India: growth of modern nationalism connected to anticolonial movement

Being oppressed = shared bond between different groups

But --> their expeirences, notions about freedom were
different
THE FIRST WORLD WAR, KHILAFAT AND NON-COOPERATION
War --> a new economic and political situation
War --> increase in defence expenditure (met by war loans
and increasing taxes, introduction of custom duties and
income tax) --> prices increased (doubled from 1913-18) -->
extreme hardships for common people --> villages called to
supply soldiers --> forced recruitment --> anger
1918-19 and 1920-21 --> crops failed --> acute food
shortages (accompanied by an influenza epidemic) --> 13
million people perished
War's end --> people hoped their hardships would end -->
didn't happen
The Idea of Satyagraha
Mahatma Gandhi (returned Jan 1915) --> came from South
Africa --> had fought racist regime through satyagraha
(novel method of mass agitation) --> emphasised power of
truth and the need to search for truth --> if cause = true,
againstt= injustice, then physical force = unnecessary -->
victory by appealing to oppressor's conscience --> ppl had to
see the truth instead of being forced to accept it through
violence --> ultimate triupmh: truth --> Gandhi believed this
dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians
1916 Champaran (Bihar) --> peasants against oppressive
plantation system
1917 Kheda (Gujarat) --> supported peasants affected by
crop failure + plague epidemic = cant pay revenue -->
demanding revenue collection be relaxed

 1918 Ahmedabad (Andhra P.) --> satyagraha movement

amongst cotton mill workers
The Rowlatt Act
1919: nationwide satyagraha against Rowlatt Act
The Act had been hurriedly passed through the Imperial
Legislative Council (despite united opposition of the Indian
members)
Act --> gave govt. enormous powers to repress political
activities, allowed detention of political prisoners without
trial for two years
Gandhi --> wanted a non-violent civil disobedience movt.
against such unjust laws, which would start with a hartal on
April 6 1919
Reaction to the Act --> Rallies were organised, workers went
on strike in railway workshops, shops were closed
Government's reaction to ppl's rxn to act (+ fear of
disruption of railways and telegraph lines) --> local leaders
were picked up from Amritsar, Gandhi barred from entering
Delhi, police fire on peaceful processsion in Amritsar (10
April)
This firing --> widespread attack on banks, post offices etc.
--> martial law imposed, General Dyer took command
13 April: Large crowd (protesters + Baisakhi fair) -->
Jallianwala Bagh massacre (JBM for now)--> most rural ppl
there were unawar of martial law --> Dyer wanted 'too
produce a moral effect' (terror and awe)
JBM --> crowds took to streets in many north Indian towns
--> strikes, clashes with the police, attacks on govt.
buildings --> govt.: brutal repression, humiliate + terrorise,
satyagrahis forced to rub noses on ground, crawl on streets,
salaam (salute) all sahibs, ppl flogged, villages around
Gujranwala (punjab, now in Pak) bombed --> Gandhi called
off the movt.

 Rowlatt satyagraha --> big, but limited to cities and towns

--> need for more broad-based movt. --> need to unite
Hindu & Muslims --> Khilafat issue
WW1 --> defeat of Ottoman Turkey --> rumors about harsh
treaty going to be imposed on Ottoman emporer (=spiritual
head of Islamic world = Khalifa) --> Khilafat Committee
formed in Bombay March 1919 to defend Khalifa's temporal
powers --> young Muslim leaders (e.g. Muhammad +
Shaukat Ali) + Gandhi = discussion on united mass action
--> Gandhi saw this ass opportunity to bring Musims under
the umbrella of a unified national movt. --> Calcutta session
of Congress Sep 1920: Gandhi convinced leaders to start
non-cooperation movt. for Khilafat + swaraj
Why Non-cooperation?
Hind Swaraj (1909) = famous book by Gandhi --> says
British rule was est. and maintained with Indian's help, it
would collapse in a year
Movt. to be unfolded in stages --> first surrender of titles,
boycott of civil services, army, police, courts, legislative
councils, schools, foreign goods --> if govt. repressed -->
civil disobedience
summer 1920 --> Gandhi + Ali toured, gathered support
Many Congress members were reluctant to boycott the
council elections scheduled for Nov 1920 --> feared that
movt. might lead to violence--> sep-Dec: intense tussle
Finally Dec 1920 Nagpur session: compromise worked out,
non-coop programme adopted
DIFFERING STRANDS WITHIN THE MOVEMENT
The Movement in Towns
Started with middle class participation:

