int. j. prod. res., 2001, vol. 39, no.

13, 2867 2894

Flexible xture design and automation: Review, issues and future

directions
Z. M. BIy* and W. J. ZHANGy
The cost of designing and fabricating xtures can amount to 10 20% of the total
manufacturing system costs. To reduce manufacturing costs, a xture system is
designed to be competent in xturing as many workpieces as possible. In mass
volume production, this can be achieved by xturing a large quantity of the same
kind of workpieces. In low-to-medium volume production, however, improvement of the exibility of xture systems becomes a favourable way to reduce
the unit cost of product. This paper summarizes the latest studies in the eld of
exible xture design and automation. First, a brief introduction is given on this
research area. Secondly, taxonomy of exible xture design activities is presented.
Thirdly, the exibility strategies based on the existing exible xture systems are
discussed. Fourthly, the contributions on design methodologies and veri cations
are examined. Fifthly, advances on computer-aided design and see-up systems are
summarized. Finally, some prospective research trends are presented.

1. Introduction
1.1. The need for a Flexible Manufacturin g System (FMS)
Increasingly intensive global competition in manufacturing and changing consumer demand are resulting in a trend towards greater product variety and innovation, shorter product life-cycle, lower unit cost, higher product quality, and short
lead-time. Evolving from such a trend, both `market pull and `technological push
are forcing rms towards greater exibility. The case for exibility and automation is
reinforced further by crucial socio-economic issues such as the high cost of capital,
the high cost of direct labour, and the shrinking skilled-labour pool. It becomes a key
dimension of rms competitive priorities. As a result, a great deal attention has been
directed towards the development of Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) in the
past decades. An FMS lls the gap between high-volume transfer lines and a highly
exible manufacturin g situation, it is adopted to respond quickly, smoothly and
cheaply to as yet unknown changes in product markets and production technology.
It is economical in the low-to-medium volume range, because of the short time and
the low cost involved for the set-up to accommodate a newly designed component.

1.2. Flexible Fixture System (FFS)

The exibility of a whole FMS is restricted by the exibility of any of its components, including xture systems. The cost of designing and fabricating the xtures
in an FMS can amount to 10 20% of the total system cost. Traditionally, the
Received March 2001.
{ Advanced Engineering Design Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, S7N 5A9, Canada.
* To whom correspondence should be addressed. e-mail: zhb412@mail.usask.ca
International Journal of Production Research ISSN 0020 7543 print/ISSN 1366 588X online # 2001 Taylor & Francis Ltd
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/00207540110054579

2868

Z. M. Bi and W. J. Zhang

function of a xture is to hold a part in order to keep that part in a desired position
and orientation while the part is in manufacturing, assembly, or veri cation processes. Custom-oriented dedicated xtures are not only time-consuming and costly
to build, but they also do not have the exibility to deal with parts or assemblies of
dierent shapes and sizes. To reduce the cost of a manufacturing system, the xture
system should be designed to be competent in xturing as many workpieces as
possible. In low-to-medium volume production, FFSs that are competent in xturing
dierent kinds of workpieces, become a prospective way of reducing the unit cost of
a product.
1.3. Some reviews on researches of FFSs
Fixture design and automation is an old topic in manufacturing engineering.
Thousands of technical papers were published in relevant journals and conferences.
To our knowledge, there are eight review papers published in this eld, the latest one
appearing in 1996. A brief summary of these works is given in Table 1.
Two aspects design methodologies for determination of xture con gurations
and the classi cation of the existing xture systems are the main concerns. By
investigating recent research achievements in this eld, the authors have revealed
some limitations of these works. (1) Fixturing is always separated into some subfunctions such as locating, supporting and clamping, the integrated implementation
of xturing behaviour is less noticed. (2) To design a xture con guration, it always
means that the overall FFS is given. Some high-level issues, which are relevant to
selecting a suitable FFS for the family of workpieces, are not addressed. (3) Practical
issues rising from xture application environments are rarely considered.
1.4. Our observation
With the application of advanced technologies such as Artifact Intelligent and
robotic manipulators, the dierences between intelligent grippers and exible xture
systems become reduced. For example, the location of a workpiece can be performed
by visual identi cation and supporting and clamping are often merged and carried
out by compliant vice or gripper. Passive elements in a xture system can be replaced
by active elements in order to achieve more exibility and automation. A xturing
process is traditionally regarded as a static process, but the dynamic xturing
methods are widely accepted in recent years. Moreover, xture-less operations
have been implemented in some manufacturing situations. Flexible strategies of
FFSs should be thoroughly studied to help develop novel FFSs.
Manufacturing practice has also shown the problem of implementation of the
FFS concept. For example, in the case of modular xture systems, (1) the unaordable cost of some commercial modular xturing components and (2) the increased
level of knowledge to determine a xture con guration and to assemble it into a
modular xture system. This further implies that commercial modular xture
systems are too general to be useful in various manufacturing environments. Some
application issues of exible xture systems need to be addressed.
Many methodologies were developed for optimal determination of xture con gurations. They are competent in solving special classes of issues in design process.
However, a methodology guideline is lacking that can help the user to select a suitable method and corresponding tools to solve various issues at dierent design
phases and aspects.

Flexible xture design and automation

2869

Resources

Concerns (issues, suggestions and remarks)

Grippo et al.
(1988)

Overview of research activities dedicated to develop viable

universal exible xturing systems, highlighting the necessity for
an interdisciplinary research strategy in order to develop e cient
universal xture system

Hazen and
Wright (1990)

Review of xture designs, xture analysis, planning, and

automated xture assembly. Further studies were suggested:
(1) design of automated xture systems;
(2) integration of planning, mechanical automation, and sensing
strategies

Trappy and
Liu (1990)

Review of xturing principles, automated xture design, xture

hardware design in 1980s. They revealed that comprehensive
automatic xture-design systems have not been completely
developed, and suggested (1) to construct a huge rule base covering
a su cient domain in the expert system; (2) to study Automated
Fixture Design (AFD) software and the xture-hardware together.

