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ISSN: 2251-9246
EISSN: 2345-6221
Electrical Engineering Department, South Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. Email: khanzadehreza@yahoo.com
2
Electrical Engineering Department, South Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. Email: haghifam@ieee.com
Abstract
As renewable energy increasingly penetrates into power grid systems, new challenges arise for system operators to keep the
systems reliable under uncertain circumstances, while ensuring high utilization of renewable energy. This paper presents unit
commitment (UC) which takes into account the volatility of wind power generation. The UC problem is solved with the
forecasted intermittent wind power generation and possible scenarios are simulated for representing the wind power
volatility. The iterative process between the commitment problem and the economic dispatch(ED) problem will continue
until we find the optimum mode of committing the units. Furthermore we have considered a hydro pump storage (HPS) unit
to be a part of operating system in order to mitigating wind power forecasting errors and peak shaving. Numerical
simulations indicate the effectiveness of the proposed UC for managing the security of power system operation by taking into
account the intermittency and volatility of wind power generation.
Keywords: Unit Commitment, Economic Dispatch, Wind Power, Hydro Pump Storage Unit, Mont Carlo Simulation.
2013 IAUCTB-IJSEE Science. All rights reserved
Nomenclatures
Index
NG
NW
NH
NS
i
s
t
T
Binary
Variables
Ii,t
Yi,t
Si,t
IGHt
IPHt
IIHt
Parameters
SUi,t
SDi,t
Pi,min
Pi,max
RUi
RDi
Zbegin
Zlast
Vh,max
Vh,min
A1
A2
Lh,tin
Uh,tin
Lh,tout
Uh,tout
SGCh,t
SPCh,t
188
Tion
Tioff
Variables
Pi,t
Psw,i,t
Pinh,i,t
Pouth,i,t
Dts
Rs,i,t
Rs,t
Zt
Vh,t
Xoni,t
Xoffi,t
Function
FCi,t
1. Introduction
Wind energy has become increasingly popular
across the globe. It is reported by the Global Wind
Energy Council (GWEC) that global wind energy
installations rose by 11 531 MW in 2005, which
represent an annual increase of 40.5% [1]. Such
figures demonstrate the prosperous future of wind
power development. However, the intermittent and
volatile nature of wind power generation may impact
power system characteristics such as voltages,
frequency and generation adequacy which can
potentially increase the vulnerability of power
systems. Intermittency refers to the unavailability of
wind for an extended period and volatility refers to
the smaller and hourly fluctuations of wind within its
intermittent characteristics. The cumulative wind
power (representing several wind farms) in a power
system might not be intermittent. However, the
power output of a single wind farm could be
intermittent within a 24-h period. The intermittency
of individual wind farms is considered in the
proposed UC in order to ensure that prevailing
constraints are satisfied.
There are several techniques for predicting the
quantity of intermittent wind power [2], [3].Wind
forecasting is conducted by simulation, statistical
method, or a combination of the two. The simulation
method is based on a large number of wind scenarios
and starts by a numerical weather prediction (NWP)
followed by local wind pattern predictions using
analytical methods. The statistical method also starts
from NWP followed by statistical, artificial neural
network, or fuzzy logic methods instead of analytical
methods for calculating the hourly quantity of
intermittent wind power, in which large data sets are
needed and spikes in wind data are hard to predict
[4]. Although wind power is predictable to a limited
extent, it cannot be forecasted with 100% accuracy
for dispatching purposes. Hence, it is possible that
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(1)
xX
190
i 1 t 1
NG
P
i 1
NG
i ,t
R
i 1
h 1 t 1
NW
i 1
(2)
(3)
* I i ,t RS ,t
(4)
(5)
X ion,(t 1) Ti on * Ii ,(t 1) Ii ,t 0
(6)
off
X ioff
* Ii ,t Ii ,(t 1) 0
,( t 1) Ti
(7)
(8)
Yi ,t Si ,t I i ,t I i ,(t 1)
Zt Z (t 1) A1 Phin,t
L P U
in
h ,t
Unit
Pmin
(MW)
Pmax
(MW)
Min
ON
(H)
Min
Off
(H)
Ramp
Up
(MW/H)
Ramp
Down
(MW/H)
IniT
(H)
G1
100
580
10
10
250
250
10
G2
100
450
210
210
G3
100
380
175
175
G4
100
330
150
150
G5
100
300
150
150
G6
25
100
50
50
h 1
Pi ,min Ii ,t Pi ,t Pi ,max * Ii ,t
in
h ,t
NH
in
s
* I i ,t Pws,i ,t Phout
,i ,t Ph ,i ,t Dt
S ,i ,t
4. Case Study
NH T
A2
(a)
Unit
St
Mbtu
Fuel
Price
($/Mbtu)
af
(Mbtu/MW2h)
bf
(Mbtu/MWh)
cf
(Mbtu/h)
G1
300
0.0109
8.6
70
G2
250
0.01059
8.3391
64.16
G3
100
0.003
10.76
32.96
G4
440
0.01088
12.8875
6.78
G5
100
0.01088
12.8875
6.78
G6
50
0.0128
17.82
10.15
(9)
(10)
out
h ,t
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(11)
in
h ,t
(12)
out
out
Lout
h ,t Ph ,t U h ,t
(13)
Z0 Zbegin
(14)
ZT Zlast
(15)
(16)
(17)
(b)
191
Unit
Pump
Cycle
Eff
Gen
Cycle
Eff
Max
Gen
Lim
(MW)
Min
Gen
Lim
(MW)
Max
Abs
Lim
(MW)
Min
Abs
Lim
(MW)
Min
ON
(H)
Min
OFF
(H)
0.8
0.8
40
40
Uphill Reservoir
Unit
Ini
Vol
(Hm3)
Tgt
Vol
(Hm3)
Up
Lim
Vol
(Hm3)
180
60
250
Downhill Reservoir
Low
Lim
Vol
(Hm3)
Ini
Vol
(Hm3)
Up
Lim
Vol
(Hm3)
Low
Lim
Vol
(Hm3)
Gen
And
pump
St
Cost($)
50
380
600
200
75
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Hour
G1
(MW)
G2
(MW)
G3
(MW)
G4
(MW)
G5
(MW)
G6
(MW)
H
OUT
(MW)
H
IN
(MW)
460.4
25
246.6
25
113.6
25
100
8.4
118.5
172.4
422.4
165.8
562.524
100
175
21.376
580
139
350
10
580
181.6
380
100
11
580
233.5
380
100
12
580
271.7
380
100
25
13
580
255.5
380
100
25
40
14
580
323.3
380
100
25
15
580
242.9
380
100
16
580
293.9
380
100
17
580
276.7
380
100
18
580
293
380
100
19
580
340.2
380
100
100
20
580
450
350
100
106.8
21
580
450
175
100
136.5
22
500
450
100
133.9
23
250
405.49
100
40
24
364.5
100
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5. Conclusion
In this paper, we proposed an approach that
includes applying optimization concepts and
incorporating pumped-storage units to hedge wind
power output uncertainty and peak shaving. We
provided scenarios that can capture the wind power
unpredicted changes and our proposed approach can
provide an optimal solution that minimizes the total
cost under the wind power fluctuations that can occur
in the system, while ensuring the higher penetration
of wind power. Meanwhile, this solution is feasible
with a high probability under wind power output
uncertainty. In addition, by incorporating pumped
storage hydro units in the real time, our optimization
model contains discrete decision variables in
problems. Finally, our computational results verify
the effectiveness of the presence of wind units and
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[9] K. Aoki, T. Satoh, M. Itoh, Unit Commitment in a LargeScale Power System Including Fuel Constrained Thermal and
Pumped-Storage Hydro, IEEE Transactions on Power
Systems, Vol. PWRS-2, No.4, November 1987.
