Thermofluids 3a - Chapter 9 - 2015

ENABLING OBJECTIVES
What do we aim to achieve in this section?
Extend 2ND Law to more general control volumes

Apply 2ND law to steady state devices such
as
turbines, compressors, nozzles etc.
Apply
thermodynamic theory to real devices using

efficiency
Understand
difference between cycle efficiency and

device efficiency
Strengthen understanding of entropy as a measure of

transformability of heat
THERMOFLUIDS 3A11 (TMS 3A11)
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
1. Zeroth Law : Equality of Temperature
2. First Law : Conservation of Energy
3. Second Law : Conversion of Energy / Feasibility

4. Third Law : Limit of Entropy
5. Fourth Law : Limit of Process
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

When two bodies are independently in
thermal equilibrium with a third body,
then the two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with each other
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

When two bodies are independently in
thermal equilibrium with a third body,
then the two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with each other
1ST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

During any thermodynamic cycle a system undergoes,
the cyclic integral of the transferred heat is proportional
to the cyclic integral of the work
Q W
CONSERVATION
BALANCE
2ND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Kelvin-Plank
It is impossible to construct a device that will operate in a
thermodynamic cycle and produce no effect other than the
raising of a weight while exchanging heat with a single
reservoir
Clausius Statement
It is impossible to construct a device that will operate in a
thermodynamic cycle and produce no effect other than the
transfer of heat from a cooler body to a hotter body

Implications of Kelvin-Plank
A perpetual motion machine of the second kind is not
possible! Impossible to convert 100% heat into work!
Practical conversion of thermal energy into work requires at
least two heat reservoirs.
Amount of work extracted from such a heat engine is given
by:
W QH QL
From this we note that:
Q
Efficiency of such device is given by:
QH QL

QH
QL
1
QH
From the definition of thermodynamic temperature, we

note that:
QL
TL
QH
TH
Hence thermal efficiency of a heat engine can be reexpressed as:

TL
1
TH
For a heat pump (refrigerator) the coefficient of

performance is:
QL
QH QL
1
TH
1
TL
From the definition of thermodynamic temperature, we

also note that:
QL
TL
QH
TH
constant
Hence for any reversible thermodynamic cycle:
Q
T
QH
TH
QL
TL
constant 0

Implications of Clausius Statement
In the case of irreversible cycles where QH is the same as

that in a reversible cycle, QLirr > QLrev, hence:

Q
T
irr
QH
TH
Thus in general we would have:

Q
T
Q Lirr
TL
This equation is known as the Clausius Inequality

From this analysis it is clear that for a control mass
undergoing a process:

Q
T
is independent of path taken and depends only on the end

states of the system. It follows that this parameter is a change
of property of the system. This property is termed ENTROPY
with symbol S.
Q
dS
rev
For irreversible processes
dS
Q
T irr

Thus in general we have:
dS

Q
T
In a process that changes state of the system from state 1 to

state 2, the change in entropy is given as the integral:
S2 S1
Q
T rev
This inequality implies entropy generation for irreversible

processes i.e.:
Q
dS
Sgen
where Sgen is the generated entropy which is always

positive.

What causes generation of entropy?
(loss of potential to do work, level of chaos)
Internal friction during the process

External friction during the process
Unrestrained expansion
Finite temperature differences during heat transfer
And other causes
3RD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The entropy of a pure crystal is zero at zero absolute
temperature
4TH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

It is not possible to design a Carnot Engine or any other
physical heat engine, whose source has a positive
(absolute) temperature and sink has a negative (absolute)
temperature
2ND LAW OF CONTROL VOLUME

Control Volume Configuration
Targets processes that are accompanied by flow of mass.

Control Volume Configuration
Typical examples of control volumes.