Chang (1992)

Discussion issues of xture planning for machining processes. A

tentative classi cation of xture components as well as a scheme
for selecting the xture components for primary locating.

Liu and Strong

(1993)

Review of Fixture Design Automation. Further studies were

suggested on:
(1) application of Al techniques, expert systems, feature design
technique, group technology and 3D geometric reasoning
techniques to automatic xture design;
(2) integration of AFD with other systems;
(3) development and exploitation of new locating principles for AFD.

Hargrove and
Kusiak (1994)
Hargrave (1995)

Suggested new directions of research on computer-aided xture

design: (1) integration with other computer-aided engineering tools
for total xture design; (2) qualitative reasoning techniques can be
applied to xture design; and (3) integration with NC programming
schemes

Shirinzadeh
(1995)

Classi cation FFSs from the viewpoint of exible strategies

Shimoga (1996)

A survey of the existing grasp synthesis algorithms meant for

achieving dexterity, equilibrium, stability, and dynamic behaviours.
Prospective researches on this eld were (1) to simplify the
computational complexities of the synthesis algorithm; (2) to
improve the precise sensing and control capabilities of the existing
grasping system.

Table 1.

Summary of review papers on xture design and automation.

1.5. Organization of paper

First, a taxonomy of issues in exible xture design is provided. Secondly, exible
strategies are discussed, which leads to a classi cation of the existing FFSs. Thirdly,
the existing design methodologies and tools are examined. Finally, some prospective
directions for research are identi ed.
2.

Taxonomy of issues in exible xture design

Design of a exible xture system refers to two level tasks: the high-level task is
to determine the overall exible xture system based on the features of part families.

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Z. M. Bi and W. J. Zhang

The low-level task is to determine a concrete xture con guration, including exible
variables or assemblies based on the features of a special workpiece in the families. In
most previous works, the whole exible xture system is supposed to be given, and
only the low-level task is involved. Here, the low-level task is discussed rst, and the
high-level task of selection and designing of the whole FFS is mentioned in Section
2.6.

2.1. Design process in determining a xture con guration

This design process refers to selecting the candidate elements, and to determining
their internal variables and external assembly based on xturing requirement supposing the overall FFS is given. Fixture design is both a science and art, there are
many manufacturing-relate d criteria and considerations that help in the development
of a procedure or methodology to design a xture for a given product and for a
speci c manufacturing operation. Generally, this procedure is as shown in gure 1.
Four design phases are involved: the description of the design problem, xture
analysis, xture synthesis, and con guration veri cation.

Problem Description of Design a Fixture Configuration

Description of
Workpiece and Its
Machining Process

Design
restrictions

Description
of a Flexible
Fixture

Design
parameters and
Variables

Design
objectives

Fixture Analysis
Constriction Models
Form closure
Accessibility/Detachability
Deformation

Evaluation models
Stabiliablity
Equilibrium
Dynamic Behavior
Dexterity,

Design
Process

Fixture Synthesis
Decomposition of the synthesis process
Determination of initial variables
Verification of candidates
Search strategies
Calculation reduction
Output of optimal Solution

Fixture Verification
Form closure
Accessibility/Detachability
Deformation

Fixture Assembly and Running

Figure 1.

Process of determining a xture con guration.

Flexible xture design and automation

2871

2.2. Description of design problem

A design problem can always be de ned as an optimization problem. An optimization problem has three elements: design variables, design constraints and design
objectives. Appropriate models should be established to perform the solving of an
optimization problem, e.g. analysis modelling between the design variables and the
constraints, the evaluation modelling between the design variables and the design
objectives.
2.2.1. Design variables
Design variables are determined by the architecture of a given FFS. The concept
of variables represents a broad meaning. In an FFS, the selection of alternative
elements, the selection of the assembly between the elements, and adjustable parameters within a modular element may all be de ned as design variables. They can be
a discrete or continuous. At the beginning of a design process, all the changeable
parameters or factors in an FFS are de ned as design variables in some way. It is a
non-trivial issue to de ne the variables re ecting these various design options.
2.2.2. Design constraints
The function of a xture is to hold a workpiece in order to keep the workpiece in
the desired position and orientation when it is in its manufacturing , assembly, or
veri cation processes. This statement also provides the xturing requirement and is
further expressed as design constraints in a design process.
(1) Form closure. The wrenches are used to hold the object are such that they
can balance, by a combination of their actions, any external tone acting on
the object. This requirement has been expressed as follows in the literature.
. Resting stability: all supporting components must maintain contact with the
workpiece so that the workpiece rests fully on the supports. When a workpiece
is placed into a xture, it should rst assume equilibrium resting.
. Clamping stability: when clamps are applied on the workpiece in a sequence,
the clamping forces should not upset the stable and accurate position previously assumed by the workpiece. After clamps are applied, the xture should
completely restrain the workpiece to counter any possible cutting forces and
couples in the machining stages.
. Processing stability: In favourabl e processing cases, where major cutting forces
are absorbed by the supporting and locating components, only small forces
need to be absorbed by the clamping components.
(2) Accessibility/ detachability. The concept of xturing accessibility/detachability covers the aspects of interference free conditions, and spatial geometric
constraint satisfaction. Two types of accessibility/detachability should be
considered. The rst is the reachability of an individual workpiece surface;
the second one is the easiness of loading and unloading the workpiece into a
xture.
(3) Deformation constraints. Workpiece deformation during xture set-up and
process operation is the most important consideration in the xture design
process.