195
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Electrical Engineering Department, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran. Email: sarvi@eng.ikiu.ac.ir
Electrical Engineering Department, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran. Email: parpaei@edu.ikiu.ac.ir
Abstract
Nowadays the position of the renewable energy is so important because of the environment pollution and the limitation of
fossil fuels in the world. Energy can be generated more and more by the renewable sources, but the fossil fuels are nonrenewable. One of the most important renewable sources is the wind energy. The wind energy is an appropriate alternative
source of fossil fuel. The replacement rate of renewable energy to fossil fuels is rising, although the production cost is higher
than fossil fuels. To further reduce cost of wind production, many methods have been proposed. One of the suitable
approaches is the maximum power point tracking strategy. In this paper, a new intelligent maximum power point tracker
called Fuzzy- Cuckoo strategy for small- scale wind energy conversion systems is proposed. The maximum power point
tracker proposed uses measured wind speed to detect the maximum output power and its respective optimal rotational speed.
The main contribution of the proposed approach is to exactly track the maximum power point, so the output power
fluctuations captured by wind turbine are less than conventional approaches. The simulations are performed in
MATAL/SIMULINK software. The superiority of the proposed approach is validated in two situations, low and rapid
changes in wind speed. The maximum power point of wind energy conversion systems can be tracked by the proposed
approach in any situation. The higher accuracy of the Fuzzy- cuckoo strategy than the conventional trackers is another
advantage of the proposed approach.
Keywords: Intelligent controller, Metaheuristic optimization approach, Wind energy conversion systems.
2013 IAUCTB-IJSEE Science. All rights reserved
1. Introduction
Fossil fuel reserves reduction causes that the
whole countries, especially the countries that have
not enough fossil fuel sources, pay special attention
to the renewable energy as a second energy source.
China and USA are two countries that concentrate on
the wind energy conversion systems (WECS) than
other countries. WECSs are used to change the wind
energy to electrical energy by electrical machines
such as the permanent magnet synchronies
generators (PMSGs). The small- Scale WECSs are
suitable alternative sources for urban regions or
remote places that connection to power grid is
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C dc
Co
PMSG
1
A Cp V3
2
(18)
(19)
(20)
1
exp (21 ( )) + 0.0068
1
1
0.035
=
3
i + 0.08 + 1
=
Rt
V
(21)
(22)
2
1.5
1
The locus of
maximum output
power
0.5
0
10
15
)
= (1
, 2
, ,
(23)
th
2.5
( ) (24)
ng
x 10
Cuckoo's location
le
le
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W
ho
197
Ap
art
of
le
ho
len
gth
Current
Cuckoo's location
Fig.3. Immigration of a cuckoo to a new location for next
generation
198
Table.2.
Parameter values of the simulated system
Air density ()
1.2929 (/3 )
Pm,actual
Fuzzy Rule
Optimization
Gain
Pm,optimal
Cuckoo
Radius of blade ()
7.4 (m)
Pitch angle ()
Fuzzy Interface
Fuzzifier
optimal
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Defuzzifier
Gain
Gain
Pm,actual
actual
0.98 ()
2.83 (mH)
Pole pairs
Inertia
30 (kg.m2)
= , ,
(25)
= optimal actual
(26)
Capacitance
Inductance
400e-6 (H)
800e-6 (F)
Load
30 ()
Load
C dc
wind speed
Cuckoo
Optimization
Pm,optimal
Gain
optimal
Gain
Co
PMSG
Gain
Pm,actual
Fuzzy logic
Gain
PID
PWM
Pm,actual
actual
Table.1.
Rules table of fuzzy logic applied to the WECS
++
++
++
++
++
5. Simulation results
In order to validate the performance of the
proposed approach, the proposed Fuzzy- Cuckoo
tracker is applied to the wind turbine with following
parameter values:
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
Time (sec)
Fig.8. Assumed wind speed profile
10
199
As it is clearly observed, the proposed fuzzycuckoo outperforms PSO and fuzzy MPP trackers.
Figure 11 shows that fluctuations of the proposed
approach are also less than PSO and fuzzy, as well as
higher mean value of the output power.
One of the difficulties in MPPT trackers is the
fast variations of the wind speed. In this case, for
further demonstration, the fast variations of the wind
speed are applied to the MPP trackers. Figure 12
shows the fast wind variations, and Figure 13 shows
the power tracked by fuzzy- cuckoo, PSO, and fuzzy
trackers.
x 10
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10
14
Time (sec)
14
13
8
6
4
2
10
Time (sec)
Fig.9. Output maximum power captured by the proposed MPP
tracker and rotational speed calculated by cuckoo optimization
algorithm while the wind speed is slowly changed
12
10
9
8
7
6
10
Time (sec)
Fig.12. Fast wind variations profile.
