STRENGTH AND DESTRUCTION OF BRITTLE

MATRICES

The destruction of a brittle matrix consists of initiation and

propagation of micro cracks caused by local tensions. With increased
load or imposed deformation, the dispersed micro cracks are
transformed in to a system of macro cracks. Then, one or more major
cracks divide the elements in to separate parts and the continuity of
the element disappears in conjunction with a rapid decrease in
bearing capacity.

In cement-based matrices, the internal micro cracks exist from the

very beginning and without any external load being applied. The
cracks are concentrated in the interface layers between the aggregate
grains and cement paste, but intrinsic cracks also appear in the bulk
cement mortar. If a load is applied, then its distribution is uneven
because of the high heterogeneity of the material. Certain regions are
subjected to much higher local stress and strain than others. Stress
concentration are the reason for the cracks development even under
relatively low average stress and low values of total load.

The initial slow cracking growth explains two phenomena, which

are observed almost from the beginning of the loading: limited
acoustic emission (AE) and small deviation from linearity of the
stress strain load displacement diagrams. The tests, in which various
phenomena of facture progress were mentioned during the initial
loading stages, were published several years ago by LHermite
(1955).
1

Under the load corresponding to about 30% of the maximum value

the AE event are already numerous and the deviation from the
linearity starts to be significant.

The influence of the rate of loading and weak or stiff test machine
is also decisive. The determination of the maximum tensile strain is
subjected to different factors, such as sensitivity of measuring
devices and the magnification power of the optical instrument used
for the cracks detection. Therefore, the definition of matrix failure in
not precise enough to exclude all ambiguity. In general, it is assumed
that Portland cement paste offers a maximum tensile strain of about
100-200.10-6 but smaller values of the order of 60.10-6 are also
observed.

As the load is increased to about 70-80% of the maximum, there is

an abrupt acceleration in cracking and all other phenomena related to
progressing facture. That level of stress is sometimes called the
discontinuity point because it corresponds to qualitative
modification of several processes:
1 Rapid progress of the AE counts due to multiple cracks, which
open and propagate
2 Inflexion of the transverse strain curve, caused by the cracks,
which are measured as an apparent transversal deformation.
3 Decrease of the ultrasonic pulse velocity, because ultrasonic waves
slow down when they cross the cracks;
4 Increase of the relative volume of the material, in which voids start
to be an important part of the apparent volume.
2

The form of stress strain or load displacement curves not only

depends upon the material properties, but also on the way the load is
applied. There are two criteria for the classification of testing
machines: load or displacement control and stiffness corresponding
to the capability of energy accumulation.
In soft testing machines (load controlled) the energy accumulated
is the loading system causes rapid facture after cracking begins
because load adjustment is impossible. The corresponding curve is
modified by that effect and does not in fact reflect the materials
properties. The behavior of the machine may be compared to the
actions of the suspended weight directly loading a specimen in a
tension test, and in fact such test may furnish only information on
the ascending part of the load deformation (or stress- strain) curve.
This is the case when testing concrete specimen in in situ
laboratories where the concrete strength is determined.

Machines used in the research laboratories are mostly

displacement controlled. They are of sufficient stiffness and the
actual post-cracking behavior of brittle specimens may be
represented thanks to an appropriate decrease of load, which follow
gradual reduction of stiffness of the specimen and the deformation
or deflection.

It may be concluded that the main factor in the destruction of

brittle materials is the propagation and development of cracks. That
process is related to a materials structures and particular to the
distribution of weak and strong region. It is therefore appropriate
3

that facture mechanics is proposed as the main approach for the

explanation and modeling of the facture processes in the brittle
matrix composites.

CRACKS IN THE CEMENT MATRIX

The cracking processes develop when a system of stresses of any
origin is applied to a solid and its tensile strength is exceeded or, in
other words, when the ultimate tensile strain is exceeded.
It is usually assumed that for ordinary Portland cement matrix the
maximum tensile strain varies between 100 and 150.10 -6 and may
rarely after attain 200.10-6.
Also an initial system of defects exists in all cement based
materials. These are cracks and micro cracks, voids and pores, hard
un-hydrated cement grains, weaker and stronger regions etc. which
exist before the application of any load or imposed deformation and
may be recognized with different methods. These defects caused
concentration of high stresses even under small external actions.
The cracks propagations of high stresses even under small tensile
strength. Such systems of initial defects exist on a micro-, mesoand macro- level in all brittle materials.

