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Polyamide

A polyamide is a polymer containing monomers of amides joined by peptide bonds. They can
occur both naturally and artificially, examples being proteins, such as wool
and silk, and can be made artificially through step-growth polymerization
or solid-phase synthesis, examples being nylons, aramids, and sodium poly
(asphartate). Polyamides are commonly used in textiles, automotives,
carpet and sportswear due to their extreme durability and strength. An
amide group has the formula - CONH2. An amide link has this structure:

Nylon-6, 6
Nylon-6, 6 is made from two monomers each of which contains 6 carbon atoms - hence its name.
One of the monomers is a 6 carbon acid with a -COOH group at each end - hexanedioic acid.
The other monomer is a 6 carbon chain with an amino group, -NH 2, at each end. This is 1,6diaminohexane (also known as hexane-1,6-diamine).
When these two compounds polymerize, the amine and acid groups combine, each time with the
loss of a molecule of water. This is known as condensation polymerization.
Condensation polymerization is the formation of a polymer involving the loss of a small
molecule. In this case, the molecule is water, but in other cases different small molecules might
be lost.

Nylon-6
If you are doing UK a level, you are unlikely to need the structure of nylon-6. I am including it to
show Kevlar
Kevlar is similar in structure to nylon-6,6 except that instead of the amide links joining chains of
carbon atoms together, they join benzene rings. That it is possible to get a polyamide from a
single monomer.

Uses of polyamides
Apart from obvious uses in textiles for clothing and carpets, a lot of nylon is used to make tire
cords - the inner structure of a vehicle tire underneath the rubber.
The fibers are also used in ropes, and nylon can be cast into solid shapes for cogs and bearings in
machines, for example.

Kevlar is a very strong material - about five times as strong as steel, weight for weight. It is used
in bulletproof vests, in composites for boat construction, in lightweight mountaineering ropes,
and for lightweight skis and racquets - amongst many other things.

Aromatic Polyamides
Aramids fibers are a class of heat-resistant and strong synthetic fibers. They are used in
aerospace and military applications, for ballistic rated body armor fabric and ballistic
composites, in bicycle tires, and as an asbestos substitute. The name is a portmanteau of
"aromatic polyamide". They are fibers in which the chain molecules are highly oriented along the
fiber axis, so the strength of the chemical bond can be exploited.

The better-known commercial aramids are poly (p-phenylene terephthalamide) and poly(mphenylene isophthalamide). Both of these polymers can be transformed into flame, cut-resistant
and high-tensile strength synthetic fibers, with technological applications in the field of coatings
and fillers in the aerospace and armaments industry, in asbestos substitutes, electrical insulation,
bullet-proof body armor, industrial filters, and sport fabrics, among others.

Uses

flame-resistant clothing
heat protective clothing and helmets
composite materials
asbestos replacement (e.g. brake linings)
hot air filtration fabrics
tires, newly as Sulfron (sulfur modified Twaron)
mechanical rubber goods reinforcement
ropes and cables
wicks for fire dancing
optical fiber cable systems
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sail cloth (not necessarily racing boat sails)

1. ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene

Styrene)
It is a common thermoplastic. Its glass transition temperature is approximately 105 C (221 F).
It is a terpolymer made by polymerizing styrene and acrylonitrile in the presence of
polybutadiene. The proportions can vary from 15 to 35% acrylonitrile, 5 to 30% butadiene and
40 to 60% styrene. The result is a long chain of polybutadiene criss-crossed with shorter chains
of poly (styrene-co-acrylonitrile). The nitrile groups from neighboring chains, being polar, attract
each other and bind the chains together, making ABS stronger than pure polystyrene. The styrene
gives the plastic a shiny, impervious surface. The butadiene, a rubbery substance, provides
resilience even at low temperatures. For the majority of applications, ABS can be used between
20 and 80 C (-4 and 176 F) as its mechanical properties vary with temperature.
Production of 1 kg of ABS requires the equivalent of about 2 kg of petroleum for raw materials
and energy. It can also be recycled.

The most important mechanical properties of ABS are impact resistance and toughness. A variety
of modifications can be made to improve impact resistance, toughness, and heat resistance. The
impact resistance can be amplified by increasing the proportions of polybutadiene in relation to
styrene and also acrylonitrile, although this causes changes in other properties. Impact resistance
does not fall off rapidly at lower temperatures. Stability under load is excellent with limited
loads. Thus, changing the proportions of its components ABS can be prepared in different grades.
Two major categories could be ABS for extrusion and ABS for injection molding, then high and
medium impact resistance. Generally ABS would have useful characteristics within a
temperature range from -20 to 80 C (-4 to 176 F).