4
12
x 10
x 10
x 10
7
Fuzzy
PSO
COA- Fuzzy
10
10
8
6.5
5
4.2
x 10
6.6
6.7
4.8
4.25
4.6
9
x 10
9.2
6.5
6
2
0
2.2
2.4
2.6
10
Time (s)
Fig.13. Simulation results in fast variations of the wind speed
As it is shown in Fig.13, the proposed fuzzycuckoo controller outperforms the conventional MPP
trackers such as PSO and fuzzy trackers.
11
10
9
6. Conclusion
8
7
10
Time (sec)
Fig.10. Assumed wind pattern for comparison purpose
x 10
COA- Fuzzy
Fuzzy
PSO
11
10
12
12
x 10
6
7.1
7
6.9
4.9
4
x 10
x 10
4.6
4.55
4.5
3.9
3.85
4.45
2.9
3.8
0.9
1
0
5.1
x 10
6.9
3
5.35
5.3
5.25
5.2
x 10
7
3.9
3.8
8.9
1.1
7.1
3.85
3.1
9.1
Time (sec)
Fig.11. Maximum output power captured by the fuzzy- cuckoo,
PSO, and fuzzy MPP trackers
10
200
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201
pp.201:208
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Electric Engineering Department, Science and Research branch, Islamic Azad University Kermanshah, Iran
Ramzanpour.mostafa@gmail.com
2
Electric Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran
Abstract
Nowadays, economic load dispatch between generation units with least cost involved is one of the most important issues in
utilizing power systems. In this paper, a new method i.e. Water Cycle Algorithm (WCA) which is similar to other intelligent
algorithm and is based on swarm, is employed in order to solve the economic load dispatch problem between power plants.
In order to investigate the effectiveness of the proposed method in solving non-linear cost functions which is composed of
the constraint for input steam valve and units with different fuels, a system with 10 units is studied for more accordance with
literatures in two modes: one without considering the effect of steam valve and load of 2400, 2500, 2600 and 2700 MW and
the other one with considering the effect of steam valve and load of 2700 MW. The results of the paper comparing to the
results of the other valid papers show that the proposed algorithm can be used to solve in any kind of economic dispatch
problems with proper results.
Keywords: Economic load dispatch, water cycle algorithm, valve- point effect.
2013 IAUCTB-IJSEE Science. All rights reserved
1. Introduction
Most of the optimization problems in power
systems such as economic load dispatch have
complicated and non-linear features with equality
and inequality constraints. This causes it hard to be
mathematically solved [1]. Economic load dispatch is
an important issue in the field of management and
utilization of power system where the aim is to
determine the production value of each power plant
in a way the load of system is supplied with least cost
while all the constraints are fulfilled.
Obtaining the optimal solution is sometimes
difficult in solving the economic load dispatch
problem due to complication of fuel cost function of
power plants and also due to some limitation. One of
these complications is related to the actual form of
cost function. It has to be noted that in practice cost
function of a power plant has no smooth form. In
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(27)
=1
= +
(28)
=1
= + 0 + 00
=1 =1
(29)
=1
(30)
(31)
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( ) =
+ + + | ( (
))|
(32)
1
+ 1 + 1 ,
1
, 1
2
2
+ 2 + 2 , 1 2
, 2
( ) =
:
:
2
{ + + , ,1 ,
(33)
(36)
= {|
| }
(37)
=1
= 1,2, ,
After flowing the drop to the river, it has to be
known that how rivers are flown down to seas.
Movement of each stream to a river is known by a
line that joins them. This distance is calculated
randomly.
(, C ) , C > 1
(38)
[ ]
(34)
1
11
21
31
=
12
[1
22
32
+1
=
+ (
) (39)
+1
=
+ (
) (40)
204
|
| < , = 1,2,3, , 1 (41)
(42)
= + ( )
(43)
= + (1, )
(44)
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= ( + )
(45)
=1
>
<
(46)
205
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5. Simulation
In this kind of problem some different
consuming fuels are considered for different
production ranges of generators which make a
quadratic cost function.
5.1. System with 10 units without considering the
effect of steam valve
To investigate this kind of ELD problem, a
system with 10 units with loads of 2400, 2500, 2600
and 2700 MW without considering the effect of input
steam valve is taken into account as the first test
system. Parameters of the algorithm in this test is set
as follow
Npop = 100 , Nsr = 30 , dmax = 0,1 , C = 2 , U = 0.1
488.50
526.70
574.03
625.18
HNN[21]
487.87
526.13
574.26
626.12
AHNN[22]
481.72
526.23
574.37
626.24
ELANN[23]
481.74
526.27
574.41
623.88
IEP[24]
481.779
526.304
574.473
623.851
DE[25]
481.723
526.239
574.381
623.809
MPSO[26]
481.723
526.239
574.381
623.809
RCGA[27]
481.723
526.239
574.396
623.809
AIS[28]
481.723
526.240
574.381
623.809
HICDEDP[29]
481.723
526.239
574.381
623.809
EALHN[30]
481.723
526.239
574.381
623.809
WCA
481.7216
526.2279
574.3791
623.7980
CGA_MU[31]
Output
222.0108
211.6352
283.9455
237.8052
280.4480
236.0330
292.0499
241.9708
424.2011
269.9005
624.7193
F
2
1
1
3
1
3
1
3
3
1
IGA_MU[31]
Output
219.1261
211.1645
280.6572
238.4770
276.4179
240.4672
287.7399
240.7614
429.3370
275.8518
624.5178
F
2
1
1
3
1
3
1
3
3
1
WCA
Output
220.0550
210.9169
279.6702
238.7458
280.1485
239.6610
287.7073
239.6864
427.4088
275.9998
623.8509
F
2
1
1
3
1
3
1
3
3
1
206
C =0.1
Output
219.5905
207.1839
297.7758
242.3708
311.3986
245.5736
302.0291
244.5238
350.3311
279.1511
627.4213
F
2
1
1
3
1
3
1
3
3
1
C =0.8
Output
215.2694
222.9899
283.4461
241.0252
294.1461
244.8194
277.4023
243.4481
393.6467
283.6891
626.3751
F
2
1
1
3
1
3
1
3
3
1
C=1.4
Output
212.0377
215.1524
279.4089
240.6257
279.5790
240.0692
285.1218
236.9990
424.3429
286.5712
624.3440
F
2
1
1
3
1
3
1
3
3
1
C =2
Output
220.0550
210.9169
279.6702
238.7458
280.1485
239.6610
287.7073
239.6864
427.4088
275.9998
623.8509
F
2
1
1
3
1
3
1
3
3
1
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dmax =0.1
dmax =0.01
Unit No
Output
Output
Output
1(MW)
218.5807
220.0550
216.3999
2(MW)
214.1351
210.9169
211.4120
3(MW)
280.6462
279.6702
284.4471
4(MW)
239.2832
238.7458
240.7613
5(MW)
273.7120
280.1485
278.8212
6(MW)
239.1236
239.6610
237.2423
7(MW)
287.7891
287.7073
289.7176
8(MW)
239.9551
239.6864
240.8957
9(MW)
427.5427
427.4088
425.7371
10(MW)
279.1428
275.9998
274.5656
Ftotal (S/h)
623.9863
623.8509
623.9657
207
to 2700 MW. These results are less than all the other
methods and more near to optimum value. Although
this reduction is not very noticeable, it is very
valuable considering the type of problem and other
performed researches up to now in ELD problem
with different kinds of fuels. In this system when the
effect of steam valve is considered, this effect makes
convergence a little difficult and increases the
probability of converging to the local minimums. In
the first mode, convergence was achieved at about 10
iterations but the effect of steam valve delayed it to
25 iterations. At last, Sensitivity analysis of
Parameters C and dmax was carried out on a system
with 10 units and load of 2700 MW. As shown by
the results and section 3, the best value for parameter
C is 2 which give the best results. The results of
parameter dmax shows that higher values of this
algorithm increase discovery range and search span
of the algorithm but too high values of this
parameter worsens the quality of the solution.