Control Volume Analysis
We recall the control mass entropy relation presented in Chap. 8 as:
Scm
Q

Sgen
T
Because control volume includes mass flow, this eqn. can be modified to:
dScm
dt
Q

S gen
T
where
dQ
Q
and S gen
dt
dSgen
dt

Special note:
1. The masses flowing in and out of the control volume carry an amount
of entropy and do not result in any other effect
2. Although processes will take place in the masses, these are confined
to either inside or outside the control volume
3. Processes that occur inside the control volume will lead to a change
in entropy (increase or decrease)
4. Taking these into account, the entropy balance equation can be

expressed as:
Rate of change of entropy
+ in out + generation
(i.e. entropy IN less entropy OUT plus entropy generation)

Thus we have:
dScv
dt
Q
m is i m es e
S gen
T
where:
i rate mass flow at inlet (kg/sec)
m
si
e
m
entropy of mass at entry (kJ / kg K )

rate mass flow at outlet (kg/sec)
s e entropy of mass at exit (kJ / kg K )

Q cv rate of heat transfer to the control volume (kJ / sec)
T temperature of heat source right at boundary ( K )
S gen rate of entropy generation inside control volume (kJ / kg K sec)

Since the entropy term is always positive, we have
dScv
dt
misi m es e
Q
T
where equality applies to reversible processes while the inequality

applies to irreversible processes.
NB: if mi = me = 0, the equation reverts back to the control mass eqn.

The steady State Process
Control volume remains stationary with respect to reference
coordinate system
State of mass at each point in the control volume does not
change with respect to time
Rate at which heat and work cross the control volume
boundary does not change
Mass flux and state of mass at the entry and discharge
points of the control volume do not vary with time

For the steady state case, there is no change of entropy per unit
mass with time at any point within the control volume, thus:
dScv
0
dt
Hence for the steady state process from eqn.
dScv
dt
Q
m i s i m es e
S gen
T
we have
es e m
isi
m
cv
Q

S gen
T
where all time rates do not vary with time. For common systems
e.g. turbines and compressors, mass flux at inlet is equal to mass
flux at outlet i.e.
e m
i m
m

It follows that the entropy balance equation reduces to:
cv
Q
s e si
m
dS gen
T
Dividing through by m gives the equation in terms of intensive
properties i.e.
q
s e si ds gen
T
implying that
se
si
q
s gen
T
and hence
se
q
si
T
si

Governing equations:
1.
Continuity equation
i
m
2.
e
m
Energy balance
2
2
V
V
e
i
cv
Qcv mi h i
gZ i m e h e
gZ e W
2
2
3.
Entropy balance
se
q
si
T
si

Control Volume Analysis: Example
The first stage of a turbine receives superheated steam at 10MPa
and 900oC with an exit pressure of 600 kPa. Assume that this
process is reversible and adiabatic. Neglecting kinetic and potential
energy changes, determine the exit temperature and the specific
work.
Model Representation
T
i
i
10 MPa
w
T
e
600 kPa

Solution
From continuity we have
i
m
e
m
From energy balance (first law) we have

w T hi he
For a reversible adiabatic process, there is no heat transfer and
hence no entropy generation, therefore
se
si
For inlet state

hi
4361.24 kJ/kg
si
7.6272 kJ/kg K s e

For exit state we have:
se
si
Te
375o C
he
3217.96 kJ/kg
7.6272 kJ/kg K
Specific work output:

wT
4361.24 3217.96 kJ/kg
1143.28 kJ/kg

Transient Process
For a transient process, the following assumptions are made:
Control volume remains constant with respect to the reference

coordinates
State of mass will change with time but remains uniform
throughout the control volume at any time instant
State of mass entering or leaving the control volume remains

constant with time although the flow rates may vary with time.

Transient Process
Given these assumptions, the 2ND Law for control volume under
transient conditions can be expressed as:
d
ms cv
dt
cv
Q
isi m
es e
m
S gen
T
Integrating over time we have:

t d
0 dt
ms cvdt m 2s 2 m1s1 cv
misi
m es e
t
is i dt
m
0
t
es e dt
m
0
t
S dt
o gen
1S2gen

Transient Process
Putting these integrals together we have:
m 2s 2 m1s1 cv
cv
Q
m i s i m es e
dt 1S2gen
cv T
t
o
Noting that T is constant over the whole control volume at any

instant, we have:
cv
tQ
dt
o T
m 2s 2 m1s1 cv misi mes e
1S2gen

Transient Process: EXAMPLE
Steam at a pressure of 1.4 MPa and temperature of 300oC is flowing in a
pipe as shown in the Figure below. Connected to this pipe through a
valve is an evacuated tank. The valve is opened and the tank fills with
steam until a pressure of 1.4 MPa is attained and the valve is closed.
The process takes place adiabatically and kinetic and potential energy
changes are negligible. Calculate the specific entropy generated in the
filling tank.
T
2
i

