

sculpted decoration on the walls of the Umayyad

pattern of letters, many-shaped and ever-moving.

castle of Mshatta in Jordan, where p lant- like shape>

lt projects the concept of continuity, of endlessness,

curl in all directions. These curls sprout into vases

of pluriformity. These contribute in no small measure

with plants in them or figures representing real or

to the attempt to imagine God.

imaginary animals. The surface is a network of fine

motifs linked together by a few geometric shapes.

The arabesque
The second type of ornamentation is the plant motif,
or arabesque, an unbroken curling and waving line

An interesting example of the development of the

arabesque is provided by the sculpted panels in the

29

Eartll/y bealll)l,

h t! ll\'(!lt/y art

+ ART OF ISLAM

Abbasid capital of Samarra' (Iraq), a city that was

speaking, of the phi losophical and concrete being

only granted a brief existence. Extensive archeol-

of the godhead. And in conclusion: the beauty and

ogical excavations in this once large metropol is, that

the peacefu l aspect of a garden filled with fruit is a

became neglected and abandoned, have produced

pointer to the Qur'anic descriptions of the gardens

large quantities of material. Among other things this

of Paradise.

distinguished three types of plant ornamentation

which were found carved out of or applied onto a

Thus the plant ornamentat ion gives rise to the same

certain type of stucco. The first style has curled vine

kind of de light as that which the Qur'an arouses in

leaves on a branch either produced in one straight

the righteous person. In this way, it alludes to the

line or on a curve. In the second type the vine leaves

manner in which people shou ld rejoice in the exist-

cannot be recognized any longer; the motif itself is

ence of Allah and His deeds.

flatter and more geometric. In the third, p lant shapes

can be detected, growing into forms that interweave

Geometric ornamentation

through each other, occasionally interrupted by

Moreover, in every plant ornamentation there are

circles and curls. These are no longer recognizable,

elements or indeed large parts present, containing

but nevertheless make a definite impression of

ornamentation of the third type: geometric. The

growth and fluidity.

straight lines, triang les and lozenge shapes, the circles

and rosettes add structure to the curling arabesque

The examples from Samarra' are no more than an apt

and the calligraphic text. Indeed, they allude, as it

illustration of the qualities and of a particular inner

evolution of plant ornamentation as this was to be

were, to the stern will of God in the midst of a feast

of swirling forms. At the same time, however, the

found throughout the T lamic world, and then with

geometric elements bring with them their own

regard to objects made from certain materials such as

specific ornamentation. It has become yet another

stone, wood, metal and pottery. All these retain and

aspect of the artistic language and an important

bestow the delight aroused by the internal movemelll

means of expressing cardina l aspects associated

of plant shapes. The shapes become increasing ly

with the divine.

abstract. However, the cvol uti on here is far from

straightforward. A splendid example of plant decora-

Even Kufic script, with its geometric elements,

tion is provided by the Iznik pottery of the Ottoman

already possesses a certain rhythm of movement,

empire, in which the depictiom of plams are totally

but this is linear. However, an attempt to create an

realistic while retaining all the charm and essential

element of depth can be discerned on paper and on a

nature of ornamentation.

stone. A rosette is depicted which symbolizes the sun,

suspended in unfathomable space. The manuscripts

The arabesque has two inner meanings. Both

on which the Qur'an was written were the first flat

delight the eye, and both hint at general spiritual

surfaces to be given an impression of depth, through

representations and basic beliefs. The first of these

the effect of the geometric li nes . Po lygons, squares,

is the most profound. It expresses the eternal

movement and multiplicity of form; the latter

octagons and stars formed from triangles were at

first the framework for ca lli graph ic texts and plant

coincides with the understanding of Allah and is to

ornaments, but quickly became the chief motif. In

be found in every ornamentation that repeats itself

this sense it is the 'carpet' pages of the Qur'an that

endlessly. The second meaning is more concrete: it

arc the most remarkable . They arc to be found from

is pride in and love for the world which Allah has

the ll th century on. The complete title page is filled

created for peop le. The Qur'an frequently mention

with geometric patterns enclosing elegant inscriptions

the plant and animal world as lavish evidence of

and extravagant plant shapes, often obscured by

Allah's affection for humankind, who may enjoy

the wealth of pattern. Sometimes they can only be

this marvellous creation. The grape and the curling

detected after concentrated inspection, and some-

vine represent in part this affection for His people.

times they are quite simply not there. The entire

The ornamentation is a reminder, in a manner of

surface is coloured with geometric patterns which,

30

&

cal.no. 93 and T ca t. no. 92

because they are drawn in layers upon each other,

people to glimp e the vastness of the unending. This

create an unexpected effect of depth. This can be

is the illimitab le, the more so because it presents an

seen particularly well on the title pages of Mamluk

aspect of Allah.

Qur'ans. There are countless geometric illusions. They

offer different impressions seen from different angles

Possibly, geometric ornamentation is the nearest

and (most important) create a three-dimensional

people come to expressing the abstra t concept of

pace in which they continually criss-cross and

intercept.

Allah, for it suggests a wealth of ideas. The lines

and shapes flowing into ea h other fill the entire
s urface of an Islamic work of art. Five, six and

An abso lutely breathtaking way in which geometric

eight-pointed stars, lozenges and rectangles live a life

ornamentation is implemented can be found in th e

of their own as wel l as combining with inscriptions

architectural 'stalactites', arches carved in stone with

and arabesques. Most remarkable is the effect of

the fragility of finest lace which together somewhat

geometric ornamentation when inlaid with various

resemb le a beeswax honeycomb. These stalactites

kinds of wood and ivory. The geometric pattern s

formed an important aspect of Islamic architecture in

on wooden minbars (pulpit shaped like a staircase)

buildings and domes. In both cases they create the

and balconies arc a significant aspect of the overall

illusions of the vaulted sky, attracting and bemusing

design in a mosque.

the eye of mankind, yet at the same time allowing

31

Earthly beauty, luaJenly art +

ART

or

ISLAM

The abstract implications of the geometric forms are

understand them completely when we have an idea

further stressed by the symbolic and magic meanings

of how the religious and philosophical implications

of geometric shapes. The Star of Solomon (Suleyman).

of ornamentation- dressed in a fine aesthetic robe-

the Star of David (Daoud) and other sign s were used

are part of the story. But that 'part' actually often

as talismans. The profound meaning successfully

means 'a great extent'. Indeed, it shou ld be said

went hand in hand with the simple, so that the

that in Islamic society there is no officia l distinction

artistic content of the ornamentation matched the

between the temporal and the spiritual; for Muslims,

state of mind of the people who made use of it.

every aspect of life is connected with their religion.

By means of the ornamentation th 'Y exper ienced

This means that every Islamic work of art contains a

divine perceptions and perceived in it, to some

reference to the overall immanence and deeply-felt

extent, a reflection of God. In a way, ornamentation

indivisibility of God. And that indi cation would un-

and particularly ca lli graphy, acted lik e an icon , playing

doubtedly also have been visible to medieval Muslims,

the role of negotiator between this world and the

even though they would certa inl y have experienced

next, creating a window beyond which there was a

it in a very different way.

vast space. And in that space God is present in all

His majesty.

Allah cannot be seen and even attempts to reveal Him

come to nothing. But Allah may be spoken of, as th e

ft goes without saying that we cannot speak of the

Qur'an does. AJ!ah may be felt, as the mystics feel

'ico nic' significance of ornamentation or of Islamic art

Him . The abstract art of Islam relates with art ist ic

in general, without referring to the art of the religion

means a story about Allah, the eternal Creator of

itse lf, that is, the manu sc ripts of the Qur'an or the

everyth ing that is. And this helps people along the

decorations of mosques and mausoleum s. Indeed, it

way to experienci ng his presence, to perceiving the

hold s for all the other works of art, that we can only

ineffable beauty of His majesty and mercy.

32

ART () I

ISI AM

Iconoclasm

It is well known that Islam forbids the representation

Furthermore, almost nothing has survived from the

of living creatures in the form of pictures, sculptures

period before the Iconoclastic Controversy. However,

and so forth. However, there are many such represen-

the few objects that have been preserved help us in

tations in Islamic art, both of animals and people. But

understanding the feelings of the iconoclastic warriors

these are never used for religious purposes and are

and the Muslims. Byzantine painted ikons achieved

generally completely secondary to the ornamentation.

an astonishing virtuosity in representing people and

Indeed, they are often e lements of the decoration

figures, producing pictures that were almost lifelike in

and as such are subject to the rules governing this.

their realism. For examp le, the eyes appeared to look

In Islam the pictures of living creatures may not be

at you and were moist, the wounds gushed blood,

used as exeges is or propaganda. The sacred history

and so forth . The illusion of reality was impressively

of the Muslims may only be told in words. Thus it is

convincing. lt was as if people were trying to usurp

accurate to state that Islam ic art is in essence abstract

the prerogative of the Lord and Creator. It is hardly

and not figurative. In the previous chapter this has

surprising then that those who believed with deep

been discussed in some detail.

conviction in the One Indivisible Int ang ible God,

and for whom the Christian concept of the Trinity

Seen in this way, Islamic art may best be described

(three Gods in One) was an abomination, saw with

as iconoclas ti c, that is, non-figurative. Iconoclasm is

h orror the images associated with religion . For them ,

an essentia l aspect of monotheism, whose greatest

these were not only blasphemous, they presented a

enemy is the worship of idols. Representations of

dangerous threat. They were a blatant and appalling

gods, saints, monarchs or pop stars is an immediate

temptation and had to be attacked.

precondit ion for their worship. In Judaism there is a

commandment against making images, although from

!do/ally

time to time these may be found in their art, such as

The prophet Muhammad condemned with heart

the frescoes of the synagogue of Dura Europos in

and soul al l that he saw to be idolatrous. To crowd

Syria (now in The National Museum of Damascus).

out Allah with other deities, beings of the same sort,

In Christian Byzantium, at the same period in which

or divine sons and daughters, was anathema to

Islamic art began to develop (8th and 9th century),

him for it represented the deepest betrayal of God's

iconoclastic tendencies could be observed. Indeed,

Indivi sibi lity. In Muhammad's day people often

this period has earned the name 'Iconoclastic'.

made representatiom of gods in the form of idols,

lt is not impossib le that this arose out of the need

and these were placed in the I<aaba in Mecca.

to distinguish itself from Islam which claimed to be

Believers approached these idols with their prayers,

the best guardian of the original purity of Abraham'

requests, and on some occasions, protests. What

religion. Icons were smashed and frescoes were

this in fact amounted

whitewashed ove r or destroyed. In their place the

In many ways Muhammad's struggle was one against

to

was a form of polytheism.

Byzantine world erected symbolic crosses, fishes and

idolatry. The most significant demomtration of his

other mystical symbols, or sumptuous decorations.

victory was his triumpham return to Mecca when

he solemnly destroyed the idols in the Kaaba.

Few examp le s of Christian art remain from the

Byzantine Iconoclastic period. They arc sometimes

Co llection s of legends recounting Mu ha m mad's

assessed with a sideways glan ce at Islamic art objects

sayings (the Hadith) provide many examples of how

from the same period, such as the mosaics in the

he consistently demanded the destruction of pictures

Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (see ill. 2, p. 17).

in the homes of Mecca and Medina, since in them he

33

I CO II Oc/tl\111

Earthly beauty, lt eaveu ly art +

ART OF I SLAM

at.no. 188 The heads or the birds have been hacked orf by an 'iconoclast'.

saw the danger of idolatry. There is a famous saying

for Muslims. This led to a beaut ifu lly written legend.

by him that at the Last Judgment a curse wil l fall

One of the Prophet's most pious supporters, his uncle

upon the musavvirs, that is, people who make large

Idi 'Abbas, once saw a person making an image . He

images and pictures. They will be told: 'L ike God, you

laid his hand upon the man's head and repeated the

have reatcd beings (figures), so like God, breathe life

words of the Prophet, that the fires of he ll wou ld

into them.' Together with the stern prohibitions, cases

be the lot of sculptors. Then he added, 'If you rea ll y

arc also cited in which Muhammad permitted a piece

must do this, carve out a tree, or something which

of pictured fabric to be kept in the home, provided it

has no soul.' These words admirably express the

was torn and not used for idolatrous purposes but

essence of the ear li est period of Islamic art- the

rather for something like cushions which people

transference of the creative artistic inspiration to

didn't treat in a 'respectfu l' manner.

another sphere than that of Christian art. The

suggestion of Muhammad's uncle was taken almost

Gradual ly the representations were uppressed until

litera lly. That th is was so is illu strated by the trees

the y were no longer seen as a dangerous temptation

that dominate in the mosaics of the Dome of the Rock

34

ART 01

l ~I.AM

in Jerusalem (see ill. 2, p. 17), the Umayyad mosque in

The chief of these were the Makamat (Sayings) of al-

Damascus (see ill. 3, p. 18) and the baths in the palace

Hariri (I 054-1122). The literary genre of which they

of Kirba al-Mafjar, near Jericho on the west bank of

form a part is highly individualized and is important

the Jordan.

for an understanding of Islamic culture. In principle

Influenced by monotheistic inspiration, the abstract

novels: the storyteller encounters the main character,

an of ornamentation was given a kind of social

the trickster Abu Zaid in various places and observes

these stories have much in common with picaresque

mandate and became the main formula of artistic

how in different ways he cajoles people to pan from

creation and the ch ief method for expressing the

their money. This essentially popular literature is

ideas that were currently active in society.

written in a highly vivid rhythmical prose and

sarurated with the mo t unusual vocabulary and

The art of the elite

At the same time, this didn't mean the complete

complicated allusions. It contains many verses, as

is common in Arabic literature, which come across as

rejection of visual art as a means of creating aes-

somewhat trivial in contrast to the weighty prose . The

thet ic pleasure. In the art of the Umayyads we

beauty and subtle humour of these works can only be

find , together with the non-pictorial mosaics of the

appreciated by those with con iderable education and

mosques, frescoes in the reception rooms and baths

even they need to have a commentary and dictionary.

of the castles of Qasr Amra in Jordan and Qasr al-

Because of its refinement and virtuosity,

Hayr al-Gharbi near Palmyra in Syria, and relief

of Islamic ornamentation, the Makamat became the

carving in the palace of Khirba al-Mafjar (see above).

literature of the educated and wealthy. Sumptuous

remini~cent

Clearly, images were permitted in places with a

manuscripts were produced for them, containing

recreational function where they offered no religious

brilliant miniatures showing cenes from daily life

threat. Thus pictures became a sociated with the

which today provide us with a combination of elegant

everyday life of the ruling class, with the culture of

composition, colouring and draughtsmanship, giving

splendid banquets, lavish festivities and sumptuous

exclusive information about the customs of the

luxury. In this light, the finds from the Abbasid

medieval Muslim .

cap ita l of Samarra' (Iraq) are highly characteristic.