Besides, too low values of this parameter would also
lead to solution with little quality but a proper
reduction in this parameter increases the
convergence.
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
References
[1] A. A. El-Keib, H. Ma, and J. L. Hart, Environmentally
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
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[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
208
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[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
[26]
[28]
[29]
[30]
[31]
209
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Abstract
In recent years, based on the growing importance of clean energy in comparison with conventional energy production from
fossil fuels, DG systems are gradually becoming more popular all over the world. These resources solve many problem of
system. However, these resources create some other problems too. One of the most problem of DGs is unwanted islanding.
This paper addresses reliable passive islanding detection algorithm based on the change of positive sequence (ROCOPS) of
voltage signal analysis method. At first, all possible linear and nonlinear load switching, motor starting and capacitor bank
switching is simulated. The ROCOPS signal of these conditions is measured for all conditions. From of these data, the
reliable value of ROCOPS based on thresholding is calculated. The studies reported in this paper are based on time-domain
simulations using MATLAB, and the feasibility of the proposed method is evaluated with an experimental system. The
experimental system is a test system that impalement for islanding condition detection. The results show that the proposed
islanding detection method succeeds in detecting islanding both in the experimental and simulated systems with negligible
Non Detection Zone (NDZ).
Keywords: Islanding Detection, ROCOPS, Wind Turbines, Wind Turbine Simulator, Thresholding, Non-Detection Zone.
2013 IAUCTB-IJSEE Science. All rights reserved
1. Introduction
Rapid technological developments in generation
and storage of energy, the growing concern on
environmental issues, increasing prices of oil and
natural gas and global warming led to great
affirmation on alternative energy sources such as
solar and wind [1]. Increasing of clean energy is
caused DG systems are gradually becoming more
popular all over the world. Further, the DG systems
increase energy efficiency and improve power
quality of the distribution network [2]. However,
installing DG in power systems may create some
problems [3-4]. One of these problems is unwanted
islanding. The islanding condition occurs when a
portion of the utility system that contains both load
and DG remains energized while it is isolated from
the remainder of the utility system [3]. IEEE standard
recommends disconnecting all DGs within 2 s after
the formation of unwanted island [5].
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2. Systems Description
Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of a
simulated wind turbine unit. The DG unit is
represented by a wind turbine and induction
generator, a capacitor bank used in order to power
factor correction of DG unit. The local load is
represented by a three-phase parallel RL before of
circuit breaker (CB). A parallel RL is conventionally
adopted as the local load for evaluation of islanding
detection methods when the load inductance is tuned
to the system frequency. This system, as represented
in Fig.1, equally connected to point of common
coupling (PCC) with step-up transformer. In order to
obtain the experimental results, a wind turbine
simulator as Fig 2 was implemented. Fig 3 shows the
implemented simulator system. Parameters of the
implementation system are given in Table 1. and
motors saturation curves shown in Fig 4. In gridconnected condition the switches SW1 and SW2 are
closed. Island condition is occurred when SW2 is
open.
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X (t ) AX (t ) BU (t )
Y (t ) CX (t ) DU (t )
(1)
Rt
L
t
0
A
1
C
0
-
Rl
L
- 20
1
BT
Lt
C 0
Rl
L
1
C
0 1
X T itd
itq
iLd
1
Lt
(3)
D 0
Rl C0 0
(
)
L
R (2)
1
( -02 C)
L
RC
vd
(4)
(5)
(6)
Table.1
Parameters of implemented system
Parameters
Induction Motors
Local Load
Capacitor
Value
Sn
Vn
f
PF
Rs, Rr
Lr,Ls
Lm
R
L
C
2 kVA
400 V
50 Hz
0.78 Lag
2.3541
0.01678 H
0.275 H
180
Inf
36.75 F
3. Mathematical model
This section gives a brief overview of state
space model, step time response of study systems.
By considering balanced condition for islanded
system (Fig. 1), the circuit model of self excited
induction generator with fixed wind speed simple
model model are shown in fig 1. From of this figure,
it is obvious that the model of two systems can be
described as same. Therefore in this section the
mathematical model of switching based DG is
described and generalized for other systems. It is
212
4. Proposed Technique
ROCPS
2
3
xce
2
3
(7)
2
3
vce
2
3
(8)
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v p
t
(9)
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Conclusion
Following the increased number and enlarged
size of distributed generating units installed in a
modern power system, the protection against
islanding has become extremely challenging
nowadays. Islanding detection is also important as
islanding operation of distributed system is seen a
viable option in the future to improve the reliability
and quality of the supply. In this paper, A new
[10] Jun Zhang, Dehong Xu, Guoqiao Shen, Ye Zhu, Ning He, Jie
Ma, An Improved Islanding Detection Method for a GridConnected Inverter With Intermittent Bilateral Reactive
Power Variation, IEEE Trans. on Power Electronics, Vol.28,
No.1, pp.268-278, Jan. 2013.