o students left govt. schools

o headmaster & teachers resigned

o lawyers gave up practice
o council elections boycotted in most provinces except
Madras
Madras --> Justice Party (of non-Brahmins) felt entering
council was one way of gaining some power (which was
limited to Brahmins)
Economic:

o foreign goods boycotted

o liquor shops picketed
o foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfires
o import of foreign cloth halved b/w 1921-22 (value from
Rs. 102 crore to 57)
o many merchants, traders refused to trade in foreign
goods/finance foreign trade
o imported clothes discarded --> indian worn -->
production of Indian textile mills and handlooms
increased
But movt. slowed down:

o Khadi was expensive (comparatively) --> poor can't

afford
o no alterante Indian institutions to replace British ones
Rebellion in the Countryside
movt. drew in peasants and tribals

 Awadh: peasants led by Baba Ramchandra (ex-indentured

labourer from Fiji, sanyasi) --> against talukdars and
landlords (for high rents, cesses/taxes, begar, no security of
tenure of tenants & were regularly evicted so that they
didn't have any rights over the land) --> demanded revenue
reduction, abolition of begar, social boycott of oppressive
landlords
In many places: nai-dhobi bandhs were organised by
Panchayats to deprive landlords of barbers and washermen
June 1920: JLN started going around the villages in Awadh,
talking, understanding grievances
Oct: Oudh Kisan Sabha est., headed by JLN and Baba
Ramchandra --> over 300 branches within a month in
nearby villages
Non-coop movt. --> integrate Awadh peasant struggle into
the wider struggle
Peasant movt. --> not on same line as Congress --> 1921:
talukdar's, merchant's houses attacked, bazaar's looted,
grain hoards taken over
Many places: local leaders told peasants that Gandhiji had
declared that no taxes were to be paid and land was to be
redistributed among the poor
Name of Mahatma invoked to sanction all actions and
aspirations

Tribals --> interpreted Gandhi and swaraj in a diff. way

Gundam Hills (Andhra P.): militant guerilla movt. spread in
the early 1920s (which wouldn't have been approved by the
Congress)
Here: Brits took away forest entry rights of ppl --> livelihood
affected, traditional rights denied --> then Brits asked ppl to
contribute begar to build road --> ppl angry --> revolt

 Leader --> interesting --> Alluri Sitaram Raju --> said he

could make correct astrological predictions, heal ppl, survive
bullets --> incarnation of god? --> oversold Gandhi, noncoop movt., persuaded to wear Khadi, give up drinking -->
but said violence = necessary
Gundam rebels --> attacked police stations, attempted to kill
British officials, carried on guerilla warfare (all for swaraj)
Raju --> captured, executed 1924 --> folk hero
Swaraj in the Plantations
Assam:plantation workers' swaraj --> free movt., retaining
link with home village
Inland Emigration Act (1859) --> plantation workers not
permitted to leave tea gardens without permission
workers --> believed Gandhi Raj incoming, every1 will be
given land in their own village --> stranded on the way by a
railway and steamer strike --> caught by police, brutally
beaten up
ppl --> had own visions of swaraj --> but related to greater
struggle
5 Feb 1922, Chauri Chaura: non-coop campaigners turned violent
--> police fired --> ppl set fire to police station --> casualties: 3
civilians, 23 policemen --> non-coop movt. stopped
TOWARDS CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE
Govt. of India Act 1919: set up elections to the provincial
councils
ppl in Congress wanted to take part in council elections -->
C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed Swaraj Party within the
Congress
But JLN, S.C. Bose --> called for mass agitation --> full
independence