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Z. M. Bi and W. J. Zhang

The design constraints may change with respect to special situations. For example,
Brook et al. (1998) thought the form closure was too restricted for robotic grasping.
2.3. Fixture analysis
In xture analysis, the relational models that map from the design variables to
the design constraints, and from the design variables to the design evaluations, have
to be established. These models are used to verify whether a xture con guration
satis es the design requirements.
Kinematic analysis: refers to the kinematic models from the design variables to
kinematic constraints . It is necessary that the proposed xturing arrangement does
not interfere with the expected tool path, the xture does not restrict access to
features being machined, and that the xturing elements themselves can access
desired faces or the features for clamping. For correct location, the xturing elements should completely specify the position and orientation of the part with respect
to desired datum surfaces, but should not over-determine the location.
Force analysis refers to the static models from the design variables to the static
constraints. Force analysis is concerned with checking that the forces applied by
the xtures are su cient to maintain static equilibrium in the presence of cutting
forces.
Deformation analysis: refers to the tolerance models ranging from the design variables to workpiece deformation. It is the most computationally intensive step. The
concern is that a part may deform elastically and/or plastically under the in uence of
cutting and clamping forces so that the desired tolerances will not be achieved.
Deformation is particularly a concern with exible parts and with parts in which a
great deal of material is removed. Hockenberger (1995) discussed the eect of
machining xture design parameters on workpiece displacement.
Evaluation models refers to how the xturing performance is evaluated. The
following indices are often used to evaluate the performance of the con guration
candidates:
. number of wrenches
. clamping forces
. workpiece equilibrium
. workpiece stability
. workpiece deformation
. xture dexterity
. xture set-up time
The evaluation models are used to obtain these performance indices.
2.4. Fixture synthesis
Fixture synthesis determines a set of design variables for a xture con guration
that can satisfy the design constraints while achieving the best performances. For an
FFS with a small number of design variables, the synthesis activity is relatively
simple using the models obtained from the xture analysis. However, xture syn-

Flexible xture design and automation

2873

thesis may become very complex if there are many design variables in an FFS.
Consider a modular xture system as an example, to reduce the calculation and
improve the design e ciency, the synthesis activity is decomposed into several
sub-activities: selection of types of modules, determination of locate and support
points, determination of clamping, the assembly planning of xture con guration,
and so on.
2.5. Design veri cation
Fixture veri cation is an integrated part of the design process and must allow for
the detection of any interference that may occur during the xture construction
(Shirinzadeh and Tie 1995). Veri cation of a design solution is necessary for the
following reasons: (1) There are too many factors involved in the design process; it is
very di cult to establish accurate analysis models. (2) Design constraints are considered individually; some contradicting constraints may be produced when they are
considered together. (3) Fixture design has a close relationship with other activities
(such as Computer-Aided Process Planning, and Computer-Aided Manufacturing )
in a manufacturing system; the design solution needs to be veri ed practicable for the
whole manufacturing system.
Veri cation or monitoring is also needed in the use of a xture system to justify
whether the system in a good condition. Choudhuri and Meter (1999) had analysed
the tolerance caused by machining xture locators, and Ceglarek and Shi (1996) used
pattern recognition to perform diagnosis of xture failure in autobody assembly.
2.6. Selection, evaluation and design of a FFS
One of the most important topics is how to select, evaluate and design an FFS for
one family of workpieces. This is more di cult than the determination of a xture
con guration, because the xturing objects have uncertain requirements. Actually,
this situation often happens. When a new enterprise is built or some new products
are introduced, a decision on whether to buy or design an optimal FFS for the family
of workpieces has to be made. When an enterprise changes a large-scale product
paradigm into a low-to-medium product paradigm, the owner has to determine
whether dedicated xtures are replaced by FFSs, and which is better: to buy commercial FFS or to develop a special FFS for the family of workpieces.
To select, evaluate and design an FFS, more considerations should be included in
the evaluation models, such as cost, e ciency, suitability, and lead-time. The analysis process becomes most di cult because there is an uncertain relationship with the
xture requirements. Empirical methodologies are, in practice, applicable to the
overall process of selecting and evaluating.
3.

Existing FFSs
Various FFSs have been developed; but only a few of them have become commercial. Most FFSs are limited to special-purposes; however, they are exible
enough to accommodate one class of part family. Figure 2 shows a classi cation
of these FFSs from the view of exible strategies.
3.1. Flexible strategies for xture systems
There are a number of ways to achieve exibility. The rst way is to make the
xture system contain many replaceable basic elements, which are called modular
elements. A xture con guration is built by selecting modular elements and their

2874

Z. M. Bi and W. J. Zhang
Flexible Fixture Systems

FFSs with Single

Structure (SFFSs)

FFSs with Modular Structure

(MFFSs)

T-Slot
Modular Kits

Downel-Pin
Modular Kits

Grid-Hole
Modualr Kits

Reconfigurable
modular FFSs

Phase-change
FFSs

Adaptive
Clamp

FFSs Using Memory Metal

FFSs Using Pseudo Phase
Materials
FFSs Using Authentic
Phase-Change Materials

Figure 2.

The classi cation of exible xture systems.

assembly; these elements are then connected to each other by standard connections.
The bene ts of modularized products were described by He and Kusiak (1996, 1997),
Rogers and Bottaci (1997), Kusiak and Larson (1995), and Newcomb et al. (1998).
The second way is to make some components contain internal variables that can be
adjusted to meet the dierent features of workpieces. The third way is to use phasechange-like materials. In gure 2, FFSs are classi ed into two types: Flexible Fixture
Systems with a Modular structure (MFFSs) and Flexible Fixture Systems with Single
structure (SFFSs).
3.2. Flexible xture systems with modular structures
The concepts of interchangeability and modular xturing date back to the
Second World War. Modular xturing systems rst came into prominence in the
late 1960s and are mainly used in conjunction with NC machine tools. The extent of
their use was not widespread until the advent of multiple axis CNC machine tools
and Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMSs). A modular xture kit consists of many
elements, and these elements belong to one of the following basic types: base plate,
locators, clamps and connections. Using the components from the kit one can
assemble a custom-oriented xture. Flexibility is achieved by selection of various
modules and assembly of the elements.
3.2.1. Classi cation of FFSs with a modular structure
Table 2 shows four basic types of FFS with a modular structure and examples of
location identi cation techniques.
3.2.2. Shortcoming of MFSs
MFFSs are very popular in industry. They can widely accommodate various
changes of workpieces, i.e. in shape, size, and process, etc. However, this implies

Flexible xture design and automation

2875

Type

Location
identi cation

Grid hole system

Non-threaded hole

Venlic Block Jig System, Japan

Yuasa Modular Flex System, USA
Kipp Modular FFS, Germany

T-slot or Tenon
system

T-slot

Eiwin Modular System, USA ( gure 3)

Warlton Unitool, UK
CATIC (China National Aeronautical
Technology Import and Export
Corporation) System, China
Gridmaster System, UK

Dowel pin system

Dowel or tapped
hole

Bluco Technik, Germany ( gure 4)

MITEE-BITE Clamp
SAFE Fixture System, USA
Write Alu x System, Germany

Recon gurable
modular FFSs

Visual Sense
Joint encoder, et al.

