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AS Chemistry Unit 1 Definition

AS Chemistry Unit 1 Definition

Chapter 1
1 Mole

is the amount of any substance containing the same number of identical entities as there are in exactly 12g of the carbon-12 isotope.

1
12

Relative atomic mass

Relative isotopic mass

Avogadro constant

is the number of atoms in exactly 12g of the carbon-12 isotope, which is equal to 6.0210 23 mol-1.

Theoretical yield

The theoretical yield is the mass of product obtained if the reaction goes according to the mole ratio in the equation.

Percentage yield

is the average mass of an atom of an element relative to

is the mass of an isotope of an element relative to

percentage yield =

actual yield
theoretical yield

1
12

the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

the mass of a carbon-12 atom

100%. Percentage yield cannot reach 100% because

a) The reactants may not be pure.

b) Some products are left behind on the apparatus during transfer in crystal preparation.
d) Volatile products may evaporate in organic preparation.
e) Some of the main product is lost during purification in organic reaction.
f) There are side reactions and side products in organic reaction
7

Atom economy

Chapter 2
8
Enthalpy change

Atom economy

A 100% atom
unwanted products.

economy means that all atoms in reactants turn into products. There are no

Enthalpy change, H, is the heat transferred at constant pressure by a chemical reaction. The units for H is kJ mol-1

Standard conditions of
enthalpy change

(1) pressure: 1 atm

(2) temperature: 25oC, 298K
(3) when solution is involved: concentration of solution: 1M
(4) substance involved must be in their normal physical states under standard conditions. eg: NaCl(s), H 2(g), H2O(l), C(graphite)

1
0

Standard enthalpy
change of formation
()

The standard enthalpy change of formation (Hof) of a compound is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of the compound is formed from its
element in their standard states under standard conditions (at 25oC, 1 atm). Hof of element = 0kjmol-1
e.g. C(graphite) + 2H2(g) CH4(g)
Hof [CH4(g)] = -74.8 kJ mol-1
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AS Chemistry Unit 1 Definition
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Standard enthalpy
change of combustion
()

The standard enthalpy change of combustion (Hoc) s the enthalpy change when 1 mole of a substance is completely burnt in oxygen
under standard conditions (at 25oC, 1 atm).
e.g. S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
Hoc [S(s)] = -297 kJmol-1

1
2

Standard enthalpy
change of atomization
()

Standard enthalpy change of atomization (Hoat) of an element is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of gaseous atoms is formed from the
element in its standard state under standard conditions.
e.g. C(graphite) C(g) Hoat [C(graphite)]= +715 kJmol-1
H2(g) H(g)
Hoat [H2(g)]= +218 kJmol-1

1
3

Standard enthalpy
change of
neutralization
()

Standard enthalpy change of neutralization (Honeut) is the heat change when an acid and a base react to form 1 mole of water under standard
condition.
e.g. H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
Honeut = -57.1 kJmol-1
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l) Honeut= -55.2 kJmol-1 [energy used to ionize weak acid molecules]

1
4

Standard enthalpy
change of reaction

Standard enthalpy change of reaction (Horxn) is the energy transferred when the number of moles of reactants shown in the equation react
under standard condition.

1
5

Hesss Law

The total enthalpy change for a reaction is independent of the route taken for the reaction.

1
6

Bond enthalpy

Bond enthalpy of a particular bond in a specific compound is the energy required to break one mole of this covalent bond in gaseous state.
H2(g) 2H(g)
H = +436kJ mol-1
E(H H) = +436kJ mol-1
HCl(g) H(g) + Cl(g) H = + 432 kJ mol-1
E(H Cl) = +432kJ mol-1
-1
CH4(g) CH3(g) + H(g) H = + x kJ mol
E(C H ) = +x kJ mol-1

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7

mean bond enthalpy

The mean bond enthalpy of a particular kind of bond is the average value of the bond enthalpy for that bond in a wide range of different
compounds.

Chapter 3
1
Vaporization
8
1
Ionization
9
2
0
2
1

CH4(g) C(g) + 4H(g) H = x kJmol-1

mean bond enthalpy of C H bond =

x
4

kJmol-1

The sample injected is vaporised so that the sample is in gaseous state and can move through the mass spectrometer.
The vapour is ionized by bombardment with high-energy electrons. Electrons are knocked from atoms to form positive ions.
Cl(g) + e- Cl+(g) + 2e- where A represents an atom
CH3COCH3(g) + e- CH3COCH3+(g) + 2e- where M represents a molecule

Acceleration

The positive ions are accelerated using an electric field.

