Point-to-point protocol over Ethernet

1 Original rationale

PPPoE redirects here. It is not to be confused with PoE.

In late 1998 the DSL service model had a chickenand-egg problem. ADSL technology had been proposed a decade earlier.[8] Potential equipment vendors
and carriers alike recognized that broadband such as cable
modem or DSL would eventually replace dialup service,
but the hardware (both customer premises and LEC)
faced a signicant low-quantity cost barrier. Initial estimates for low-quantity deployment of DSL showed costs
in the $300$500 range for a DSL modem and $300/mo
access fee from the telco which was well beyond what
a home user would pay. Thus the initial focus was on
small & home business customers for whom a T1 line (at
the time $800$1500 per month) was not economical,
but who needed more than dialup or ISDN could deliver.
On the customer-premises equipment, PPPoE may be
If enough of these customers paved the way, quantities
implemented either in a unied residential gateway dewould drive the prices down to where the home-use divice that handles both DSL modem and IP routing funcalup user might be interested: more like $50 for the motions or in the case of a simple DSL modem (without
dem and $50/mo for the access.
routing support), PPPoE may be handled behind it on a
separate Ethernet-only router or even directly on a users
computer. (Support for PPPoE is present in most operat- 1.1 Dierent usage prole
ing systems, ranging from Windows XP,[3] GNU/Linux[4]
to Mac OS X.[5] ) More recently, some GPON-based (in- The problem was that small business customers had a difstead of DSL-based) residential gateways also use PP- ferent usage prole than a home-use dialup user, includPoE, although the status of PPPoE in the GPON stan- ing
dards is marginal.

The Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE)

is a network protocol for encapsulating PPP frames inside Ethernet frames. It appeared shortly after the year
2000, in the context of the boom of the DSL as the
solution for tunneling packets over the DSL connection to the ISP's IP network, and from there to the
rest of the Internet. A 2005 networking book noted
that Most DSL providers use PPPoE, which provides
authentication, encryption, and compression.[1] Typical
use of PPPoE involves leveraging the PPP facilities for
authenticating the user with a username and password,
predominately via the PAP protocol and less often via
CHAP.[2]

PPPoE was developed by UUNET, Redback Networks

(now Ericsson) and RouterWare (now Wind River Systems) [6] and is available as an informational RFC 2516.

1. connecting an entire LAN to the internet

2. providing services on a local LAN accessible from
the far side of the connection

In the world of DSL, PPPoE was commonly understood

to be running on top of ATM (of DSL) as the underlying
3. simultaneous access to multiple external data
transport, although no such limitation exists in the PPPoE
sources, such as a company VPN and a general purprotocol itself. Other usage scenarios are sometimes dispose ISP
tinguished by tacking as a sux another underlying trans4. continuous usage throughout the workday, or even
port. For example PPPoEoE, when the transport is Etharound the clock
ernet itself, as in the case of Metro Ethernet networks.
(In this notation, the original use of PPPoE would be labeled PPPoEoA, although it should not be confused with These requirements didn't lend themselves to the connecPPPoA, which is a dierent encapsulation protocol.)
tion establishment lag of a dialup process, nor its onePPPoE has been described in some books as a "layer computer-to-one-ISP model, nor even the many-to-one
2.5" protocol,[2][7] in some rudimentary sense similar to that NAT + dialup provided. A new model was required.
MPLS because it can be used to distinguish dierent IP PPPoE is used mainly either:
ows sharing an Ethernet infrastructure, although the lack
of PPPoE switches making routing decision based on PP with PPPoE-speaking Internet DSL services where
PoE headers limits applicability in that respect.[7]
a PPPoE-speaking modem-router (residential gateway) connects to the DSL service. Here both ISP
and modem-router need to speak PPPoE. (Note that
1

PPPOE DISCOVERY (PPPOED)

in this case, the PPPoE-over-DSL side of things is lightweight enough that it wouldn't impinge on the hopedoccasionally referred to as PPPoEoA, for PPPoE for home usage market when it nally arrived. While sucover ATM.)
cess on the second matter may be debated (some complain that 8 bytes per packet is too much) PPPoE clearly
or when a PPPoE-speaking DSL modem is con- succeeded in bringing sucient volume to drive the price
nected to a PPPoE-speaking Ethernet-only router for service down to what a home user would pay. It reusing an Ethernet cable. For such two-box systems, mains the dominant DSL connectivity mechanism as of
DSL modem plus Ethernet-only router, PPPoE is 2011, more than a decade later.
now the preferred solution.

