Sei sulla pagina 1di 15

In: Food Engineering, pp 311-352

Editor: Brendan C. Siegler


Submitted: July, 2010

ISBN 978-1-61728-913-2
2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Accepted: December, 2010

Published: March, 2011

Chapter 6

CURRENT TRENDS IN DRYING AND


DEHYDRATION OF FOODS
Debabandya Mohapatra1 and Sabyasachi Mishra2
1

College of Food Processing Technology & Bio-Energy,


Anand Agricultural University, Anand-388110, Gujarat, India
2

College of Agricultural Engineering & Post Harvest Technology,


Central Agricultural University, Ranipool-737135, Gangtok, Sikkim, India
Emails: debabandya@gmail.com; s.mishra@usask.ca

ABSTRACT
Drying and dehydration techniques have constantly been evolving since ancient
time; from sun drying to solar drying, from convective air drying to impingement
drying. The heating medium has changed from sunlight to dielectric and
electromagnetic radiation, from hot air to jet impingement, from steam to
superheated steam etc. Drying essentially is a simultaneous heat and mass transfer
process, wherein heating medium or internal heat generation helps in evaporation of
free water molecules from the product. Mass transfer rate, during the
drying/dehydration process, can be enhanced by different pretreatments, apart from
using enhanced temperature, optimum air flow rate in case of convective drying or
using high intensity electric field as in case of dielectric and other electromagnetic
drying systems however, opting for extreme conditions, product quality may be
compromised. To suit the consumer demand for quality product, current technologies
are aiming at integrating different pre-treatments like blanching, chemical treatment,
physical modification, application of thermal and non-thermal processes, for
inactivation of enzymes, reduction in microbial load and structural modification with
an aim to enhance mass transfer rate. Enhanced mass transfer rate eventually
overcomes the drying cost and deterioration associated with longer drying time.
Innovative drying technologies such as refractance window drying, corona air or
electrohydrodynamic drying, super-critical CO2 drying and bio-film drying are trying
to address some problems associated with drying. Various hybrid drying technologies
that manifest judicious integration of several dehydration techniques such as osmosis,
convective, vacuum, microwave, radiofrequency, infrared and ohmic heating and
freeze drying with non-thermal processing like high pressure, ultrasound, pulse
electric field and irradiation are cost effective, as these methods reduce drying time
considerably at the same time maintaining the product quality.

Keywords: pre-treatment, hybrid drying, non-thermal processing, electromagnetic


heating.

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Debabandya Mohapatra and Sabyasachi Mishra

1. INTRODUCTION
Drying or dehydrations is one of the ancient methods and important unit operations
for preserving food. Considering its importance, it is imperative to pay attention to the
end product quality and cost associated with it, as more and more health conscious
consumers are demanding for better quality product. Sun drying, a renewable source of
energy has been used since time immemorial, but the product quality and storability is not
satisfactory owing to its longer drying time. Moreover, this process is weather dependent
and possible in places where, abundant sunshine is available. Alternatively, freeze drying
(FD) provides an excellent means of food preservation with maximum retention of
nutrients, flavor and quality; it has its limitations, however. Freeze-dried product often
tastes spongy as the ice crystals formed during freezing damage the tissue structure.
Besides, it is very expensive and only applicable to high end product. On the other hand,
convective air drying (AD), though economical, takes excess time and does not contribute
to uniform product quality. Therefore, researchers all over the world are coming up with
new drying technologies that cater for the product quality in terms of color, flavor, texture
and microbial safe product, at the same time minimize drying time and cost.
The term drying may be loosely referred to as the removal of free moisture through
addition of heat. This phenomenon is dependent on heat and mass transfer rate, which in
turn is dependent on the shape, size, composition, and structure of the product as well as
mode of drying. Simultaneous heat and mass transfers largely depend on moisture
movement in the capillary zone, liquid and molecular diffusion, vapour diffusion through
the pore spaces, hydrodynamic flow; all of them occurring either in parallel or series
throughout or in some phases of the drying process. Considering the fact that all
biological materials have different composition and structure, providing altogether
different cellular barrier to the moisture migration, adds to the complexity (Nieto et al.,
2001) to mass transfer rate during drying or dehydration process. Plant tissues, in
particular, comprised of cells with vacuoles, cytoplasm, tonoplast, plasmalemma,
cellwall, and intercellular spaces. Moisture can migrate out through (i) trans-membrane
transport via tonoplast and plasmalemma, (ii) symplastic transport via cytoplasm, and (iii)
cellwall (Molz & Ikenberry, 1974 and Tyree, 1970 cited by Nieto et al., 2001). During the
first falling rate period of drying, moisture diffusion governs the process. According to
Ficks second law of diffusion, the moisture transfer during the dehydration process
depends on the intercellular space, tortuosity, deformation of the vegetable tissue,
chemical composition, and structure of the food. Looking at the diverse nature of the food
products undergoing drying/dehydration process, it is essential to consider the nature of
inherent barriers and the means to modify it, to gain maximum advantage for the drying/
dehydration process.