Uses
ABS's light weight and ability to be injection molded and extruded make it useful in
manufacturing products such as drain-waste-vent (DWV) pipe systems, musical instruments
(recorders, plastic clarinets, and piano movements), golf club heads (due to its good shock
absorbance), automotive trim components, automotive bumper bars, medical devices for blood
access, enclosures for electrical and electronic assemblies, protective headgear, whitewater
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canoes, buffer edging for furniture and joinery panels, luggage and protective carrying cases,
small kitchen appliances, and toys, including Lego bricks.

2. Polycarbonate
The polycarbonate derived from BPA was discovered at Bayer in 1953 and soon at General
Electric. It was first introduced to the market in 1958 by Bayer Mobay, and General Electric.
Polycarbonates (PC), known by the trademarked names Lexan, Makrolon, Makroclear and
others, are a particular group of thermoplastic polymers. They are easily worked, molded, and
thermoformed. Because of these properties, polycarbonates find many applications.

The main polycarbonate material is produced by the reaction of bisphenol A (BPA) and phosgene
COCl2. The overall reaction can be written as follows:

The first step of the synthesis involves treatment of bisphenol A with sodium hydroxide, which
deprotonates the hydroxyl groups of the bisphenol A.
The general form of polycarbonate is as follows:

Polycarbonate is a durable material. Although it has high impact-resistance, it has low scratchresistance and so a hard coating is applied to polycarbonate eyewear lenses and polycarbonate
exterior automotive components. The characteristics of polycarbonate are quite like those of
polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA, acrylic), but polycarbonate is stronger, usable in a wider
temperature range, yet more expensive. This polymer is highly transparent to visible light, with
better light transmission than many kinds of glass.

Uses
Electronic components
Polycarbonate is mainly used for electronic applications that capitalize on its collective safety
features. Being a good electrical insulator and having heat resistant and flame retardant
properties, it is used in various products associated with electrical and telecommunications
hardware. It can also serve as dielectric in high stability capacitors.
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Construction materials
The second largest consumer of polycarbonates is the construction industry, e.g. for dome lights,
flat or curved glazing, and sound walls.

Data storage
A major application of polycarbonate is the production of Compact Discs, DVDs, and Blu-ray
Discs. These discs are produced by injection molding polycarbonate into a mold cavity that has
on one side a metal stamper containing a negative image of the disc data, while the other mold
side is a mirrored surface. Typical products of sheet/film production include applications in
advertisement (signs, displays, poster protection).

Automotive, aircraft, and security components

In the automotive industry, injection-molded polycarbonate can produce very smooth surfaces
that make it well-suited for direct (without the need for a basecoat) metalized parts such as
decorative bezels and optical reflectors. Its uniform mold shrinkage results in parts with greater
accuracy than those made of polypropylene. However, due to its susceptibility to environmental
stress cracking, its use is limited to low-stress applications. It can be laminated to make bulletproof "glass", although "bullet-resistant" is more accurate for the thinner windows, such as are
used in bullet-resistant windows in automobiles. The thicker barriers of transparent plastic used
in teller's windows and barriers in banks are also polycarbonate.

3. Poly (phenylene oxide)

Poly (phenylene oxide) (PPO) is a high-temperature thermoplastic. It is rarely used in its pure
form due to difficulties in processing. It is mainly used as blend with polystyrene, high impact
styrene-butadiene copolymer or polyamide.
Polyphenylene ether was discovered in 1956 by Allan Hay, and was commercialized by General
Electric in 1960. The common name "Polyphenylene oxide (PPO)" is incorrect because it is not
an oxide but ether.

It is form by the oxidation of 2, 6-dimethylphenol also known as 2, 6-Xylenol in the presence of

Cu-ammine catalyst as shown:

There is another product formed as by-product as shown:

3, 5, 3, 5-tetramethyldiphenoquinone

Uses
PPO blends are used for structural parts, electronics, household and automotive items that
depend on high heat resistance, dimensional stability and accuracy. They are also used in
medicine for sterilizable instruments made of plastic
This plastic is processed by injection molding or extrusion; depending on the type, the
processing temperature is 260-300 C. The surface can be printed, hot-stamped, painted or
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metallized. Welds are possible by means of heating element, friction or ultrasonic welding. It can
be glued with halogenated solvents or various adhesives.