[11] H. H. Zeineldin, and M. M. A. Salama, Impact of Load
Frequency Dependence on the NDZ and Performance of the
SFS Islanding Detection Method, IEEE Trans. on Industrial
Electronics, Vol.58, No.1, pp.139-146, Jan. 2011.
[12] John V, Ye Z, Kolwalkar A., Investigation of Anti Islanding
Protection of Power Converter Based Distributed Generators
Using Frequency Domain Analysis, IEEE Trans. on Power
Electronic,Vol.19, Iss.5, pp.1177-1183, 2004.
[13] J.A. Laghari, H. Mokhlis, A.H.A. Bakar, M. Karimi, A New
Islanding Detection Technique for Multiple Mini Hydro Based
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[20] H. Guo-Kiang, C. Chih-Chang, and C. Chern-Lin, Automatic
Phase-shift Method for Islanding Detection of Grid-connected
Photovoltaic Inverters, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers.,
Vol.18, No.1, pp.169173, Mar. 2003.
[21] M. Roop, Design issues for grid-connected photovoltaic
system, Ph.D. dissertation, Sch. of Electr. and Comput. Eng.,
Georgia Inst. of Technol., Atlanta, GA, 1998.
[22] Kazemi Karegar H, Shataee A., Islanding Detection of Wind
Farms by Thd. IEEE Conf. DRPT2008 Nanjing China,
pp.2793-2797, Apr. 2008.
[23] Walmir Freitas, Zhenyu Huang, Wilsun Xu, A Practical
Method for Assessing the Effectiveness of Vector Surge
Relays for Distributed Generation Applications, IEEE Trans.
on Power Delivery, Vol.20, No.1, pp.57-63, Jan. 2005.
[24] Ankita Samui, S. R. Samantaray, Assessment of ROCPAD
Relay for Islanding Detection in Distributed Generation,
IEEE Trans. on Smart Grid, Vol.2, No.2, pp.391-398, JUNE
2011.
[25] H. Kazemi Karegar, B. Sobhani, Wavelet Transform Method
for Islanding Detection of Wind Turbines, Renewable
Energy, Vol.38, pp.94-106, 2012.
[26] Prakash K. Ray, NandKishor, Soumya R. Mohanty, Islanding
and Power Quality Disturbance Detection in Grid Connected
Hybrid Power System Using Wavelet and S-Transform,
IEEE Trans. on Smart Grid, Vol.3, No.3, pp.1082-1094, Sep.
2012.
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Electrical Engineering Department, Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran. Email:
Roy.abdollahzadeh.eng@iauctb.ac.ir, f_farokhi@iauctb.ac.ir, ali.kashaniniya@iauctb.ac.ir
___________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract
In this article different types of artificial neural networks (ANN) were used for CNTFET (carbon nanotube transistors)
simulation. CNTFET is one of the most likely alternatives to silicon transistors due to its excellent electronic properties. In
determining the accurate output drain current of CNTFET, time lapsed and accuracy of different simulation methods were
compared. The training data for ANNs were obtained by numerical ballistic FETToy model which is not directly applicable in
circuit simulators like HSPICE. The ANN models were simulated in MATLAB R2010a software. In order to achieve more
effective and consistent features, the UTA method was used and the overall performance of the models was tested in MATLAB.
Finally the fast and accurate structure was introduced as a sub circuit for implementation in HSPICE simulator and then the
implemented model was used to simulate a current source and an inverter circuit. Results indicate that the proposed ANN model
is suitable for nanoscale circuits to be used in simulators like HSPICE.
Keywords: Artificial intelligence networks, CNTFET modelling, Fettoy, Fuzzy system, HSPICE.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
based
on
numerical
piece-wise
non-linear
1. Introduction
approximation of the non-equilibrium mobile charge
With respect to the Nano scale devices, most of
density for CNTFETs [4], recently some new ways
them can be used in circuits. Due to the limitations
have been used to speed up the simulation in integrated
such as short channel effects, quantum effects and
circuits. Simulation with artificial intelligent networks
reduction of gate control on channel, performance of
is one of the powerful simulation methods. For Nano
Nano scale silicone MOSFET transistors will be
scale devices, because of some constraints and
declined [1]. Since the discovery of CNTs in 1991, due
quantum mechanical effects, the calculation of
to the suitable electrical and mechanical properties of
analytical equations are complex and time consuming.
carbon nanotubes, they were used in Nano electronic
Since the computation time in large- scale circuits such
devices and they can be a good replacement for silicon
as VLSI must be done effectively, a model with fast
base devices [2]. Because of high current carrying
calculations is really needed. The artificial neural
capacity and low charge carrying scattering of CNTs,
network (ANN) model can be replaced with the Nano
CNTFETs are proper replacement for silicon
devices in simulators such as ADS, Hspice and
transistors and will have found many practical
Cadence. In previous studies, nanotransistors such as
applications in electronic industry in the near future
Double Gate FinFets, DG- MOSFETs, Nanoscale
[1].
MOSFETs. CNT- MOSFETs were simulated by
In addition to time-consuming numerical
various intelligent neural networks such as MLP
analytical methods such as NEGF (non-equilibrium
(Multi-Layer Perceptron), RBF and Neuro-fuzzy [1],
greens function) which is used to solve the
[5], [6], [7].
Schrdinger equations and finding the surface charge
and the density of states [3], or a simulation which is
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Explanation
Nanotube diameter, nm
TOX
Oxide thickness, nm
Temperature
Dielectric constant, k
Ef
G, alphag
D, alphad
219
1 (2)
1+ (2)
2
) )
2
) )
=1 =1 ((
(5)
(1)
2.3. UTA Method for Feature Selection
gradient of errors (
). Mean square error is recalled
() =
=1 =1 ((
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and
(2)
(3)
(4)
c)
.Subckt CNTFET nd ng ns
Ig ng ns 0
Gdrain nd ns cur=ANN equations of the proposed
model
.Ends CNTFET
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Table.2.