2. PRE-TREATMENTS
Enhanced heat and mass transfer rate during drying or dehydration can be achieved
by disintegrating the cellular matrix through various pre-treatments such as physical
modification, chemical treatment, enzymatic treatment, blanching, and non-thermal
treatments like ultrasound, high pressure processing (HPP), irradiation, pulse electric field
(PEF) etc. Some of these pre-treatment are discussed briefly in the following sections.

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Current Trends in Drying and Dehydration of Foods

2.1. Physical Modification


Moisture diffusion can be enhanced by cutting the fruits and vegetable surface by
rupturing the cellwall or removing the resinous cellwall that deters the moisture transfer,
as in case of raisins, plums or prunes. Enhanced diffusion can also be achieved by sizing
or cutting into pieces, as it would increase exposed surface area to drying environment
(Doymaz, 2008). Since drying behaviour depends on the thermal and mass diffusivity, it
is imperative to consider size and shape of the food material prior to drying to improve
the drying efficiency. Piercing or abrasion of skin can also increase the diffusion, as this
process will aid in diffusion through the breakage of relatively impervious intact cellwall
and chemical pre-treatment can be avoided (Di Matteo et al., 2000). Jazini and
Hatamipour (2009) have tried to enhance the mass transfer rate during air-drying by
piercing the plums. As compared to the chemical dip of the plums in NaOH solution, the
pierced plums dried faster. This provides an insight how the chemical treatment can be
avoided by opting for simpler physical methods. Many fruits and vegetables are frozen
prior to drying. On freezing the samples, the water molecules form icicles, disrupt the
cellular structure; on drying the larger icicles collapse. Since the cellular matrix do not
regain their original shape, water diffusion become faster during dehydration process
(Arvalo-Pinedo & Murr, 2007).

2.2. Chemical Treatment


The cellwall, which is the characteristic feature of higher plant tissues, is very
complex in nature, comprising of fibrous cellulosic matrix, in which pectin,
hemicellulose, proteins, pigments and some phenolic compounds are embedded (Sila et
al., 2008). In case of fruits and vegetables, cellulosic matrix and pectin that turn into
protopectins during ripening process, retard the moisture movement. Fruits can be treated
with enzymes like pectinase, pectin methyl esterase, polygalactouronase for acting on
pectin and converting them into protopectins, which then disassociated itself from the
inner core (Baker & Wicker, 1996), making way for moisture diffusion and subsequent
evaporation from the surface during drying/dehydration process. Grapes had long been
treated with alkali to dissolve the resinous cellwall that prevents water diffusion across
the impermeable membrane for production of raisin. Ethyl or methyl oleate and water
solution in potassium carbonate emulsion are known to dissolve the wax cuticle, wherein
potassium carbonate serves as an emulsifier to maintain the ethyl or methyl oleate in
suspension. These chemical treatments reduce the drying time by physically cracking the
grape skin (Petrucci et al., 1974; Gabas et al., 1999). Fruits and vegetables loose their
texture and color during dehydration process; treating the samples with calcium chloride
prior to drying can impart firmness to the dried food sample. Ca+2 facilitate cellwall crosslinking, thereby preventing shrinkage and textural collapse during dehydration. Citric
acid, sodium chloride, sodium meta bisulphite, sodium bicarbonate, sodium hydroxide,
potassium meta bisulphite (KMS), and magnesium oxide have been used as chemical pretreatment prior to drying of various fruits and vegetables (Saravacos et al., 1988; Sian &
Ishak, 1991; Rocha et al., 1993; Mahmutolu et al., 1996; Pangavhane et al., 1999; Negi &
Roy, 2000; Doymaz, 2004a; Kadam et al., 2006) for reducing drying time. Some of the
works are listed in table 1.

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Debabandya Mohapatra and Sabyasachi Mishra


Table 1. Chemicals used in pre-treatments to reduce drying time

Chemical
Citric acid
Ethyl oleate solution

Ethyl oleate and NaOH


Ethyl oleate and K2CO3
Ethyl oleate and KMS
Fermented whey
KMS
KOH
K2CO3 with olive oil
MgCO3
NaOH

Product
Apple
Paw Scallop meat
Mulberry fruits
Seedless grape
Sour cherry
Grape
Black grape
Seedless grapes
Apricot
Mushroom
Mushroom
Plum
Seedless grapes
Dasheen leaves
Plum

References
Doymaz, 2009
Marquez-Rios et al., 2009
Doymaz, 2004c
Esmaiili et al., 2007
Doymaz, 2007
Dev et al., 2008
Doymaz, 2006
Doymaz & Pala, 2002
Doymaz, 2004b
Walde et al., 2006
Walde et al., 2006
Tarhan, 2007
Caglar et al., 2009
Maharaj & Sankat, 1996
Tarhan, 2007