The remains of a palace were excavated there, used

Illustrations were created for a situation in which

monothei~m)

almost exclusively for entertainment of the caliph and

they were non-threatening (to

his followers. Here pictures were found showing

became part of a certain lifestyle. This wasn't a

and

female dancers, and shards from an earthenware

conscious process. In Islamic so iety the spiritual

wine jar had illustrations of a monk.

and the temporal gradually became separated,

despite all the theory to the contrary. This happened

A fine example of the link between the visual nature

first in the realm of learning where the distinction

on the one hand and riches and luxury on the other,

was connected with the power-sharing between the

are the miniatures found in books. Illustrations first

caliphs, who represented spiritual authority, and the

appear in Islamic books only when they have a

sultans who saw power as the prerogative of the

practical necessity, such as treatises on the stars,

(physically) strongest.

writings on medicinal plants, and 'do-it-yourself'

handbooks on how to construct ingenious apparatus

After the Mongolian conquests the traditions of

to entertain party-goers (see cat.no. 85). Books about

book illumination flourished in the Persian section

animals and plants, and collections of fables (such as

of the Islamic world. Miniature illustrations framing

the 13th-century Kalila and Dimna from Iraq) could

handwritten texts became one of the major cultural

also be illustrated with no problem. In the 11th

phenomena, a means of reflecting Iran's artistic

pa~t.

century a school for illustration of artistic products

In Persian miniatures an illustration became almost

was founded in Iraq. The entire, quite considerable

ornamental, or abstract, and developed into one of

repertoire of illustrative miniatures derives from a

the characteristics of Islamic an. The books, however,

small quantity of basically non-religious art objects.

remained luxury items because it required so much

35

I CLHWdtHifl

Eartltly beauty, lteaveuly nrt +

ART O F ISLAM

effort to make them and were only accessible to a limited

range of people.

eterna l fame. The small human figures found on pottery,

especially Persian and Fatimid Egyptian, were in a sense
part of the ornamental language, comparable with the vine

The representation of living creatures

leaves in an arabesque. Nevertheless they have many

For the masses, who were the main supporters of religious

artistic characteristics of their own that provide us with

fanaticism and who had both the intention and pretension

the possibility of categorizin g and studying them as artistic

of being strictly pure, to draw pictures and make represen-

products in their own right. In doing this we can consider

tations remained wicked. In this group it wasn't long before

closely the way people both accepted and rejected the

there was a complete prohibition against the representation

doctrine.

of living creatures. This was confirmed by the sentences of

the theologian and severe judge, Ibn Taymiyn (1263-1328).

It was the app lication of the law in daily life and with it the

He strove against idolatry in all aspects of life for it seemed

invulnerability to religious temptation that made possible

to him as if this pernicious phenomenon once again had the

the development of an ind ependent three-dimensional

world in its vice, threatening the very foundations of Islam.

Islamic art. In this we find different types of ewers, incense

From time to time the conviction that idols were unaccept-

burners, fruit dishes, candlesticks and suchlike that adorned

able and dangerous became a major topic of importance in

the festive tables of wealthy Muslims. We can on ly guess

the Muslim world. It is an issue which reappears regularly,

at how these feasts would actually have been. However, it

and will certainly do so again.

would appear that figures of creatures such as eagles, ducks,

and game birds, lions, cows being devoured by leopards,

In the Petersburg manuscript of the Makamat every figure

horses, roosters, deer and stone griffins were intended to

in the miniature illustrations has its head cleanly cut off.

This was how a religious Muslim ensured that these figures

add a lively touch to the banquet scene. Rich and intricate

motifs were carved out or inl aid. And often two-dimensional

weren ' t worshipped as idols. But before censoring him too

images flowed together with arabesques across the surfaces

strongly, we should be thankful that he only cut out the

of huge platters, jugs and buckets.

heads- in this way the rest of the manuscript has been

preserved. After all , he might simply have burnt the who le

Whoever wishes to may refute the hypothesis concerning

thing.

the prohibition by Islam against making images, if they

Meanwhile, in the world of the middle class, illustrations

produce examples simi lar to the ones just mentioned.

However, the exceptions confirm the genera l rule. Islamic

of people were accepted provided they formed part of the

art is iconoclastic. It doesn't permit any image in the realm

ornamentation and conformed to the canon and the rhythm

of religious art, so that in many different ways the dogma

- that is, didn't draw too much attention to themselves

of the indivisibility of God is maintained in the face of the

individually. Initially the ornamentation also contained

temptations introduced by id ols. Where images of people

animals, subsequently the figures of horsemen appeared

or an imal s arc found they p lay a subsid iary role either as

(huntsmen), imperial courtiers, musicians and singers.

an aspect of a strongly developed ornamentation or serving

Scenes from the life of aristocrats merged fluidly into a

the limited areas of scholarship and everyday life.

general ornamental illustration of the world, as created by

God. A major aspect of the ornamentation were furthermore

The profound aesthetic feeling that is connected with the

the illustrations with magical significance, drawings of the

monotheistic convict ion, is one of the chief spiritua l corner-

zodiac and heavenly constellations made on ceramic objects,

stones of the art of Islam.

bronze ewers and boxes and silver beakers. Like the benedictory inscriptions they were intended to grant the ruler

36

ART

or

!~JAM

+ Art for El'<'ryday

Art for Everyday Lzfe

Almost everything that goes by the name of Islamic

purpose: the e are water and the garden. In the

art (with the exception of architecture) has a link

mosque water has a ritual function: before praying

with what in Europe is classified as Applied Art,

people have to perform a ritual wa~hing of hands and

that is, objects used in everyday life. In the previous

feet. In the palaces and larger houses we find basim,

chapter we saw how the religion didn't tolerate

small channels and pools of water which, together

any form of image in its propaganda programme.

with flowers, plants and shady trees create shadow

It created del ight with the impressive and elegant

and companionable coolness and in their own way

architectural shapes such as domes, intricate mazes

provide an extension of the ornamentation that

of pillars, end le ss rows of arches, richly alternating

decorates the walls.

with niches and carving. The walls of the mosque

were covered in compact or isolated carved pat-

In such a setting, beauty and utility were combined,

terns consisting of rosettes, shells and polygonal

and produced a vast number of monuments to Islamic

compositions with arabe ques. Carved inscriptions

art. Almost all the objects that arc discussed here,

encircled the base of the dome.

both the comparatively everyday and the worldfamous pieces that represent the most intricate ma'>!cr-

In re li gious buildings the walls were covered with

work, were intended to be seen from close quarters

mosaics, glittering mysteriously in the light of many

or indeed to be handled. Without this, it is impossible

lamps. They would also be decorated- at first

to gain a true under'>!anding of the beauty of Islamic

partially and later completely- with tiles and flower

art. The objects ask to be felt, held up to the light

motifs in marble. These acted as a reinforcement of

and gently revolved while their admirer attempts to

the chief ornamentation which was inscriptions in

decipher the inscription, or to make out the details of

praise of Allah and elaborate and extravagant curls

the decoration, the shapes, the intricate arabesques

and whorls of plants, creating with their shapes and

and elaborate flourishes of letters, an animal peering

patterns a remarkable impression of depth. The two

through the foliage. This is the secret of the delight

main items in the interior of the mosque arc articles

that is created by viewing Islamic art. And indeed

of applied art: lamps hung in abundance in the arches

not only delight, for the applied art of h lam contaim

and the niches, while carpets glowing with coloured

references and reminders of a life that transcends the

patterns covered th e floor. The carpets are in the

everyday.

first place used for prayer: they show the picture of

a niche with a lamp hanging in it. Sometimes th e
mosque contains huge candlesticks or torchstands
which are carried in processions.

Gold a11d silver

Let us begin with gold and silver. lt is generally held
that the Qur'an condemm the use of gold in daily life
as being too luxurious. Ind eed, the Qur'an criticizes

The interior of a mausoleum resembles that of a

vast riches and luxurious living but nowhere does it

mosque, except that it also contains tombs with their

explicitly condemn gold. In fact, as is the case wi th

in scriptions and decorations. Palaces and ordinary

many things that are unacceptable in thh earthly life,

houses., lik e mosques and mausoleums, a re sparsely

the righteous believer once in Paradise wi ll bathe in

furnished and have richly decorated walls.

the heavenly variations of those very things which on

earth were forbidden. And in this list we find, as well

There are two other items used to decorate the Islamic

as 'wine that makes not drunken', precious metals

home, which may or may not have a religious

and jewels.

37

l.if'

ARl 01

ISL AM

+ Art for Eoydtl\' l.iji

Objects made from precious metal and jewels have

appeared decorating silver services, on the platters

only survived in small quantities for they were often

used for serving fruit, on exquisite gifts and as general

me lted down. Early Islamic gold (meal) services are

decoration . Often silver coin would be collected

thought to be a development from Sasanid objects

inside a silver beaker. Small beakers bearing the

and became gradually more intricate and e laborate.

image of the ruler would be made to commemorate

Gold goblets and beakers would be presented as gifts

a specific occasion. Silver was an easy material to

and guarded in treasure houses. In most cases, early

work with and an excellent surface on which to

examples of such objects no longer survive, but in

engrave inscriptions. These are to be found, together

museums the world over we can find a large number

with plant and animal decorations, on trays and

of objects from more recent periods, from the Safavids

various types of carafe and vessels for

~centcd

water.

(ruled in Iran 1501-1730), Mughals and Ottomans.

Many types of domestic goods were made from gold

Gold and silver coins should also be listed among

to enhance festive celebrations. Gold jewellery proves

the works of an. On classical examples only the in-

eterna lly popular. Of particular interest is the gold

scrip tion appears, containing a coup le of ayas from

jewel lery for women with filigree and ball decoration,

the Qur'an, written in the strong harmonious Kufic

dating from the time of the Fatimids. Jn the days of

script. These would be clear and

the Safavids and Mughals it became fashionable to

admonitions, formulas emphasizing the importance of

enhance the jewellery and domestic ware with

monotheism and the mission of the Prophet. The date

ea~ily

decipherable

precious tones such as rubies and emeralds. The

and place of production would also be given, and

glittering of precious stones is a well-known image

sometimes the ruler's name. Horizontal inscriptions

favoured by the mystics, one element of that holy

would be written inside a small circle, usually at the

ecstasy experienced as a person approaches the

centre but sometimes on the edge. Clearly, as well as

presence of God. Even when precious stones were

being symbols of the ruler's power (the olficial

used to decorate daggers and swords, their glittering

function of such coins) these object'> also served il'>

retained an added, unconscious message relating to

talismans because of their pious imcriptiom. And it

the riches of Paradise, where their luminou colour

is presumably partly for this reason that before long

is a re fl ecti on of the divine Light.

coins became pan of women's jewellery throughout

Silver, with its soft sheen, wa a favourite material

important was the recognition of their aesthetic

among jewe llers in both the Near and Middle East.

quality.

the Islamic world, although undoubted ly just as

Artis ts from Sasanid Iran and Byzan tium, the most

notab le predecessors and inspirers of Islamic art,
created wondrous objects. Silver beakers, for which

inlaid bronze
The glorious glittering of gold and silver was without

the Sasanid empire was famous, were copied in the

doubt not only a reflection of their precioll'>ness but

Mus lim world. These beakers are the earliest objects

also of the world to come, of the overwhelming

to be decorated with the iconography of the imperial

beauty of the Divine

Pre~ence.