4. Polyacetal
Polyoxymethylene (POM), also known as Acetal. Polyacetal and polyformaldehyde is an
engineering thermoplastic used in precision parts that require high stiffness, low friction and
excellent dimensional stability. As with many other synthetic polymers, it is produced by
different chemical firms with slightly different formulas and is therefore sold under various
commercial names like Delrin, Celcon and Hostaform.

Degradation
Acetal resins are sensitive to acid hydrolysis and oxidation by agents such as mineral acids and
chlorine. POM homopolymer is also susceptible to alkaline attack and is more susceptible to
degradation in hot water. Both POM homopolymer and copolymer are stabilized to mitigate
these types of degradation. Thus low levels of chlorine in potable water supplies (13 ppm) can
be sufficient enough to cause stress corrosion cracking to develop, a problem which has been
experienced in both the USA and Europe in domestic and commercial water supply systems.
Defective moldings are most sensitive to cracking, but normal moldings will succumb if the
water is hot.

Production
Different manufacturing processes are used to produce the homopolymer and
copolymer versions of POM.

Homopolymer
To make polyoxymethylene homopolymer, anhydrous formaldehyde must be generated. The
principal method is by reaction of the aqueous formaldehyde with an alcohol to create a
hemiformal, dehydration of the hemiformal/water mixture (either by extraction or vacuum
distillation) and release of the formaldehyde by heating the hemiformal. The formaldehyde is
then polymerized by anionic catalysis and the resulting polymer stabilized by reaction with
acetic anhydride.

Copolymer
To make polyoxymethylene copolymer, formaldehyde is generally converted to trioxane
(specifically 1, 3, 5-trioxane, also known as trioxin). This is done by acid catalysis (either
sulfuric acid or acidic ion exchange resins) followed by purification of the trioxane by distillation
and/or extraction to remove water and other active hydrogen containing impurities.
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Uses

Mechanical gears, sliding and guiding elements, housing parts, springs, chains, screws,
nuts, fan wheels, pump parts, valve bodies
Electrical Engineering: insulators, bobbins, connectors, parts for electronic devices such
as televisions, telephones, etc.
Vehicle: Fuel sender unit, Light stock (including shifter for light, turn signal), power
windows, door lock systems, articulated shells
Model: Model Railway parts, such as bogies and handle bars. POM breaks under load
slightly less than ABS, but in bright translucent colors, and not paintable
Medical: insulin pen, Metered dose inhalers (MDI)
Furniture: hardware, locks, handles hinges
Construction: Structural Glass - pod holder for point
Packaging: aerosol, cans, vehicle tanks

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5. Polysulfone
Polysulfone describes a family of thermoplastic polymers. These polymers are known for their
toughness and stability at high temperatures. They contain the subunit aryl-SO 2-aryl, the defining
feature of which is the sulfone group. Polysulfones were introduced in 1965 by Union Carbide.
Due to the high cost of raw materials and processing, polysulfones are used in specialty
applications and often are a superior replacement for polycarbonates.

Production
A typical polysulfone is produced by the reaction of a diphenol and bis (4-chlorophenyl) sulfone,
forming a polyether by elimination of sodium chloride:
n HOC6H4OH + n (ClC6H4)2SO2 + n Na2CO3 [OC6H4OC6H4SO2C6H4]n + 2n NaCl +n H2O + n
CO2
The diphenol is typically bisphenol-A or, 1, 4-dihydroxybenzene. Such step polymerizations
require highly pure monomer to ensure high molecular weight products.
The formation of polycondensation of polyethersulfones is as follows:

Uses

Polysulfone has one of the highest service temperatures of all melt-process able
thermoplastics. Its resistance to high temperatures gives it a role of a flame retardant,
without compromising its strength that usually results from addition of flame retardants.
Its high hydrolysis stability allows its use in medical applications requiring autoclave and
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steam sterilization. However, it has low resistance to some solvents and undergoes
weathering; this weathering instability can be offset by adding other materials into the
polymer.