2.3. Blanching
2.3.1. Conventional Hot Water or Steam Blanching
Fruits, vegetables and other biological materials are considered living even after
harvesting. They undergo various biochemical and physiological changes, unless until the
changes causing substrates are inactivated by different means, such as blanching.
Blanching is a pre-processing step where fruits and vegetables are subjected to high
temperature, generally either in the form of hot water or steam. Lately, microwave (MW),
radiofrequency (RF), infrared (IR) and ohmic heating (OH) are also used to reduce the
blanching time and overcome nutrient losses. Blanching causes inactivation of enzymes
responsible for biochemical changes such as browning, chlorophyll, lycopene, and
carotene degradation, off-flavor development, reduction in microbial load and escape of
entrapped gas in the intracellular spaces. At the same time, it leads to structural and ultrastructural alteration of tonoplast and plasmalemma associated with cellwall, gelatinization
of starch, thermal denaturation of mucilage, and increase in intercellular spaces. The
disintegration of the cellwall, which otherwise prevents moisture transfer, aids to the
diffusion of moisture from centre to the surface of the product, resulting in reduction of
drying time and better quality product (Doymaz, 2008).
Hot water is one of the common methods of blanching fruits and vegetables; the
temperature ranging between 70-100 C. It results in more uniform heating and allows
processing at lower temperature (De Corcuera et al., 2004). In hot water blanching
however, there are more leaching and nutrient losses (Abdel-Kader, 1991) and requires
higher blanching time and water as compared to steam blanching (Ogunmoyela, 1989).
On the other hand, steam blanching though more efficient in restricting leaching and
nutrient losses, may cause over blanching at the surface and under blanching at the centre
of larger food product. Another limitation is the use of food grade steam for blanching
purpose (De Corcuera et al., 2004). Sotomea et al. (2009) has used super-heated steam at
115 C and hot water micro droplets (18 %) to achieve blanching in potato. Color and

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Current Trends in Drying and Dehydration of Foods

texture degradation were prevented with super-heated steam and water micro droplet
blanching as compared to hot water blanching.
Blanching when done in sugar or brine solution prevents browning, pigment
deterioration, leaching loss, and firming up the cellular structure. Though, the cellular
disruption enhances the drying rate but for osmotically treated samples; due to glucose
uptake and shrinkage, the effective diffusivity decreases (Nieto et al., 2001).

2.3.2. Microwave Heating


Use of MW energy started during the World War II as by product of radar
technology. These electromagnetic waves lie in the frequency ranges of 300 MHz to 300
GHz with corresponding wavelengths from 1 to 0.001 m. Worldwide, MW frequency of
915 and 2450 MHz are used for domestic and industrial purpose (Vadivambal & Jayas,
2008). MW heating system generally consists of MW generator or magnetron, wave
guide and applicator. MW heating, however depends on the dielectric property of the
food material, which in turn depends on the frequency of the microwaves, food
temperature, moisture content, salt content or ionic conductivity, and other constituents.
Food materials are poor insulator, have the capability of store and dissipate electrical
energy when subjected to rapidly alternating electromagnetic field. The electromagnetic
field polarizes the bound water molecules and causes ionization. As the electromagnetic
field polarity changes very fast (at frequency of 2450 MHz), the polarized molecules and
ions oscillate between the electromagnetic field. Collision between the polarized
molecules, ionized atoms and polar molecules thus generate enough heat energy to
evaporate the water molecule, by freeing it from its present state. The volumetric heat
generation is instantaneous, throughout the food material, compared to conventional
conduction or convection heating process (Tang et al., 2002). In MW heating system,
both the dielectric constants and the loss factor due to polarization of bound water in
foods would increase with temperature. On the other hand, these two properties of free
water would decrease when temperature increases (Tang et al., 2002). There are certain
limitations with MW heating though i.e. hot spot generation due to non-uniform heating
and limitation of penetration depth (Vadivambal & Jayas, 2007). Microwaves at 915 MHz
have more penetration depth as compared to 2450 MHz but heating rate is slower in the
latter case. Literatures suggests that MW pretreatment prior to osmotic dehydration and
convective air drying, increases mass transfer rate, reduces drying time considerably by
increasing the effective diffusivity (Moreno et al., 2000; Severini, et al., 2005; Contreras
et al., 2008).
2.3.3. Radiofrequency Heating
RF waves basically falls under the 10-300 MHz category of the electromagnetic
radiation range. The commercial and domestic operating frequencies are 13.56, 27.12 or
40.68 MHz. A RF heating system generally consists of two main components (i) a
generator and (ii) an applicator. The generator section is where the RF power is generated
and the applicator section is where the material is placed and heated. RF has the
advantage over MW that it can penetrate to a greater depth (22 m at 13.56 MHz) as
compared to MW (0.3 and 7 cm at 2450 MHz to 915 MHz), simpler in construction and
higher electric to electromagnetic power conversion (Tang et al., 2005). Since it can
penetrate to greater depth larger fruits and vegetables can be blanched using RF energy
prior to processing and drying. Some of the limitations of the industrial scaling up of RF
system for blanching are lack of sufficient data on dielectric properties of food material in
the RF range as compared to MW systems. But the loss factor of most moist foods,

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Debabandya Mohapatra and Sabyasachi Mishra

especially those with high salt content, increases with product temperature in the RF
frequency range. This often leads to significant non-uniform heating. A major challenge
in RF heating research and development is to design RF applicators that provide uniform
field patterns in foods and to overcome possible thermal runaway in moist foods
containing dissolved salts (Tang et al., 2005).