Deflection

The positive ions are deflected using a magnetic field. The extent of deflection depends on the mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) of the ion. Lighter
ion with higher charge deflects more, so ion with lower m/z will deflect more.
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AS Chemistry Unit 1 Definition
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2

Detection

The strength of magnetic field is steadily increased so that ions of a particular mass/charge ratio (m/z) pass through and focused onto the iondetector at a time.

2
3
2
4

Mass spectrum

A mass spectrum is a plot of relative abundance against m/z.

Orbitals

An orbital is a space where the electrons are most likely to be found. There are four types of orbitals, s, p, d, f. s orbital is spherical shape
while p orbital is dumbbell shape.

2
5

First ionization energy

The first ionization energy (1st IE) of an element is the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms to
form one mole of gaseous 1+ ion. For example, the 1 st IE of Na is:
Na(g) Na+(g) + e- 1st I.E. = + 496kJ mol-1

2
6

Second ionization
energy

The second ionization energy (2nd IE) is the energy required to remove an electron from a 1+ gaseous ion to form a 2+ gaseous ion.
For example,
Na+(g) Na2+(g) + e- 2nd I.E. = + 4563kJ mol-1

2
7

Ionization energy trend

there is great drop of first IE from Ne to Na, Ar to K

[electrons is removed from fully filled p subshell in Ne / Ar]

the first IE generally increases across the period sodium to argon, but it follow a 2, 3, 3 pattern
[across period: positive nuclear charge , but outermost electron is added to the same shell, atomic radius

Chapter 4
2
Isoelectronic ions
8
2
9

Lattice energy
()

the first IE of the elements decreases down the group

[down the group: atomic radius , shielding effect by additional shells
the first IE of Group III is lower than that of Group II
[Be / Mg : full filled s subshell extra stability
nucleus]
the first IE of Group VI is lower than Group V
[N / P : half filled p subshell extra stability

B / Al : outermost e- is 2p / 3p subshell further away from the

O / S : two electrons in a p orbital repulsion]

Isoelectronic ions are ions with the same electronic configuration. For example, N 3- , O2- , F- , Na+, Mg2+, Al3+ are isoelectronic ions since their
electronic configurations are all 2,8.
Al3+ has the highest proton to electron ratio among these ions, so has the smallest size.
Lattice energy of an ionic compound is the energy change when 1 mole of the ionic solid is formed from its constituent gaseous ions.
Example: Na+ (g) + Cl- (g) NaCl(s) Hlatt[NaCl(s)] = 3

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AS Chemistry Unit 1 Definition
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0

Polarization

Polarization is the distortion of the electron cloud in a molecule or ion by a nearby charge. Cation has polarizing power but anion is
polarizable. We say A cation polarize an anion

3
0

first electron affinity

First electron affinity is the energy change when one electron is added to each atom in a mole of gaseous atoms.
E.g. O(g) + e- O-(g) H = - 142kJ mol-1

3
1

Second electron
affinity

Second electron affinity is the energy change when one electron is added to each ion in a mole of singly charged gaseous anions.
E.g. O-(g) + e- O2-(g)
H = + 844kJ mol-1

3
2

Coordination number

Coordination number of an ion in an ionic lattice is the number of ions of opposite charge that are most closely arranged around it. For
example,
each Na+ is surrounded by 6 Cl- and each Cl- is surrounded by 6 Na+. The coordination number of both Na+ and Cl- is 6.

3
3
3
4

Covalent bond

Covalent bond is the electrostatic attraction force between the shared pair of electrons and the positive nucleus of the atoms involved.

Dative covalent bond

Dative covalent bond is formed when the shared pair of electrons comes from just one of the atoms. The strength of covalent bond is same as
the strength of covalent bond. Example is NH 4+ and H3O+.

(tetrahedral shape)
Chapter 5
3
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
5
3
Alicyclic hydrocarbons
6

3
7

Arenes

(pyramidal shape)

Aliphatic hydrocarbons are straight chain and branched hydrocarbons with no rings of carbon atoms.
Alicyclic hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons with a least one ring of carbon atoms, such as cycloalkane and cycloalkane.
They are often simply called as cyclic hydrocarbons.

Arenes are ring compounds in which there are delocalized electrons. They are sometimes called aromatic hydrocarbon because of their smell.
Examples are benzene and methylbenzene.

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AS Chemistry Unit 1 Definition
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8
3
9

Functional Group

Atom (or group of atoms) that responsible for the chemical properties of an organic molecules.