Developed by Asada and Andre (1985)

Developed by Shirinzadeh (1995)
Developed by Benhabib et al. (1991)

Table 2.

Examples

Classi cation of commercial MFFSs.

that they are too general to be useful in some manufacturing environments. Only a
few of researchers have paid attention to the failures of MFFSs; however, manufacturing practice has shown the following problems of adopting modular xture
systems.
(1) Unaffordable cost: the initial cost of modular xture is often high.
(2) A large amount of knowledge: the increased level of knowledge required to
determine a modular xture system con guration and to assemble it into a
modular xture system is dif cult to obtain.

Figure 3.

T-Slot Eiwin modular xture system.

2876

Z. M. Bi and W. J. Zhang

Figure 4.

Blucko Technik dowel xture.

(3) Limited exibility: only limited combinations are available from standard
xture components to construct xture con gurations for different workpieces. In many cases, dedicated xtures are needed for complex workpiece
geometry and operations.
(4) Limited xture performance: structural properties of modular xtures, such
accuracy, stiffness, stability, and convenience of loading and unloading, are
maintain.
(5) Schedule: there is a problem of how to utilize modular xture components
ef ciently in production planning.

3.2.3. Set-up of MFFSs

Con gurations of MFFSs should be often modi ed to accommodate the changes
of features of workpieces. Therefore, the set-up for a xture con guration is an
important activity in the application of a MFFS. Empirical judgements are used
in the process of the set-up.
3.2.4. Sense-based set-up
Modular elements must have some degree of intelligence if they are required to
change automatically. One way is to use various senses. Tao and Kumar (1997)
developed an experimental xturing system for end-milling operations, in which
real-time reaction forces on locators are measured and monitored through a data
acquisition system. Lu et al. (1997) designed a fast exible xture for two-dimensional clamping, which is tted with sensors for automatically measuring the positions of the clamping surfaces and the vice opening. Karl et al. (1994) developed a
exible automated xturing element, in which a hydraulic positioning mechanism
was designed without using a hydraulic servo valve. The device could achieve the
positioning accuracy within 0.001 inch. The modular elements developed by
Shirinzadeh and Tie (1995) were equipped with position and force sensors, and
the motion was controlled by hybrid servo systems.
Taylor et al. (1994) addressed the problem of planning two- ngered grasps of unmodelled 3D objects using visual information. Barsky et al. (1989) proposed a robot
gripper control system using polyvinylidene uoride (PVDF) piezoelectric sensor.

Flexible xture design and automation

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Rodu and Fadi (1998) presented a visual approach to the problem of object grasping
and, more generally, to the problem of aligning and end-eector with an object.
3.2.5. Robotic xture assembly
The use of robotic systems is the main method in implementing the automation
of modular xture assemblies. The robot can con gure xtures into a wide range of
workpiece con gurations without operator assistance. When coupled with xture
modules designed speci cally for robot assembly, these systems show promise
(Youce-Toumi et al. 1989). In the recon gurable modular systems developed by
Asade and Andre (1985) and Shirinzadeh and Tie (1995), the xture modules were
set up, adjusted and changed automatically by the assembly robot without human
intervention. Lim et al. (1989) used a gantry robot for the loading and unloading of
modular xtures, an automatic probe-changing coordinate-measurin g machine for
inspection. Ngoi et al. (1997) developed an automated xture set-up for inspection,
the system comprised a workplace with magazines, locators and a baseplate, the
SCORBOT-ER VII was used to automate the system. Yu and Goldberg (1998)
formalized robotic xture loading geometrically as a sensor-base d compliant assembly problem and gave a complete planning algorithm. Giusti et al. (1994) developed a
recon gurable assembly cell for mechanical products. This cell was composed of
three base plates, a pneumatic screwing unit, a hydraulic press and other devices
for the complete automation of the assembly operations. The handling functions of
the cell were performed by a six-axes robot. As shown in gure 5, Sela and Gaudry
(1997) developed a recon gurable modular system for the xturing of thin-walled,
exible objects subject to a discrete number of point forces.

3.3. FFSs with a single structure

The con gurations of this type of FFSs are unchangeable. However, some adjustable variables are contained. Flexibility can be achieved by changing adjustable
variables to accommodate various shapes and sizes of workpieces. Two types are
included: the adaptive FFSs, phase-change FFSs.
3.3.1. Adaptive FFSs
An adaptive FFS achieves the exibility through its internal variables. Daniel et
al. (1998, 1999) designed a recon gurable discrete die, which was being developed for

Figure 5.

FFS for thin-walled parts by Sela.

2878

Z. M. Bi and W. J. Zhang

The structure of pin

Figure 6.

A recon gurable discrete die.

aircraft fuselage parts, made by forming sheet metal or moulding composite

materials. As shown in gure 6, each pin in the die was a simple hydraulic actuator
tted with an in-line NC solenoid valve to control its vertical position. Once the pins
were set, the entire matrix was clamped into a rigid tool. Brooke (1994) introduced
Fancs programmable xturing system, which could hold dierent platforms and
multiple models, change quickly, and do it for low cost. Wallack and Canny
(1994) designed an adaptive xture vice, which consisted of two xture table jaws
capable of translation in the X axis, As shown in gure 7, it was used for 2.5dimensional objects. Du and Lin (1998) developed a three- ngered automated exible xturing system. Most of grippers used in part assembly belong to this type. As
shown in gure 8, Kopacek and Kronreif (1994) developed a modular parallel gripper system. Chan and Lin (1996) developed exible grippers, where only one type of
modular element provided locating, supporting and clamping functions. As shown in
gure 9, each element consisted of four ngers with eight degrees of freedom in order
to conform to any arbitrary workpiece surfaces. The eight motions of the four ngers
were controlled by one motor through the use of two transmission and clutch
systems. Dierent combinations of the multi ngers could make dierent xture
recon gurations for the product family. Causey and Quinn (1998) provided a guideline for designing various grippers. Smith (1998) developed a new concept of an
intelligent exible xture system.