As such it found an

feast, which developed into one of the main set

echo in the objects of art made out of other materials.

themes in Islamic art. The beakers themselves were

Bronze items formed the most important artistic

used at banquets. The famous Arab poet Abu Nuwas

production of the Islamic world. Different bronze

(c.756-c.8 10) has left poems describing how the

alloys, sometimes brass and sometimes copper, were

frothy wine bubbles in the beaker and from that froth

used to make beakers, large trays, ewers to hold

arise warrior figures who are etched upon the base.

water for washing the hands, and incense burners,

Both the wine and the human figures were forbiddeil,

candlesticks, large containers for washing

hand~

and

but were certainly to be found in the world of the

feet, and inkpots for scribes. The surface of domestic

nobi lity. Art often flourished on the borderland of

ware was elaborately decorated wi th inlay. Fine

freethinking. More and more plants and wild animals

copper, silver or gold wires were inserted into narrow

cat.no. 150

39

Eartlily beauty, lieaveuly art +

ART OF I SLAM

were produced. Although made from relatively

simple materials the objects became no less costly
than those of silver or gold. Even today, these ceramic
works, with their various types of glaze and strewn
with illustrations in many colours, still amaze and
de li ght the eye. The Islamic world has given us a wide
range of ceramic masterpieces of many kinds. In the
9th century a beaut ifu l type of pottery w ith a white
glaze was produced in Samarkand (Transoxiana,
now Uzbekistan) and Nishapur (Khorasan, now Iran);
it clearly imitated- and not without success- the
exquisite porcelain of China. Across the white background flow circles of sober black or dark brown
Kufic script (cat.no . 23). The message of these texts
is often Chinese in nature- wise sayings about the
value of such virtues as patience, studiousness,
gentleness and so on. ln the centre wi ll be an elegant
vignette containing a blessing for the owner of the
object.
Cat.no.271

grooves. Calligraphic and plant designs were used in

ornamentation which pictured animals, astrological
signs, tableaux and banquets, or showed hunting
and battle scenes. The amazing delicacy of the
artisanry turned many of these pieces into the most
preciou works of art. The most exquisite of them
were just as costly as silver objects. In the bronze
works from !ran and Central Asia we detect the rich
traditions of China and India , while the bronze inlays
from Syria and Egypt achieved a remarkable degree
of refinement. Bronze domestic ware is among the
most well-known product of Is lamic art, striking
examples being the so-ca lled Bobrinsky Bucket in
The Hermitage (cat.na.

114},

the Baptistere of Saint

Louis from The Louvre, and the Vescovali Vase from

The British Museum. Such objects contain a wealth of
miniature illustrations that teach us details about the
daily life of the medieval Muslim. They also illustrate
generally-held concepts about life on earth and in
heaven whereby everything is subservient to the will
of Allah.
Ceramics

The divine sheen is also an aspect of Islamic ceramics.

Just as in the manufacture of metal objects, o here
too articles of high quality and extreme complexity

40

Cat.no. 114

AIH Of 151 AM

Another famous type of ceramics, first developed in

Iran, is the lustreware in which a metallic sheen is
produced on the surface after firing and combining
with sulphuric acid, copper and silver. There are
various ways of decorating this lustreware with
ornamentation and illustration, and often it carries
lines from Persian poetry in cursive script. Sometimes
it was produced in the form of large vases, bearing
re lief illustrations showing animals and mounted
polo players, as on the large vase from The Hermitage
(cat.no. 149). A masterp iece in this genre is the

Fortu ny Vase (see cat.no. 150, p. 38) made in Granada

and wondrously decorated with mysterious plant
ornamentat ion and Arabic inscriptions in various
scripts ranging from a sturdy Kufic to an elegant
Span ish Arabic. Lustreware was extremely popular
in Islamic Spain and remained so after the expulsion
of Muslims from the country, when production was
further deve loped under Spanish and Italian masters.

Cat.no. 23

A fa ir number of famous pieces of this type of ware

came from north Africa. Of particu lar note here are

together with inscription~. In Spain and north Africa

the Egyptian dishes from the I lth century, the period

ceramic tiles were also produced, darl-.cr, many

of the Fa tim id dynasty. With their sobriety and

coloured and more geometri in ornamentation.

precise illustrations, charming pictures of musicians,

Ceramic decoration in its various forms gradually

dancers and animals both real and fabled , they are a

wonder and de light.

began to predominate in Muslim artistic worl-. in the

Th e technique of enamelling (minai) gave rise to an

expression of some of the fundamental aims of Islamic

unexpected ly de licate type of ceramic ware. Their

art: to bring balm to the sight, to presage coolness and

rest in the desert.

13th and 14th century. It is indisputably a magnifitl'lll

lyrical light blue colour fits perfectly the content of

the ill ustrations: langourous maidens with moonshaped faces, elaborately refined young men, verses
from poetry and suchl ike.

Rock crystal

Nowadays, when there is so much manmade crystal

on the market, it is sometimes difficult for us to

The Ottoman period gave the world the glorious

imagine the enormous value that objects of rocl-.

Iznik pottery. These dishes and vases have the most

crystal possess . To begin with, it was necessary to

exquisite decoration, painted wreaths of flowers and

find large crystals of this rare stone. This done,

p lants in blue and reds often appearing almost to

craftsmen carved out jugs or other objects with thin

have a three-dimensional quality.

sides, and decorated them with motifs. Crystal is

extremely hard and therefore extremely breal-.ablc.

Ceram ic ti les are an exceptiona l and most important

Thus services made from rock crystal are rare nnd

ca tegory. Used to adorn both the inside and out ide

very valuable. The rusaders from Europe 1-.new

of bui ld ings, as in Samarkand, Isfahan (Iran) and

this very well. They perceived such objects as the

Karba la' (Iraq), they bear a wealth of motifs and

most costly of prizes and brought them home,

inscrip tions. They brought a distinctive character to

often offering them to a church. Indeed , the finest

the architectonic decoration found in the eastern part

examples of carved rock crystal from lslnmic countries

of the Islamic world. Typical for these tiles is a light

are often to be found in west European church

treasuries.

blue colour and a predominating vegetal decoration,

41

Art for

l l 1l'IJ'dd)' l.l}t'

artit/y bea111y, Jt eave11/y art +

AllT OF ISLAM

The light is broken in a wondrous manner by rock-

al-nur' (a niche where there is li gh t ) became w ide -

crystal objects and they seem to hold it nestling in

spread and found its way into the titles of mystic

their centre. They bring a mysterious glow to natural

texts. In the mosque there is an actual niche

li ght as if it shines from another world. A rock-crysta l

containing a light, ca lled a mihrab which po ints

lamp suggests an intangible fire and when liquids are

the direction of the Black Stone of the Kaaba in

poured into a rock-crystal jug they change into some-

Mecca. Towards this stone all Muslims turn in prayer,

thing inscrutable and unfathomable. Some of the

wherever they may be in the world . The symbolic

crusaders perceived this as a reference to the Cup of

light in the niche is provided by a lamp that is

the Holy Grail. The exalted character of the material

genera ll y hung in the mihrab. This concrete li ght

gave rise to a legend that recounted how Muhammad

forms a concrete illustration of the verse (aya) cited

lay buried in a crystal tomb that hung in the air.

above. Another reference to light is found in the

These stor ie s transmit some of the excitement the

prayer rug which generally shows a picture of a niche

Europeans must have felt on seeing the creations of

with a hanging lamp. There is often a vase of flowers

Islamic artists. And they reveal to a large extent that

beneath this, as an allusion to the gardens of Parad ise.

the Europeans and the Muslims had the same ideas

The whole picture has a double message: the mihrab

about the beauty and value of rock-crystal objects.

in the mosque guides the believer into the ritual of

prayer, and at the same time leads through the door-

In the Islamic world view, light is a major element.

way of this world, into Paradise beyond.

This is even more so for the sufis, the Islamic mystics

who held that people can approach closer to God and
can attain a state of cc tasy if they lead a pious life

Glass
The p lay with li ght is a characteristic of the glass

and follow certain rule s and rituals. They often

objects for wh ich the Islamic wor ld is justly famous.

describe a strong sense of the presence of God as a

These include remarkab le pieces of cut glass made

sensation of li ght, piercing through the darkness of

in imitation of rock-crystal, and blown glass with

the everyday world. ln this connection they point to

gracefu l arabesques, sometimes adorned w ith i nscrip-

the famous verse from the Qur'an, the aya of light

tions. Even more widespread were the various types

('ayat al-nur') which speaks expressly of this light

of painted glass whose surface wou ld be covered with

(S. 24:35):

colourful figures and motifs in enamel and made into

God is the Light of the heavens and the earth

The parable of His Light is as 1[ there were a niche
And within it a lamp:
The lamp enclosed in glass
The glass as it were a brilliant star
Lit from a blessed Tree
An Olive, neither of the East
Nor of the West,
Whose oil is well-nigh luminous
though fire scarce touched it:
Light upon Light!
God doth guide whom He will
To His Light:
God doth set forth parables for men:
And God doth know a11 things.

beakers and gob lets of vary in g size. But the most

typical Islamic glass objects are the large oi l lamps.
These are the lamps pictured on prayer rugs, the kind
that hang in every niche of the mosque. The lamps,
that have a definite religious-mystical significance, are
considered to be a sign of wea lth and p iety. Moreover
they wou ld be presented not on ly to mosques, but
also as gifts to private persons.
In Syria and Egypt under the Mamluks remarkable
lamps were produced. They were large pieces of
glass with a wide uncovered neck. Across the base,
usually in blue enamel, colourful inscriptions wou ld
announce the name of the donor or the recipient,
set amid a lu xuriant branching plant motif. It is
not uncommon, especially on lamps, ro find heraldic

Light as a symbol for Allah was one of the central

devices from the ll th to the 13th century referring

elements of Islamic art. The expression 'mishkat

to the rank at court of the person in question- the

Cat.no. 246

42

Earlil/y beau/y, il eal'eu /y ar/ +

ART OF I S LAM

Ca t.no . 17 1 (r.) and ca t.no . 172 (I.)

su ltan 's shie ld -bearer, cupbearer, and such like.

natura I phenomena as gardens, flow ers, founta ins

and song-b ird s.

An unusua l type of domestic ware was the container

for scented water or for incense. Some of these,

Carpets and textiles

de orated with fin e fretwork and ena m e llin g, would

No product of Islamic art is so characteristic or so

be used as receptacles and others- especia lly those

with a long narrow neck - were used for dispersing

common as carpets. They are to be found in homes

of every social leve l and in buildings of every type,

rose-water (cat.no. 168). Pleasing fragrances played

whether they be mosques or palaces. They cover

an important part in the dai ly life of Muslims and

beca me part of their a rtistic world together with such

th e floor, they give structure to the entire life of the

44

Muslim, from birth to grave. The ca rpet is the su rface

ART

or

l 'iLAM

upon which they play, pray, eat, sleep, and converse

comparison. Textiles triumphant with huge plant

with friends. Different patterns and techniques in

and flower compositions, vast 'heraldic' shapes of

+ Art .for r,,q,ftll' t.i.fi.

carpets provide convincing illustration of the ever-

lions, eagles and elephants, and richly filled medal -

changing marr iage of unity and diversity in the

lions were the undeniable symbols of wealth and

Muslim world.

power. They were more valuable than gold or silver

and formed an admirable gift for princely rulers.

The figurative world of the carpet is vast. The main

In the late Middle Ages the designs became more

dist inguish ing features of all carpets- be they Persian,

complex and the embroidered textiles would often

Turkish, Caucasian, Maghribi or other- are the

be illustrated with thematic pictures, for example

different combinat ions of plant and geometric motifs.

scenes from the 12th-century Persian poem Lay/a and

For example, the plant motifs may become more

Majnun by Nizami Ghandjavi, or the figures of people

geometric, and the geometric motifs may sprout curls

dancing and making merry. These textiles would

and twirls. Often the geometric pattern derives from a

often be made into garments with a severe design and

symbo li sm from pre-Islam ic times or from specific

elegant noble inscriptions of benedictions, and they

districts in the Is lam ic world . Plant ornamentation

recal led the royal workshops where the textile had

may have varying degrees of abstraction. It is some-

been produced. The weaving; from I l th- and 12th -

times ex t remely complex, forming part of an overall

century Syria and Egypt arc possibly the best-known.

rhythm, but then again, especially in Persian carpets,

They arc called tiraz (from the Persain word for

there arc recognizable plants, mingling in a luxuriant

embroidery) and were made in special state work-

flowerbed and creating the appearance of a garden

shops. The name of the workshop and often the date,

(seeca t.no. 192, p. 47). In some cases there is appro-

would be mentioned on the tiraz in the same way a;

priate staffage in the e gardens- peacefully grazing

on coins. And like coins, the tiraz served to demon-

a n ima ls, or w il d creatures prowling after the unsus-

strate the power of a ruler. lt was a special privilege

pecting ones. The next step is the appearance of the

of power to grant the right and mea m to produce

hun tsmen, in their turn attacking both the wild lion

works of art at the cost of the state. These works were

and the peaceful antelope. The so-called garden

then presented to warriors who had distinguislwd

carpets contain chematic pictures of not only trees

themselves in battle, to scholars and to poets.

but also rivers and ponds (sometimes with fish).