Isomerism

Isomerism is the occurrence of two or more compounds with the same molecular formula, but different molecular structures. There are two
types of isomerism: Structural isomerism and Stereoisomerism.

4
0

Structural isomers

Structural isomers are organic compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula. Structural isomers can be divided
into three types: (1) Chain isomer, (2) position isomer, (3) functional isomer.

4
1

Chain isomer

4
2

Position isomer

Chain isomer is type of structural isomer that differ in the length of the carbon chain.
Pentane forms three chain isomers: pentane, 2-methylbutane and 2,2-dimethylpropane.
.
Position isomer is a type of structural isomer which differ in the position of the functional group only.
Examples are propan-1-ol and propan-2-ol

4
3

Functional isomer

Functional isomer is a type of structural isomer which contain different frunctional group.
Examples are butanal and butanone. Both of their molecular formula is C 4H8O.

4
4
4
5

Hazard

Hazard is the potential of a chemical or procedure to do harm. It is tested and measured. It is constant.

Risk

Risk is the chance that a substance or procedure will cause harm. It is variable and precaution can be done to reduce risk.
Risk can be reduced by
(1) using a smaller amount of chemicals
(2)wear protective goggles and gloves for corrosive liquids
(3) do in fume cupboard if there are toxic / flammable gas

Chapter 6
4
Reforming
6

Reforming is the process of turning straight chain alkane to branched chains or ring hydrocarbons. Reforming can promote efficient ignition
and prevent knocking.

4
7

Free radicals

Free radicals are highly reactive single atoms, or group of atoms, with unpaired electrons. Free radicals only exist for a short time during a
reaction and quickly react to form new products.

4
8

heterolytic fission

In heterolytic fission, covalent bond is broken and one atom takes up both of the electrons from
the bond, the other atom takes no electron.
This fission produces ionic intermediates such as CH3+ and Br-.

4
9

Nucleophiles

Nucleophile is a species which attack region of positive charge. It must have a lone pair of electrons which it donates to form a new covalent
bond. Examples are OH-, H2O, NH3 , CN-, Br-.
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AS Chemistry Unit 1 Definition
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0

Electrophiles

Electrophile: a species which attack region of negative charge. It accepts a pair of electrons to form a new covalent bond. Examples are H+,
+ Br atom of Br2.

5
1

Free radical
substitution

Free radical substitution is a chain reaction which involves

(1) initiation free radicals are produced by homolytic fission of covalent bond
(2) propagation steps which form products and free radicals are regenerated continuously
(3) termination steps which remove free radicals as they combine themselves to form molecules

5
2

Greenhouse effect

Carbon dioxide, methane, water vapour and CFCs are greenhouse gas. All of them cause greenhouse effect.
The Earth absorbs radiation from the Sun, and then re-emits it in the form of infra-red radiation. The greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
contain polar bonds and absorb this infrared radiation re-radiated from the Earth.

Chapter 7
5
Stereoisomers
3
5
Geometric isomerism
4
5
5

Cis-trans isomer

5
6

E Z isomer

Stereoisomers are molecules with the same structural formula but with a different arrangement in space.
Geometric isomerism is a type of stereoisomerism that is present in some unsaturated hydrocarbon when
(1) there is a C = C double bond which restrict rotation
(2) there are two different groups on each carbon atom in the double bond
Cis-trans naming system requires one group to be the same on both carbon atoms.
Cis-isomer: similar groups are on the same side of the double bond
Trans-isomer: similar groups are on the opposite side of the double bond

Trans-1,2-dichloroethane
cis 1,2 dichloroethane
trans but 2 ene
cis but 2 ene
E Z naming system works for all geometric isomer. It can be used when there are four different groups on the carbon atoms of the double
bond.
What is the name of the following compound? Z 3-methyhex-2-ene

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AS Chemistry Unit 1 Definition
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7

Electrophilic Addition

5
8

Markovnikovs rule

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Energy recovery

It a new approach to reduce energy consumption of polymer manufacture. Incineration of plastic waste produce large amount of heat to
heat water and generate electricity. This can reduce the amount of fossil fuels burnt to generate power and heat.

6
0

Lifecycle analysis

This analysis quantifies the energy and material used and any CO2 emission produced druing the extraction of raw materials, orginial
manufacture, recycling or disposal of polymer products.

Br2 is the electrophile.

When HX adds to an asymmetrical alkene, the major product formed is the molecule in which the hydrogen atom is added to the carbon atom
in the double bond with the greater number of hydrogen atoms already attached to it.
This is because carbocations with more alkyl groups are more stable. Therefore, tertiary carbocation is more stable than primary carbocation.