 Conflict --> 2 factors shaped Indian politics at this time (late

1920s):

o 1926-30: Agricultural prices declined --> collapsed in

1920 (Great Economic Depression) --> demand fell,
exports declined --> couldnt sell agricultural products
--> turmoil
o Tory govt. in Britain constituted a Statutory Commission
under Sir John Simon -->set up in response to
nationalist movt. --> had to look into functioning of the
constitutional system in India and suggest changes -->
no Indian member
1928: came to india --> 'Go Back Simon' --> demonstrations
by all parties
Oct 1929: Lord Irwin (viceroy) to win them over, announced
a vague offer of 'dominion status' for India in an unspecified
future, and a Round Table Conference to discuss a future
constitution --> did not satisfy Congress leaders
INC: Radicals became more assertive, liberals and
moderates lost influence (were proposing a constitutional
system within the framework of British dominion)
Dec 1929: Lahore Congress session under presidency of JLN
--> demand for 'Purna Swaraj' --> 26 Jan 1930 to be
observed as Independence Day --> pledge to fight for
Independence on that day --> attracted little attention -->
Gandhi thought of new things
The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement
Gandhi --> salt = powerful symbol
31 Jan 1930: letter to Irwin --> 11 demnds (wide ranging, to
relate to ppl), including abolish of salt tax (salt = consumed
by all, imp. ingredient in food) --> ultimatum --> if Irwin
didn't negotiate (which he didn't), Congress would launch a
Civil Disobedience campaign

 Gandhi+78 trusted followers --> salt march --> 240 miles

from Gandhiji's ashram (sabarmati) to Dandi in Gujarat -->
24 days --> Gandhi talked to ppl in between
6 Apr: reached Dandi, violated law
Civil Disobedience = non coop + break laws
Thousands broke salt law in front of govt. sal factories
Foreign cloth boycotted
Liquor shops picketed
Peasants refused to pay revenue, chaukidari taxes
Village officials resigned
Many ppl broke forest laws
Govt. --> started arresting Congress leaders one by one -->
revolts
E.g. Abdul Gaffar Khan (Gandhian) arrested in April 1930 -->
angry crowds demonstrated in the streets of Peshawar,
facing armoured cars and police firing
May 1930: Gandhi arrested --> Sholapur's industrial workers
attacked police posts, municipal buildings, lawcourts, railway
stations (symbols of British rule) --> brutal repression
(attacks+arrests of satyagrahis)
5 March 1931: Gandhi-Irwin pact: movt. called off, Gandhi
went to Round Table Conference, prisoners released
Dec 1931: Round Table Conference London --> negotiations
broke down, Gandhi disappointed
On his return, Gandhi told that govt. was resorting to
repression --> Ghaffar Khan and JLN still in jail, Congress
declared illegal, measures to prevent meetings,
demonstrations, boycotts
Movt. relaunched 1932 --> lost its momentum by 1934

How Participants saw the Movement

Contryside: rich peasant communities (e.g. Patidars of
Gujarat and Jats of UP) were active in the movt.--> lost crops
--> couldn't pay revenue --> angered when govt. didnt lower
revenue --> joined movt. --> organised communities, at
times forced reluctant members, to participate in boycott
programmes --> but disappointed when movt. called off in
1931 and refused to participate in 1932
small peasants --> incomes dwindled --> could not pay rent
to landlord --> wanted it to be remitted --> joined movts. led
by SOcialists and Communists --> but Congress no support
(to not offend rich landlords)
Businessmen --> reacted against colonial policies that
restricted business activities --> expand business -->
protection against import of foreign goods, a rupee-sterling
foreign exchange ratio that would discourage imports -->
organised the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in
1920 and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of
Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927 --> led by
Purshottamdas Thakurdas, G.D. Birla, attacked colonial
control over the Indian economy --> sp movt. --> financial
help, refused to buy or sell imported goods --> but after
failed Round Table Conference, were apprehensive of the
spread of militant activities, worries about prolonged
disruption of business, of growing influence of socialism
amongst the younger members of the Congress
Industrial working class --> no participation except Nagpur
--> as industrialists came closer to the Congress, workers
stayed aloof --> some did, against low wages, poor working
conditions --> railway workers strike 1930 and dockworkers'
1932
1930s: thousands of workers in Chotanagpur tin mines wore
Gandhi caps, protest rallies, boycott campaigns --> But
congress no support as it would alienate industrialists, divide
the anti imperial forces
Women --> much wow --> salt march: listened to Gandhi,
protest marches, manufactured salt, picketed foreign cloth
and liquor shops, jailed also --> were the high-class in urban