The main causes of cracking in cement based composites are:

1 Volume changes during the hydration of cement and
hardening of matrices in presence of restraints e.g.
shrinkage, temperature variation, chemical influence on
particular material components, swelling of reinforcing bars
during their corrosion (these are intrinsic cracks)
2 Tensile stresses due to loads and deformations imposed
during exploitation.
5

 Different types of intrinsic cracks, which appear during processes

of hydration at the early age of a cement based matrix may be
distinguished
Plastic shrinkage cracks are considered to be caused by the loss of
water in a concrete mix because of evaporation to the air or suction
by old, neighboring concrete. This phenomenon is the origin of the
formation of micro cracks in the cement paste.

The crystals are surrounded by the gel with low tensile strength,
cracks appear, which may be detected both by microscopical
observation and by increased permeability of the paste. It is
estimated that crack width varies between 0.125m and 1.0m.
Plastic shrinkage can be controlled by keeping the concrete
surface wet since the very beginning.
The direct cause is the evaporation and the crack may be
considerably reduced if the loss of water can be limited during at
least first eight hours after casting. Cracks also develop in the
cement based composites due to other kinds of shrinkage.
Thermal variations may cause cracks, because in these highly
heterogeneous materials the thermal expansion of various
components are slightly different and produce a system of tensile
and compressive stresses due to local restraints.
The overall deformations of the elements also produce stresses
and possible cracks if the displacements are restrained by
reinforcing bars, neighboring members and layers of old concrete
6

or other rigid material. The cement paste is restrained at a local

scale by grains of sand and most of all by coarse aggregate grains.
As a result, in any kind of construction, the material has no
possibility of free deformation.
Restraints may cause compressive and tensile stresses and because
of low tensile strength of concrete-like materials, cracks appear
particularly at early age. It has to be admitted that micro cracks in
concrete are unavoidable, but the excessive cracks, due to
shrinkage and thermal effects, are usually not acceptable and may
be attributed to inadequate curing.
The intrinsic cracks and flaws are dependent on material
composition and ambient conditions humidity, temperature and
restraints and are subjected to modifications in time together
with these conditions.
The structure of concrete composites is also macroscopically
anisotropic in the direction of casting. The voids beneath
aggregate grains are formed and partly filled with water. These
voids create weak matrix-aggregate bonds in horizontal planes and
are the origin of cracks when favorable stress fields are imposed
due to external loading or other action.
The cracks in the matrix open and propagate under excessive local
stress. This means that because of a very non-uniform distribution
of stresses in the material structure, the local stresses produce
local cracks even if in the macro-scale the load is relatively small
7

and is considered to be causing an average stress below limits of

elastic behavior.
There are two characteristic points in the cracking process: crack
initiation; that is, opening of the first crack in the matrix, and the
beginning of unstable cracking. After the first crack opening, also
called the discontinuity point, the stable crack propagation starts,
provided that additional energy is supplied, for instance by an
increase in load. When the unstable cracking stage is reached, the
cracks progress rapidly without any input of new energy and lead
to the failure.
In ordinary- and high-strength materials, the matrix has lower
strength than the aggregate grains. Under load the cracks are
crossing the matrix and contouring the grains.

In lightweight composites the situation is opposite: the cracks

propagate across the grains
It should be remembered that what is macroscopically called a
matrix also contains grains and inclusions of lower level; that is,
the mortar which, with the aggregate grains, forms the ordinary
concrete structure is itself composed of cement paste and grains
of sand
Non-hydrated grains of cement and particles of micro-fillers like
fly ash and SF are surrounded by interfacial layers.
The increase in load corresponding to the first crack opening in
elements subjected to bending or tension is an important objective
in material design. It may be achieved by several methods:
8

increase of the tensile strength of the matrix itself, improvement

of bond strength to aggregate grains and reinforcement,
transformation of major cracks to micro cracks by adequate
reinforcement, etc.