2.3.4. Infrared Heating


When radiant electromagnetic energy impinges upon a food surface, it may induce
changes in the electronic, vibrational, and rotational states of atoms and molecules. As
food is exposed to IR radiation, it is absorbed, reflected, or scattered. IR waves are the
part of electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths varying form 300 GHz (1 mm) to 400
THz (750 nm). It can be divided into three parts (i) near IR 120 to 400 THz (2,500 to 750
nm), (ii) Mid-IR, 30 to 120 THz (10 to 2.5 m) and (iii) far IR 300 GHz to 30 THz (1 mm
to 10 m) (Krishnamurthy et al., 2008). Radiant energy belonging to IR region on
impingement on the biomaterials is absorbed on the surface and increases the heat flux
(Parroufe et al., 1992), but Dutta and Ni (2002), in their work, postulated that IR waves
are also capable of internal heating, depending on their penetrating depth. The food
substances absorb FIR energy most efficiently through the mechanism of changes in the
molecular vibrational state, which can lead to radiative heating. Water and organic
compounds such as proteins and starches, which are the main components of food, absorb
FIR energy at wavelengths greater than 2.5 m (Sakai & Hanzawa 1994), with most food
falling in the high transmissivities (low absorptivities) 2.5-3.0 m (Sandu, 1986) region.
IR energy is more effective in surface moisture removal as compared to convective hot
air, as the radiant energy has higher heat flux. The waves directly heat the product
without heating the ambient air (Jones, 1992), through internal heat generation as well as
absorbance of radiant energy, which in turn converts to heat energy (Ginzburg, 1969 cited
by Sharma et al., 2005a). IR has excellent radiation characteristics and high energy
conversion rates can be achieved. Since radiant energy very quickly generates heat within
the material, lowering the temperature gradient quickly, energy consumption reduces
considerably. IR energy can be achieved by using ceramic coated radiators (Mongpraneet
et al., 2002). Since the penetration depth is not much as compared to other
electromagnetic waves such as MW, RF; IR can only be employed in cases where the
sample thickness is very small (about 1 mm) and surface heating governing the process as
it is the case of conductive or convective heating. This mode of energy transfer is quite
energy efficient and not environmentally hazardous (van der Drift et al., 1997). Because
of its low penetration depth, IR energy has not been used extensively as a thermal
processing mode for blanching fruits and vegetables. Research findings suggests that IR
heating causes surface cell damage limited to less than a millimeter distance and has
better texture compared to hot water blanching process (Galindo et al., 2005).
Simultaneous blanching and partial dehydration of apple slices has been attempted by
Zhu et al. (2010) and it was found that PPO and POD inactivation was better in thinner
slices and with good visual quality.
2.3.5. Ohmic Heating
Ohmic heating or Joules heating or resistance heating is the heating of food
materials by passage of alternating current, through two oppositely charged electrodes,
where the food material itself serves as the resistance. Applied alternating electrical field
ionizes the molecules which collide with each other to dissipate heat energy. The
dissipated heat energy is proportional to the square of the electric field strength and

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Current Trends in Drying and Dehydration of Foods

electrical conductivity (Sastry & Li, 1996). Electrical conductivity increases with
temperature and field strength as a result of reduction in drag movement by the ionized
particles. Solid content and particle distribution reduce the electrical conductivity, as the
larger and solid particles resist ionic movement (Castro et al., 2003). Linear distribution
of electrical conductivity () with respect to temperature and voltage strength has been
proposed (Eq.1) for semi-liquid materials like apricot and peach puree (Icier & Ilicali,
2005).

D n BT C

(1)

where, is voltage strength (V/cm), T is temperature (C), and D, B and C are


constants.
Since OH depends on the flow of current, distribution of heat is uniform and rapid. It
does not involve any moving part, utilizes clean electrical energy, and poses no
environmental hazard. However, there is irreversible electroporation in the food samples
when high intensity electric field is applied across the food sample (Lebovka et al.,
2005b). This subsequently brings about changes in the cellular matrix. The membrane
destruction changes the mobile water and the voltage gradient induces fluid motion
through the capillary. Thus, heating can cause enhanced mobile moisture movement and
ionic mobility which is then reflected as increased thermal conductivity and OH rate
(Wang & Sastry, 1997). OH has been successfully utilized for the purpose of blanching,
fermentation, extraction of juice, evaporation, and dehydration (Eliot-Godereaux et al.,
2001; Sensoy & Sastry, 2004; Lakkakula et al., 2004). OH in blanching reduces leaching
losses in vegetables and takes lesser time as compared to hot water blanching (Mizrahi,
1996; Icier et al., 2006). The efficiency of OH is dependent on the conductive nature of
the food to be processed (Zoltai & Swearingen, 1996). Conductivity of few food materials
is presented in table 2, which signifies that the electrical conductivity has higher for
animal product with higher protein content compared to that of fruits and vegetables and
starch solutions. These properties can be used to the advantage of using OH for
processing animal products. As OH causes electroporation in the food materials, its use as
blanching process prior to dehydration has been worked out for various food materials.
Some selected examples of fruits and vegetables pre-treated with OH prior to drying for
enhancing drying rate delineated in table 3.