Figure 7.

A xture vice.

Flexible xture design and automation

Figure 8.

2879

Gripper with two ngers.

Multi-finger
module as locators

Multi-Finger
module as clam p

Workpiece

Cylinder

Figure 9.

CNC exible xture for assembly.

3.3.2. Phase-change FFSs

Flexible xturing based on the concept of material phase-change exploits the
ability of certain classes of material to change phase. Phase changes may be temperature-induced, electrically induced or a combination of these Temperatureinduced phase-change xturing has traditionally been employed in encapsulation
for special-purpose precision machining, such as the milling of turban blades as
shown in gure 10 (Hazen and Wright 1990). Electrically induced phase-change
xturing employs electro-rheological uids as the medium undergoing the change
of phase, Grippo et al. (1988) developed a prototyp e in gure 11, Pseudo phase
change xtures mimic the function of low melting point alloys. These alloys can
be ` uidized by compressed air, and when the air supply is shut o; the alloys
become solid and hold the workpiece (Gandhi and Thompson 1985). Researchers
at MIT designed a set of comfortable clamps that use shape memory alloy wires for
motive force. As shown in gure 12, the clamps consisted of a 4 4 array of ngers,
normally locked by the squeezing action of heavy-duty belleville springs.
Compliant mechanisms are mechanical devices that achieve motion via elastic
deformation. by adapting these mechanisms, some special xtures can be developed,

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Z. M. Bi and W. J. Zhang
Workpiece

Hydraulic clamp
Compaction plate
Container wall
Bed Material
Air intake
Figure 10.

The particulare uidized bed.

Piston

Array of E-R plug in module

E-R fluid

E-R Valve

Removable module

Figure 11.

Conformable
Surface

Fixture made of electropheological uids.

Lever

Clamping
Actuator

Springs
Figure 12. MIT Conformable clamp made of shape memory alloy.

Flexible xture design and automation

2881

Frecker et al. (1997) discussed topological synthesis of compliant mechanisms using

multi-criteria optimization.
3.4. Robotics in xture-less assembly (RFA)
Robotic xture-less assembly refers to the performance of assembly tasks using
robots without the xtures. RFA is applicable to several industries, including automotive, aircraft, camera and photocopier manufacturing. The elimination of xtures
is expected to reduce greatly the costs and lengthy lead times associated with retooling in these industries. General Motors of Canada is developing a RFA prototype, it
is being used for picking and accurate locating for a large number of complex-shaped
sheet metal (and sheet plastic) parts in the assembly processes. Bandyopadhya y et al.
(1993) designed a ` xture-free machining centre for the machining of block-like
components.
4.

Design methodologies
Once the whole FFS is bought, selected, or produced, its running e ciency
depends largely on the automation degree of design, and veri cation of the xture
con gurations. As mentioned in section 2, three basic activities are involved: (1)
description of the requirements and the constraints; (2) modelling in xture analysis;
and (3) search strategies in xture synthesis.
A description method has a great eect in choosing the appropriate tools for
xture analysis and synthesis. The geometry expression is the most direct method for
describing design requirements. It is often used in the detailed design of a xture
con guration both for FFSs and dedicated xtures. The alternatives are a GT-based
code and feature-based method. To accommodate for computerization, the modular
xture elements must be encoded (Lin and Huang 1997). Group Technology (GT)
codes and feature-based descriptions have appeared in recent years with the increasing usage of expert systems and rule-based systems in xture synthesis. However,
because the detailed description of design requirements might be di cult, GT is only
suitable in the concept design of xture con gurations.
4.1. Methodologies used in xture analysis
Fixture analysis builds relational models among the design variables, constraints,
and evaluation objectives. The optimal formula of the xture con guration design is
not completed until all the constraint and objective models are established.
4.1.1. Geometry method
The geometry-oriente d approach is a well-accepted approach in which most of
the information required can be retrieved from CAD systems. Markensco and
Papadimitriou (1989) and Markenscoet al. (1990) discussed the geometry of grasping and optimum gripping of a polygon using geometry methods. Trappey et al.
(1993) utilized the projective representation of a workpiece to nd a feasible xture
con guration based on the 3-2-1 locating principle. Asada and Andre (1985)
employed analytic tools based on the workpiece geometry and the assembly operation required, and the xture con guration could be changed automatically. Boema
and Kals (1988) established a CAD system used for automation of xture design and
set-ups. Considering the interference between xture modules in a recon gurable
xture system, Wu and Rong (1998) presented a fundamental study of automated
xture planning with a focus on geometric analysis. The initial conditions for mod-