1.2

Time to market: simpler is better

A problem with creating a completely new protocol to

ll these needs was time. The equipment was available
immediately, as was the service, and a whole new protocol stack (Microsoft at the time was advocating berbased atm-cells-to-the-desktop,[9] and L2TP was brewing
as well, but was not near completion) would take so long
to implement that the window of opportunity might slip
by. Several decisions were made to simplify implementation and standardization in an eort to deliver a complete
solution quickly.
1.2.1

Reuse existing software stacks

PPPoE hoped to merge the widespread Ethernet infrastructure with the ubiquitous PPP, allowing vendors on
both sides of the connection to heavily leverage their existing software and deliver products in the very near term.
Essentially all operating systems at the time had a PPP
stack, and the design of PPPoE allowed for a simple shim
at the line-encoding stage to convert from PPP to PPPoE.
1.2.2

Simplify hardware requirements

2 PPPoE stages
The PPPoE has two distinct stages:

2.1 PPPoE discovery

Since traditional PPP connections are established between two end points over a serial link or over an ATM
virtual circuit that has already been established during
dial-up, all PPP frames sent on the wire are sure to reach
the other end. But Ethernet networks are multi-access
where each node in the network can access every other
node. An Ethernet frame contains the hardware address
of the destination node (MAC address). This helps the
frame reach the intended destination.
Hence before exchanging PPP control packets to establish the connection over Ethernet, the MAC address of
the two end points should be known to each other so that
they can be encoded in these control packets. The PPPoE Discovery stage does exactly this. In addition it also
helps establish a Session ID that can be used for further
exchange of packets.

2.2 PPP session

Competing WAN technologies (T1, ISDN) required a

router on the customer premises. PPPoE used a dierent Once the MAC address of the peer is known and a session
Ethernet frame type, which allowed the DSL hardware to has been established, the Session stage will start.
function as simply a bridge, passing some frames to the
WAN and ignoring the others. Implementation of such
a bridge is multiple orders of magnitude simpler than a 3 PPPoE Discovery (PPPoED)
router.
Although traditional PPP is a peer-to-peer protocol, PPPoE is inherently a client-server relationship since multi1.2.3 Informational RFC
ple hosts can connect to a service provider over a single
RFC 2516 was initially released as an informational physical connection.
(rather than standards-track) RFC for the same reason: The Discovery process consists of four steps between the
the adoption period for a standards-track RFC was pro- host computer which acts as the client and the access conhibitively long.
centrator at the internet service providers end acts as the
server. They are outlined below. The fth and last step is
the way to close an existing session.

1.3

Success

PPPoE was initially designed to provide a small LAN 3.1 Client to server: Initiation (PADI)
with individual independent connections to the internet
at large, but also such that the protocol itself would be PADI stands for PPPoE Active Discovery Initiation.[10]

3.4

Server to client: session-conrmation (PADS)

If a user wants to dial up to the Internet using DSL, then

his computer rst must nd the DSL access concentrator
(DSL-AC) at the users Internet service provider's point
of presence (POP). Communication over Ethernet is only
possible via MAC addresses. As the computer does not
know the MAC address of the DSL-AC, it sends out a
PADI packet via an Ethernet broadcast (MAC: ff:ff:ff:
ff:ff:ff). This PADI packet contains the MAC address
of the computer sending it.
Example of a PADI-packet:
Frame 1 (44 bytes on wire, 44 bytes captured) Ethernet II, Src: 00:50:da:42:d7:df, Dst: ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff PPPover-Ethernet Discovery Version: 1 Type 1 Code Active
Discovery Initiation (PADI) Session ID: 0000 Payload
Length: 24 PPPoE Tags Tag: Service-Name Tag: HostUniq Binary Data: (16 bytes)

3
packet from the DSL-AC. It conrms acceptance of the
oer of a PPPoE connection made by the DSL-AC issuing the PADO packet.

3.4 Server to client: session-conrmation

(PADS)
PADS stands for PPPoE Active Discovery Sessionconrmation.[13]
The PADR packet above is conrmed by the DSL-AC
with a PADS packet, and a Session ID is given out with
it. The connection with the DSL-AC for that POP has
now been fully established.