All these things might be presented in a highly

Patronage and the marketplace

sty li zed manner, so much so as to become almost

Court patronage, in some cases state commissiom,

unrecognizab le.

was an important aspect of the social structure sup-

In con t rast, the prayer rugs mentioned above show

courts there would be entire districts where artisans

porting artistic production . Attached to the largest

an a lmost rea list ic picture of part of the mosque,

lived, working for the rulers. The patrom of art were

whi le at the same time providing a symbolic represen-

ru lers and functionaries of all levels. The system was

tation of certain 'doorways' into the presence of God.

maintained partly through the custom of donating

The carpets contain almost a ll the artistic principles of

gifts. Those in a higher position rewarded those below

Islamic art and almost its entire iconographic reper-

them who in then returned the gesture by honouring

toire. To a large extent they may be seen as the classic

t heir superiors with other gift;.

examp le of how to answer the question: 'What is

lslamic Art?'

Many gifts and beautiful objects were presented to

Islamic weavings have given the world a large

Is lamic society supported the ntstom of awqaf (plural

number of most beautiful works of art, of two types.

of waqj), donating possessions for pious ends. In

The ancient Sasanid tradition was continued in

many cases a waqf would be a beautifully decorated

the mosques and institutions dedicated to God.

luxurious weavings, mainly from silk. The flamboyance and extravagance of the designs on these
fabrics make the intricate carpet motifs pale by

manuscript, a silver-inlaid bronze candlestick or

torch~tand,

or a lectern for the Qur'an made from

wood and ivory. The ornamental inscriptions

45

Earthly /J eauty, /te0\ eH/y art +

1

ART OF ISLAM

decorating such objects preserve for posterity the

The nature of the images it contains, the aristocratic

names of both the donors and the recipients. And

banquet with the riders p lay ing at polo, certainly

not infrequenlly the artist wou ld confidently an-

suggests a noble client. The object is, however,

nounce his own name, p lacing it in a prominent

produced as a gi ft for an important tradesman. The

position. The Islamic artisans occup ied a secure

convergence of tastes from differing social classes,

position in the hierarchy of urban life where the focal

the mutual expans ion of taste, had the result that

point was formed by the marketplace, serving both

many of the art objects were suitable for a cultural

the aristocracy and all layers of municipa l society.

midd le class, somewhere between the nobility and

the uneducated masses. This 'democratic' aspect of

In addition, objects were produced for the free

medieva l Islamic society shou ld be remembered when

market. Some of these were articles on which the

we are considering Islamic art. Even with all their

benedictory inscription contained no name. In some

sumptuousness and costliness the examples that we

cases the name was added later to a work that was

know of p resent us with a wide cross-sect ion of

finished. Thanks to the huge demand for applied

cu lture. The artistic language that they spoke was

art objects there were bodies (like guilds) of artists,

understood by many.

headed by the ca ll igraphers who were given the

greatest respect and honour. ln the production of an

All domest ic ware was subjected to a common artistic

object tasks became separated- a different craftsman

sty le. Th is appeared in the most everyday objects

would, for example, make the inlay on a work, or

since in principle even the most luxurious of these

decorate a piece that had been produced by another

was intended for everyday use .

group of craftsmen.
By hand ling and us ing th ese objects peop le encounMedieval and post-medieval Islamic society was

tered and came to recognize their beauty so tha t

highly urbanized. The city was the place where the

gradually, the message that the artist had implicit ly

aristocracy was always present and was a compre-

insti ll ed in his work, was transm itted to those who

hen sive centre for trades and era fts. Consequent ly

acquired it. At the h ighest leve l, th is meant that the

there was considerable social mobility, an absence of

qua lity of the work was increasingly app reciated by

sharp ly delimited lines between social classes and a

the viewer or user the more they hand led the object

comparatively large middle class. With respect to art

or looked at it. The next stage was the layer of

thi s could be see n in the fact that a great deal of art

inscript io ns w hi ch we re read- often no t without

production was directed towards an extremely wide

difficu lty. There fo ll owed more profound experiences,

range of the public with their associated broad spec-

when the patterns and their rhythm aroused certain

trum of tastes.

fee lings flowing from the Islamic view of life. Like all

Thi didn't mean there was no e litist art. It certain ly

meanings. However, these were se ldom expressed in

existed, open-minded and extremely luxurious, to

concrete images, as in Christianity. They could be

medieva l art, that of Islam was saturated with deeper

be found only at the most sophisticated courts. This

understood because they made reference to certain

explains the existence of illuminated manuscripts,

frivo lous frescoes and opulent garments. However,

fixed ideas and fee lings about the unfathomab le God

whom peop le cou ld approach, and to the de light in

much of thi s sumptuou s work has a more accessible

the div ine creation, and to the blessed realms of

equivalent. The general styli st ic principles were the

Paradise that wou ld be reached at the end of the

same whether work was produced for palace or

world after the Day of Judgment.

market place. The basic elements of the artistic

language did not change. Indeed- the upper midd le
cla s, consisting of wealthy and socially active
merchant~-

would often fill their homes with the

same s umptuou s objects as the nobility. A good

example of this is the Bobrinsky Bucket (cat.no. 114) .

46

A l{ l 0 1 I S L AM

Ca t.n o. 192

11 7

Artfo rl \'c'r}'dtl\' l.l.fc

Earthly bea uty, h eavenly a rt +

Cat.no. 56

48

ART oF I SLAM

ARl ()I

ISLAM

+ J'Jte Qur ' an tH

.\OIII'Ct.' Oj

The Qur'an as source

of all inspiration

The Qur'an is the source of inspiration for everything

features which influenced the development of Islami

a Muslim does and feels. Th is holy book comprises

art. The text of the Qur'an is richly and almost ex-

ideas and principles out of which Islamic society has

cessively 'decorated'. lt is highly ornamental with its

developed its laws, rules of conduct and sy rem of

many repetitions and various associations, either

values.

immediate or secondary. On the whole the text lacks

The Qur'an contains no direct statements concerning

emphatic statements or emotional passages. All this is

a narrative flow and is moreover often interrupted by

either art or the artis ti c process. However, the text

in keeping with Is lamic ornamentation. However, the

itse lf is of great artistic value and quite clearly contains

Qur'an is even more passionate and emotional- it is

the sources and examples of which much Islamic art,

an ecstati text, streaming in an uninterrupted flow

not only the literary, makes abundant use.

from the mouth of the Prophet. Here it should be

noted that this ecstatic quality is apparent not only in

To Muslims, the Qur'an is Allah's greatest miracle,

the early suras (where there is an emotional tension

given to His Prophet and by him to all humankind.

connected with the prophecies concerning Judgment

The language of the Qur'an is that in which Allah

Day and the terrible doom that will ensue) but also in

spoke to Muhammad. What God revealed to

the later chapters (which present the laws and rules

Muhammad by means of his messenger the angel

governing daily life).

Gabrie l (Arabic Jibril or Jibra'i l) was passed on by

the Prophet to his followers in the form of sermons.

The verses (ayas) of the Qur'an arc clear in their

Init ially these were tared in the memory and

substance and always well rounded off. They may

delivered orally, to be later committed to paper.

be moved from one part of the text to another with-

In this way the material, earthly version was created

out losing their meaning. Throughout the text of

of the Holy Word which is a divine phenomenon

the Qur'an there are comparable or even identical

existing in heaven.

formulae which combine to give the effect of a

It goes without say ing that the language of God, as

well to remember in this context that the repetition

we shou ld call the text of the Qur'an, is by definition

of the name of Allah and of blessings is held in hlam

beautiful. In Islamic religious literature there is a

to be a devout and picn1s act.

specific semantic and artistic background. We do

distinct category of essays that concentrates on

analyzing the stylistic and linguistic beauty of the

Repetition is a characteristic feature of qur'anic prose.

Qur'an and posits that it is inimitable. For the book is

It serves both to honour God (in the nature of a

indeed unique, containing as it does sermons that

prayer), to emphasize a certain message, and to

were created in a state of ecstatic inspiration, taking

embellish the text. The repetitions have their own

the form of rhythmical ly shaped prose.

rhythm which may change in different places in the

holy scriptures.

As artis tic product the Qur'an is unique in Arabic

literature, in which it has no equivalenL, either from

The embellishing words do not always hold an im-

before or after the call of Muhammad. The text can

mediate meaning. In many ecstatic, finely-worded

neither be repeated nor imitated. Indeed, to imitate it

sentences we find expressions that are almost im-

would be con idered a grave sin.

possible to understand, and newly-coined words.

The Qur'an often gives a special explanation of these.

However, the Qur'an has special stylistic and artistic

This clement of incomprehensibility increases the

49

tl/1 ;,1\pirttlif..JII

Eartltl\' bea11ty, lteal'euly art +

ART

or

ISLAM

incantatory effect of many sentences. A great many

called 'The Prostration') and 'The One Wrapped Up'

of these were used later as talismans, as a protection

(74th). In most cases such a word is characteristic of

against misfortunes and the Evil Eye. Another factor

that sura. On closer examination it appears to be in

that makes the text mysterious are the incompre-

no way coincidental, for it defines the subject that

hensible mixture of letters at the beginning of many

connects the entire sura. For example, the second

suras, such as 'aliflam ra' (15th sura). There are

and longest sura is defined with the Arabic word for

many theories regarding their original intent. At

'cow'. It is in this sura that the story is told about how

all events, for the majority of Muslims they were

the Children of Israel tried to avoid the obligation laid

obscure, but God's Word and as such holy. Thus

upon them by Moses to make an offering to God.

they were inscribed on objects such as weapons.

They embroiled the prophet in a lengthy discussion

concerning the question as to exactly what sort of

The structure
In general, a qur'anic text is specific and strongly

cow should be sacrificed (2:67(63)-71(66)). This is the

central story, with a good many additions and side-

constructed. The basic unit is called an aya (meaning

tracks all indicating and illustrating how the Jews

'wonder') and is a more or less separate verse, but

written with the appearance of prose. In fact, they are

Muhammad, without really knowing much about it.

rejected the law of Moses just as they did that of

not actual verse , since the text of the Qur'an isn't a

poem. And although it is chanted aloud in a sing-song

The suras appear in the Qur'an accord ing to the

fashion, it is certainly not a song. In fact, it may be

number of their ayas, starting with the longest, but

said of the entire Qur'an that it remind you of many

with the single exception of the first sura. Thus the

things, but is never quite the same as anything else.

earliest suras appear at the end, the words with which

The text of the Qur'an, sent from heaven to earth,

in which the Prophet warned his listeners of the

was first committed to memory by certain people and

approaching end of the world. The emotional tension

then written down. ll was a disorganized text, with-

in the text of the Qur'an gradually increases as it

out a definite beginning, middle or end. People set it

continues while the chronology appears to be going

down in a harmonious and highly formalized structure. Single ayas were placed together in a separate

backwards. This is arbitrary, but acceptable in holy

sura. Critics may however place question marks

Muhammad began his preaching- emot ional sermons

writings, which both may and must contain a great

beside the manner in which this was done. All the

many contradictions that allow the reader to comprehend the central idea in a more complex manner.

suras, whether they be long or short, contain a selection of fundamental sermon devices. For example,

Another apparent contradiction characteristic both

there is always a narrative element, exhortations,

for the Qur'an and Islamic culture in general is the

exorcisms, explanations and 'hymns'. In each sura

existence of several versions of the text all of which

almost all the chief ideas in the holy writing appear

and arc always, albeit often in a most unexpected

are recognized as being equally valid. The first written

Qur'ans consisted of words inscribed only with

way, linked with each other. Thus one sura resembles

consonants. When Arabic began to add the pointing

a Qur'an in miniature.

indicating vowels, it became apparent that there were

Every sura begins (there is one exception, sura 9)

words. Although the variations were often small, they

with a formula reminding people of Allah's sovereign

power and goodness, 'In the name of God, Most

could alter the meaning considerably. After lengthy

discussion, seven 'canonical' versions of the Qur'an

Gracious, Most Mer iful.' In Arabi this is known as

were selected, each reading treated as equally correct.

the hasmala. Every sura has its own name, most of

It is astonishing that this acceptance of different

them appearing somewhat strange and e oteric, such

as 'The ow' (2nd sura), 'The Spider' (29th), 'The

versions is connected with the general principle of

Elephant' ( 1OSth), 'The Smoke' (44th), 'The Sand

fact, the same happy conjunction of contradictions as

we see in the heterogeneous Islamic art.

many possible readings and interpretations of the

Dunes' (46th), or 'The Adoration' (32nd, officially

50

the unity of Islam in all its forms. Here we find, in

ART OF ISLAM

Monotheism

+ The Qur 'a u as wurce of all impiratiou

The entire qur'a nic preaching consists of short formu-

The content of the Qur'an is on the one hand diverse,

also as regards style, while on the other hand it is

lae, allusions and comments. Indeed , it is through its

commentary that the Qur'an achieves its unity. The

extremely compact in its central ideas . The most

commentaries are an aid to believers, helping them

important of these is the concept of monotheism:

to understand the often gnomic utterances . Indeed,

there is on ly one God. Neither the Jews nor the

the believer gains an added and enriched under-

Christians appear to honour this basic concept. The

standing from interplay of formulae and commentary.