Solution
Because the process is adiabatic, heat in and work out are equal to
zero, i.e.
1 Q2
0,
1W2
From continuity of mass flow we have

m1 0 hence
m2
mi
Energy balance (1ST Law) gives us

m2u 2
mi h i
i.e. u 2
And entropy balance (2ND Law) gives us

m 2s 2
misi 1S2 gen
hi

Solution
Inlet State:
Pi = 1.4 MPa, Ti = 300oC, hi = 3040.4 kJ/kg,

si = 6.9533 kJ/kg-K
Final State :
P2 = 1.4 MPa, u2 = hi = 3040.4 kJ/kg

T2 = 452oC, s2 = 7.4590 kJ/kg-K
Therefore, specific entropy generated is

1s 2gen
s 2 - si
(7.4590 6.9533) kJ/kg K
0.5057 kJ/kg K

The Reversible Steady State Process
Adiabatic
Certain special relations arise when we consider the reversible
process. For reversible adiabatic process
s e si
Hence from the property relation

Tds
dh vdP
and if ds = 0, it follows that for an adiabatic process we have

h e hi
e
v dP
i
Substituting into the first law equation to determine work done we get
2
V i V e
e
w i v dP
g Z i Z e
2

Isothermal
For reversible isothermal process, entropy balance equation (2ND Law)
is:
q
s e si
T
From this, the property equation can be integrated to yield:
Ts e si
he hi ie vdP
Substituting these two equations into the energy balance eqn. yields:
2
e
v dP
i
V i V e
g Z i Z e
2
which is the same as that obtained for the adiabatic process.


General
Because any reversible process can be represented by a series of
alternating adiabatic and isothermal processes as shown below, it
follows that the derived equations apply to all reversible processes.
T
Adiabatic
Isothermal
w i v dP
2
2
V i V e
g Z i Z e

Applications
If we consider the case where changes in kinetic and potential
energies are negligible, we have:
e
w i v dP
This equation shows the dependence of work on specific volume.
For a workless process and incompressible fluid, we have:

2
V i V e
v( Pe Pi )
g Z i Z e 0
2
This is the very important fluid mechanics equation called the Bernoulli
equation.

Applications
For polytropic processes, if
e
w i v dP
and
Pv n
constant
then
w
nR
Te Ti
n 1

Principle of Increase of Entropy
We have already established that for a control volume, the entropy
balance equation is:
dScv
es e m
isi
m
dt
Q

T
For the surroundings of the control volume, we have:

dSsurr
dt
cv
Q
es e m
isi
m
To
and hence we have:

dSnet
dt
dScv dSsurr
dt
dt

Principle of Increase of Entropy
That is:
dSnet
dt
cv Q
cv
Q

To
cv T
and because T0>T, it follows that:

dSnet
dt
dScv dSsurr
dt
dt
Sgen
This is known as the principle of increase of entropy.

Process Efficiency
According to the second law, the thermal efficiency of a heat engine is
given by
th
where
Wnet
QH
Wnet
= net work done
QH
= Heat transfer from the high temp. reservoir
At this stage, it is also important to consider process efficiency, i.e.

efficiency of the individual processes that make up the cycle.
This implies comparing the efficiency of the device under given
conditions to the performance in an ideal process under the same
conditions.

Turbine Efficiency

Turbine Efficiency
T
Pi
i
wactual
Pe
ea
ws
es

Turbine Efficiency
T
Pi
i
wactual
Assuming adiabatic process
Pe
turbine
ea
ws
Wa
Ws
hi he
hi hes
es
Typical turbine efficiency lies

in the range 0.7 to 0.88
s

Compressor Efficiency
The purpose of a compressor is to
increase the pressure of a fluid.

Compressor Efficiency
T
Again assume adiabatic process
Pe
e
es
wactual
compressor
Ws
Wa
h i h es
hi he
Pi
ws
Typical compressor efficiencies also

lie in the range 0.7 to 0.88
i
s

Nozzle Efficiency
Purpose of a nozzle is to
produce high velocity fluid
stream.