Input data ranges used in ANN.
PARAMETERS
Min
Max
d nm
4.0
51
5
04
04
54444
T Kelvin
544
014
EF
-4.45
-4.1
4.1
4.445
4.5
tox nm
K
Rs ohm-um
Net.
Name
MLP
Neuro
-fuzzy
Table.3.
Comparison between MLP and neuro-fuzzy networks.
Max
Min
abs
abs
Train
Test
Layers
error
error
time
time
(in e- (in e6)
10)
20-10
6.077 20.664 0.36609 0.1583
20
7.53
1.937
0.26307
0.1574
Test
MSE
(ine-5)
9.935
6.133
221
Table.4.
Test MSE after feature selection with UTA method.
network
MLP
Neuro-fuzzy
epsr
0.002
0.002
d
0.0017
0.0017
Tox(e-4)
3.56
4.89
T(e-4)
1.44
0.72
Ef
0.008
0.008
alphag
0.002
0.0023
Alphad(e-4)
2.2217
2.111
Vg
0.0237
0.0240
Vd
0.01
0.01
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[4]
[5]
[6]
Fig.9. Output characteristic for ANN CNTFET current source (IV) solid line for (Iref) and dashed line for (iout).
[7]
5. Conclusion
In this work, two types of neural networks were
employed to simulate the CNTFET. With comparing
the advantages and disadvantages of these two
structures, the appropriate structure is selected to be
implemented in HSPICE simulator. With respect to
accuracy and simulation speed in proposed model
against the numerical FETToy model, it can be
concluded that the Neuro-fuzzy network model is
suitable for modeling the CNTFET transistors.
Comparing the results with those obtained in [1], the
elapsed simulation time is 1.2 seconds for 100
samples in [1], whereas in this paper and for 6050
samples, the result takes the time of 0.15 seconds.
Feature selection algorithm running with UTA
method, we can see that the input voltages and
temperature are the most effective and the least
effective parameters respectively for determining the
output current. Finally with using our proposed ANN
model, we have discussed the analysis of nanoscale
circuits which can be also extended in large scale
circuits to save analysis time.
References
[1] M. Hayati, A. Rezaei and M. Seifi, CNT-MOSFET
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
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Young Researchers and Elite club, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. Email: mjahanshahi@iauctb.ac.ir
2
Department of Information Technology, Qazvin Islamic Azad University, Qazvin, Iran. Email: a.moradpour@qiau.ac.ir
Department of Electrical Engineering, Shahreqods Islamic Azad University, Shahreqods, Iran. Email: pu.kiani@shahryariau.ac.ir
Abstract
A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is a wireless decentralized structure network consists of many nodes. Nodes can be
fixed or mobile. WSN applications typically observe some physical phenomenon through sampling of the environment so
determine the location of events is an important issue in WSN. Wireless Localization used to determine the position of nodes.
The precise localization in WSNs is a complex issue that requires consideration of many prominent aspects such as energy
consumption at the nodes as well as the algorithm execution time. In this article, we optimize a system called Spotlight. The
spotlight is a localization system that delivers high-location estimation accuracy at low cost. We propose several methods to
reduce execution time compared with previous methods in Spotlight. We proposed ILS, LAS and PAS methods that improve
execution time about 25%, 50% and 75%. Execution time of the proposed scheme is restricted by the size of deployment area.
Furthermore, in these methods, there is no need to equip the nodes with any special hardware.
1. Introduction
Recently WSNs received significant attention
from researchers due to its unlimited potential [20-22].
Determining location of the nodes in WSN is an
important issue. Different methods have been proposed
to solve this problem, including the use of GPS in
nodes that are not economically efficient. It also should
be noted that locations of the most sensor nodes are
fixed after deployment in the environment, and thus,
once localization is sufficient for each node. There are
many protocols reported in the literature that increase
energy consumption of the nodes due to exhaustive
messages exchanges among them.
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Criterion
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Table1.
Execution Cost Comparison Criterion
Point Scan
Line Scan
Area Cover
Localization Time
( / )/
(/)/
# Event Detection
Event Overhead
3. Improved methods
() = {| = (, ) [0, ]} (1)
() = {| = (, ) [0, ]} (2)
Where 1 [0, /] 2 [/, 2/]
() = (1 ) (2 )
(3)
Figure
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//
//
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4.1. experiment 1
Fig.13.a. execution time for ILS method compared with line scan method
where r=3cm
228
Fig.13.b. Execution time for ILS method compared with line scan
method where r=13cm
Fig.13.c. Execution time for ILS method compared with line scan
method where r=23cm
Fig.13.d. execution time for ILS method compared with line scan method
where r=33cm
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Figure 14.a. Execution time for LAS method compared with line
scan method where r=3cm
Fig.14.b. Execution time for LAS method compared with line scan
method where r=13cm
Fig.14.c. Execution time for LAS method compared with line scan
method where r=23cm
229
sensor
network
[6] P. Bahl and V.N Padmanabhan, "RADAR: An In-Building RFbased User Location and Tracking System,"INFOCOM 2000.
[7] T.C. Karalar and J. Rabaey,"An RF ToF Based Ranging
Implementation for Sensor Networks", Communications, 2006.
[8] Xiuzhen Cheng and Thaeler A, TPS: a time-based positioning
scheme for outdoor wireless sensor networks, Twenty-third
AnnualJoint Conference of the IEEE Computer and
Communications Societies, INFOCOM 2004.
[9]
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Department of Electrical Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ilam, Iran.
Abstract
With the development of restructured power systems and increase of prices in some hours of day and increase fuel price, demand
response programs were noticed more by customers. demand response consists of a series of activities that governments or utilities
design to change the amount or time of electric energy consumption, to achieve better social welfare or some times for maximizing
the benefits of utilities or consumers. In this paper the effect of emergency demand response program on composite system reliability
of a deregulated power system is evaluated using an economic load model, AC power-flow-based load curtailment cost function and
reliability evaluation techniques. In this paper for calculation the reliability indexes, the Emergency Demand Response Program
(EDRP) cost is considered and in each contingency state, the EDRP cost with the customer load curtailment cost is compared and the
load appropriate value is selected for load shedding or participating in EDRP. In the next stage, the system and nodal reliability
indexes are calculated. To investigate the impact of EDRP activity on composite reliability of restructured power systems the IEEE 6
bus Roy Billinton Test System is utilized. According to obtained results, EDRP using lead to increasing nodal and system reliability.