Muslims, the true believers, should not allow any-

This is why the confrontation with a short qur'anic

thing to distract them from fulfilling the obligation

text immediately gives rise to all kinds of possible

to demonstrate their love for God and to fill their

thoughts with Him.

meanings and associations, in a way similar to how a

The story of humankind, created by God, is set out in

the Qur'an as if it were a river, an arabesque, cycles
of civilizat ion. Each successive generation appeared
accord ing to the wi ll of God. Generation after generatio n, human pride overcame piety and the prophets

few letters on a computer screen may call up an

entire document and related references. In thi s way
the text becomes steeped in meaning, far more so
than would at first glance appear.
Layers of meaning

Another characteristic that increases the meaning of

were not believed. As punishment people were all

the text is its many-layered nature. Behind a sentence,

destroyed. The Qur'an recounts these historical narrat ives in a highly summary manner, as a reference to

a statement, a narrative or a description there are

often severa l layers of meaning. Often, the texts in

well -known events. Such stories cannot be visually

ill ustrated . The course of world history is determ ined

the Qur'an appear very concrete, not to say earthy.

by two major acts of Allah. The first is His creation of

the world and people; the second will take place on
the Day o f Judgment: the dead will rise again, judgement w ill be pronounced, and history will come to an
end.

There is frequent use of jargon and demotic language,

of the sort used by the tradesmen of Mecca, expressions like 'a poor deal', 'a business bonus' or
'a rip-off'. But on another level these refer to the
value of the tru e faith and the fate of the unbeliever.
There are many descriptions famous for their vivid-

Reward and punishment

The next bas ic idea is that all people are divided into

ness. Images of hell and paradise a tonish with their

concrete detail. We often have the feeling we are

two categories: those who go to He ll and those who

enter Paradise. The description in the Qur'a n of

being recounted some thing that was actually seen,

punishment and reward is perfectly clear. This is

discussed more fully in Chapter 7.

as in the story of Joseph (Yusuf) that tell s how he was

rescued from the well (S. 12:19), or in the description
of the flood that was sent when Saba' turned against
God, and the dam burst (S.

34: 15( 14) - 17( 16)}.

Ru les of conduct

A cons iderab le quantity of the contents of the Qur'an

is dedicated to the third basic idea: rules of conduct.
Belief in Allah and the miss ion of His Prophet, pilgrimage, prayer, fasting and mercifulness lead to the
bl iss of Paradise. The acts that are forbidden include
adultery, usury, gamb ling, drunkenness, and eating
pork. Laws are set out dealing with property inheritance, honest trading, distribution of wealth and
genera l social intercourse. Such subjects proved even
less inspiring to the illustrators than did the historical

The text becomes all the more convincing when it

appears to be an eye-witness account, and the story
becomes more immediate and dramatic. But always,
the deeper significance of the narrative returns, especially since concrete images don ' t serve an artistic
purpose but rather are used
content.

to

reveal a more profound

narratives, a lthough the linguistic style of these mun-

There are several places in the Qur'an where God is

described as a person, where it is said that peop le arc
made in His image, or where mention is made for

dane themes remains both ecstatic and ornamental.

example of His hands or the throne upon which He

51

Eart/Jiy bea11ty, IJeaven/y art +

ART OF ISLAM

sits. These anthropomorphic metaphors in no way

diminish the greatness of Allah but indeed act as a
ladder that lead s up to Him. They are intended as the
first rung in the ascent towards the knowledge of the
comp lex and lofty being of God. More is to follow,
and step by step knowledge of God increases. Each
step, or la yer of knowledge, is exp ressed in a brief and
simp le description. An understanding of the text may
remain limited to one la yer or rung, but equally may
extend to cover a larger area, more steps of the
ladder.
Concrete descriptions of th e deeds o f the just and of
those who worship many gods, naturalistic descriptions of Paradise and Hell, scenes from the Day of
Judgment- a ll these open the door onto the profound
religious-philosophical nature of hi story and he lp to
understand better the underlying reason for, as well
as the nature and the essence of, Hell and Paradise.
The short passages merge into one whole but still
remain independent. !nd eed, this is one of the most
str ikin g artistic features of the Qur'an. The separate
ayas and the comp lete suras eac h have their own
demarcations, they are sections in their own right.
In a simi lar way, it is comp lete ly permissible to chant
passages from the Qur'an- or read aloud in a sing in g
manner- in various different ways.
All the separate e lements, however, wit h all their
individuality, flow together into one end less stream.
The different e lements may be placed randomly

52

above, below or linked to each other. The same thing

happens in the ornamental art of Islam; it has a
mission to present the fundamental feelings and
apprehensions that are taught by the Qur'an.
Naturally, the Qur'an ha s many other individual
characteristics which people need to be well aware
of before they begin to study it. This chapter has only
dealt with those features that found an echo, some times an expression, in Islamic art- that is, strict
monotheism as the ideological cornerstone for artistic
creation; a mingling and melting together of seeming
nonchalance with ebullient express iven ess; countless
variations on one 'canon' ; continuous mingling of
separa te elements to form one whole; and finally, its
many-layered nature creating an arena in which
many elements appear to contradict each other or
indeed actually do, whereby the texts acquire a
magical tone.
One of th e Qur'an's main 'aesthetic' lessons is the
hol y meaning of the Word, wh ich is a direct intermediary between God and people. Other art forms
make use of the Word, but are of a secondary nature .
This explains the absence of figurative art. In this
context written script and calligraphy obtain a
distinctive religious and artistic value as being the
most su itable means for the direct transference of
th e Word. This exp lains the desubstantiated nature
of Islamic art and arch itecture, for it consists of an
unend ing stream of ornamentation that em bodies
the divine and formless Word.

ART

or

ISLAM

+ The langua,,JI.! of Isla mic art

The language of Islamic art

Art h as a la n g uage of its own. It a rises o ut of th e

fee lings a nd exp eri e n ces that affect p eopl e th e wh o le
wo rld o ver. At th e sa m e time, h o w e ve r, m a n y asp ects
o f art ca n onl y be app recia ted w h en th ey h ave becom e

p eople m ake a m ode l of th e world w hi ch t hey imbu e

w ith m ean in g, a nd then trans fer thi s m ea ni ng to
o th ers. For o utsiders it is appreciably eas ier to decode

fami lia r, or h ave been st udi ed . We can di vid e art into

a n a rti sti c la nguage beca use th ey do th is usin g co n cepts w hi ch a re n o t imm edi a te ly recogni za bl e to

ma n y diffe re nt compo n e nts. The way in w hich a rt

gives sh a p es to thin gs ma kes it in to an acti ve fo rce

so m eon e imm e rsed in th e lang uage (wh o h as spoke n

it, as it we re, fro m birth ). However, if th e ' n a tive

pro vidin g p eopl e with ty pes o f aes th e ti c inform at ion

speake rs' stud y th e la ng uage m ore ca refu ll y th ey

that th ey gradually imbibe . Th e efforts of th e sch o la rl y

w ill becom e awa re o f mu ch th at th ey had take n fo r

wh o de vo te th em se lves to th e stud y of a rt a re in m os t

g ra nted, a nd in th e descript io n o f thi s poss ibl y d is-

cases a tte mpts to und e rsta nd w h a t a pa rti c ul a r for m

cove r as pects th a t are bo th un ex pected a nd in spirin g.

of a rt is ta lkin g a bo ut. Sch o la rs sea rch for th e key to

tra n sla te thi s tra n sfere n ce o f th e la n g uage o f on e
culture to th a t of an oth e r.

Th e la ng uage o f a rt is to a g rea t ex ten t de term in ed by

We ca n sp ea k in a compara tive ly er io us a nd scientifi c

th e bas ic mate ri a ls fro m wh ich the a rt is ti c p rodu cti on

is m ade. In a way, the e rese m ble the in d ivid ua l

Basic materials

way abo ut th e la n g uage of art. It is a lso poss ibl e to

so und s (ph on e m es) o f a spoke n lang uage. Islam ic

use th e exp ress io n ' la n guage o f a rt ' in a m eta ph o ri ca l

a nd so m ewh a t hazy m a nn e r, as is gen e rall y th e case

a rt co n sists of o bj ects m ade fro m go ld, sil ve r, bro nze

and simil a r me ta l a ll oys, ivory, po tte ry (g lazed a nd

in discuss io n s ab o ut a rt. B u t we ca n a lso a pp ly th e

ung lazed), rock-crys ta l a n d glass, e na me l, pa r hm c nt,

wh o le compl ex a ppa ra tu s of m ode rn lin g ui sti c and

sem ioti c definiti o n s, approachin g a rt as we wo uld a

pap er, lea th er, sto n e, bri ck, ce ramic til es a nd wood .
An o th e r aspect o f th ese bas ic ma teria ls a rc th e

written tex t. Be twee n th ese ex trem es li es a no th e r

me th ods o f decoratio n, in clu din g ca rving- w ith

w ay- th a t uses th e ' la n g uage of culture', a combin ati o n of forma l a n alys is with contex tu a l und ersta ndin g

hig h o r low re li e f, w ritin g or d raw in g w ith pa int, or

m o unted fittin gs . Fin a ll y, in th is ca tegory we sho ul d

o f th ose e le m e nts whi ch pl ay a n acti ve role in wor ks

me nti o n th e co lo urs used : go ld fo r th e s un , blu e for

o f a n . Using thi s m e th od, studi es h ave for som e time

th e sky, g ree n fo r th e garden a n d Pa radise, red fo r

precio us sto nes.

now been mad e of, in p a rti cular, m edi eva l cultu res
includin g th a t o f Islam . On an a logy wi th th e a na lys is
of la ng uage, for th e purposes o f cl a rit y th ese studi es

Th e 'lexical' level

defin e severa l gro ups, o r ca tegori es. Th e di vision into

Deve lo pin g fro m th ese bas ic m a te ria ls- kee pin g

ca tego ri es of ' types of a rt ex press io n ' is ma de o n th e

bas is of th e p resen ce of ce rta in e lem e nts, a t va ri o us

th e lin g ui sti c im age- co me 'wo rd s'. Th ese fa ll int o

a n o th e r ca tego ry, a 'di cti o nary' o r lex ico n w hi ch

leve ls of crea ti o n a nd pe rce pti on . In thi s ch apter th e

in clud es diffe re nt types o f e le m e nts actin g as mo tifs

pa rti cula r characte risti cs o f Isla mi c a rt w ill be li sted,

o r illu st ra ti ons. In th e first p lace th ese a rc 's ig n s o f

while pro vidin g a class ifi ca ti on of thi s a rt into (la n g uage ) gro ups th a t m a kes it as compre h ensibl e as
poss ible.

th e heave ns' such as rose tt es sym bo li zing th e sun ,

m an y typ es o f sta r sh ape, po lygons pi led one upo n

Artisti c la n g uage con sists of a way o f expressi n g th e

things p eople fee l a nd und ersta nd a bo ut th e wo rl d.
Wh en w e an a lyze this la n g uage we pe rce ive th a t

th e o th e r, loze nge sh a pes, th e sy mbo ls o f th e zodi ac

sign s (p oss ibl y used in a fi g ura ti ve ma nn e r) a nd
as trologica l signs a nd as tro n o mi ca l ph e n ome na. Jn
th e secon d pl ace th e re a re the 'sign s o f th e ga rd e n ',
in cludin g palme ttes, vin e te ndril s, trees, bu shes a nd