3.5 Either end to other end: termination

Src. (=source) holds the MAC address of the computer

(PADT)
sending the PADI.
Dst. (=destination) is the Ethernet broadcast address.
for PPPoE Active Discovery
The PADI packet can be received by more than one PADT stands
[14]
Termination.
This
packet terminates the connecDSL-AC. Only DSL-AC equipment that can serve the
tion
to
the
POP.
It
may
be sent either from the users
Service-Name tag should reply.
computer or from the DSL-AC.

3.2

Server to client: Oer (PADO)

PADO stands for PPPoE Active Discovery Oer.[11]

Once the users computer has sent the PADI packet, the
DSL-AC replies with a PADO packet, using the MAC
address supplied in the PADI. The PADO packet contains the MAC address of the DSL-AC, its name (e.g.
LEIX11-erx for the T-Com DSL-AC in Leipzig) and
the name of the service. If more than one POPs DSLAC replies with a PADO packet, the users computer selects the DSL-AC for a particular POP using the supplied
name or service.
Here is an example of a PADO packet:
Frame 2 (60 bytes on wire, 60 bytes captured) Ethernet
II, Src: 00:0e:40:7b:f3:8a, Dst: 00:50:da:42:d7:df PPPover-Ethernet Discovery Version: 1 Type 1 Code Active Discovery Oer (PADO) Session ID: 0000 Payload
Length: 36 PPPoE Tags Tag: AC-Name String Data:
IpzbrOOl Tag: Host-Uniq Binary Data: (16 bytes)
AC-Name -> String data holds the AC name, in this case
Ipzbr001 (the Arcor DSL-AC in Leipzig)
Src. holds the MAC address of the DSL-AC.
The MAC address of the DSL-AC also reveals the manufacturer of the DSL-AC (in this case Nortel Networks).

3.3

Client to server: request (PADR)

PADR stands for PPPoE active discovery request.[12]

4 Protocol overhead
PPPoE has the highest overhead DSL delivery
method.[15]
On ATM/DSL (aka PPPoEoA): The amount of overhead added by PPPoEoA on the DSL side of things depends on the packet size because of (i) the absorbing effect of ATM cell-padding which completely cancels out
overheads of PPPoEoA in some cases, (ii) the PPPoE
overhead can cause an entire additional 53 byte ATM
cell to be required, and (iii) IP fragmentation can be induced (which also invokes the rst two eects).[16] However ignoring ATM and IP fragmentation for the moment,
the basic additional protocol header overheads for AAL5
payload are typically: 2 bytes (for PPP) + 6 (for PPPoE) + 18 (Ethernet framing, variable) + 10 (RFC 2684,
variable) = 36 bytes. For very small packets this overhead is even greater because of Ethernet frame padding.
However more realistically, the typical DSL/ATM overhead is either zero or 53 bytes as in case (ii) where the
ATM cell payload maximum of 48 bytes is exceeded, so
requiring an additional 53 byte cell. The 36 byte gure
deduced earlier can be slightly reduced by various means:
discarding Ethernet FCS loses another 4 bytes, for example, bringing the total down to 32. Compare this with
a vastly more header-ecient protocol, PPPoA, with a
xed 10 byte overhead inside the AAL5 payload (i.e. on
the DSL side).

On Ethernet: On the Ethernet side of things, additional

A PADR packet is sent by the users computer to overhead for PPPoE is a xed 2 + 6 = 8 bytes as before,
the DSL-AC following receipt of an acceptable PADO unless IP fragmentation is produced.

4.1

6 POST-DSL USES AND SOME ALTERNATIVES IN THESE CONTEXTS

MTU/MRU

When the DSL modem sends and receives PPPoEcontaining Ethernet frames across the Ethernet link to the
router (or PPPoE-speaking single PC), there is an overhead of 8 bytes (2 for PPP, 6 for PPPoE) added within
the payload of the Ethernet frame. This added overhead
usually means that a reduced limit (so-called MTU or
MRU) of 1492 bytes is imposed on the length of IP packets sent or received, as opposed to the usual 1500 bytes
for Ethernet networks. Some devices support RFC 4638,
which allows a 1508 byte l Ethernet frame, sometimes
called baby jumbo frames, thus allowing a full 1500 byte
payload to be transported over a PPPoE session. This is
advantageous because of the many companies who (incorrectly) block all ICMP trac from exiting their network. This stops Path MTU discovery from working correctly and can cause problems for people accessing these
networks with a MRU of less than 1500 bytes.
How PPPoE ts in the DSL Internet access architecture
The transport protocol used on the telephone network is
ATM. The DSL modem encapsulates PPP packets inside
ATM cells and sends them over the WAN. There are several encapsulation methods.