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Table 2. Electrical conductivity of some food materials at 25 C

Commodity
Conductivity, S/cm
Commodity
Apple golden delicious
0.067 0.020a
Peach
a
Apple Red delicious
0.075 0.016
Pear
Beef
0.44b
Pineapple
Chicken
0.37b
Pork
Breast
Top loin
0.665 0.048a
Tender
Shoulder
0.549 0.023a
Thigh
Tender loin
0.348 0.040a
Drumstick
0.444 0.038a
Carrot
0.13b
Potato
Wheat starch
Potato starch
13.30.210-4 c
Corn starch
Rice starch
2.30.210-4 c
a
Strawberry
0.186 0.047
Yam
a
Sarang et al., 2008
b
Palaniappan and Sastry, 1991a,b
c
Morales-Sanchez et al., 2009, starches of water suspension of 30:70 (w/w)

Conductivity, S/cm
0.170 0.018a
0.084 0.019a
0.037 0.014a
0.560 0.051a
0.532 0.031a
0.584 0.033a
0.32b
1.140.210-4 c
0.650.210-4 c
0.11b

Current Trends in Drying and Dehydration of Foods

319

Table 3. Ohmic heating as pretreatment for drying of fruits and vegetables


Product
Apple cubes

Ohmic heating
60V/cm

Salient features
Enhanced electrical conductivity for higher electric strength and
time, higher water and sugar transfer rates at a moderate
temperature of 37 C

References
Allali et al., 2009

Red delicious
apple cylinders

4 Hz saw tooth (20 &


40V/cm), 60Hz sine
wave (40,60,70V
/cm)
14 V/cm, 30 Hz, 60
Hz and7.5 kHz

4 Hz saw tooth pre-treatment yielded higher air drying rate,


advantageous for intermediate foods

Lima & Sastry, 1999

Increased drying rate dependence on frequency, higher at lower


frequency (30 and 60 Hz)

Salengke & Sastry, 2005

Potato cubes
Strawberry
Sweet potato

30-100V/cm

Enhanced diffusivity in convective drying


Enhanced mass transfer in osmotic dehydration
Higher hot-air and vacuum drying rates

Yam

60 Hz sine wave and


4 Hz saw tooth wave

4 Hz saw tooth pre-treatment yielded higher air drying rate

Lebovka et al., 2006


Allali et al., 2008
Wang & Sastry, 2000
Zhong & Lima, 2003
Lima & Sastry, 1999

Grapes

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Debabandya Mohapatra and Sabyasachi Mishra

2.4. Non-Thermal Process


2.4.1. Pulse Electric Field
Biological tissues react differently when external electrical field is applied across
them. The electric potential, if high enough (above 10 kV/cm), when applied even for less
duration (micro or nano seconds) can alter the tissue structure, resulting in
permeabilization of cellwall and pore formation (Knorr et al., 1994; Ho & Mittal, 1996;
Knorr & Angersbach, 1998; Jeyamkondan et al., 1999; Ade-Omowaye et al., 2000). Since
the pore formation is limited to certain area, not the whole membrane, the cell matrix
remains intact. Although various food products have different morphological structure
and electro physical properties, most of them respond to voltage application in the similar
fashion. Membrane breakage is linked to electric field strength and pulse, suggesting that
when electric field strength is within the limit of cell resistance, there can be reversible
electroporation, but once this exceeds, the cells undergoes permanent damage
(Angersbach et al., 1999, 2000, 2002). Additionally, the magnitude of the electric field
necessary for reversible membrane permeabilization by electric pulses decreases when the
cell radius increases (Zimmermann, 1986 as cited by Ade-Omowaye et al., 2001a). This
characteristic feature of PEF, especially in food system has great potential for its use as
pre-treatment to drying, as it would enhance the mass transfer rate (Kemp & Fryer, 2007).
PEF application deviates from OH by the high magnitude and very less duration of
electric field. PEF coupled with temperature can decrease the damage time of the cellular
structure (Lebovka et al., 2005a) and invariably cut down the total drying time,
significantly (Ade-Omowaye et al., 2001a). Compared to other thermal treatments, this
process does not increase the temperature of the product, thus reducing nutrition loss and
heat sensitive volatiles (Butz & Tauscher, 2002). Moreover it take very less time to
achieve same degree of structural disintegration required for enhancing mass transfer rate,
compared to other thermal processes. PEF has been applied to increase the mass transfer
rate during osmotic dehydration of apples (Taiwo et al., 2002, 2003a), strawberries
(Taiwo et al., 2003b), bell peppers (Ade-Omowaye et al., 2002), carrots (Rastogi et al.,
1999; Mishra et al., 2006), drying of red beet roots (Shynkaryk et al., 2008), potato
(Lebovka et al., 2005), red paprika (Ade-Omowaye et al., 2001b). The success of PEF
treatment, however, lies on the design of electrodes preventing electrolysis and rise in
temperature for heat sensitive food product.
2.4.2. Power Ultrasound
Sound waves carry acoustic energy and can be transmitted though pressure
fluctuations in air, water or any other elastic media. These acoustic waves when
encounter any deviation of particles from their mean position, they try to level it off;
thereby passing some amount of energy to the next particle. So the disturbances go on in
a cyclic manner, forming compression, through increase in pressure and rarefaction,
though decrease in pressure, in the medium (Mulet et al., 2003). Sound waves can be
classified into three categories i.e. supersonic (frequency < 20 Hz), audible (20 Hz <
frequency >20 kHz), or ultrasound (frequency >20 kHz). Ultrasound waves can again be
classified into two categories, high frequency-low energy waves that are used for nondestructive quality measurement and analysis and low frequencyhigh energy waves or
power ultrasound, which is of importance in drying and dewatering process. Power
ultrasound usually refers to the frequency range between 20-40 kHz. Power ultrasound
has been used to accelerate processes such as dehydration, drying, freezing and thawing,
tenderization of meat, crystallization of lactose and fat and to improve processes such as