53

Eartllly beauty, /1eavw/y art +

ART OF ISLAM

bouquets of flowers in vases, animals both wild

and domestic, and dragons. In the third place come
the human figures , such as the ruler on his throne,
courtiers, warriors, mounted polo players, musicians,
both male and female singers and dancers, and wine
pourers. Many of the figures are astrological signs.
Finally, there are the 'signs of stones', or the symbols
of precious stones. These take the form of ornamental
ovals, diamonds, pearl-drops and crystals.
In calligraphy too, we find various categories of artistic elements which are inherent to the aesthetics of
the Arabic script. We may, for example, di stinguish
between elements that claim attention through their
flamboyancy, such as looping letters (almost arabesq ues), lette rs that run sharply upwards with
their vertical tail s, letters that tran sform themselves
into plant motifs - leaves, branches and fruit, or into
human fi gure s, a nd finally th e letters that are difficult
to recognize, being half ornamental geometric shapes
and half Kufic sc ript.
We also find separa te artistic elements in Islamic
architecture. Here we may distingui sh the following
g roups: the court, th e central section of the mosque
or palace, the garden, the wall (with or without
decoration) , th e tower (or th e minaret), the decorated
doorway at an entrance, the large niche (iwan) and
th e pillars. There were different types of pillars, combinations of slender and thick pillars, and a fu sion of
pillars into galleries with one or two level s, creating
th e effect of a kind of 'p illared woodland'. One particular architectural element, hi ghly characteristic for
lsla mic art, were the so-ca lled sta lactites (muqarnas)
resembling arches filled with wondrous dripping
stone e ndle ss ly repeated and thereby creating the
effect of an infinite ly intricate honeycomb. The
gardens were la id out with various combinations
of type s of pianL - bushes, tree s, and flowers set in
a sc heme of pool and strea m s. An important visual
c lement was the reflections in the water of buildings
and plants. The twitter of birds and th e so und of their
wings in fli ght formed an inextricab le part of thi s, as
did 1he sce nt of various flowers and the incense that
wafted into th e air from place to place.
Th e ' morphological' level

The above may be seen as the le xica l level, con tain-

54

ing the basic elements. The next level is the morphologica l (incorporating new variant forms as when a
word declines, while retaining its root). Here we may
distinguish severa l recurring, complex compositions.
The first are the arabesques: these may be formed by
the unending branches of the vine, that string onto
one necklace as it were the leaves and bunches of
grapes, the tendrils and the isolated fruit. Second
come the geometric sections of the space, such as a
rectangular page, part of a wall, a dome ris ing into
the sky, or craving in a niche. Polygons piled upon
each other, lozenges and star-shapes, often created as
it were by chance, flow together into one space that is
forever changing in size because it is affected by the
interaction of neighbouring geometric elements.
Close to this we find the third type, the meda llions.
These are closed areas that are crammed fu ll of large
and small (often plant) ornamentation. The background of these areas often contains many patterns
but equally well may be comp lete ly empty. In this
category we shou ld also ment ion circu lar inscriptions
in which letters resemb ling arabesques entice into
their presence a quantity of p lant and geometric
motifs. And finally, we list an important and deviant
type: th is wi ll be a tableau such as a banquet, a dance,
a musica l performance, a hunting scene, a duel, polo
played by horsemen, the game of backgammon, or
an 'epos' which would be an intr icate presentation
of astro logical signs such as a certain's person's
horoscope.
'Syntax'

The above-mentioned, as we ll as other combinations

of elements may all be seen as conforming to certain
principles which may be placed under the heading
'syntax '. By far the most important of these principles
is that the elements in question shou ld be ornamental.
A large emphasis is placed on the express repetition
of elements (for examp le, the repetition of the name
of Allah). Here too shou ld be listed the end lessly onflowing uncompleted nature of the composition, even
when it is not abstract.
Three aspects of the syntax shou ld be mentioned.
The first is the movement of the (lexica l) elements in
various directions. The movements shift in arabesques
making a line across the horizontal surface, inter-

ART OF ISL A M

rupted by the delicate motifs of each curl. In purely

T!Je fall.91lfl.9e of 1\/amfc art

verses about wine and profane love, poetry of

geometric compositions the movement explores the

supreme beauty describing human feelings and

depth- the space expands and the ornamentation is

situations. However, seen at a higher level, these

absorbed inLo it The continuity of the movement is

poems are an attempt to describe the intoxicated

emphasized by separate accented figures, such as the

ecstasy of the mystic and to recount the love of God.

cliffs against which the waves of the ornamentation

Earthly elements were thus used as symbolic of and

beat. A similar role is played by medallions of figures

as references to, divine inspiration, and indeed as a

means of merging into and becoming pan of the
divine world.

representing wild animals in a plant-filled jungle.

The second aspect is the use of surface area, that may
be seen as a 'game'. Sometimes this surface is entirely
filled with subtle patterns, often subdivided into the
main pattern, a smaller one and a still smaller one.
In other cases sections are left empty in order to
create a contrast. This can be seen in particular on

The applied art of Islam also contains allusions to and

evidence of an indirect link with other, higher levels
of knowledge. These may be the signs and reflections
of pious thoughts, of supernatural forces which bring
good luck (talismans) and divine favour, and finally

medallions in books, on silver flatware and services,

of the world in which God reveals to people an aspect

and on carpets. The most extreme form can be found

in the sobriety of the facades of Islamic buildings,

of His Divine Being. In some cases the allusion almost

goes undetected. In others, the secondary meaning
is obvious- indeed, almost self-evident, as in the

both public and- even more so- private. This creates

a sharp contrast with the luxuriousness and the accent

magic content of certain inscriptions and motifs.

on aesthetic pleasure which is to be found in the

inter iors.

The presence of a second, third or even fourth layer

of meaning in objects of applied an bestowed a more
profound value on daily life; it became transformed

The third striking aspect is the combination of abstract

(in complete agreement with the Islamic belief in the

and highly concrete elements side by side. For ex-

indivisibility of the earthly and the heavenly) into an

intimation of something more sublime. And at the

ample, there are realistic bunches of grapes and

carafes within arabesques. The illusion is created that
these objects can actually be touched and held and
reference is made to wine as the symbol of mystical
intoxication arising from the love for God. This

same time the link between the describer and the

described became more complex since the 'described'
might well contain several dimensions.

which are to be found in all the elements and com-

The entire system of Islamic an was an extension and

reflection of the suggestions of ideas found in the

po- sitions connected with the language of Islamic art.

Qur'an. The many confirmations and reaffirmations

produces a complex of meanings and implications

of basic formulae convened this into more than mere

Levels of knowledge
Continuing with the linguistic analogy, we may also
make use of the linguistic term of the ' describer'as Opposed to the 'described'. Here we are primarily
concerned with perception. Select at random any
monument of Islamic art or architecture- these last-

knowledge- it became part of people's unconscious.

This widened the audience of believers considerably.
The basic ideas- expressed in patterns and decoration
-were accessible to everyone, according to the level
of their education and spiritual development. Every-

mentioned may be apparent at various levels. The

day objects could become the vehicle for spiritual

understanding or exercise, such as meditation. In

lowest level is the ordinary everyday perception of

this way Islamic teaching and an offer the believer

the object, of an attractive motif or a detail that is

recognized. The highest level is that of the theological

the possibility of solving questions that have arisen

through historical changes.

or indeed, what should be called the mystical, as a

There are two ideas in Islamic art that occur repeat -

way of approaching nearer to God or of demonsnating one's love for Him. Translated into terms of

edly at various levels with varying degrees of clarity

the 'described', Islamic poets have written many

and directness, both of them clamping art securely to

55

Eartlliy beauty, l1 eavw ly art +

ART OF ISLAM

religion. The first idea is that of the rea lity of God.

Art contains many allusions to the image of God,
which people cannot apprehend. It nevertheless
provides the aesthetic possibility of referring to His
Being as the very essence of beauty and goodness,
and the promise that meeting with Him will be
something indescribably sublime. The second idea is

56

that of a Paradise to come, created for the just to

inhabit, a place of peace and plenitude . Almost all
Islamic art is a reminder of this. Beautiful objects,
exquisite buildings serve not only to delight the
Muslim in this world; they are a promise of grace to
come. They are the hopeful confirmation that the
religion of Islam is the one true faith.

ART 01

ISLAM

+ 17 tlradi.\e- ll1e major tllemt.' of Islamic art

Paradise- the major theme

of Islamic art

Th e Qur'a n was revea led to peop le to warn them

against th e coming Day o f Judgment. The early suras
a re fill ed w ith emotiona l an d viv id descript ions of the
e n d of th e world, th e pa n gs of he ll and the p leasures
of parad ise. It wi ll be a day of doom and terror,

When the Sky is rent asunder

And hearkens to (the Command of) its LordAnd it must needs (do so);
And when the Earth is flattened out,
And casts forth what is within it.
And becomes (clean) empty,
And hearkens to (the Command of) its LordAnd it must needs (do so)
(Then will come home the full Reality)
(S . 84: 1-5)

The book describes how the dead w ill arise from the ir
graves:

When the Sky is cleft asunder;

When the Stars are scattered;

When the World on High is unveiled;

When the Blazing Fire
Is kindled to fierce heat;
And when the Garden is brought near;Then shall each soul know
What it has put forward.
Or again:

Verily, the Day of Sorting Out

Is a thing appointed,The Day that the Trumpet
Shall be sounded, and ye
Shall come forth in crowds;
And the heavens shall be opened
As if there were doors,
And the mountains shall vanish
As tfthey were a mirage.
(S. 78: 17-20)

These are t he drama tic descriptions of the end of the

world, the Islam ic Apoca lypse. It is arguab le that the

When the Oceans are suffered to burst forth;

And when the Graves are turned upside down;(Then) shall each soul know
What it hath sent forward

for this end. For peop le arc presented wi th a choice.

And what it hath kept back.

One poss ibi lity is d irefu l:

(S. 82: 1-5)

And, more extens ive ly:

When the sun (with its spacious light) is folded up;

When the stars fall, losing their lustre;
When the mountains vanish (like a mirage);
When the she-camels, ten months with young,
Are left untended;
When the wild beasts are herded together
(In human habitations);
When the oceans boil over with a swell;
When the souls are sorted out
(Being joined, like with like);
When the female (infant), buried alive,
Is questioned-

w ho le of the Qur'an is a sermon prophesying th e en d

of lime, and offering a prescription for how to prepare

Therefore dol wam you

Of a Fire blazing fiercely;
None shall reach it
But those most unfortunate ones
Who give the lie to Truth
And turn their backs.
(S. 92: 14-16)

And the WickedThey will be in the Fire,

Which they will enter
On the Day of Judgment
And they will not be able
To keep away therefrom.
(S . 82: 14- 16)

For what crime she was killed;

When the Scrolls are laid open;

57

Earthly bcaut.v, ltea\'CIIfy Clrl +

ART OF ISLAM

But never will he be near

Swallowing it down his throat;
Death will come to him
From every quarter, yet
He will not die: and
In front of him will be
A chastisement unrelenting .
(5.14:16-17)

The Companions of the Left HandWhat will be the Companions of the Left Hand?
(They will be) in the midst
Of a fierce Blast of Fire
And in Boiling Wate1;
And in the shades of Black Smoke:
Nothing (will there be)
To refresh nor to please:
For that they were wont
To be indulged, before that
In wealth (and luxury),
And persisted obstinately
ln wickedness supreme!
And they used to say,
What! When we die
And become dust and bones
Shall we then indeed
Be raised up again?(We) and our fathers of old?'
Say: Yea, those of old
And those of later times,
All will certainly be
Some faces, that Day

Gathered together for the meeting

Will be humiliated,

Appointed for a Day well-known.

Labouring (hard), weary,-

Then will ye truly-

The while they enter the Blazing Fire, -

0 ye that do wrong,

The while they are given to drink

And treat Truth as Falsehood!-

Of a boiling hot spring,

Ye will surely taste

No food will there be for !hem

Ofthe Tree ofZaqqum.fthe Cursed Tree]

But a bitter Dhari fa bilter, vile-smelling plant/

Which will neither nourish

Then will ye fill

Nor satisfy hunger.