2882

Z. M. Bi and W. J. Zhang

ular xture assembly were established together with geometric relationships between
xture components and the workpiece to be analysed. Willy et al. (1995) employed
Boolean algebra in justify the possible xture con gurations. Cai et al. (1996, 1997)
developed a variational method for robust xture con guration design to minimize
workpiece resultant errors due to source errors. Using the proposed variations
approach, closed form analytical solutions were derived. Apley and Shi (1998) presented an algorithm to detect and classify multiple xture faults based on least
squares estimation. Hwang et al. (1999) used kinematics to analyse the grasping of
a B-spline surface object by a multi- ngered robot hand. Hong et al. (1996) applied
the spatial point contact constraint theory to develop a mathematical model of
exible xturing systems.
4.1.2. Screw theory
Screw theory is based on the motion of a rigid bodys displacement in 3D space;
the force and the motion of a workpiece can be modelled as `wrenches and `twists .
To build some quality measures for evaluating a grasp, Chou (1989) presented a
mathematical theory for automatic con guration of machining xtures for prismatic
parts with aid of screw theory, in which twists and wrenches are used to represent the
motion and force combinations. Screw theory was used to derive: (1) the minimum
number of contacts (locations and clamps); (2) the permissible motions due to a
contact set; (3) the reaction forces at special contacts; and (4) the clamping forces
required to balance cutting forces (Fuh and Nee 1994).
4.1.3. Finite Element Method (FEM)
Owing to its good capability of deriving the corresponding compressive force and
displacement, the FEM approach has been used in many de ection-related
researches (Hou and Trappy 1997). Lee and Cuthowsky (1990) were the rst to
employ this method in Automated Fixture Design (AFD). De Meter (1998) proposed the Fast Support Layout Optimization (FSLO) model, it utilized a FEM
model to characterize workpiece stiness. Solution of the FSLO model improved
an existing support layout by systematically altering the boundary conditions.
4.1.4. Rule-based or feature-based analysis
In a feature-based model, a typical approach is to represent a part with a single
set of features. In machining processes, dierent xturing parameters are required
when dierent sets of features are used for machining. Tseng (1998) developed a
feature-based xturing analysis method to determine a good set of features that was
more suitable from the xturing point of view.
Dong et al. (1991) investigated the use of features for xture design, concentrating on the selection of locating elements and the identi cation of locating surfaces
for workpiece positioning. The approaches of machining feature-based design and
the precedence matrix algorithm were combined to automate the process-planning
and xture design (Ozturk et al. 1996). By merging knowledge of manufacturing
methods and machine tool information with a special-purpose computer language,
Darvishi and Gill (1988) suggested developing, primarily for list processing and
symbolic manipulation, ground rules for a xture design approach. A xture process
planning system was implemented using a knowledge-based approach (Liou and
Suen 1992). Perremans (1996) described modular elements by means of form

Flexible xture design and automation

2883

features; this permitted the description of an arbitrary modular xturing system and
the use of the same logic to determine the assembly of modular elements.
4.1.5. Mechanical analysis methods
As well as the methodologies mentioned above, the mechanical analysis method
is very popular for modelling workpiece- xture force interactions and deformations
of the workpiece. King et al. (1997) presented an analytical approach based on
kinematics, force and a minimization of potential energy method. Potential energy
was regarded as a measure of excitability of a given physical state, the physical state
considered was the xturing con guration of locators and clamps, and an optimal
algorithm was built to nd a con guration with the minimum potential for perturbation. Meyer and Liou (1997) developed a comprehensive methodology for handling the dynamic external force in a workpiece- xturing system. Considering the
accurate and e cient modelling of compliant xtures and grasps, Lin (1998) derived
a stiness matrix formula using the overlap compliance representation for quasirigid bodies. It could incorporate a realistic nonlinear contact model, and could be
directly computed from CAD data on basic geometric and material properties of the
bodies. This formula was well-suited to automated planning algorithms. Mittall and
Cohen (1991) presented a dynamic modelling of the xture-workpiece system. Most
of force analysis approaches treated either the workpiece or the xture as a deformable elastic body; however, both of them were considered as deformable elastic
bodies in the mechanical analysis presented by Gui et al. (1996); a generalized
method to minimize the location deviation was proposed by using optimally determined clamping forces. Nguyen (1984) discussed constructing stable grasps using
mechanical modelling. Yeh and Liou (1999) developed the modelling of the response
frequency of a modular xturing system with multiple components in contact, and
showed it was possible to monitor the contact conditions based on a xture systems
dynamic response frequency. Wu et al. (1997) considered surface contact modelling
for a xture workpiece system. Shreyes and Melkote (1997) applied the mechanical
method to improving workpiece location accuracy through xture layout optimization.

4.2. Methodologies for xture synthesis

Two main considerations in xture synthesis are to simplify the synthesis process
and to reduce calculations. In addition, search strategies in the feasible space of
xture con gurations are important.
4.2.1. Analytical methods
Analytical synthesis can only handle a small number of design variables. Two
possible situations might use analytical synthesis: (1) the determination of a xture
con guration for the SFFSs with a few variables; (2) the determination of a few
internal parameters for selected modular elements for MFFSs when the whole complex design has been decomposed. Brost et al. (1996) presented an implemented
algorithm that accepted a polygonal description of the part silhouette, and e ciently
constructed the set of all feasible xture designs that kinematically constrain the part
in the plane. Rong and Bai (1997) designed a Modular Fixture Element Assembly
Relationship Graph (MFEARG) to represent combination relationships between
xture elements. Based on MFEARG, synthesis algorithms were developed to

2884

Z. M. Bi and W. J. Zhang

search all suitable xturing unit candidates and mount them into appropriate positions on a base-plate with interference checking.
4.2.2. Rule-based reasoning
The use of acknowledge-base d computer design scheme will help to introduce the
essential philosophy to ensure that the optimum design is achieved. Nee (1987)
applied AI in jig and xture design. Nnaji et al. (1988) and Nnaji and Alladin
(1990) developed a framework for a rule-based expert xturing system for face
milling a planar surface on a CAD system using exible xtures. Roy et al. (1997)
addressed several implementation issues of a prototype AFM system. Such AFD
systems proposed a preliminary xturing con guration by synthesizing the xture
design issues and reasoning about the necessary knowledge bases. Trappey and Liu
(1992) employed heuristic search techniques on the projected envelope of the workpiece to determine the locating and clamping points. King and Lazaro (1994)
presented a xture synthesis algorithm a hybrid (heuristic-cum-mathematical )
model to arrive at design decisions. Lin and Huang (1997) developed dierent
heuristic algorithms for xture element selection corresponding to dierent
functional requirements.
4.2.3. Genetic algorithm
Fixture Design is generally regarded as a complex multi-modal and discrete
problem. While other methods have di culties dealing with it, the trials on GAs
have provided a viable alternative. Wu and Chan (1996) applied genetic algorithms
to the xture con guration optimization: based on the information provided by the
veri cation system, a genetic algorithm approach carries out the evaluation process
to determine the most statically stable xture con guration among a large number of
candidates.
4.2.4. Case-based method
In the CBR concept previous experience is stored as episodes in a case library.
Each episode, termed a case, records at least two kinds of information: problem
description and solution. When a CBR system faces a new problem, the most similar
previous case is retrieved and modi ed to satisfy the new situation. Each case and the
input problem are indexed according to the index system. The similarity of each case
can then be evaluated by comparing the index of each case with the index of the
input problem. Sun and Chen (1995) developed a seven-digit code to represent and
classify the modular xtures. Using this index system and case-based method, the
designer can nd a rough sketch of this xture design.
4.2.5. Neural network algorithms
After network training, the xture mode of the workpiece can be inferred, and
selection of the xture elements can be completed. Ong and Nee (1996, 1998) applied
fuzzy theory to evaluate part xturability. Lin integrated the GT description of
modular xtures, neural networks, and the heuristic algorithm for xture synthesis
in his automatic xture design system. Genetic algorithms and neural networks can
be combined in a xture design system (Lin 1998); Kumar et al. (1992) applied this
integration methodology in conceptual design of xtures.