Nozzle Efficiency
Purpose of a nozzle is to produce high velocity fluid stream.
As in the previous two cases
nozzles are also considered to
be adiabatic.
T
Pi
i
nozzle
Pe
e
es
s
Ve2
Ves2
where Ve is the actual exit

velocity while Ves is the ideal
exit velocity of the nozzle.
Typical nozzle efficiencies also
lie in the range 0.9 to 0.97

Efficiency: EXAMPLE
A compressor is used to bring saturated water vapor at 1MPa to 17.5 MPa where
the actual exit temperature is 650oC. Find the isentropic compressor efficiency
and the entropy generation.
Solution
T
T=650oC
e Pe = 17.5 MPa
wactual
es
Pi = 1MPa
ws
i
compressor
Ws
Wa
h i h es
hi he

Efficiency: EXAMPLE
Solution
Inlet State: Pi=1MPa, Ti=179.91oC, si=6.5864 kJ/kg-K, hi=2778.08
kJ/kg Table B.1.2 p.708
Ideal Exit State: Pes=17.5MPa, ses=si=6.5864 kJ/kg-K, hes=3560.1 kJ/kg
Table B.1.3 p.715
Actual Exit State: Pe=17.5MPa, Te=650oC, se= 6.7357 kJ/kg-K,
he=3693.9 kJ/kg Table B.1.3 p.715
Therefore ideal work ws = hes hi = (3560.1 2778.08) kJ/kg = 782.02
kJ/kg
And the actual work wa = he hi = (3693.9 2778.08) kJ/kg = 915.82
kJ/kg
Thus compressor efficiency
compressor
Ws
Wa
782.02
85.4 %
915.82

Efficiency: EXAMPLE
Solution
Entropy generation:
s gen
s e si
(6.7357 6.5865)kJ/kg K
0.1492 kJ/kg - K

Thermofluids 3a - Chapter 9 - 2015

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ENABLING OBJECTIVES

What do we aim to achieve in this section?

Extend 2ND Law to more general control volumes

turbines, compressors, nozzles etc.

thermodynamic theory to real devices using

difference between cycle efficiency and

Strengthen understanding of entropy as a measure of

3. Second Law : Conversion of Energy / Feasibility

THERMOFLUIDS 3A11 (TMS 3A11)

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

THERMOFLUIDS 3A11 (TMS 3A11)

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

THERMOFLUIDS 3A11 (TMS 3A11)

1ST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

THERMOFLUIDS 3A11 (TMS 3A11)

2ND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

THERMOFLUIDS 3A11 (TMS 3A11)

2ND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

From this we note that:

2ND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Efficiency of such device is given by:

From the definition of thermodynamic temperature, we

Hence thermal efficiency of a heat engine can be reexpressed as:

THERMOFLUIDS 3A11 (TMS 3A11)

2ND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

For a heat pump (refrigerator) the coefficient of

From the definition of thermodynamic temperature, we

Hence for any reversible thermodynamic cycle:

THERMOFLUIDS 3A11 (TMS 3A11)

2ND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

In the case of irreversible cycles where QH is the same as

Thus in general we would have:

This equation is known as the Clausius Inequality

THERMOFLUIDS 3A11 (TMS 3A11)

2ND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

is independent of path taken and depends only on the end

For irreversible processes

2ND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

In a process that changes state of the system from state 1 to

This inequality implies entropy generation for irreversible

where Sgen is the generated entropy which is always

2ND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Internal friction during the process

THERMOFLUIDS 3A11 (TMS 3A11)

3RD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

THERMOFLUIDS 3A11 (TMS 3A11)

4TH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

THERMOFLUIDS 3A11 (TMS 3A11)

2ND LAW OF CONTROL VOLUME

THERMOFLUIDS 3A11 (TMS 3A11)

2ND LAW OF CONTROL VOLUME

THERMOFLUIDS 3A11 (TMS 3A11)

2ND LAW OF CONTROL VOLUME

THERMOFLUIDS 3A11 (TMS 3A11)

2ND LAW OF CONTROL VOLUME

4. Taking these into account, the entropy balance equation can be

(i.e. entropy IN less entropy OUT plus entropy generation)

THERMOFLUIDS 3A11 (TMS 3A11)

2ND LAW OF CONTROL VOLUME

entropy of mass at entry (kJ / kg K )

s e entropy of mass at exit (kJ / kg K )

THERMOFLUIDS 3A11 (TMS 3A11)

2ND LAW OF CONTROL VOLUME

where equality applies to reversible processes while the inequality