(S. 88:2-7)

Your insides therewith

And drink Boiling Water
On top of it
Indeed, ye shall drink

Or again:

In front of such a one

Is Hell, and he is given
For drink, boiling fetid water.
In gulps will he drink it

58

Like diseased camels

Raging with thirst!
Such will be their entertainment
On the Day of Requital!
(S. 56:41-56)

ART

or

IS LAM

+ Paradise - tile major tln!nu! of hlamic art

Is that the better entertainment

Or the Tree of Zaqqum?
For we have truLy made it (as)
a triaL for the wrong-doers.
For it is a tree
That springs out of the bottom of HeLl-fire:
The shoots of its fruit-staLks
Are Like the heads of deviLs:
TruLy they wiLL eat thereof
And filL their beLLies therewith .
Then on top of that
They will be given a mixture
Made of boiLing water.
Then shall their return
Be to the (B Lazing) Fire.

deeper sp irit ua l ecs tasy w hi ch wou ld be expressed

(S. 37:62-68)

in te rms th a t th e simp lest listener cou ld unders tand .

story of th e p unishm e n ts a nd te rribl e to rtu res, spoke

of th e bli ssful lot w hi ch lay in store for tr ue be li evers.
On th e w h o le, descrip ti o ns of He ll and Pa rad ise
ba la n ce each o th er in th e Q u r'a n . Bo th a re sp iced
w ith un a m big u o us la ng uage int e n ded to arouse t he
li ste ner. Th e images used a re highl y rea li sti c and
comprehens ible for ever y Arab. However, it sho ul d
be sa id that th e image of Parad ise in th e Qur'a n is
ex tremely de ta il ed, an d d iffuses a se nse of de lig h t.
A p ict ure is drawn of a sh adowy ga rden, w h ere th e
r ighteous recl ine on soft beds, feas tin g in th e p resence
o f bea uti fu l virgin s. Nat u ra ll y, a descript io n o f thi s
sort on ly projects a super fi cia l u n dersta nd ing .
Con crete, se nsitive images were a n express ion of a

Fu rth ermo re, th i demo nstrates the ma ny ways in

wh ich th e Q u r'a n may be unders tood. Depending

Those who reject Our Sig ns, We shaLl soon

Cast into the Fire:
As often as their skins are roasted through,
We shaLl change them for fresh skins,
That they may taste the penaLty:
For God is ExaLted in Powe1~ and Wise.

mys ti c. Th e p racti ca l e lemen t of th e se rm on proved

(S 4:56)

hi g hl y a da ptab le in s up po rti ng th e genera l a im, th a t

o n th e appre he n ion of th e listener, the image o l

Pa rad ise fo u nd its response in the sou l of th e deser t
Bedo uin o r th e fierce warrior (bo th commander and
foo t so ldi er), th e p h iloso ph e r, th e theo logian and th e

o f co n vin cin g a nd convert ing, w h ic h had deve loped

Th e h o rro rs o f th e inevi ta bl e ca tas trop h e a nd poss ib le

in th e ea rli est phases o f Isla m .

puni shm e nt are inten de d to sh ake peop le o ut o f th e ir

a pa th y a n d force th em to liste n to A ll ah . Th e p reach -

Th e p ictu res of Paradise in the Q u r'an arc so viv id

ing o f M uh ammad, as we kn ow, had a tre m e n do us

th a t some orie n ta l sch o lars have s ugges ted th at

im pact b u t didn ' t lead to a mass convers ion. A h a nd -

M uh amma d was in sp ired by th e

m osa i c~

he had see n

fu l of fo ll owers g rew in to an active comm un ity w h e n

in Ch r isti an churches. Thi s seems mos t im probab le,

th e inh a bita nts of Ya th rib (Med in a) started to be li eve

but th e style o f th e Q u r'an inco rpo ra tes co m parab ly

in All a h . Th e ir m o ti ves we re mi xed : part ly sp iri tu a l,

se ns uo us im ages.

pa rtly p o litica l. Afte r M uh a mm a d ha d con vin ced th e

peop le o f Mecca o f th e p ower o f hi s sys te m of belief,
th e re fo llowed a m ass co n vers io n . Bu t it took ti me
be fore th e co nqu ered co untr ies wo uld beco me
Isla mi c. Th e inh a bi tan ts of th ose di stricts d idn' t
co n vert to Islam o u t o f fear, but beca use of a socia l
sys te m whi ch h e ld a d va ntages for th e co n ve rts.
Th ose wh o d id n o t accept th e n ew .fa ith we re fo rced
to fulfi l certa in (con side ra ble) o bli ga ti on s. Thi s proveCl
a m o re effective m e th od of winnin g p eop le over th a n
h o ldin g up th e th reat of a d ire fulm assac re or th e
pa n gs o f h e ll-fi re.

Punishment or bliss
Fro m th e very start th e serm on s, toge th er w it h th e

But God will deliver them

From the evil of that Day
And will shed over them a Light
Of Beauty and a (blissful) Joy.
And because they were patient and constant
He will reward them with a Garden
And (garments of) silk.
Reclining in the (Garden) on raised thrones
They will see there neither the sun 's (excessive heat)
Not the moon 's (excessive cold).
And the shades of the (Garden)
Will come low over them,
And the bunches (of fruit) there
Will hang low in humility.

59

Enrtfl/y ben/11}1, flea\'1!11/)' art + ART Of ISLAM

And amongst them will be passed round

Nor any taint of ill,

Vessels of silver and goblets of crystal.

Only the saying, "Peace! Peace!"

Crystal-c/ea1; made of silver:

The Companions of the Right Hand-

They will determine the measure thereof

What will be the Companions of the Right Hand?

(According to their wishes) .

They will be among late-trees without thorns,

And they will be given

Among Talh trees [possibly a kind of Acacia]

To drink there of a Cup

With flowers (or fruits) piled one above another,-

(Of wine) mixed with Zanjabil [ginger}

ln shade long-extended, by water flowing constantly,

A fountain there called Salsabil ['Seek the Way'].

And fruit in abundance.

And round about them will (serve) youths

Whose season is not limited, nor (supply) forbidden,

Of perpetual freshness:

And on Thrones (of Dignity) raised high .

If thou seest them, thou wouldst think them

We have created (their Companions)

Scattered Pearls.

Of special creation

And when thou lookest,

And made them (virgin-pure and undefiled),-

!t is there thou wilt see

Beloved (by nature), equal in age,-

A Bliss, and a Realm Magnificent.

For the Companions of the Right Hand.

Upon them will be Green Garments

A (goodly) number from those of old,

Of fine silk and heavy brocade

And a (goodly) number from those of later times.

And they will be adorned

(S. 56:1 1-39)

With Bracelets of silver;

And their Lord will give to them to drink
Of a Wine Pure and Holy.

And again:
But for such as fear

Verily, this is a Re1vard for you

The time when they will

And your Endeavour is accepted and recognized.

Stand before their Lord,

(S. 76: I 1-22)

There will be two GardensThen which of the favours

Or the passage:

60

Of your Lord will ye deny?-

In Gardens of Bliss.

In them (each) will be

Two Springs flowing (free);

A number of people from those of old.

Then which of the favours

These will be those nearest to God:

And a few from those of later times.

Of your Lord will ye deny?-

(They will be) on Thrones

In them will be Fruits

Encrusted (with gold and precious stones),

Of every kind, two and two.

Reclining on them, facing each other.

Then which of the favours

Round about them will (serve)

Of your Lord will ye deny?-

Youths of perpetual (freshness),

With goblets, (shining) beakers

They will recline on Carpets

And cups (filled) out of

Of rich brocade: the Fruit

Clear-flowing Jou nla ins:

Of the Gardens will be

No after-ache will they receive therefrom,

Near (and easy of reach) .

No/ will they suffer intoxication.

And with fruits, any that they may select:

Then which of the favours

Whose inner linings will be

Of your Lord will ye deny?

And the flesh of fowls, any that they may desire.

In them will be (Maidens)

And (there will be female) Companions

Chaste, restraining their glances,

With beautiful, big, and lustrous eyes,-

Whom no man or Jinn

Like unto Pearls, well-guarded.

A Reward for the Deeds oftheir past (Life).

Before them has touched; Then which of the favours

No frivolity will they hear therein

Of your Lord will ye deny?-

A llT OF ISLAM

+ Paradi.\1!- the major theme of 1.\lamic art

Like unto rubies and coral.

which the righteous are promised:

Then which of the favours

In it are rivers of water incorruptible;

Rivers of milk

Of your Lord will ye deny?

Is there any Reward

Of which the taste never changes;

For Good- other than Good?

rivers of wine, a joy

Then which of the favours

To those who drink;

Of your Lord will ye deny?

And rivers of honey pure and clear.

In it there a re for them

And beside these two,

All kinds offruits;

There are two other Gardens,Then which of the favours

And Grace from their Lord.

(Can those in such Bliss)

Of your Lord will ye deny?Dark-green in colour

Shall dwell for ever

Be compared to such as

Then which of the favours

In the Fire, and be given

To drink, boiling water

Of your Lord will ye deny?

So that it cuts up

(From plentiful watering).

In them (each) will be

Their bowels (to pieces)?

Two Springs pouring forth water

(5.47:15-16)

In continuous abundance:
Then which of the favours

And again:

But those who believe

And do deeds of righteousness,

Of your Lord will ye deny?

In them will be Fruits
And dates and pomegranates:

We shall soon admit to Gardens,

Then which ofthefavours

With rivers flowing beneath, Their eternal home:

Of your Lord will ye deny?

ln them will be

Therein shall they have

Companions pure and holy:
We shall admit them

Fair (Companions), good and beautiful;Then which ofthefavours

Of your Lord will ye deny?

To shades, cool and ever deepening.

Companions restrained (as to

(S. 4:57)

Their glances), in (goodly) pavilions;Then which ofthefavours

Or:

Whom no man of Jinn

(Other) faces that Day will be joyful

Pleased with their Striving, -

Before them has touched;-

ln a Garden on high,

Then which of the favours

Of your Lord will ye deny?-

Where they shall hear

No (word) of vanity:

Reclining on green Cushions

Therein will be
A bubbling spring:

Of your Lord will ye deny?-

And rich Carpets of beauty.

Then which of the favours
Of your Lord will ye deny?

Therein will be Thrones

Blessed be the Name of thy Lord,

(Of dignity) , raised 011 high,

Goblets placed (ready),

Full of Majesty, Bounty and Honour

And cushions set in rows,

(S. 55:46-78)

And rich carpets (all) spread out.

(S. 88:8- 16)

There are also shorter description s that are less

formal:

Here is a Parable of the Garden

And finally:

Truly the Righteous will be in Bliss:

61

Earthly beauty, lteaveuly art +

ART OF ISLAM

On Thrones (of Dignity)

with precious and semi-precious stones such as

Will they command a sight

pearls, rubies and rock-crystal. The colour green

(Of all things):

predominates- the colour of the garden and of the

Thou wilt recognize in their Faces

sumptuous garments worn by the blessed, wh ile red

The beaming brightness of Bliss.

gleams through in the rubies and the pomegranates.

Their thirst will be slaked

With Pure Wine sealed:

The descript ion is that of a dwe ller in the desert-

The seal thereof will be Musk: and for this

what can afford greater joy than reaching shade and

Let those aspire, who have aspirations.

With it will be (given)

and almost tangible, we feel the coo lness, we slake

A mixture ofTasnim:

our th irst. Clearly, these are p ictures to appea l to the

A spring, from (the waters)

people of the desert countries of the Near and Midd le

Whereof drink those nearest to God.

East.

water after the long day's heat? The images are vivid

(S. 83:22-28)

At the same time as being down-to-earth, the

Gardens

Generally speaking, the picture of Paradise is given

description is also mysterious. Somewhere in these

paradisal gardens lies the source of the holy text of

in concrete and detailed terms. It consists in the first

the Qur'an, somewhere there grows th e Tree of Life.

place of gardens (Paradise itself i called in Is lam

There are constant references

djanna, which literally means garden(s)). Shadowy

Allah. Also, there is a mysterious e lement in the fact

to

the presence of

trees grew there, bearing at the same time both

that some words and names of waters and drinks

blossom and fruit that hung low ready to be pl ucked.

found in the Qur'an were unknown to the Arabs

Trees that generally had thorns now had smooth

before Muhammad. The hermetic associations are

barks. Scattered around were acacias, palms and

further increased with the introduction of new and

pomegranate trees. Through the gardens flowed

incomprehensible words that give the Qur'an its

broad rivers and bubbled limpid brooks: names are

special rhythm and particular charm. Nor shou ld it

given to them, such as Kafur and Salsabil. There was

be forgotten that behind everyday words there are

water that never became fetid, so metimes spiced with

a plant suc h as ginger. Furthermore there were

other, less immediate, meanings and associations.

streams of milk that never became rancid, purest

honey and finally wine that didn't make people

Behind the concrete, realistic images of the Qur'an

drunken.

and delight, the rewards of the righteous, appear

there lurks a more profound meaning . Contentment

at first sight to be mere ly physical. In fact, they

In the cool shade of the gardens the righteous will

represent the bliss of God's grace, that full spiritua l

enjoy eternal b liss. They will recline on soft beds,

tranqui ll ity, the joy of approaching into the p resence

propped upon brocade-covered cushions. Cushions

of God. For this is - beneath the realistic represen-

arc scattered all around and tents are set up. Moving

tations and just as in the poetry of the mystics-

gracefully about are beautiful maidens with lovely

the essence of Paradise.

eyes. The rightcou arc clothed in rich garments of

green brocade with si lver jewellery. They are served

The bliss of Paradise

their drinks by lovely boys who arc forever young.

We find a simi lar deeper meaning when reading the

They bear goblets of si lver and crystal, fruits of all

descriptions of the blessed in Paradise. There they

kind and game birds. They drink water, honey, milk

have their fill of those things that were forbidden in

and wine of a good vintage 'and scaled with musk'.

thi s world. They drink wine, they enjoy unrestricted

There is no bickering, nor frivolous talk in these

gardens; only such words arc head as 'Peace, peace'.

carnal pleasures, they are surrounded by objects of

luxury. All this, however, also has a symbolic level:

In the descriptions there arc incidental comparisons

it is to show that in Paradise the righteous are recompensed for their pious lives, for the self-imposed

62

ART

or

I SLAM

+ Paradise- the major tllemr ofl.\lamic art

restrictions of this world. In fact, the joys of Paradise

opulence. Clearly, these are the gardens of Paradi se.

are spiritual ones. Only they cannot be described

It should be pointed out, however, that in some

except in material terms and using images of earthly

objects.