It can be said that solving problems such as congestion in transmission lines, power system reliability decrease at load network peak
hours, is impossible without customer interfering in power market. In other hand Consumer participation, makes the power markets
more competition and enhance its performance.
Keywords: Emergency demand response program (EDRP), power system deregulation, reliability.
2013 IAUCTB-IJSEE Science. All rights reserved
1. Introduction
Participant of customers in electricity market increases
the competitiveness of electricity markets. When customers
see price volatility, they modify their demand which helps
the magnitude of price spikes be reduced. When consumers
can receive price signals and can respond to them, some of
them will shift their demand to cheaper hours when they face
high prices. Demand Response (DR) can be defined as
A- Incentive-based programs:
A-1- Direct Load Control (DLC)
A-2- Interruptible/curtail able service (I/C)
A-3- Demand Bidding/Buy Back
A-4- Emergency Demand Response Program
(EDRP)
A-5- Capacity Market Program (CAP)
A-6- Ancillary Service Markets (A/S)
B- Time-based programs:
B-1- Time-of-Use (TOU) program
B-2- Real Time Pricing (RTP) program
B-3- Critical Peak Pricing (CCP) Program
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2
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d (i)
d (i) d 0 (i) E0 (i, j ). 0 A( j )
0 ( j)
j 1
(3)
2. Modelling of EDRP
q 0 dq
.
q0 dp
(1)
Where:
d (ti ) : Demand changes in time interval t i
(ti ) : Price changes in interval t i
(t j ) : Price changes in time interval t j
ii
(t i )
d (t i )
ij
(t j )
(4)
d0
18
d (i)
d (i) d 0 (i ) E0 (i, j ). 0 A( j )
0 ( j)
j 14
(2)
18
d (i)
E (i ) A(i ) (5)
d (i) d 0 (i) E0 (i, j ). 0 A( j )
(
j
)
0 (i )
j 14
0
d0
Where:
d (ti ) : Demand changes in time interval t i
(ti ) : Price changes in interval t i
(t j ) : Price changes in time interval t j
Self elasticity and cross elasticity are negative
and positive values, respectively. If the relative change
in demand is larger than the relative change in price,
the demand is said to be elastic, on the other hand, if
234
CostPCLC , QCLC
for S 1,2,3,..., N
i 1,..., n
i 1,..., n
min
max
PEDRP
PEDRP PEDRP
min
max
QEDRP
QEDRP QEDRP
0 PCLC PLoad
0 QCLC QLoad
3
Cost PCLC , QCLC : is the customer interruption cost
buses under contingency S.
Cost P EDRP,Q EDRP : is the EDRP cost for ISO.
PG and PD are generation output and load power buses
vector.
Pgimin and Q gimin is the minimum output of power of
D j , i
i =1 j=1
EDLC
24
(hours / day )
(13)
Where
N C = Number of system interruptions in hour i.
(7)
(8)
(6)
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24
24 NC
DNS Sys
j, i
j=
1
( MW / day )
(15)
EDNS =
24
= System demand not supplied in MW for the
DNS Sys
j, i
i =1
(9)
(10)
V min V V max
(11)
T T max
(12)
ENS Sys
j ,i
i =1 j=1
( MWh / day )
(16)
EENS =
24
= System energy not supplied in MWh for the
ENS Sys
j ,i
235
D kj , i
i =1 j=1
(hours / day )
(17)
LPEDLC
24
N C,k = Number of interruptions occurring in hour i, at
N C, k
DNS Busk
j,i
i =1 j=1
LPEDNS =
24
( MW / day )
(18)
ENS Busk
j, i
i =1 j=1
LPEENS =
24
5.8
Low
0.0024
0.002
-0.02
x 10
5.4
5
4.6
( MWh / day )
(19)
Demand (MW)
ENS
Off-Peak
0.0032
-0.02
0.002
24
Busk
j ,i
Peak
-0.02
0.0032
0.0024
Peak
Off-Peak
Low
Bus k.
D kj , i = Duration of the jth interruption in hour i at Bus k.
LPEDNS: Load point expected demand not supply:
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4.2
3.8
3.4
3
2.6
2.2
1.8
1.4
1
10
12
14
hour
16
18
20
24
Load (MW)
4.8
4.6
4.4
4.2
4
8
22
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
hour
236
261.3892
113.3993
Load 4
114.2587
76.8648
Load 5
498.8546
416.0093
Table.5
Load Point Expected Energy Not Supplied (MWh/day)
Without Considering
Considering
EDRP
EDRP
Load 6
63.1254
59.7458
Load 3
29.5468
27.0125
Load 4
27.2548
25.6074
Load 5
34.8546
32.8425
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5. Conclusion
This paper evaluated the effects of demand
response programs especially emergency demand
response program on system and load point reliability
of a deregulated power system using an economic load
model, AC power-flow-based load curtailment cost
function and reliability evaluation techniques.
In this paper for calculation the reliability
indexes, the Emergency Demand Response Program
(EDRP) cost is considered and in each contingency
state, the EDRP cost with the customer load
curtailment cost is compared and the load appropriate
value is selected for load shedding or participating in
EDRP. In the next stage, the system and nodal
reliability indexes are calculated.
From the simulation results it can be seen that
emergency demand response program improves the
system reliability and nodal reliability of a deregulated
power system.
According to obtained results, EDRP using lead
to increasing nodal and system reliability. It can be said
that solving problems such as congestion in
transmission lines, power system reliability decrease at
load network peak hours, is impossible without
customer interfering in power market. In other hand
Consumer participation, makes the power markets
more competition and enhance its performance.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
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Electrical Engineering Department, Islamic Azad University Central Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran. Email: marjaneh.hashemii@yahoo.com
2
Islamic Azad University Central Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran. Email: sh.javadi@iauctb.ac.ir (Corresponding Author)
Abstract
In recent year's renewable energy sources have become a useful alternative for the power generation. The power of
photovoltaic is nonlinear function of its voltage and current. It is necessary to maintain the operation point of photovoltaic in
order to get the maximum power point (MPP) in various solar intensity. Fuzzy logic controller has advantage in handling
non-linear system. Maximum power point trackers are so important in photovoltaic systems to increase their efficiency.