4.2

PPPoE to PPPoA

In this diagram, the scenario is the same as before with

two exceptions: (i) A more ecient modem architecture is shown, the modem being a PPPoE-to-PPPoA protocol converter. (ii) The service provider oers a PPPoA
service and does not understand PPPoE. There is no PPPoEoA in this protocol chain.

5 Quirks
Since the point to point connection established has a
MTU lower than that of standard Ethernet (typically 1492
vs Ethernets 1500), it can sometimes cause problems
when Path MTU Discovery is defeated by poorly congured rewalls. Although higher MTUs are becoming more common in providers networks, usually the
workaround is to use TCP MSS (Maximum Segment
Size) clamping or rewrite, whereby the access concentrator rewrites the MSS to ensure TCP peers send
smaller datagrams. Although TCP MSS clamping solves
the MTU issue for TCP, other protocols such as ICMP
and UDP may still be aected.
RFC 4638 allows PPPoE devices to negotiate an MTU
of greater than 1492 if the underlying Ethernet layer is
capable of jumbo frames.
Some vendors (Cisco[17] and Juniper, for example) distinguish PPPoE[oA] from PPPoEoE (PPPoE over Ethernet), which is PPPoE running directly over Ethernet or
other IEEE 802 networks or over Ethernet bridged over
ATM, in order to distinguish it from PPPoEoA (PPPoE
over ATM), which is PPPoE running over an ATM virtual circuit using RFC 2684 and SNAP encapsulation of
PPPoE. (PPPoEoA is not the same as Point-to-Point Protocol over ATM (PPPoA), which doesn't use SNAP).
According to a Cisco document PPPoEoE is a variant of PPPoE where the Layer 2 transport protocol is
now Ethernet or 802.1q VLAN instead of ATM. This
encapsulation method is generally found in Metro Ethernet or Ethernet digital subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAM) environments. The common deployment model is that this encapsulation method is typically
found in multi-tenant buildings or hotels. By delivering Ethernet to the subscriber, the available bandwidth
is much more abundant and the ease of further service
delivery is increased.[17]

In this alternative topology, PPPoE is merely a means

of connecting DSL-modems to an Ethernet-only router
(again, or to a single host PC). Here it is not concerned It is possible to nd DSL modems, such as the Draytek
with the mechanism employed by an ISP to oer broad- Vigor 120, where PPPoE is conned to the ethernet link
band services.
between a DSL modem and a partnering router, and the
[18]
When transmitting packets bound for the internet, the ISP does not speak PPPoE at all (but rather PPPoA).
PPPoE-speaking Ethernet router sends Ethernet frames
to the (also PPPoE-speaking) DSL modem. The modem extracts PPP frames from within the received PPPoE frames, and sends the PPP frames onwards to the
DSLAM by encapsulating them according to RFC 2364
(PPPoA), thus converting PPPoE into PPPoA.

6 Post-DSL uses and some alternatives in these contexts

A certain method of using PPPoE in conjunction with
GPON (which involves creating a VLAN via OMCI) has
been patented by ZTE.[19]

On the diagram, the area shown as backbone could also

be ATM on older networks, however its architecture is
service provider-dependent. On a more detailed, more
service-provider specic diagram there would be additional columns in this area.

PPPoE over GPON is reportedly used by retail service providers such as Internode of Australias National
Broadband Network,[20] Romanias RCS & RDS (for
their Fiberlink customers GPON is sold as Ethernet ports in MDUs)., Orange France[21] and Philippines Globe Telecom.[22] Verizon's FIOS product has

5
uses DHCP in some states and PPPoE in others.[23]