Polysulfone allows easy manufacturing of membranes, with reproducible properties and

controllable size of pores down to 40 nanometers. Such membranes can be used in
applications like hemodialysis, waste water recovery, food and beverage processing, and
gas separation. These polymers are also used in the automotive and electronic industries.
Filter cartridges made from polysulfone membranes offer extremely high flow rates at
very low differential pressures when compared with Nylon or polypropylene media.
Additionally filter cartridges made from polysulfone can be sterilized with in line steam
or in the autoclave without loss of integrity up to 50 times.

Polysulfone can be reinforced with glass fibers. The resulting composite material has
twice the tensile strength and three time increase of its modulus.

Polysulfone is used as a dielectric in capacitors.

Polysulfone is often used as a copolymer. Recently sulfonated polyethersulfones (SPES)

have been studied as a promising material candidate among many other aromatic
hydrocarbon based polymers for highly durable, proton exchange membrane in proton
exchange membrane fuel cells applications.

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6. Poly (p-phenylene sulfide)

Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) is an organic polymer consisting of aromatic rings linked with
sulfides. Synthetic fiber and textiles derived from this polymer are known to resist chemical and
thermal attack.
Polyphenylene sulfide is an engineering plastic, a high-performance thermoplastic. PPS can be
molded, extruded, or machined to high tolerances. In its pure solid form, it may be opaque white
to light tan in color. Maximum service temperature is 218 C (424 F). PPS has not been found
to dissolve in any solvent at temperatures below about 200 C (392 F).

Production
The PPS (Polyphenylene sulfide) polymer is formed by reaction of sodium sulfide with pdichlorobenzene:
ClC6H4Cl + Na2S 1/n [C6H4S]n + 2 NaCl
The worldwide market for PPS compounds was 20,000tonnes in 1992.

P-dichlorobenzene

Sodium sulfide

Poly (p-phenylene sulfide)

Uses
PPS is used to make filter fabric for coal boilers, papermaking felts, electrical
insulation, specialty membranes, gaskets, and packings. PPS is the precursor to a
conducting polymer of the semi-flexible rod polymer family. The PPS, which is
otherwise insulating, can be converted to the semiconducting form by oxidation or
use of dopants.

When blended with glass fibers and other fillers, PPS produces engineering plastics having a
unique combination of properties including:
A remarkable combination of both long-term and short-term thermal stability
Exceptionally high modulus and creep resistance
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Outstanding resistance to a wide variety of aggressive chemical environments

Precision molding to tight tolerances with high reproducibility
Inherent non-flammability without flame retardant additives
Dielectric and insulating properties stable over a wide range of conditions

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7. Engineering Polyesters
Polyester is a category of polymers which contain the ester functional group in their main chain.
Although there are many types of polyester, the term "polyester" as a specific material most
commonly refers to polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Polyesters include naturally occurring
chemicals, such as in the cutin of plant cuticles, as well as synthetics through step-growth
polymerization such as polycarbonate and polybutyrate. Natural polyesters and a few synthetic
ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic polyesters are not.
PBT is closely related to other thermoplastic polyesters. Compared to PET (polyethylene
terephthalate), PBT has slightly lower strength and rigidity, slightly better impact resistance, and
a slightly lower glass transition temperature. PBT and PET are sensitive to hot water above 60 C
(140 F). PBT and PET need UV protection if used outdoors, and most grades of these polyesters
are flammable, although additives can be used to improve both UV and flammability properties.
Polybutylene terephthalate is used for housings in electrical engineering, but also in automotive
construction as plug connectors and in households for example in showerheads or irons. It is also
found processed into fibers in toothbrushes. It is used in the keycaps of some mechanical
keyboards because of its resistance to wear.

The majority of the world's PET production is for synthetic fibers (in excess of 60%), with bottle
production accounting for around 30% of global demand. In the context of textile applications,
PET is referred to by its common name, "polyester," whereas the acronym "PET" is generally
used in relation to packaging. Polyester makes up about 18% of world polymer production and is
the third-most-produced polymer; polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) are first and
second, respectively.