Many methods have been proposed to achieve the maximum power that the PV modules. This paper proposed an intelligent
method for MPPT based on fuzzy logic controller. The system consists of a photovoltaic solar module connected to a
DC-DC Boost converter and the fuzzy logic controller for controlling on/off time of MOSFET switch of a boost converter.
The proposed MPPT controller for grid-connected photovoltaic system is tested using model designed by Matlab/Simulink
program. Comparison of different performance parameters such as: tracking efficiency and response time of the system
shows that the proposed method gives higher efficiency and better performance than the conventional perturbation and
observation method.
Keywords: Photovoltaic (PV) systems, MPPT, Fuzzy Logic Controller, Boost Converter, Perturb and Observe (P&O).
1. Introduction
Energy has the great importance for our life and
economy. The energy demand has greatly increased
due to the industrial revolution. Fossil fuels have been
started to be gradually depleted. The sustainability of
our civilization is seriously threatened. On the other
hand the greenhouse gas emissions are still increasing
due to the conventional generation of energy. It is a
really global challenge to reduce carbon dioxide
emissions and ensuring secure, clean and affordable
energy, and to achieve more sustainable energy
systems [1]. The photovoltaic (PV) energy as an
alternative Energy source has been widely used
because it is pollution Free, abundant, and broadly
available as a consequence the PV systems are
becoming more and more a relevant part Both in
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(1)
I I
I
exp(
) 1
pv,cell
0 ,cell
akT
Where:
I is the output current of the solar module (A), v is
the output voltage of the solar cell (V), which can be
obtained by dividing the output voltage of the PV
module by the number of cells in series, I pv,cell is the
current source of the PV module by solar
irradiance(A), I o ,cell is the reverse saturation current
of a diode(A),
(n
=1~2),
( 1.6 e
19
is
c ), k
23
( 1.38 10
j/k ,
))
the
boltzmann's
constant
( K )[9].
In order to model the PV module, the current
generated by the incident light should be first
calculated. This current is given as [9]:
I pv I scn K I (Ta Tn
I0
G
Gn
(3)
I SC, n K I T
Voc, n K v T
exp
aVt
(2)
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Vd
1 D
Fig3. P-V curves under changing the solar radiation.
(4)
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Table 1.
Fuzzy controller rule base
NS
ZE
PS
PB
NB
PM
PM
NM
NM
NM
NM
PS
PMM
NM
NMM
NMM
NMM
PS
PS
NMM
NS
NS
NS
PSS
PSS
NS
NSS
NSS
NSS
PSS
PSS
NSS
NSS
ZE
ZE
NB
NS
ZE
PS
PS
PSS
NSS
NSS
PSS
PSS
PSS
PS
NSS
NSS
PM
PSS
PSS
PMM
NMM
NS
PMM
PS
PS
PM
NMM
NMM
PM
PMM
PMM
PB
NM
NM
PM
PM
PM
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Table 3.
Boost Converter Parameters.
200( H )
Inductance
Initial inductor current
4 (A)
10( F )
Capacitance
Initial capacitor voltage
Switching frequency
Results
In order to verify the MPP tracker for the
photovoltaic simulation system, the proposed MPPT
method is compared with conventional controller
applied on the same system. This controller is
perturbation and observation controller. The proposed
method is by implementing a maximum power point
tracker controlled by fuzzy logic controller and using
boost DC-to-DC converter to keep the PV output
power at the maximum point all the time. This
controller was tested using Matlab/Simulink program,
and the results was compared with a perturbation and
observation controller applied on the same system.
The comparison shows that the fuzzy logic controller
was better in response and dont depend on knowing
any parameter of PV panel.
The model used for simulation is shown in
Fig. 10. The output of the MPPT control block is the
Duty cycle signal which is used to drive the
MOSFET. The principle of this controller is done by
changing the PWM duty cycle (D) and observing the
effect on the output PV power, this can be detailed as
follows:
-when dp/dv > 0, the voltage is increased, this is
done through D (k) = D (k 1) + C.
(C : incrimination step),
-when dp/dv < 0, the voltage is decreased
through D (k) = D (k 1) C.
Electrical characteristics of the modeled PV are given
in theTable 2.
Table 2.
Electrical Characteristics of PV Cell.
Maximum Power (Pmax) 85.14(W)
Short-circuit current
5.45(A)
Open-circuit voltage
22.2(V)
Current at Pmax
4.95(A)
Voltage at Pmax
17.2(V)
200 (V)
100(KHZ)
242
mppt t k
Pachieved Dk , t k
Pmpp t k
(5)
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Table 4.
Input and output values of the fuzzy algorithm with changing the
number of photovoltaic modules.
contoller
Vin(V)
Vout(V)
Pin(W)
Pout(W)
iL(A)
Fuzzy
19.26
56.55
21.88
31.98
0.77
Fuzzy
38.52
88.43
59.07
78.2
1.05
Fuzzy
115.56
231.6
366.8
536.3
3.17
Fuzzy
231.12
463.2
1467
2145
6.34
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3. Conclusion
Photovoltaic model using Matlab/Simulink and
design of appropriate DC-DC Boost converter with a
maximum power point tracking facility are presented
in this paper. A new method for MPPT based fuzzy
logic controller is presented and compared with the
conventional P&O MPPT method.
The oscillation around MPP is decreased in
compared with the conventional methods. Comparing
the tracking efficiency of both methods indicates that
the proposed method has a higher efficiency than the
conventional P&O MPPT method. In this paper, the
fuzzy logic control demonstrates good performance.
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[11] C. Larbes, S.M. Af't Cheikh, T. Obeidi, A. Zerguerras, "
Genetic algorithms optimized fuzzy logic control for the
maximum power point tracking in photovoltaic system",
Renewable Energy, Vol. 34, Iss.19, pp.2093-2100, 2009.
[12] Tavares, Leite, Suemitsu, Bellar, Performance Evaluation of
Photovoltaic solar system with different MPPT methods",
Proceedings of Industrial Electronics Conference, pp.719-724,
2009.
[13] At,M. Cheikh,S. C.Larbes, (Septembre 2007) Maximum power
point tracking using a fuzzy logic control scheme.