Point-to-Point Protocol daemon

RFC 6934 Applicability of Access Node Control Mechanism to PON based Broadband Networks, which argues for the use of Access Node Control Protocol
in PONs foramong other thingsauthenticating subscriber access and managing their IP addresses, and the
rst author of which is a Verizon employee, excludes PPPoE as an acceptable encapsulation for GPON: The protocol encapsulation on BPON is based on multi-protocol
encapsulation over ATM Adaptation Layer 5 (AAL5),
dened in [RFC2684]. This covers PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE, dened in [RFC2516]) or IP over Ethernet
(IPoE). The protocol encapsulation on GPON is always
IPoE.[24]

Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol

The 10G-PON (XG-PON) standard (G.987) provides

for 802.1X mutual authentication of the ONU and
OLT, besides the OMCI method carried forward from
G.984.[25] G.987 also adds support for authenticating
other customer-premises equipment beyond the ONU
(e.g. in a MDU), although this is limited to Ethernet
ports, also handled via 802.1X. (The ONU is supposed
snoop EAP-encapsulated RADIUS messages in this scenario and determine if the authentication was successful
or not.)[26] There is some modicum support for PPPoE
specied in the OMCI standards, but only in terms of the
ONU being able to lter and add VLAN tags for trac
based on its encapsulation (and other parameters), which
includes PPPoE among the protocols that ONU must be
able to discern.[27]
The Broadband Forum's TR-200 Using EPON in the
Context of TR-101 (2011), which also pertains to 10GEPON, says The OLT and the multiple-subscriber ONU
MUST be able to perform the PPPoE Intermediate Agent
function, as specied in Section 3.9.2/TR-101.[28]
A book on Ethernet in the rst mile notes that DHCP can
obviously be used instead of PPPoE to congure a host
for an IP session, although it points out that DHCP is not a
complete replacement for PPPoE if some encapsulation
is also desired (although VLAN bridges can fulll this
function) and that furthermore DHCP does not provide
(subscriber) authentication, suggesting that IEEE 802.1X
is also needed for a complete solution sans PPPoE.[29]
(This book assumes that PPPoE is leveraged for other
features of PPP besides encapsulation, including IPCP
for host conguration, and PAP or CHAP for authentication.)

Point-to-Point Protocol over ATM (PPPoA)

Point-to-Point Protocol over X (PPPoX)

8 References
[1] James Boney (2005). Cisco IOS in a Nutshell. O'Reilly
Media, Inc. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-596-55311-1.
[2] Philip Golden; Herv Dedieu; Krista S. Jacobsen (2007).
Implementation and Applications of DSL Technology.
Taylor & Francis. p. 479. ISBN 978-1-4200-1307-8.
[3] http://support.microsoft.com/kb/283070
[4] http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/DSL-HOWTO/
configure.html
[5] http://support.apple.com/kb/ht2301
[6] Wind River Systems Acquires RouterWare, Inc.. Findarticles.com (1999-07-05). Retrieved on 2011-09-27.
[7] Michael Beck (2005). Ethernet in the First Mile : The IEEE
802.3ah EFM Standard. McGraw Hill Professional. p.
27. ISBN 978-0-07-146991-3.
[8] Richard D. Gitlin, Sailesh K. Rao, Jean-Jacques Werner,
Nicholas Zervos (May 8, 1990). Method and apparatus for wideband transmission of digital signals between,
for example, a telephone central oce and customer
premises. US Patent 4,924,492.
[9] TouchWave Partners With Telogy Networks For VoIP
Embedded Communications Software. Business Wire.
October 5, 1998. Retrieved 16 December 2008.
[10] http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2516#section-5.1
[11] http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2516#section-5.2
[12] http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2516#section-5.3
[13] http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2516#section-5.4
[14] http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2516#section-5.5
[15] Dirk Van Aken, Sascha Peckelbeen Encapsulation Overhead(s) in ADSL Access Networks, June 2003
[16] Encapsulation Overhead(s) in ADSL Access Networks.

There are security reasons to use PPPoE in a (non- [17] http://www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/ios/bbdsl/

configuration/guide/bba_understanding.pdf
DSL/ATM) shared-medium environment, such as power
line communication networks, in order to create separate [18] https://www.draytek.com/index.php?option=com_k2&
view=item&layout=item&id=2405&Itemid=451&lang=
tunnels for each customer.[30]
en#overview
[19] http://www.google.com/patents/EP2560407A1

See also
Multiprotocol Encapsulation over ATM

[20]
[21] http://forum.tp-link.com/showthread.php?
71785-ArcherC7-Firmware-improvements