2885

Flexible xture design and automation

4.2.6. Blackboard-base d design

Blackboard-based design systems are used in various other engineering applications in which concurrent or cooperative problem solving processes are achieved.
Fixture design involves interdisciplinary knowledge, with the help of blackboard
architecture. The developed xture design system could perform lower level reasoning and allow the analysis to be integrated with the design process, so that reliability
assessment can be accomplished when it could best aect the design (Roy and Liao
1998).
4.3. Summary of the methodologies in xture design
Fixture con guration design can be separated into three phases: description of
design requirements, the xture analysis, and xture synthesis. Fixture analysis
involves the relational models among design variables, kinematic and dynamic constrictions, and performance evaluation; while xture synthesis involves nding an
optimal solution for a given workpiece and its machining. Many methodologies have
developed for designing a xture con guration. However, a suitable methodology is
very important for a given design requirement and design level to improve e ciency,
and the harmony of the methodologies should be maintained. A brief summary on
the methodologies used in xture design is given in Table 3.

5.

Computer-aided xture design and set-up system

A review is presented on computer-aided xturing design and set-up systems.

5.1. Architecture of computer-aided xture design and set-up system

Software architecture describes the system components and their relationships.
Bugtai and Young (1997) discussed the information model in an integrated xture
design support system. Nederbragt (1997) proposed a theoretical framework for the
design of a robotic xture. Fuh and Nee (1995) presented the architecture and details

Description
of design
requirement

Geometry
method
Featurebased
GT codes

Fixture analysis
Fixture
synthesis

Analytical
methods
Rule-based
Genetic
agorithm
case-based
Neural
networks

Geometry
modelling
p

Screw
theory
p

p
p

Finite
element
method

Rule-based
knowledge

Mechanics
methods
p

p
p

p
p
p
p

means two methodologies are not compatible.

p
means two methodologies are compatible.

Table 3.

Summary on the methodologies in xutre design.

2886
Developers
and resource
Pham and Lazaro
(1990)
Nnaji and Alladin
(1990)
Young and Bell
(1991)
de Sam Lajaro and
King (1992)
Lim et al. (1992)
Trappy and Liu
(1992)
Wolter and Trinkle
(1994)
King and
de Sa Lazaro (1994)
Brost and Goldberg
(1994)
Mason (1995)
Willy et al. (1995)
Sun and Chen (1995)
Perremans (1996)
Cecil et al. (1996)
Shirnzadeh (1996)

Wu and Chan (1996)

Rong (1996)
Rong and Bai (1997)

Z. M. Bi and W. J. Zhang

Application

Methodology

Jigs and xture

Expert CAD system

nite element method
Rule-based expert system

Face milling planar part,

exible xtures
Two and half dimensional
prismatic arts
Machining xture
part xturing in high-precision
industry,
Workholding veri cation
Selection of xture point,
frictionless assemblies
Tolerance consideration,
general xture
Polygonal parts,
modular xture
General xture
Modular xture
Modular xture
Prismatic parts, modular
xture
Prismatic parts, general
xture
Interference detection,
recon gurable modular
xture system
Optimal xture con guration
Machining accuracy analysis
design veri cation

Geometric query, product

model analysis
Tolerance and sequential
operations analysis
3D modular xture design expert
system
Geometry analysis
Geometry method
Knowledge-based systems
Geometric analysis
Finite element method
Geometry and mechanic analysis
Cased-based reasoning, index
system
Feature-based description,
expert system
Integration methodology
CAD-based heirarchical
approach

Jones et al. (1997)

Automated assembly and

xture planning

Generic algorithm
Datum-machining surface
relationship graph, matrixbased reasoning
Archidedes s approach
holdfast software

Ho and Ranky
(1997)

Flexible assembly system,

recon gurable conveyors

Object-oriented modelling,
heuristic searching

Roy et al. (1997)

Prismatic parts,
modular xture

Geometry reasoning,
object-oriented

Chou (1997)
Wu and Rong (1998)

Complex part, general

xture
Dedicated xture

Lin and Huang

(1997)
Jeng and Gill (1997)

3D workpieces,
modular xture
Prismatic parts

Fixturing feature analysis,

spatial inference analysis
Fixture structure analysis,
geometry element generator
GT, neural networks, pattern
classi cation
CAD-based approach
Table 4 (continued)

Flexible xture design and automation

Developers
and resource

2887

Application

Methodology

Brost and Peters

(1998)
Ma et al. (1998)

Prismatic machining parts,

general xture
3D workpiece, modular
xture and assembly pallets
Modula xture

Roy and Liao (1998)

General xture

Brown and Brost

(1999)
Kumar et al. (1999)

3D prismatic parts,

Feature-based analysis,
CAD/CAM integration
Project geometry, mechanic
analysis
Geometry modelling,
Integration with CAD, system
Cooperative design, blackboard
framework
3D geometric analysis

Shreyes and Melkote

(1999)

Location accuracy, xture

layout optimization

Tseng (1998)

Conceptual design of xture

Table 4.