Polyarylates are a type of aromatic polyester. As in other polyesters, the multiple repeating units
that make up the long, chainlike polyarylates molecules are linked together by ester groups
(chemical formula CO-O). However, the presence of aromatic rings (bulky, hexagonal groups of
carbon and hydrogen atoms) in the repeating units greatly stiffens the polymer chain by
interfering with the rotation of the repeating units around the ester linkages. Two representative
polyarylates are poly-4-hydroxybenzoate (also called poly-p-hydroxybenzoate) and
polybisphenol-A terephthalate.
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Polyethylene naphthalate (PEN) (Poly (ethylene 2,6-naphthalate) is a polyester with good barrier
properties (even better than Polyethylene terephthalate). Because it provides a very good oxygen
barrier, it is particularly well-suited for bottling beverages that are susceptible to oxidation, such
as beer. It is also used in making high performance sailcloth. It also has been found to show
supreme scintillation properties and is expected to replace classic plastic scintillators.

Uses
Polyester is often used in outerwear because of its high tenacity and durability. It is a strong fiber
and consequently can withstand strong and repetitive movements. Its hydrophobic property
makes it ideal for garments and jackets that are to be used in wet or damp environments--coating
the fabric with a water-resistant finish intensify this effect. Polyester is often used in pants, shirts,
suits, and bed sheets either by itself or as a blend, because of its wrinkle-resistant property and its
ability to retain its shape. Since these garments are frequently worn and washed, its stainresistance and durability are also desirable.
Polyester also has industrial uses as well, such as carpets, filters, synthetic artery replacements,
ropes, and films.

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8. Fluoropolymers
A fluoropolymer is a fluorocarbon based polymer with multiple strong carbonfluorine bonds. It
is characterized by a high resistance to solvents, acids, and bases.
PTFE is a fluorocarbon solid, as it is a high-molecular-weight compound consisting wholly of
carbon and fluorine. PTFE is hydrophobic: neither water nor water-containing substances wet
PTFE, as fluorocarbons demonstrate mitigated London dispersion forces due to the high electro
negativity of fluorine. PTFE has one of the lowest coefficients of friction against any solid.

Polyvinylidene fluoride or polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) is a highly non-reactive and pure

thermoplastic fluoropolymer produced by the polymerization of vinylidene difluoride.
PVDF is a specialty plastic material in the fluoropolymer family; it is used generally in
applications requiring the highest purity, strength, and resistance to solvents, acids, bases and
heat and low smoke generation during a fire event. Compared to other fluoropolymers, it has an
easier melt process because of its relatively low melting point of around 177 C.

Fluorinated ethylene propylene or FEP is a copolymer of hexafluoropropylene and

tetrafluoroethylene. It differs from the PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) resins in that it is meltprocessible using conventional injection molding and screw extrusion techniques. Fluorinated
ethylene propylene was invented by DuPont and is sold under the brandname Teflon FEP. Other
brandnames are Neoflon FEP from Daikin or Dyneon FEP from Dyneon/3M.
FEP is very similar in composition to the fluoropolymers PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) and
PFA (perfluoroalkoxy polymer resin). FEP and PFA both share PTFE's useful properties of low
friction and non-reactivity, but are more easily formable. FEP is softer than PTFE and melts at
260 C; it is highly transparent and resistant to sunlight.

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Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE or PTFCE) is a thermoplastic chlorofluoropolymer with the

molecular formula (CF2CClF) n, where n is the number of monomer units in the polymer
molecule. It is similar to polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), except that it is a homopolymer of the
monomer chlorotrifluoroethylene (CTFE) instead of tetrafluoroethylene. It has the lowest water
vapor transmission rate of any plastic.

Fluoropolymers share the properties of

fluorocarbons in that they are not
as susceptible to the van der Waals force
as
hydrocarbons.
This
contributes to their non-stick and
friction reducing properties.
Also, they are stable due to the stability
multiple carbonfluorine bonds
add to a chemical compound.
Fluoropolymers
may
be
mechanically characterized as thermosets or thermoplastics. Fluoropolymers can be
homopolymers or copolymers.

Uses
Fluoropolymer resins are finding increasing use in coating bridges, water towers and coastal
storage tanks. Resin coatings have a wide variety of uses in marine environments, from boats and
ships to offshore tanks, industrial marine equipment and platforms. The fluoropolymer coating
provides a slick surface that repels airborne dirt, pollution, acid rain, mineral and salt corrosion.
Fluoropolymer manufacturers claim that fluoropolymers are safe and that it is the chemical
substance perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) used in the production process of liquid coatings that is
cause for concern. U.S. and European regulatory agencies, including the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) are studying the health and safety effects of fluoropolymers and PFOA.

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