[22] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9crvbWQrEn4
[23] Tested with Maryland and Virigina at http://www.
verizon.com/Support/Residential/internet/highspeed/
troubleshooting/installation/questionsone/88283.htm on
2013-12-11
[24] http://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/rfc6934/?include_text=1
[25] Dave Hood and Elmar Trojer (2012). Gigabit-capable
Passive Optical Networks. John Wiley & Sons. p. 200.
ISBN 978-1-118-15558-5.
[26] Dave Hood and Elmar Trojer (2012). Gigabit-capable
Passive Optical Networks. John Wiley & Sons. p. 207
and 274275. ISBN 978-1-118-15558-5.
[27] Dave Hood and Elmar Trojer (2012). Gigabit-capable
Passive Optical Networks. John Wiley & Sons. p. 261
and 271. ISBN 978-1-118-15558-5.
[28] http://www.broadband-forum.org/technical/download/
TR-200.pdf
[29] Michael Beck (2005). Ethernet in the First Mile : The IEEE
802.3ah EFM Standard. McGraw Hill Professional. p.
241. ISBN 978-0-07-146991-3.
[30] Xavier Carcelle (2009). Power Line Communications in
Practice. Artech House. p. 235. ISBN 978-1-59693336-1.

External links
RFC 2516 - A Method for Transmitting PPP Over
Ethernet (PPPoE)
RFC 3817 - Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) Active Discovery Relay for PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE)
RFC 4638 - Accommodating a Maximum Transit
Unit/Maximum Receive Unit (MTU/MRU) Greater
Than 1492 in the Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE)
RFC 4938 - PPP Over Ethernet (PPPoE) Extensions
for Credit Flow and Link Metrics
US Patent 6891825 Method and system of providing
multi-user access to a packet switched network

EXTERNAL LINKS

10
10.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Point-to-point protocol over Ethernet Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-point%20protocol%20over%20Ethernet?oldid=

646331309 Contributors: The Anome, Etu, Danny, CesarB, Looxix, Mac, Michael Shields, Popsracer, Marcod'Itri, Zoicon5, Radiojon, Jeepien, Darkhorse, Edward K, Indefatigable, Robbot, RedWolf, Sbisolo, Coherence, Patcat88, Spe88, Isidore, SoWhy, Beland,
Tietew, Abdull, EagleOne, Thedangerouskitchen, Alistair1978, Dmeranda, Plugwash, Neilrieck, GalaxiaGuy, Imars, .:Ajvol:., Sebastian
Goll, Wrs1864, Pearle, Guy Harris, Nvinen, SMC, ElKevbo, Ground Zero, Lmatt, ThePlaz, Bgwhite, Jengelh, Gaius Cornelius, ENeville,
CecilWard, Zwobot, Tcsetattr, KnightRider, SmackBot, Zhukun, Bluebot, Pippin Bear, Martin.duke, Alexander Hermes, Frap, The undertow, Slakr, Stwalkerster, Feureau, Lee Carre, Kate.woodcroft, CapitalR, Tawkerbot2, JForget, Vadik wiki, CmdrObot, Jesse Viviano,
Requestion, Phatom87, Cydebot, Wdspann, Thijs!bot, AdamRoach, Slaweks, Guy Macon, Lyager, HSpirit, Dougher, Txomin, Magioladitis, Konstantin Emelyanov, Denis tarasov, Vbucoci, Jim.henderson, Keilaron, Mange01, Javawizard, Bcarrick, Neo-Vortex, SieBot,
Oxymoron83, Mukesh.mv, Molecbiolograd07, NickCThomas, Dead10ck, Ndenison, Rosuav, Marktompsett, Excirial, PixelBot, Antongisli, Wp1nvg, NuclearWarfare, Stypex, Ktdann, Addbot, Mootros, Amore proprio, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Bunnyhop11, AnomieBOT, Cygeus,
Rubinbot, Materialscientist, Necaxista, Riventree, LittleWink, Skyerise, Btilm, QQarlo, Plett, EmausBot, Simar mohar, GoingBatty, Listmeister, Josve05a, Wackywace, Wikfr, Amaccuish, Bomazi, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, Widr, DBigXray, BG19bot,
Webshrune, ChrisGualtieri, Tentinator, Someone not using his real name, MordakNZ, Adslturk and Anonymous: 139

10.2

Images

File:Ambox_important.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based o of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk contribs)

10.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0