Genetic algorithm, neural

networks
Mechanic analysis

Summary of recent developed CAFD systems.

of the development of an interactive xture design and assembly (IFDA) environment. Chou (1997) presented a three-stage system architecture from a concurrent
manufacturing planning point of view. Jeng and Gill (1997) thought that arti cial
intelligence techniques should be used in conjunction with 3D solid CAD and database systems at the commercial level for modular xture design, pricing and inventory control. Greater emphasis should be put on the integration of the intelligent
xture design system with the robotics xture assembly, knowledge-based process
planning system, and intelligent production scheduling system (Chou 1997).
5.2. Computer-aided xture design (CAFD)
Computer-aided xture design is mainly relevant to MFFSs and dedicated xtures. Many CAFD prototype systems have been developed; some CAFD systems,
together with applications and using methods, are shown in table 4.
5.3. Computer-aided xture setup (CAFS) for MFFSs
One of the di culties in the application of MFFSs is to plan and execute the setup of modular elements. The assembly location and sequence should be determined
for all modular elements in a CAFS system. Little attention has been paid to this
issue. Table 5 provides a summary of these works.
6.

Some prospective research trends

Recent achievements in the development of exible xture systems, design methodologies, together with computer-aided design and set-up systems have been examined in this paper. Adaptation of FFSs can greatly reduce manufacturing costs in
low-to-medium volume products, and the design and set-up automation of FFSs can
reduce the lead-time of the product; however, the current design and automation
theories and technologies are not mature. The researches on these elds are
promising and challenging. It is our observation that three research aspects are
most promising.

2888

Z. M. Bi and W. J. Zhang

Developers
and Resource

Application

Methodology

Asada and Andre

(1985)

Sheet metal xturing

Accessibility and detachability

analysis

Lam and Lim (1989)

Modular xture assembly

Robotics o ine programming

Youce-Toumi and
Bell (1989)

Modular xture assembly

Integration CAD systems,

kinematic analysis

Dai and Nee (1997)

Assembly sequence

Rule-based reasoning

Khan and Cegiarek

(1998)

Assembly for sheet metal

part xture

Hierarchical group description,

fault diagnosis

Yu and Goldberg
(1998)

Module xture assembly

Sense-based compliant assembly,

geometrically reasoning

Table 5.

Summary of computer-aided xture setup systems for MFFSs.

6.1. Development of an autonomou s exible xture system

In todays FFSs, especially for MFFSs, xture design, veri cation, and assembly
largely depend on human activities. This situation has resulted in the low e ciency,
unstable accuracy, long set-up time, and high cost of FFSs. Development and application of autonomous exible xture systems can address this issue. The state of the
art in this eld shows the possibility of developing a autonomous exible xture
system. `Autonomous means to implement the automatic running of an FFS with
the aid of exible elements and automatic servo control, arti cial intelligence and
sensing. An AFFS should possess the following characteristics:
(1) have a large degree of freedom to accommodate the xturing feature varieties of the workpiece family;
(2) determine optimal xture con guration based on design requirements automatically;
(3) build the xture con guration automatically by adjusting internal variables
or assembling modules;
(4) load the workpiece in the xture workpiece system automatically;
(5) monitor xturing processes and adjust the con guration dynamically to
achieve the best manufacturing performance;
(6) unload the workpiece and reset the xturing system automatically.

6.2. Computer-aided xture design for manufacturing

Many researchers have realized the importance of integration CAFD systems
with other CAD software systems in a manufacturing system. However, their eorts
showed that they mainly concentrated on CAFD systems, and the integration was
limited to obtaining the xturing requirements from other CAD systems and sending
the result of the CAFD to CAPP systems directly; this is a single-direction connection. Most research works have neglected the eect of xture design on product
design and process planning, and the redesign of xtures has never been seriously
considered. Future research on CAFD will put the emphasis on cooperation with the
other design systems, the connection should be bi-directional, and the CAFD process

Flexible xture design and automation

2889

information should also be fed back to the other system as early as possible. In
considering the integration of the CAFD system with the other CAD manufacturing
systems, combination with advanced computer technologies, such as a WWW
browser, collaborative design system, integration architecture of various platforms,
becomes urgent.
6.3. Applied research
Practical issues also appear when exible xture systems are put into use. Not all
research has taken the issues seriously. However, the solutions for these issues are
vital to extend the application of FFSs.
6.3.1. Select or design a exible xture system for workpiece families
Any FFS has favourable xturing features in its application. An engineer has a
responsibility to select or design the most suitable FFS for the manufacturing part
family. Therefore, it becomes a meaningful issue to select, evaluate and design a FFS
for a part family optimally. This issue is more di cult than the design of a xture
con guration, because the xturing objects have uncertain requirements. To address
this issue, some qualitative considerations should be included in the evaluation
models, such as cost, e ciency, suitability and lead time.
6.3.2. From dedicated xtures to FFSs
Liu (1994) proposed a systematic design method that helped companies change
their dedicated xturing systems gradually into modular xturing systems. This
research is very practical. Further research should be carried out, such as how to
design dedicated xture elements for evolving FFSs, how to improve the possibilities
of varieties of xture con gurations from the systems, how to manage the dedicated
and exible xture hybrid systems, etc. The solutions to these issues can bring great
economic e ciency to small-scale machining enterprises.
6.3.3. Multi- xtures and multi- xturing tasks schedule
In a real machining workshop, there may be various FFSs, dedicated xtures and
many workpieces. Dynamic scheduling methodology is needed to distribute the
limited xture resources for xturing workpieces. Some researchers have revealed
tooling management issues in manufacturing industry (Arun and Suresh 1996,
Ebrahim and Liu 1995, Elon and Burdick 1998, Perera and Sharfaghi 1995).
However, they are mainly concerned with the scheduling issues of general machining
tools. The schedules of FFSs and their elements pose many special characteristics.
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