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Current Trends in Drying and Dehydration of Foods

cutting, extraction, emulsification, ageing of wines and esterification (Gallego-Juarez,


2006; Bhaskaracharya et al., 2009). Its use as dewatering or drying of biomaterials has
gained momentum just few years ago. Power ultrasound waves, when propagated through
any food medium, result in cavitation and bubble formation, compression and rarefaction,
as well as cavitation heating caused due to absorbance of acoustic energy on the product
interfaces and streaming. Cavitation occurs when acoustic waves propagate through
liquid media, forming very small bubbles. If the bubbles are of critical size, as determined
by the wave frequency; then they explode releasing energy in the form of impulses which
can have local point temperature about 1000 K and pressure of 1000 atm. But it does not
raise the temperature of the liquid food material; if the bubbles explode near the boundary
then it gets evaporated. These phenomena result in structural disintegration and energy
dissipation to the medium (Mason et al., 1996). The high intensity acoustic waves (20-40
kHz) disintegrate the cellular structure, leading to cell permeabilization; opening up the
pores leading to higher mass transfer during drying/ dehydration process, almost doubling
the moisture diffusion coefficient (Simal et al., 1998; Gallego-Juarez et al., 1999;
Fuente-Blanco et al., 2006; Garcia-Perez et al., 2006). Power ultrasound application as
pre-treatment prior to drying has been applied to different fruits and vegetables such as
melon (Fernandes et al., 2008), apple (Carcel, et al., 2007, Deng & Zhao, 2008), banana
slices (Fernandes & Rodrigues, 2007; Mohapatra et al., 2009; Azoubel et al., 2010;
Mohapatra et al., 2010 a,b,c), button mushrooms, brussels sprouts, cauliflower (Jambrak
et al., 2007). Reports claim that the rehydrated product has better quality compared to
product treated with conventional blanching process and untreated samples.

2.4.3. High Pressure Processing


HPP is essentially a non-thermal processing in which the food products are subjected
to high pressure (100 to 600 MPa). High pressure equipments include high pressure
generating piston and pressure vessels. In the inlet end, oil of relatively low pressure and
smaller area on displacement, enables to generate high pressure (to the tune of 700 MPa)
on the outlet end, which then is applied to process the food product. HPP have advantage
over the thermal processing, being capable to affect the product instantaneously and
uniformly, without affected by the shape and size of the product (Torres & Velazquez,
2005). Since this process involves minimal heating, the organoleptic and nutritional
properties are similar to unprocessed foods, with better stability (Butz et al., 2003) and
has been accepted by consumers for its naturalness and improved taste (Nielsen et al.,
2009). In addition to cause enzymatic inactivation (Montero et al., 2001; Phunchaisri &
Apichartsrangkoon, 2005; Niu et al., 2009; Terefe et al., 2010), microbial inactivation
(Buzrul et al., 2008; Castro et al., 2008; Shao & Ramaswamy, 2008; Jofre et al., 2009)
and retention of antioxidative capacity (Garca et al., 2001; Butz et al., 2002), this process
also brings about textural changes in the food (Butz et al., 2002, De Roeck et al., 2010),
which could be of importance considering mass transfer phenomena in drying and
dehydration process. Since there are structural changes associated with HPP, as it exerts
non-hydrostatic stress on the cellwall, modifying it (Hartmann et al., 2006); thermal
conductivity increases, confirming the uniform structural disintegration during the
processing (Zhu et al., 2008). Ultra-high pressure can affect the hydrophobic and ionic
bonds within or between macromolecules, but does not influence other stronger bonds,
like hydrogen bonds in hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin (Yang et al., 2009). Some
reports also claim protein (Tedford et al.,1998) and carbohydrate structural modification,
thus loss of allerginity and change in functional properties in case of cereals and legumes
(Estrada-Giron et al., 2005). The textural properties of plant origin depend on the