and rich peasant household in rural areas --> remained

symbolic --> no change in their ACTUAL position
The Limits of the Civil Disobedience
Not all groups moved by the abstract concept of Swaraj -->
e.g. untouchables (dalit/oppressed)
Congress --> didnt do anything for untouchables, didnt want
to offend sanatanis
But Gandhi --> called them Harijan (children of God), got
them entry in temples, public facilities, tanks, wells, roads,
schools --> cleaned toilets to make himself seem equal to
Bhangis (sweepers) --> pursuaded upper caste
But Dalit leaders went for political empowerment of dalits
Thus, limited to Nagpur, Maharashtra region, where their
organisation was strong
B.R. Ambedkar (who organised the dailts into the Depressed
Classes Association in 1930) --> Round table conference -->
demanded separate electorates for Dalits --> got it -->
Gandhi fasted unto death, saying it would slow their
integration with the society --> Ambedkar accepeted
ultimately --> Poona Pact (sept 1932) --> gave reserved
seats in provincial and central legislative councils, but they
were to be voted in by the general electorate
But Dalit movt. = apprehensive of COngress' national movt.
Muslim --> declining relations with Congress after the
decline of the Non-coop Khilafat movt. --> Congress became
more associated with the Hindu groups e.g. Hindu
Mahasabha --> deepening distance between Hindus and
Muslims, clashes, riots
Muslim League, Congress tried to make alliance --> seemed
possible in 1927 --> imp. differences were over the question
of representation in the future assemblies that were to be
elected --> Muhammad Ali Jinnah (a Muslim league leader)
agreed to give up demand for separate electorates, in return
for aussred reserved sears in the Central Assembly,

representation in proportion with population in Muslim

dominated areas (Punjab & Bengal) --> hopes disappeared in
1928 at the All Parties Conference when M.R. Jayakar (of
Hindu Mahasabha) opposed efforts at compromise
Muslim leaders --> expressed worries about Muslim minority
THE SENSE OF COLLECTIVE BELONGING
Nationalism --> mainly through united struggles, but also
through history, fiction, folklore, songs, popular prints, etc.
20th c.: India came to be recognised as Bharat Mata
Image first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay
--> wrote Vande Mataram in 1870s --> included in his novel
Anandamath, widely sung during the Swadeshi movt.
Abanindranath Tagore --> painted Bharat Mata 1905 -->
portrayed an ascetic figure, calm, composed, divine, spiritual
--> acquired different forms --> nationalism
Nationalism --> through a movt. to revive Indian folklore -->
nationalists toured, recorded --> believed that these tales
gave a true picture of traditional culture (which had been
damaged by foreigners) --> preservation of folklore =
preservation of national identity = restore pride in one's past
Bengal: Rabindranath Tagore led this movt.
Madras: Natesa Sastri --> massive 4-volume collection of
Tamil folktales, The Folklore of Southern India. --> believed
folklore = national literature = 'most trustworthy
manifestation of people's real thoughts and characteristics'
During Swadeshi movt. --> tricolour flag designed (red,
green, yellow) --> eight lotuses (8 provinces of British India),
crescent moon (Hinus, Muslims)
1921: Gandhi designed Swaraj Flag --> tricolour (red, green,
white), spinning wheel at the centre (self-help) --> carrying
flag = symbol of defiance

 Reinterpretation of history: instead of thinking Indians as

backwards, looked at achievements, glorious dev in math,
sc, arts, arch, etc. --> decline during colonisation
Problem: when these past images/folklores were from Hindu
stuff, other communities felt left out
Conclusion
anger against colonial govt. --> unision
Congress, Gandhi --> tried to organise ppl's grievances into
a movt.
But diverse country, diverse Swaraj meanings, diverse
everything --> Congress tried to resolve differences but this
caused both unity and disunity