Damascus mosaics as well as rivers and trees there

are pictures of many noteworthy buildings. It is quite
possible that here we have one of the later (post-

Islamic theology has probed deeply into the question

qur'a nic) impress ions of Paradise imagined as a city,

of paradisal pleasure. Scholars have not only alluded

comparable to the Chri tian representations in that

period of the city of Jerusalem.

to the possibility, they have indeed stressed the fact

that the qur'anic ayas are ambiguous. They have
shown indisputably that behind the physical images
there are references to intellectual and spiriLUal

The entrance to Paradise

delights. Debates have also arisen in the context of

The mihrab with its lamp shedding holy light bears a

reference to entrance into Paradise, often taking the

Paradise over the qur'anic expression 'the person

form of pictures of trees and vases of flowers. Thi s

of Allah'. Some hold that the greatest joy for the

iconography was adopted for prayer rugs with a

righteous in Paradise will be to behold God (face to

similar function. Indeed , all carpets, whether or not

with a religious purpose, serve as more or less

face). Others, however, fiercely refute the notion that

God can be seen in this way, while still others support

formalised representation s of the garden- which in

the opinion that God can be seen, but then 'without

the first place is the Garden of Paradise . The carpets

form or being'. In general terms it is agreed that in

often contain pictures of streams and rivers, fountains

Paradise people approach into the presence of God

and lakes as if they had arisen from a description in

the Qur'an of the waters of Paradise.

and perceive Him to a certain degree.

All the qur'anic images with their many explanations

Finally, there were also the earthly gardens, which

have become part of the general and psychological

mental scenario of the broad mass of the population.

occupy an extremely important place in the hlamic

aesthetic system, being a reflection of the heavenly

The picture of Paradise gradually became the main

topic of sermons. In speaking of Paradise, compari-

ones. In Granada, the famous gardens were given

the name Djannat a/-arifin, meaning 'ga rdens of

sons were made with beautiful objects from daily

those who know the truth', which in one explanation

life which served as symbols for something more

is a reference to the inhabitants of Paradise. Also,

Profound and complex. Earthly beauty was a reflection of the splendour of Paradise.

the park around the mausoleum of Taj Mahal was

consciously planned to suggest the gardens of
Paradise, as is apparent not only from the ground

This explains why Islamic art, both the religious and

plan but also from inscriptions on the buildings

the secu lar, has chosen Paradise as the most important

which bear citations from the qur'anic descriptions

theme that can be represented or referred to. This

of Paradise.

was partly made possible because of the prohibition

against making picLUres of holy personages, partly
also because of the general precept to think, speak,
and make with only Allah in one's mind. Paradise is,
after all, both what God has promised to the righteous
and also the place where He dwells, where He is
closest to humankind.

Every plant decoration referred to some extent to the

gardens of Paradise. Thus the walls of the Ottoman
mosques are covered with tiles bearing many distinct
plant motifs. Thi is a faithful analogy with the very
first monumental buildings of Jslam.
Luxury items, too, referred to the delights to come-

The first Islamic religious works of art to proclaim

loudly the victory of the new religion were mosaics

they were but pale reflections and suggestions of the

life in Paradise. A hierarchical line developed : the

(see the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, ill. 2, p. 17

splendour and luxuriousness of the paradisallife was

and the Umayyad mosque in Damascus, ill. 3, p.J8):

expressed in the first place by objects of gold and

silver; then followed bronze and ceramics; finally

they illu strate gardens that are filled with verdure and

63

artllly Veil//()',

/ICIIVW/y

art +

ART Of ISLAM

came lustreware, that gave a clear reflection and had

the Muslim. Islamic art doesn't ill ustrate the Qur'an

the gleam of metal. This sheen was a constant remind-

but oUers an abstract artistic account of its chief ideas.

er of light, God's primary attribute, and was embodied

symbolically in lamps and everything that glittered
and gleamed.

This account is not only allractive, it is also cheerful.

Islamic re ligious bui ldings are intended to create
warmth from the inside outwards, to offer de light

Beautiful objects made from rock crysta l, silver

to

beakers and other domestic ware were even some

nified, are made amazing ly intricate, but they do

of the items found in the qur'anic description of

not scare of!' or overwhe lm. The pictures of Paradise,

Paradise. These too symbolized the future union with

or the descriptions of it, recount in a simple manner

God, as did Sufic verses in which intoxication with

the blessed state wh ich w il l be the reward of the

the believer. Abstract references to God are mag-

wine or love represented mystic radiance. And the

righteous. Islam entices peop le w ith the promise of

banquet scenes so frequently encountered in Is lamic

goodness, w ith the exc itement of ins ight and a re-

art, with pictures of musicians and dancers may

vivifying outlook. The pictures of He ll, that occupy

simply be explained as visions presaging the feasts of

a secondary place in the Qur'an, are less rea listic

Paradise or symbols of piritual blessedness expressed

than those of Paradise.

in a human language (as in the Qur'an).

Christian art, Islamic art
This kind of deeper meaning, often not entirely
precise and nowhere explained more fully, gave an

Final ly, a word of comparison between Is lamic an

and Christian art. The main difference between the

impression of mystery, of something beautiful that

two lies in their approach. In Christian art the empha-

was ho ly and welcome. Almost all Jslamic an in some

sis fa lls on the forgiveness of sins, the suffer ing of

way or another tells a story about Paradise, alludes to

the Son of God that shou ld be deeply felt by every

it, refers to it.

Christian. God, embodied in His c h urch, is a terr ible

god and forces His servants to be humb le. The great-

In Europe and the Near East, medieval art was a lways

est means of mak ing sinners toe the li ne is the fear of

strongly influenced by religion. Indeed, it was dedi-

Hell. Man is born sinful.

cated to re ligion. In Is lamic art, un like its Christian

counterpart, this was not so evident: it had no statues

In essence, the two re ligions, Is lam and Christianity,

representing living forms, it had no Stations of the

are not diss imilar. Like Islam, Christianity promises

Cross, no pictures of martyred saints or holy ascetics.

people heavenly bliss. And Christian r itua l and

Islamic art at first glance appears non-religious. That

Christian an bring to those who tru ly believe an

is, however, by definition impossible, since in Islam

overwhelming sense of joy. But the approach es,

no distinction is made between the earthly and the

the methods of the two, are quite different. Whi le

heavenly life. This attitude underlies Islam's history,

and its social and cultural life (although gradually a

Christian art tries to convince the believer by

emphasizing the suffering (of Christ), Islamic art

wave of deviations did arise).

attempts to up lift the be li ever with the prom ise of

bliss.

A carefu l investigation reveals the true nature of

We should not forget, however, that at one time or

Islamic art. 1t doesn't force itself upon the viewer, but

calmly and steadfastly bears witness to two th ings:

another, both make use of these two approaches.

God and Paradise. Put another way, it speaks of the

rslamic art and the art of the Christian tradition are

dogma of the One Indivisible God and the blessedness

of life after this world, that arc the chief treasures of

after a ll two branches of the same tree.

64

Enrtil/y il ra11ty, lt ravruly art +

A RT O F I S LAM

Exhibition Credits

Director

Catalogue Credits

Technical staff

Ernst W. Veen

Published by Lund Humphries Publishers

Paul Brekelmans

Park House, 1 Russell Gardens

Gerrit Schoos

London NW I1 9NN

Nasar Ahmed Qazi

Guest curator

This book was published concurrently with

Mikhail B. Piotrovsky

Chief curator

Chief security officer

the exhibition Earthly beauty, heavenly art.

Ed Koning

Art of Islam held in De Nieuwe Kerk,

John Vrieze

Amsterdam, from 15 December 1999 to

Museum shop

24 April2000, and organized by the

Logistics and personnel

Heleen van Ketwich Verschuur

Foundation Projects De Nieuwe Kerk.

Marijke Gelderman

Marianne de Raad
ISBN 0 8533I 806 9 (hard cover edition)

Assistant curator

Transport logistics

ISBN 90 6611692 7 (paperback edition)

Mirjam Hoijtink

Jan Kortmann

NUGI9ll,633

Exhibition design

Transport

British Library Cataloguing in Publication

Architectenbureau Jowa, Amsterdam

Gerlach Art Packers & Shippers

Data
A cata logue record for this book is avai lable

Consultant

Production

Dineke llui/enga

Vechtmetaal B. V.

from the British Library

copyright 1999

Educational programme

PR

Y+K Publishing, Blaricum

Marijke Gelderman

Bureau D' Arts, Amsterdam: Paul Spies,

Foundation Projects De Nieuwe Kerk

Nannie den Exter

Maaike Nillesen and Rester Scholvinck

We thank Sue Bond, London, for her help

Distributed in the USA by

Antique Collectors' Club

Financial administration

Carla lluisman

Audiovisual presentation

Market Street Industrial Park

Margreet de Vogel

Mirjam Hoijtink

Wappingers Falls

Maaik Krijgsman

NY 12590

Secretariat and administration

We thank Fred Oster for his help

USA

Translations Dutch into English

Cover

Paulanha van den Berg-Diamant

11 uibje Laumen
Marianne de Molennaar

Wendie Shaffer

Front: Mosque lamp (cat. no. 8), courtesy of

Sander van Ooijen

Michele Hendricks

The British Museum, London

Mart ijn van Seventer

Back: Fragment of the Hizam (cat.no. 20),

Krijn van Veggel

courtesy of The Nasser D. Khalili Collection

Jacqueline Weg

of Islamic Art, London

3 10

ART OF ISLAM

Credit.~

Author of th e introductory ch a pte rs

Na ta lja Ve nev tseva, The State Hermitage

All rig hts reserved. No pa rt of thi s pub li cat ion may be

M ikh ail B. Pio trovs ky

Museum

tra nsmitted in a ny form or by any mea ns, e lectronic or

J o hn Vri eze, National Foundation

mecha ni ca l, in cluding p ho10copyi ng, record in g or

General editor

De Nieu\Ve Kerk

a ny storage a nd retri eva l system, w ith o ut th e pr ior

J o hn Vri eze

Da ni e l Walke r, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

permi ss io n in w riting from th e p u b li sher. An y person

Rac he l Wa rd, The British Museum

w ho does a ny un a u thor ized act in re la tion to th is

Editing

pub li ca ti on may be liab le to cr im ina l p rosecut ion and

civ il cla ims fo r da mages .

Arn o ud Bijl

Translations

We th a nk We ndi e Sha ffe r a nd

We ndi e Sha ffe r

Michele He ndri ck s

Miche le He ndri cks

With contributions of

Photography of exhibition obj e cts

A de l Ad a mova, The State Hermitage Museum

The State Hermitage Museum:

Juli a Ba il ey, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Leo na rd Heife ts; Yuri M o lodk ovets;

Anna Ba lli a n, Benaki Museum

Da rya Bo brova; Vl adimir Te re be nin;

Mil o Clevela nd Beach, Art/7Ur M. Sack/er

Geo rg iy Skac hk ov

Gallery, Smithsonian Institution

The Nasser D. Kha!ili Collection of Islamic Art:

Barba ra Boehm, The Metropolitan Museum

Chri sto phe r Phi 11 ip s

of Art

National Museum of Syria:

Ha ns-Cas pe r Gra f vo n Both me r, Universitdt

An wa r Abd el Gha fo ur

des Saar!andes

Ph otogra phic studi os of th e oth e r le nd e rs

Sheil a Ca n by, The British Museum

Stefa no Ca rb oni, The Metropolitan Museum

Photography of archite ctural monum e nts

ofArt

R. Tixad o r (fig. I) ; F. M eyst (fi g. 2);

A natoli Iva nov, The State Hermitage Museum

W. Is phording (fig. 3 ); A. Ga rrid o (fi g . 4 );

M a rk Kra ma rovs ky, The State Hermitage

J. Ll oy d (fi g. 5)

Museum
M a rta Kryz ha novs kaya, The Stale Hermitage

Production De Nieuwe Kerk

Museum

He lee n va n Ke tw ich Ve rschuu r

Gle nn Low ry, Arthur M. Sack/er Gallery,

Smithsonianlnstitution

Graphic design

Bo ri s Ma rs ha k, The State Hermitage Museum

Pinxit, Ams te rd a m

Yuri Mille r, The State Hermitage Museum

UNA, Amste rd a m (cove r)

M o na AI M oadin, National Museum of Syria,

Ministry of Culture, General Directorate for

Lithography

Antiquities and Musea , Syrian Arab Republic

Ne~e rl o fR e pro, Cruquiu s-Heemsted e

Min a Mo raito u, Benaki Museum

Michael Rogers, w ith th e ass ista nce o f Na hl a

Print

Nassa r, Tim Sta nl ey a nd Ma nije h Baya ni,

Kun stdrukk e rij M e rcuriu s, Wormervee r

The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art

Abo la la So ud a var, Arthur M. Sack/er Gallery,

Printed o n Hell o Silk, 150 g pe r sq . me tre.

Sm ithsonia n lnstitution

Suppli ed by Buhrma nn -Ubbe ns Bv co mpa ny

3I I