322

Debabandya Mohapatra and Sabyasachi Mishra

enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions; choosing proper temperature and pressure


combination, some of the enzymes can be activated and some can be inactivated to aid in
processing, depending on the food product and the nature of enzymes (Oeya et al., 2008).
Some of the advantages of HPP can be summarized as follows (i) better quality
retention compared to thermal process, (ii) in some case cheaper alternative to thermal
processing, (iii) uniform and homogenous effect on the food regardless of its shape and
size, (iv) suitable combination with temperature, can activate or inactivate enzymes, as
per the requirement (v) cold pasteurization can be achieved for heat sensitive material, but
it is more effective with high temperature combination, (vi) requisite pressure can be
achieved with minimum time, thus lowering the processing time, (vii) the structural
changes in proteins, carbohydrates can be effectively used as different functional food
and dehydration system using proper temperature and pressure limit, (viii) change in
cellwall and pectin structure with chemical impregnation can retain better firmness of the
product, (ix) structural modification in the cellwall can aid in osmotic dehydration and
drying process (Butz et al., 2002; Ibarz et al., 2004; Wennberg & Nyman, 2004).
Some research work indicated the benefits of HP treatment prior to or during osmotic
dehydration of pineapple (Rastogi & Niranjan, 1998), potato (Rastogi et al., 2000),
mango (Tedjo et al., 2002) and found the mass transfer rate to be higher compared to the
conventional blanching process for red paprika (Ade-Omowaye et al., 2001b), high
drying rate due to cell permeabilization for Amasya and red delicious apples, green beans
and carrots (Yucel et al., 2010). Effect of HPP on the structural modification of various
food products are compiled in table 4.

2.4.4. Irradiation
Ionizing radiation has been used for pasteurization and sterilization process for fresh
and processed fruits and vegetables as high ionizing radiation dose (above 1 kGy)
destroys the bacterial spore and vegetative cell. Its use as pre-treatment to drying or
dehydration process is gaining acceptance as exposure to gamma irradiation causes micro
structural breakage in the cellwall or cellwall permeabilization, facilitating mass transfer.
Thus, the irradiated food tissues with structural damage assist the movement of mobile
water molecules, acting as capillaries. Research findings on dried potato, beetroot, carrot,
apple slices subjected to gamma-irradiation, doses varying from 2.5 to 12 kGy, resulted in
histological changes and enhanced mass transfer rate with the increase in doses (Wang &
Chao, 2002, 2003a,b; Wang & Du, 2005; Rastogi, 2005; Rastogi, et al., 2006; Mishra et
al., 2006; Nayak et al., 2006a,b, 2007). Some report, however, claims that irradiation in
low doses (1-2 kGy) causes higher cellcell adhesion through increasing of calcium-cross
linking at the middle lamellae regions, in addition to an increment of cross-links of
polymers into the cellwall (Latorre et al., 2010), this may adversely affect the moisture
migration. Thorough research is needed before recommending the doses and duration of
irradiation for drying pre-treatment. Though consumer have some apprehension about the
irradiated food, in long run, irradiation seems to be a better option for disinfection of
food, adhering to the safety norms as well as an energy saving process.

323
Table 4. Effect of HPP on structural changes in foods
Commodity

Operating conditions

HP effect

References

Broccoli

210 MPa

Less cell damage, higher electrical


conductivity and drip losses compared
to conventionally frozen at atmospheric
pressure

Fernandez et al., 2006

Carrot

100 to 550 MPa for 2, 10


or 30 min in polyethylene
packed condition

Pressure above 200 MPa resulted in


loss of firmness, turgor pressure,
disruption in cellwall, thickening of
cellwall above 300 Mpa pressure

Araya et al., 2007

80 C -0.1 MPa, 100 C0.1 MPa and 80 C & 600


MPa

HP treated samples better texture than


that of thermally processed
limited pectin solubilization and cell
breakage indicating strong intercellular
adhesion

De Roeck et al., 2008

300500MPa for 15 min

Protein aggregation in cell protoplasm,


swelling and breakage of the cellwalls
and starch granules at higher pressure

Biaszczak et al., 2007

Marked increase in soluble solids

Phunchaisri &
Apichartsrangkoon,
2005

Change in protein structure and higher


yield

Cruz-Romero et al.,
2007

HP combined with temperatures


increased cell permeabilization

Luscher et al., 2005

Pressures < 300 MPa, temperatures <


60 C gave high effective diffusion
coefficients but temperature > 60 C
resulted in starch gelatinization

Ahromrit et al., 2006

NaCl diffusion increased up to 150


MPa, complete protein denaturation
above 300 MPa

Villacs et al., 2008

100400 MPa, 5070 C,


CaCl2 (0.51.5 % w/v)

Cowpea
seeds
Lychee

200600 MPa, 2060 C,


& 10 or 20 min)

Oysters

260 MPa for 3 min

Potato

700 MPa, -50 to 150 C,


up to 24 h

Thai
glutinous
Rice
Turkey breast

100600 MPa, 2070 C ,


5120 min
50300 MPa, 25 C, 1-15
min

Rastogi et al., 2008

324

3. NOVEL DRYING AND DEHYDRATION TECHNOLOGIES


3.1. Corona Wind/ Electro-hydrodynamic / High Electric Field Drying
Existence of electrostatic force of repulsion has been first observed by Niccolo Cabeo in
1629. It is only in 1709, the mechanism of air movement through corona discharge was
discovered (Robinson, 1962). When sufficiently high electric field (AC or DC), in the order
of kilovolts, in the domestic or industrial frequency range (50 or 60 Hz) is applied across the
food, which is composed of complex molecules like carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamins,
polyglycerides and water, it polarizes the bipolar molecules. The movement and collision of
the polarized molecules thus ionizes the neutral air particles (Bajgai & Hashinaga, 2001). The
collision and movement of the clustered ionized particles hold by Coulombs force, and
uncharged air particles produces an appreciable ionic wind like that of forced air convection.
This enhances the heat and mass transfer rate (Wong & Lai, 2004; Lai, 2009). At the same
time, polarization and evaporation of water molecules lower the entropy of the drying
material. This results in giving up of heat by the drying material and subsequent lowering of
temperature. The evaporative cooling effect and the exothermic heat dissipation by the food
thus relates to the low temperature drying (Isobe et al., 1999). For electro-hydrodynamic
drying (EHD) system, however, the Coulombs force, which results from the interaction of
free charges and imposed electric field, is the major driving force, whilst the polarization
forces are negligible (Lai et al., 2004).
Corona wind/ electrohydrodynamic (EHD)/high electric field (HEF) principle has been in
use for quite some time as a mean to enhance heat transfer (Laohalertdech et al., 2007), for
baking (Kulacki & Daubenmier, 1978), disinfestations (Shayesteh & Barthakur, 1996, 1997),
enhancement of shelf life (Bajgai et al., 2006a) and increase water evaporation (Lai & Lai,
2002; Lai & Wong, 2003; Lai & Sharma, 2005; Alem-Rajabif & Lai, 2005; Jung et al., 2009)
through use of various electrodes. It has been noticed that this system enhances mass transfer
rate and eliminates the use of high temperature. Though many advantages of the corona wind
or ionic wind drying has been reported by many researchers, it is still in nascent stage to have
an industrial application. Some of the advantages of the corona wind drying over the
conventional air drying as reported (Lai et al., 2004; Bajgai et al., 2006b; Brown & Lai, 2009)
are (i) lower power consumption, (ii) increased heat and mass transfer rate from the body, (iii)
vibration less action, (iv) absence of hygroscopic effects, (v) no moving part involved and,
(vi) instantaneous control over velocity. This type of drying can be applied to food with
complex geometries and has the ability to work in absence of gravity. Drying can be achieved
at sub-ambient temperatures and augment osmotic dehydration (Jumah et al., 2005). Some of
the characteristics of the EHD dried food materials are summarized in table 5. Corona
wind/EHD/High electric field drying as a non-thermal drying method has some potential over
the conventional drying process. The electrical power consumption is reported to be lower
compared to oven and freeze drying techniques and multiple point system works better than
the single point system (Bajgai et al., 2006b). Extensive research is needed for process
optimization, before it can be adopted for large scale industrial application.

325

Table 5. List of EHD drying of food materials and their advantages over conventional
air/oven drying
Commodity
Apple slices

Baking
(augmented)
Biscuits
Japanese white
radish
Okara
Potato slabs
Rough rice

Spinach

Wheat
Whey protein

Salient features
Needle electrode had better drying rate, color of
dried product did not deviate from the pre-dried
sample, no extraneous material formed in the
dried product
Augmented
High drying rate, more energy effective compared
to fluidized bed and agitated contact drying
Reduction in shrinkage, high water absorption
ratio, reduced solid loss during soaking, better
color compared to oven-dried samples
Higher drying rate, but darker color
Drying achieved at low temperature;
No significant difference in germination rate, and
percent fissured grain at lower temperature
compared to control
Better chlorophyll, ascorbic acid retention, no
browning, and extraneous chemical formed, better
storability
High drying rate for multiple electrodes, Low
power consumption,
No significant color change, no alteration in
protein structure compared to original

References
Hashinaga et al., 1999

Kulacki &
Daubenmier, 1978
Goodenough et al.,
2007
Bajgai & Hashinaga,
2001a
Li et al., 2006
Chen & Barthakur,
1991; 1994
Cao et al., 2004b

Bajgai & Hashinaga,


2001b
Cao et al., 2004a
Xue et al., 1999

3.2. Refractance Window Drying


Refractance Window (RW) drying system is a relatively new concept in food drying and
dehydration and mostly applied to liquid, and heat sensitive food. The drying system utilizes
the IR energy of the heated water. In this method water heated below boiling temperature
under atmospheric pressure, is circulated under a transparent plastic sheet, with the food
materials flowing concurrently over it. In normal case when heated water is exposed to
atmosphere, it would radiate IR energy through evaporation, but in case of RW heating
system, the transparent plastic film overlaying it, acts as a barrier to evaporation and the
associated heat loss. The IR energy is refracted back and the heat loss occurs only through
conduction. Furthermore, when some wet material is placed over the plastic material, the IR
energy is conducted and radiated through the plastic film, which acts like a window of heat
transfer to the moist food material, causing the material to loose moisture in the process. As
long as there is moisture in the food material, the window is open; it slowly closes as the
material dries. As the IR energy is refracted back to the hot water, conductive heat is used to

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